OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION

o In this computer world, optics plays a vital role in processing the information
from one place to another. This leads to the design of opto (light)-electronic
(electrons) devices which process the information faster, accurate and at low cost,
consuming less space.
o The interaction between electrons and photons in a material is the basis of all
opto-electronic devices.
o Thus, optical materials are the materials in which the conductivity is increased
due to photons falling on it. They are used in opto-electronic devices such as
cathode ray tube (CRT), light emitting diode (LED), liquid crystal display (LCD),
LASER, Quantum dot laser, Photo detectors, computers, calculators etc.. The
optical properties of the materials makes us to understand the interaction
between the electrons and photons.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL MATERIALS

Optical materials can be classified into three categories, based on their
interaction with visible light, viz.
1. Transparent materials
2. Translucent materials
3. Opaque materials
1. Transparent materials
Materials that are capable of transmitting almost all light, with very little
absorption and reflection are called transparent materials. Therefore using these
material we can see the objects clearly.
Examples : Plain glass, clear water, etc
2. Translucent materials
Materials that allow only certain amount of light to pass through it and absorbs
rest of the light are called translucent materials. Therefore, using these materials we
can see the object diffusely (or) not clearly.
Examples : Butter paper, plastic covers, trace paper, frosted glass, hydrogel and
colloidal materials.
3. Opaque materials
Materials which doesnot allow any light to pass through it and absorbs (or) reflect
almost all the light are called opaque materials. Thus, we can't see the objects through
these materials.
Examples : Metal is the best example, other materials such as wood, brick, stone,
etc are also good examples for opaque materials.

Note: Metals when exposed to high frequency X-rays (or) y-rays, are considered to be
transparent

PHOTO CURRENT IN P-N-JUNCTION DIODE [PHOTO DIODE]

When a p-n junction diode is exposed to light (photons), under reverse bias, it
produces electron and hole pairs. Due to the flow of these charge carriers, it produces a
reverse current.

Principle
When a p-n junction diode is exposed to light (photons), under reverse bias, it
produces electron and hole pairs. Due to the flow of these charge carriers, it produces a
reverse current.

Fabrication
o The photo-diode is made up of 'p' and 'n' type materials with a small glass window
on the top for the light to pass through it and strike the p-n-junction as shown in
Fig.
 o The p-n junction mounted on the insulated (Cathode) substrate is sealed inside
the metal case for safety.
o The symbol of the photo-diode is as shown in Fig.

Operation
o The photo-diode is reverse biased as shown in Fig.

• When no light is incident on the p-n junction of the photo-diode, then no charges
are created and therefore no current (or) a very little reverse current (I R) flows
through the circuit.
• This current is called Dark current.
• Now, when light is made to incident on the p-n-junction, then each photon creates
an electron-hole pair at the junction.
• These photo-generated charge carries move towards the potential and therefore
constitute a current known as photo current.
• The photo current increases with the increase in intensity of light falling on the
p-n junction.
• The current reaches a maximum and is called as saturation current.
Modes of operation
The photo-diode operates in 3 modes viz.
1. Photo-voltaic mode.
2. Photo-conductive mode.
3. Avalanche diode mode.
Types
Based on the modes of operation, there are different types of photo-diodes viz.
1. PIN [p type - intrinsic - n type] photo diode.
2. APD [Avalanche pin photo-diode].
3. Schottky photo-diode.
4. Solar cell etc.
Advantages
1. They have long life period.
2. It is light in weight.
3. It is very compact (small in size).
4. It can be rugged mechanically.
5. Noise of the photo diode is very less.
6. The response of the photo-diode is wide spectral.

Disadvantages
1. Here the dark current is temperature dependent.
2. The thermal stability is very poor.
3. Amplification is compulsorily required for better performance.
4. Efficiency is poor in rainy/winter seasons.

Applications
1. Photo-diodes are used in charge-couple devices [CCD], photo-conductors and
photo-multiplier tubes.
2. They have wide applications in clocks, radio, camera, street lights, etc.
3. They are used for lighting regulation and in optical communication systems.
4. Photo-diodes are used in electronic devices such as smoke detectors, CD
players, TVs, remote controls etc.
5. In medicine they are used in computed tomography (CT) instrument.
LASER DIODE (GaAlAs-Laser)
Laser diode is of two categories viz.

1. Homojunction semiconductor diode

2. Heterojunction semiconductor diode

Let us discuss in detail about hetero junction semiconductor laser diode.

Characteristics

Principle:

The electron in conduction band combines with a hole in the valence band and
hence the recombination of electron and hole produces energy in the form of light. This
photon, in turn may induce another electron in the conduction band (CB) to valence
band (VB) and thereby stimulate the emission of another photon.

Construction

• It consists of five layers as shown in Fig.

 • A layer of GaAs p-type layer (3rd layer) which has a narrow band gap will act as
the active region. This layer layer (3rd layer) is sandwitched between the two
layers having wider band gap viz. GaAlAs ‒ p-type (2nd layer) and GaAlAs ‒ n-
type (4th layer).
• A contact layer made of GaAs p-type (1st layer) is made to form at the top of the
2nd layer for necessary biasing. All these four layers are grown over the substrate
(5th layer) made of GaAs-n-type.
• The junctions of GaAs - p-type (3rd layer) and GaAlAs - n-type (4th layer) are well
polished and hence it act as an optical resonator. The upper and lower electrodes
helps in forward biasing the diode.

Working

• The working of a heterojunction laser is similar to that of the working of a

homojunction laser
• The diode is forward biased with the help of upper and lower electrodes.
• Due to forward biasing the charge carriers are produced in the wide band gap
layers (2 and 4).
• These charge carriers are injected into the active region (layer 3).
• The charge carriers are continuously injected from 2nd and 4th layer to the
3rd layer, until the population inversion is achieved.
• At this state some of the injected charge carriers recombines and produces
spontaneously emitted photons.
 • These spontaneously emitted photons stimulates the injected charge carriers to
emit photons.
• As a result more number of stimulated emission arises and thus large number of
photons are produced
• These photons are reflected back and forth at the junction and hence an intense,
coherent beam of LASER emerges out from the P-N junctions of active region i.e.,
between layer-3 and layer-4

Advantages

(i) Power output is very high.

(ii) It produces continuous wave output.

(iii) It has high directionality and high coherence.

(iv) It has low threshold current density compared to homojunction laser.

(v) These diodes are highly stable and has longer life time.

Disadvantages

(i) Cost is higher than homojunction laser.

(ii) Practical difficulties arises while growing the different layers of p-n junction.
OPTICAL DATA STORAGE TECHNIQUES

Optical data storage is the storage of data in an optical medium using Laser light. Here
data is recorded and read by focussing the laser on a spinning optical disk.

There are various techniques by which the data can be stored using optical devices, such
as

1. CD-ROM [Read only memory]

In this compact disk [CD] we can write and read the data, but could not re-write the
data.

2. CD-RW

In this CD, we can write, read and re-write the data as and when required.

3. DVD

In DVD [Digital Versatile Disk], based on storage capacity, we have many types, viz.

4. Blu-ray disks

In single layer Blu-ray disk 25 GB can be stored and in double layer blue ray disk 50
GB can be stored.

5. Magneto Optical (MO) disk

Magneto optical disk is like magnetic computer disks, in which we can write, read, erase
and re-write the data repeatedly.
6. Holography

Holography is also a type of latest technique in which recording and reading of 3-

dimensional pictures/data shall be done, which was well known as holograms.

DATA STORAGE IN CD/DVD'S

Introduction

CD/DVD comes under the category of a permanent storage device, used in computers.

We all are familiar about a Floppy disk, which is a magnetic storage device, in which
the datas are stored and retrieved using magnetic pulses. Since it can store very less
number of datas, nowadays CD's are used.

CD/DVD is an optical storage device which is capable of storing large number of datas
than a Floppy disk. For example one CD can store 1000's of pages from a book (or) many
softwares also.

Principle

CD/DVD uses the principle of writing the datas using a high power laser beam and
reading the datas using a low power laser beam, by forming pits (0's) and lands (1's)
over the CD.

Design of a CD/DVD

CD/DVD is a plastic (or) photo-polymer disk madeup of poly-carbonate, grown over the
substrate. It has a diameter of 120 mm and thickness of 1.2 mm, with a circular hole of
diameter 15 mm as shown in Fig. 4.26. In this disk the datas can be stored in tracks
and sectors, from 46 mm to 116 mm of diameter. The magnified portion of data storage
is indicated in Fig.
Since we are going to use laser light for writing and reading the data, the reflectivity at
the top surface should be increased. Therefore a layer of silver (or) aluminium is
deposited as vapour over the poly-carbonate surface. A protective layer protects the CD
from dust and moisture.

Note: In Re-write CD's, a layer of "metallic alloy" is present inbetween the

polycarbonate and reflective layer. Here the phase changes from amorphous (0's) to
crystalline (1's), during writing. The reading can be easily done, as the crystalline
material reflects more light (1's) than amorphous (0's). Further, the data can be re-
writed by making the top layer as non-reflective instead of reflective layer in CDs.

Storage capacity

The storage capacity in CD's depends on the number of sectors and the number of bytes
(8 Bits = 1 Byte) per sector. It is given by the formula, i.e.,

Storage capacity = Number of sectors × Number of bytes per sector

Recording/Writing Process

Fig. 4.28 shows the system used for recording/writing the datas over the CD and also
for retrieving/reading the datas from it.

Initially all over the CD we will have lands (1's) of highly reflectivity. Now to change it
as 0's and 1's a high power laser is directed towards the surface of the CD through the
condensing lens C1, beam splitter (Bs) and condensing lens C2 as shown in Fig. 4.28.

This high power laser beam burns the surface of the CD and creates a small hole called
pit, corresponding to 0's of 0.8 μm diameter.
By similar method wherever we want 0's, laser should be focussed and pits are created
and the remaining area will be as such as lands i.e. 1's.

Therefore the pit (0's) represents the burnt area and the land (1's) represents the
unburnt area in CD. Thus the datas are digitally recorded/written over the CD.

Retrieving/Reading Process

During the reading process low power laser beam is directed towards the CD through
the condensing lens C1, beam splitter (Bs) and the condensing lens C2. Based on the
reflectivity of the surface, the intensity of the laser beam is modulated i.e., The land
(1's) (unburnt area) which has high reflectivity, reflects more light than the pits (0's)
(burnt area), which has low reflectivity.

The modulated laser beam which has the datas in the form of 0's and 1's from the CD is
diverted to fall on the condensing lens (C3) with the help of the beam splitter (Bs)

The condensing lens focusses the light onto the photo-detector. The photo detector
detects the laser light falling over it and is stored for further processing. Thus the datas
(0's and 1's) are retrieved (or) read.
Applications

CD/DVD has a wide range of applications, viz.,

(i) It is used to store large number of datas in the form of files.

(ii) They are used in marriages (or) any functions.

(iii) It can be used to load many softwares.

(iv) CD/DVD is also used to store the datas in the form of both audio and video.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES AND OPTICAL

STORAGE DEVICES
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Definition

LED is a semiconductor p-n junction diode which converts electrical energy to light
energy under forward biasing. It emits light in both visible and IR region.

Types of LED

There are two types of LED. viz.,

(i) Planar (or) Surface emitting LED and

(ii) Dome shaped LED.

Let us discuss in detail about the planar (or) surface emitting LED.

Principle

Injection luminescence is the principle used in both the LED's. When LED is
forward biased, the majority charge carriers moves from p to n and similarly from n to
p region and becomes excess minority carriers. Then these excess minority charge
carriers diffuses through the junction and recombines with the majority charge carriers
in n and p region respectively to produce light.

Construction

• The surface emitting LED is as shown in Fig.

 • Here the p-n junction is formed by diffusion or epitaxial techniques. The p-n
junction is made by doping silicon with GaAs crystal. Since silicon can act both
as donar (when it replaces Gallium) and acceptor (when it replaces arsenide) it is
used as the impurity atom (or) dopent. Therefore a shallow p-n junction is formed
on GaAs substrate such that p-layer is formed by diffusion on 'n' layer.
• In order to increase the probability of radiative recombination, the thickness of
the 'n' layer is taken higher than that of the thickness of the 'p' layer.
• Ohmic contacts are made with the help of aluminium in such a way that top layer
of the 'p' material is left uncovered, for the emission of light. Proper biasing can
be applied at the ohmic contacts. The whole p-n junction is surrounded by plastic
material so that the losses due to reflection can be minimised.

Working

• The diode is forward biased. Due to forward bias, the majority charge carriers
from 'n' and 'p' regions cross the junction and become minority charge carriers in
the other junction (i.e) Electrons, which are majority charge carriers in 'n' region
cross the junction and go to 'p' region and become minority charge carriers in p-
region as shown in Fig.

• Similarly, holes which are majority charge carries in 'p' region cross the junction
and go to 'n' region and become minority charge carriers in 'n' region.
• By the similar process, excess of minority carriers (shaded electrons and holes)
are injected in both 'p' and 'n' regions as shown in Fig. and this phenomenon is
called minority carrier injection.
• Now if the biasing voltage is further increased, these excess minority carriers
diffuse away from the junction and they directly recombine with the majority
carriers. (i.e.) the electrons, which are excess minority carriers in p-region
 recombine with the holes which are the majority carriers in 'p' region and emit
light. Similarly, the holes which are excess minority carriers in 'n' region
recombine with the electrons which are majority carriers in 'n' region and emit
light.
• Therefore electron-hole recombination process occurs more and more and thereby
light (photons) is emitted through the top layer of the p-material which is left
uncovered.

Advantages
• They are smaller in size.
• Its cost is very low.
• It has long life time.
• LED's are available in different colours at low cost.
• It operates even at very low voltage.
• Response time of LED is very fast, in the order of 10-9 seconds.
• Its intensity can be controlled easily.
• It can be operated at a wide range of temperatures (0 - 70°C).
• Dome shaped LED has less scattering losses.

Disadvantages
• Power output is low.
• Intensity is less than laser.
• The light cannot travel through longer distance.
• The light output is incoherent and are not in phase.
• The light will not have directionality

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

• A liquid crystal display is a combination of two states of matter, the solid and the
liquid.
• LCD uses a liquid crystal to produce a visible image.
• Liquid crystal displays are super-thin technology display screens that are
generally used in laptop computer screens, TVs, cell phones, and portable video
games. LCD’s technologies allow displays to be much thinner when compared to
a cathode ray tube (CRT) technology.

Construction:
• It consists of two glass plates, each one attached with a crossed polaroid.
• On both sides of the glass plate, the conducting materials such as tin oxide or
indium tin oxide is coated.
• Distance between the two coating surface is typically 10 micrometre.
• Liquid crystal is sealed between the two glass plate.Thus the liquid molecule
will undergo the transition in between the two glass plates.

Vertical and Horizontal Polarizers

• A vertical polarizer will pass only vertical components of the lights and
horizontal components will be absorbed by it.
• A horizontal polarizer will pass only horizontal components and vertical
components are absorbed
 • So, we can block or pass light by changing the polarization.

The molecules in each plane have different

orientation without electric fields. So the
polarisation of light changes when it
passes through liquid crystal without
electric field.

When an electric field is applied, we can

see that all the molecules are arranged
parallel to the same axis. So there will not
be any change in the polarization of light
when it passes through liquid crystal in an
electric field.

Working :

• The principle behind the LCD’s is that when an electrical current is applied to
the liquid crystal molecule, the molecule tends to untwist. This causes the angle
of light which is passing through the molecule of the polarized glass and also
cause a change in the angle of the top polarizing filter.
 • As a result a little light is allowed to pass the polarized glass through a particular
area of the LCD. Thus that particular area will become dark compared to other.
The LCD works on the principle of blocking light.
• While constructing the LCD’s, a reflected mirror is arranged at the back. An
electrode plane is made of indium-tin oxide which is kept on top and a polarized
glass with a polarizing film is also added on the bottom of the device.
• The complete region of the LCD has to be enclosed by a common electrode and
above it should be the liquid crystal matter.
• Next comes to the second piece of glass with an electrode in the form of the
rectangle on the bottom and, on top, another polarizing film.
• It must be considered that both the pieces are kept at right angles.
• When there is no current, the light passes through the front of the LCD it will
be reflected by the mirror and bounced back.
• As the electrode is connected to a battery the current from it will cause the liquid
crystals between the common-plane electrode and the electrode shaped like a
rectangle to untwist. Thus the light is blocked from passing through. That
particular rectangular area appears blank.

Advantages of an LCD’s:
• LCD’s consumes less amount of power compared to CRT and LED
• LCD’s are consist of some microwatts for display in comparison to some mill watts
for LED’s
• LCDs are of low cost
• Provides excellent contrast
• LCD’s are thinner and lighter when compared to cathode ray tube and LED

Disadvantages of an LCD’s:
• Require additional light sources
• Range of temperature is limited for operation
• Low reliability
• Speed is very low
• LCD’s need an AC drive

Applications of Liquid Crystal Display

Liquid crystal technology has major applications in the field of science and
engineering as well on electronic devices.
• Liquid crystal thermometer
• Optical imaging
• The liquid crystal display technique is also applicable in visualization of the radio
frequency waves in the waveguide

METALLIC GLASSES
The Metallic glasses are materials which have the properties of both metals and
glasses.

Metallic glass = Amorphous metal

In general, metallic glasses are strong, ductile, malleable, opaque and brittle.

They also have good magnetic properties and high corrosion resistance..

PREPARATION OF METALLIC GLASSES

Principle

The principle used in making metallic glasses is extreme rapid cooling of the molten
metal alloy.
This technique is called as rapid quenching.

Melt spinning system

• A melt spinner consists of a copper roller over which a refractory tube with fine
nozzle is placed.
• The refractory tube is provided with induction heater as shown in fig.
• The metal alloy is melted by induction heating under inert gas atmosphere
(helium or argon).
• The properly super heated molten alloy is ejected through the fine nozzle at the
bottom of the refractory tube.
• The molten alloy falls on the copper roller which is rotated at high speed. Thus,
the alloy is suddenly cooled to form metallic glass.
• In this method a continuous ribbon of metallic glass can be obtained.

TYPES OF METALLIC GLASSES:

Metallic glasses are classified into two types:

(i)Metal –Metal metallic glasses

They are combination of metals

Metals Metals

Examples: Nickel (Ni) – Niobium (Nb)

Magnesium (Mg) – Zinc (Zn)

Copper (Cu) – Zirconium (Zr)

(ii)Metal –Metalloid metallic glasses

These are combinations of metals and metalloids.

Examples: Metals Metalloids

Fe, Co, Ni – B, Si, C, P

PROPERTIES OF METALLIC GLASSES

Structural properties
• They do not have any crystal defects such as grain boundaries, dislocation etc.
• Metallic glasses have tetrahedral close packing (TCP).

Mechanical properties
• Metallic glasses have extremely high strength, due to the absence of point
defects and dislocation.
• They have high elasticity.
• They are highly ductile.
• Metallic glasses are not work-harden but they are work –soften. (work
harnening is a process of hardening a material by compressing it).

Electrical properties
 • Electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary much with
temperature.
• Due to high resistivity, the eddy current loss is very small.
• The temperature coefficient is zero or negative.

Magnetic properties
• Metallic glasses have both soft and hard magnetic properties.
• They are magnetically soft due to their maximum permeabilities and thus they
can be magnetised and demagnetized very easily.
• It exhibit high saturation magnetisation.
• They have less core losses.
• Most magnetically soft metallic glasses have very narrow hysteresis loop with
same crystal composition.

Chemical properties
• They are highly resistant to corrosion due to random ordering.
• It highly reactive and stable.
• They can act as a catalyst. The amorphous state is more active than the
crystalline state from the catalytic point of view.

APPLICATIONS OF METALLIC GLASSES

Metallic – glasses also called as met glasses have found wide applications in different
fields.

Structural application

• They posses high physical and tensile strength. They are superior to common
steels and thus they are very useful as reinforcing elements in concrete, plastic
and rubber.
• Strong ribbons of metallic glasses are used for simple filament winding to
reinforce pressure vessels and to construct large fly wheels for energy storage.
• Due to their good strength, high ductility, rollability and good corrosion
resistance, they are used to make razor blades and different kinds of springs.
Electrical and Electronics application

• Since metallic – glasses have soft magnetic properties, they are used in tape
recorder heads, cores of high-power transformers and magnetic shields.
• They use of metallic glasses in motors can reduce core loss very much when
compared with conventional crystalline magnets.
• Superconducting metallic glasses are used to produce high magnetic fields and
magnetic levitation effect.
• Since metallic glasses have high electrical resistance, they are used to make
accurate standard resistance, computer memories and magneto resistance
sensors.

Metallic glasses as transformer core material

• Metallic – glasses have excellent magnetic properties. When they are used as
transformer core, they give maximum magnetic flux linkage between primary
and secondary coils and thus reduce flux leakage losses.
• In view of their features like small thickness, smaller area, light weight, high
resistivity, soft magnetic property and negligible hysteresis and eddy current
loss, metallic glasses are considered as suitable core materials in different
frequency transformers.

Nuclear reactor engineering

• The magnetic properties of metallic glasses are not affected by irradiation and
so they are useful in preparing containers for nuclear waste disposal and
magnets for fusion reactors.
• Chromium and phosphorous based (iron chromium, phosphorous-carbon alloys)
metallic glasses have high corrosion resistances and so they are used in iner
surfaces of reactor vessels, etc.

Bio-medical Industries

• Due to their high resistance to corrosion, metallic glasses are ideal materials for
making surgical instruments.
• They are used as prosthetic materials for implantation in human body
ORGANIC LED [OLED]

Organic Light Emitting Diode, shortly called as OLED is new type of electronic device
which emits light, consuming very less energy.

Introduction

Organic Light Emitting Diode, shortly called as OLED is new type of electronic device
which emits light, consuming very less energy. It overcome the drawback of LCD, in
which we suffer from poor viewing angle.

Organic LEDs are generally made up of many layers with organic molecules of different
conductivity levels, ranging from insulators to conductors.

Principle

An electron moves from the cathode to the emissive layer and the hole moves from
the anode to the conductive layer and they recombine to produce photons. This is the
principle used to emit light in OLED.

Fabrication
The 2-layer OLED consists of a cathode and an anode, in between which we have
two organic layers viz.
1. Emissive layer
2. Conductive layer, madeup of different conductivities.
All the layers are grown over a transparent substrate, through which the light has to
be emitted.Necessary biasing is given for the OLED, in such a way that the anode is
given positive and the cathode is given negative as shown in Fig.
Working
1. Voltage is applied across the OLED.
2. Due to the applied voltage, the cathode gives electrons to the emissive
layer.
3. The anode withdraws an electron from the conductive layer and creates a
hole in the conductive layer as shown in Fig.
4. In otherwords, we can say that the anode gives electron-hole i.e., polarons
[A quasiparticle - A positive (or) negative ion slightly attracted to a
negatively (or) positively charged carriers respectively].
5. Soon, the emissive layer becomes rich in negatively charged particles
[Electrons] and the conductive layer becomes rich is positively charged
particles [holes].
6. Now, due to the electrostatic forces between these electrons and holes,
They come closer and recombine with each other.
7. In OLED, the recombination occurs closer to the emissive layer, because in
organic semiconductors, holes moves faster than electrons.
8. Thus, the recombination of electrons and holes produces light and is
emitted through the transparent substrate

Advantages

OLED's have more advantages, when compared to CRT, LCD and LEDs. Some of them
are as follows.

1. OLED is very thin, and more flexible.

2. They are light in weight.
3. Light emission is brighter than normal LED's.
4. The conductive and emissive layers can be increased to increase the
efficiency of OLED.
5. OLED's do not require backlighting like LCD's.
6. They have large field of view [About 170°]
Disadvantages

1. Cost of manufacturing is very high.

2. OLED's can be easily damaged when water falls on it.
3. Blue OLED have less life time, when compared to Red OLED.
4. Maintenance cost also increases due to different life time.

Applications

1. OLED's are widely used in cell phones, digital cameras etc.

2. They are also used in TV screens, computer monitors.
3. They are nowadays used in Automotive dash boards & backlight in cars.
4. OLEDs are used in flexible display boards, for displaying video's in real
time.
5. In future, news papers also may have OLED displays to refresh us with
the latest or breaking news.
 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

A group of metallic alloys which shows the ability to return to their original shape or
size, i.e., alloy appears to have memory when they are subjected to heating or cooling
are called shape memory alloys.

Phase of shape memory alloys

Martensite and austenite are two solid phases in SMA as shown in fig.

Phases of SMA

Martensite is relatively soft and it is easily deformable phase which exists at low
temperature (monoclinic).

(i) Austenite is a phase that occurs at high temperature having a crystal structure and
high degree of symmetry (cubic).

TYPES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

There are two types of shape memory alloys

(i)One-way shape memory alloy

(ii)Two-way shape memory alloy

A material which exhibits shape memory effect only upon heating is known as one-
way shape memory.

A material which shows a shape memory effect during both heating and cooling is
called two-way shape memory.

Examples of shape memory alloys

Generally, shape memory alloys are intermetallic compounds having super lattice
structures and metallic-ionic-covalent characteristics.

Thus, they have the properties of both metals and ceramics.

Ni –Ti alloy (Nitinol)

Cu –Al –Ni alloy

Cu –Zn –Al alloy

Au –Cd alloy

Ni –Mn –Ga and Fe based alloys

CHARACTERISTICS OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS – SMAS

Shape memory effect

• The change of shape of a material at low temperature by loading and

regaining of original shape by heating it, is known as shape memory
effect.

• The shape memory effect occurs in alloys due to the change in their
crystalline structure with the change in temperature and stress.

• While loading, twinned martensite becomes deformed martensite at low

temperature.
 • On heating, deformed martensite becomes austenite (shape recovery) and
upon cooling it gets transformed to twinned martensite

• SMAs exhibit changes in electrical resistance, volume and length during

the transformation with temperature.
• The mechanism involved in SMA is reversible (austenite to martensite
and vice versa.)
• Stress and temperature have a great influence on martensite
transformation.

Pseudo elasticity

• Pseudo –elasticity occurs in shape memory alloys when it is completely in

austenite phase (temperature is greater than A faustenite finish temperature).
• Unlike the shape memory effect, Pseudo-elasticity occurs due to stress induced
phase transformation without a change in temperature.
• The load on the shape memory alloy changes austenite phase into martensite .
• As soon as the loading decreases the martensite begins to transform to
austenite.
• This phenomenon of deformation of a SMA on application of large stress and
regaining of shape on removal of the load is known as pseudo elasticity.
• This pseudo elasticity is also known as super elasticity
Hysteresis

• The temperature range for the martensite to austenite transformation which

takes place upon heating is somewhat higher than that for the reverse
transformation upon cooling.

• The difference between the transition temperature upon heating and cooling is
called hysteresis. The hysteresis curve for SMAs is shown in fig.

• The difiference of temperature is found to be 20-30oC,

COMMERCIAL SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

The only two alloy systems that have achieved any level of commercial exploitation
are,

(i) Ni-Ti alloys, and

(ii) Copper base alloys.

Properties of the two systems are quite different.

Nickel-Titanium Alloys

• The basis of the Nickel-Titanium alloy is the binary, equi-atomic inter-metallic

compound of Ti-Ni.

• This solubility allows alloying with many of the elements to modify both the
mechanical properties and the transformation properties of the system.
 • Excess Nickel strongly depresses the transformation temperature and increases
the yield strength of the austenite. The contaminants such as Oxygen and
Carbon shift the transformation temperature and degrade the mechanical
properties. Therefore, it is also desirable to minimize the amount of such
elements.

Properties:
1. The Ni-Ti alloys have greater shape memory strain upto 8.5% tend to be much
more thermally stable.

2. They have excellent corrosion resistance and susceptibility, and have much
higher ductility.

3. Machining by turning or milling is very difficult except with special tools.

4. Welding, brazing or soldering the alloys is generally difficult.

5. The material do respond well to abrasive removal such as grinding, and

shearing.

6. Punching can be done if thicknesses are kept small.

ADVANTAGES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

• They are simple, compact and high safe.

• They have good bio –compatibility.

• They have diverse applications and offer clean, silent and spark-free working
condition

• They have good mechanical properties and are strong corrosion-resistant.

DISADVANTAGES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

• They have poor fatigue properties.

• They are expensive.

• They have low energy efficiency.

•
 APPLICATIONS OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

o Microvalve (Actuators)

One of the most common applications of SMAs is mocrovalves.. Actuator is a

microsensor that can trigger the operation of a device. The electrical signal initiates an
action.

When an electrical current of 50 to 150 mA flows in Ni-Ti actuator, it contracts and

lifts the poppet from the orifice and opens the valve.

o Toys and novelties

Shape memory alloys are used to make toys and ornamental goods. A butterfly using
SMA. Moves its wings in response to pulses of electricity.

o Medical field Blood clot filters

o Blood clot filters are SMAs, properly shaped and inserted in veins to stop the
passing blood clots.

o When the SMA is in contact with the clot at a lower temperature, it expands
and stops the clot and blood passes through the veins.

o They are used in artificial hearts.

o Orthodontic applications : NiTi wire holds the teeth tight with a constant stress
irrespective of the strain produced by the teeth movement. It resists permanent
deformation even if it is bent. NiTi is non-toxic and non-corrosive with body
fluid.

o SMAs (NiTi) are used to make eye glass frames and medical tools. Sun-glasses
made from superelastic Ni-Ti frames provide good comfort and durability.

o Antenna wires
o The flexibility of superelastic Ni –Ti wire makes it ideal for use as retractable
antennas.
o Thermostats
o SMAs are used as thermostat to open and close the valves at required
temperature.

o Cryofit hydraulic couplings

o SMAs materials are used as couplings for metal pipes

o Springs, shock absorbers, and valves

o Due to the excellent elastic property of the SMAs, springs can be made which
have varied industrial applications. Some of them are listed here.
o Engine micro valves
o Medical stents (Stents are internal inplant supports provided for body organs)
o Firesafety valves and
o Aerospace latching mechanisms

o Stepping motors
o Digital SMA stepping motors are used for robotic control.
o Titanium-aluminium shape memory alloys offer excellent strength with less
weight and dominate inthe aircraft industry.
o They are high temperature SMAs, for possible use in aircraft engines and other
high temperature environments.