Name: Fiye Ibukun

Matric No: 20181608

DEPT: CIVIL ENGINEERING
LEVEL: 400
COURSE CODE: CVE 417
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURE
 Steel Reinforcements
Steel reinforcement, commonly referred to as rebar (short for
reinforcing bar), plays a crucial role in the construction of reinforced
concrete structures. It is a fundamental component used to enhance
the strength and durability of concrete, allowing it to efficiently bear
both tensile and compressive loads. The combination of concrete and
steel reinforcement creates a versatile and reliable construction
material widely used in buildings, bridges, roads, and various
infrastructures.
NoTypes of Steel Reinforcements
a. Deformed Reinforcement Bars: Deformed bars are the most
commonly used type of steel reinforcement. They are characterized by
their surface deformations, which can take the form of ribs, lugs, or
indentations. These deformations improve the bond between the steel
and the concrete, ensuring better adhesion and preventing slippage of
the bars under stress. Deformed bars are highly effective in transferring
tensile forces from the concrete to the steel, making them an essential
choice for reinforced concrete structures.
b. Plain Reinforcement Bars: Plain bars have a smooth, untextured
surface and lack the deformations found in deformed bars. While plain
bars are less common in modern construction due to their lower bond
strength with concrete, they are still used in certain applications where
the design requirements demand it.
c. Wire Mesh Reinforcements: Wire mesh reinforcement consists of a
grid of interconnected steel wires, welded at their intersections. It is
typically used for smaller-scale concrete applications such as floor slabs,
pavements, and precast elements. Wire mesh reinforcement facilitates
faster construction and is well-suited for thinner concrete elements.
d. Reinforcing Wire: Reinforcing wires are thin steel wires used to create
a mesh-like structure, reinforcing thin concrete elements like concrete
pipes and thin slabs. They are particularly useful in applications where
larger steel bars are impractical due to space limitations.
Use of Steel Reinforcements
1.Concrete has excellent compressive strength but is weak in tension.
By incorporating steel reinforcements, the resulting composite material
can effectively withstand tensile forces, preventing cracking and failure
under tension.
2. it disperses stress throughout the concrete, helping to control the
width and extent of cracks that may occur due to temperature changes,
shrinkage, or imposed loads. This control minimizes potential structural
issues and ensures the integrity of the structure.
3. In beams, slabs, and other structural elements subject to bending,
steel reinforcements enhance the flexural strength and aid in
distributing loads evenly.

Placement of Steel Reinforcements

The correct placement of steel reinforcements is critical to ensure the
structural integrity and performance of reinforced concrete elements:
a. Spacing: Rebar’s should be spaced appropriately as specified in the
design to ensure uniform load distribution throughout the structure.
The spacing is determined by factors such as the structural
requirements and the concrete's intended use.
b. Cover: Adequate concrete cover over the steel bars is essential to
protect them from corrosion, provide fire resistance, and maintain the
bond between the steel and concrete.
c. Overlap: In situations where multiple lengths of rebar are required,
overlapping adjacent bars ensures continuity and the transfer of
stresses between different sections, improving the overall load-carrying
capacity of the structure.
Corrosion Protection of steel reinforcements
Steel reinforcements are susceptible to corrosion when exposed to
moisture, chloride ions, and other corrosive agents. Corrosion weakens
the rebar, leading to potential structural problems. Implementing
proper corrosion protection measures is crucial to maintain the
longevity and safety of the structure. Some common methods include:
a. Concrete Cover: Ensuring the specified thickness of concrete cover
over the steel bars acts as a physical barrier, protecting the rebar from
direct exposure to external elements.
b. Epoxy Coating: Applying epoxy coating to the surface of rebar
provides an additional layer of protection against corrosion.

c. Cathodic Protection: In more aggressive environments, cathodic

protection can be employed, involving sacrificial anodes or impressed
current systems to safeguard the steel from corrosion.
 Advantages of Steel Reinforcements
1. Increased Strength and Durability: Steel reinforcements significantly
enhance the tensile strength of concrete, allowing structures to
withstand heavy loads and forces. This combination of materials results
in more durable and resilient structures.
2. Versatility in Design: Steel reinforcements offer design flexibility,
enabling engineers and architects to create complex and innovative
structures. Their ability to be easily shaped and placed makes them
adaptable to various construction requirements.

3. Crack Control: By distributing stress throughout the concrete, steel

reinforcements help control the width and extent of cracks, reducing
potential structural issues and enhancing the longevity of the
construction.
4. Economic Efficiency: Incorporating steel reinforcements allows for the
use of less concrete in construction, reducing overall material costs.
Additionally, the enhanced strength-to-weight ratio of reinforced
concrete can lead to lighter foundations and structural members.
5. Fire Resistance: Concrete's inherent fire resistance, combined with
the protection provided by steel reinforcements, makes reinforced
concrete structures highly fire-resistant compared to other building
materials.
6. Construction Speed: Prefabricated steel reinforcements can be easily
transported and assembled on-site, contributing to faster construction
and shorter project timelines.
Limitations of Steel Reinforcements
1. Susceptibility to Corrosion: Steel reinforcements are vulnerable to
corrosion when exposed to moisture, chemicals, or harsh
environmental conditions. Corrosion weakens the rebar over time,
potentially leading to structural deterioration and safety concerns.
2. High Initial Cost: The cost of steel reinforcements can be relatively
high compared to other construction materials. However, the long-term
benefits of enhanced strength and durability often offset the initial
investment.
3. Thermal Conductivity:Steel has high thermal conductivity, which can
lead to significant heat loss or gain in buildings, affecting energy
efficiency. Proper insulation is essential to mitigate this issue.
4. Brittleness in Tension: While steel is strong in tension, it exhibits little
deformation before reaching its yield point, making it prone to sudden
failure under extreme tensile forces.
5. Weight: The density of steel can add significant weight to structures,
which may be a concern in certain applications or locations with specific
load restrictions.
6. Sustainability Concerns: The production of steel involves significant
energy consumption and carbon emissions. While recycling steel helps
mitigate these environmental impacts, it remains a concern for
sustainable construction practices.
Definition of terms and formulas in structural reinforcement
There are several calculations involved in steel reinforcements to ensure
proper design and safe construction. Some of the essential formulas are
as follows:
1. Reinforcement Ratio (ρ):
 The reinforcement ratio represents the ratio of the cross-sectional
area of steel reinforcement (As) to the cross-sectional area of concrete
(Ac) in a reinforced concrete element.
Formula: ρ = (As / Ac) x 100%
2. Number of Steel Bars (n):
The number of steel bars required in a particular section is calculated
based on the total cross-sectional area of steel reinforcement required
(As_req) and the cross-sectional area of a single steel bar (A_bar).
Formula: n = Asreq / Abar
3. Bending Moment (M):
The bending moment is a critical parameter in designing reinforced
concrete beams and slabs. It represents the maximum moment
experienced by the element due to external loads.
Formula: M = (WL^2) / 8, where W is the total load, and L is the span
length.
4. Moment of Resistance (MR)
The moment of resistance is the capacity of a reinforced concrete
section to resist bending without failure.
Formula: MR = f_y * (As * d - 0.5 * β * As_t * d)
Here, f_y is the yield strength of steel, As is the total area of steel
reinforcement, d is the effective depth of the beam, β is the modular
ratio (Es / Ec), and As_t is the area of tension steel.
5. Shear Strength (Vc) : The shear strength of a reinforced concrete
section is essential to ensure it can withstand the applied shear forces.
Formula: Vc = 0.75 * (f'c)^(1/2) * b * d
 Here, f'c is the compressive strength of concrete, b is the width of the
beam, and d is the effective depth of the beam.
6. Development Length (L_d):
The development length is the minimum length required to provide
sufficient bond strength between the steel reinforcement and the
surrounding concrete.
Formula: Ld = (φ * fy * As) / (4 * τbd)
Here, φ is a development length factor (typically taken as 1.3), f_y is
the yield strength of steel, As is the area of steel reinforcement, and τbd
is the design bond stress.

7. Concrete Cover (C)

Concrete cover is given as the thickness of concrete between the
outer surface of the steel reinforcement and the edge of the structural
member.
Formula: C = d - (ϕ/2) - ϕt
Here, d is the effective depth of the structural element, ϕ is the
diameter of the steel bar, and ϕ_t is the nominal cover, typically
specified in the design.
Design Considerations:
a. Before designing steel reinforcements, engineers perform a thorough
analysis of the expected loads, including dead loads, live loads, wind
loads, and seismic forces. The load analysis helps determine the
required strength and size of the reinforcements.
b. Understanding the properties of both concrete and steel is crucial for
designing effective reinforcements. This includes knowing the
compressive strength of concrete (f'c), the yield strength of steel (fy),
and other relevant material characteristics.
c. The design must meet serviceability requirements, such as deflection
limits, crack control, and durability considerations, to ensure the
structure's long-term performance.
d. Engineers follow the relevant design codes and standards (e.g., ACI
318, Eurocode 2, etc.) to ensure compliance with safety and
construction regulations.

Calculation and Sizing:

a. Reinforcement Ratio:Engineers calculate the reinforcement ratio
(ρ) by dividing the cross-sectional area of steel reinforcement (As)
by the cross-sectional area of concrete (Ac) in a structural
element. The ratio is expressed as a percentage.
b. Bending Moment and Shear Force: Determining the bending
moment and shear force at different sections of the structure is
critical for calculating the required amount and distribution of
steel reinforcements.
c. Number and Diameter of Bars: Based on the required steel area
(As_req) and the diameter of a single steel bar (ϕ), engineers
determine the number of bars needed in each section.
d. Spacing and Cover: Proper spacing of bars and adequate concrete
cover over the steel are crucial for ensuring effective bonding,
proper load distribution, and corrosion protection.
Detailing
a) Bar Bending Schedules: Engineers create bar bending schedules
that provide detailed information on the quantity, length, bending
shape, and placement of each steel bar in the structure.
 b) Development Length**: The development length (L_d) specifies
the minimum length of bar required to develop the full strength of
the reinforcement at the critical section. It ensures sufficient bond
between the steel and concrete.
c) Lap Splices and Overlaps**: Proper lap splices and overlaps are
essential for maintaining continuity of steel reinforcements at
different sections, ensuring smooth load transfer along the length
of the structure.
Corrosion Protection of steel reinforcements

Steel reinforcements are susceptible to corrosion when exposed to

moisture, chloride ions, and other corrosive agents. Corrosion weakens
the rebar, leading to potential structural problems. Implementing
proper corrosion protection measures is crucial to maintain the
longevity and safety of the structure. Some common methods include:
a. Concrete Cover: Ensuring the specified thickness of concrete cover
over the steel bars acts as a physical barrier, protecting the rebar
from direct exposure to external elements.
b. Epoxy Coating: Applying epoxy coating to the surface of rebar
provides an additional layer of protection against corrosion
c. Cathodic Protection: In more aggressive environments, cathodic
protection can be employed, involving sacrificial anodes or
impressed current systems to safeguard the steel from corrosion.
Construction Practices of structural
reinforcement
a. Handling and Storage: Proper handling and storage of steel
reinforcements are crucial to prevent damage, rusting, or bending of
bars before installation.
b. Placement and Fixing: Reinforcements are placed and fixed in their
intended positions based on the design drawings and bar bending
schedules. They should be adequately tied and supported to maintain
their position during concrete pouring.
c. Concrete Pouring and Compaction During concrete pouring: care
must be taken to avoid displacing or damaging the reinforcements.
Proper compaction of concrete ensures that it surrounds the bars
adequately and minimizes voids.
d. Quality Control Regular quality checks during construction help
ensure that the correct reinforcement sizes, spacings, and cover are
maintained as per the design..
The design and construction of steel reinforcements are fundamental
steps in creating safe, durable, and reliable reinforced concrete
structures. By following proper design procedures, employing
appropriate detailing, and implementing quality construction practices,
engineers ensure that the steel reinforcements effectively enhance the
structural integrity and performance of the reinforced concrete
elements.
Codes and standards play a crucial role in the design and construction
of steel reinforcements for reinforced concrete structures. These codes
are established by various organizations and regulatory bodies to
ensure safety, reliability, and uniformity in construction practices. Some
of the well-known codes and standards for steel reinforcements are:
1. ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
Published by the American Concrete Institute (ACI), this code provides
comprehensive guidelines for the design and construction of reinforced
concrete structures. It covers topics related to material properties,
design methods, construction practices, and quality control.
2. Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1)
Eurocode 2 is a set of European standards for the design of concrete
structures, including reinforced concrete. It provides design rules and
recommendations for different types of structural elements and covers
various aspects of concrete and steel reinforcements.
3. British Standard BS 8110: Structural Use of Concrete
This British Standard provides design guidance and recommendations
for the use of concrete in building and civil engineering structures,
including the design of steel reinforcements in reinforced concrete
elements.
4. Indian Standard IS 456: Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced
Concrete
Published by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), this code provides
guidelines for the design and construction of plain and reinforced
concrete structures. It covers aspects related to material properties, mix
design, construction practices, and quality control.
5. Canadian Standard CSA A23.3-14: Design of Concrete Structures
This Canadian Standard outlines the requirements for the design and
construction of concrete structures, including reinforced concrete. It
covers various design aspects, including material properties, load
combinations, and detailing requirements for steel reinforcements.
6. Australian Standard AS 3600: Concrete Structures
AS 3600 is the Australian Standard for the design and construction of
concrete structures, including reinforced concrete. It provides
guidelines for the design of structural elements and covers aspects
related to materials, loads, and detailing of steel reinforcements.
7. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) LRFD Bridge Design Specification:
This standard, commonly used for the design of bridges in the United
States, includes provisions for the design and detailing of steel
reinforcements in reinforced concrete bridge elements.
8. International Building Code (IBC)
The IBC is a comprehensive model building code used in the United
States and internationally. It includes provisions for the design and
construction of reinforced concrete structures, referencing other
standards like ACI 318.
9. International Building Code (IBC)
The IBC is a comprehensive model building code used in the United
States and internationally. It includes provisions for the design and
construction of reinforced concrete structures, referencing other
standards like ACI 318.