Design and its contribution to economic development: Lessons for Africa - Mwendapole, C.

&
Mapfaira, H.

Design and its contribution to economic development: Lessons for

Africa

C Mwendapole
Department of Industrial Design and Technology,
University of Botswana, Botswana,
[email protected]

H Mapfaira
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Botswana, Botswana,
[email protected]

Abstract
There is strong evidence of the positive impact of design capability on a nation’s
business performance. Good design is a source of competitive advantage as
companies with a strong design capability can avoid competing on price and quality
alone, but also compete on product superiority. Nations with strong design capabilities
have adopted policies that promote the uptake of design as a key innovation strategy.
Although the contribution of design on a nation’s economic development is generally
accepted its adoption and promotion varies across different countries. Most developed
countries have design policies and strategies aimed at promoting the uptake of design
whilst most developing economies lag behind in their adoption of design policies. This
paper presents a review of various policies and strategies being adopted by some
nations to promote a design culture. The paper concludes by exploring answers to
some pertinent questions on the adoption of design. Design promotion and support is
mostly visible in developed nations - what could be the barriers preventing some nations
from the active promotion of design? What lessons can Africa learn from the experience
of countries with a longer history of adoption of design policies. If Africa is to achieve its
goal as the next economic giant then it is imperative that we find appropriate answers to
these questions and begin investing adequately in design innovation to allow us to
produce innovative products and services that can standout on the crowded global
market place.
Keywords: Design, design capability, design innovation, competitiveness, economic
development,

Introduction
Kimbell and Perry (2001) suggest that design and technology is about creating change
in the made world; about understanding the processes of change and becoming
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Design and its contribution to economic development: Lessons for Africa - Mwendapole, C. &
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capable in the exercise of change making. In their view, when Honda produces a new
car, Westwood a new outfit; Boeing a new airliner, Saloman a new ski, Bovis a new
house, or Ericsson a new mobile phone, they exemplify not only the diversity of our
material culture but also the creativity underpinning the change making process. The
economy has always been the source of power behind the development of design and
is seen as a service providing, quality, innovation and identity (Hara, 2008:422-27). The
key to economic development as anywhere else in the world is economic growth: the
generation of jobs and income for African people and profit for African Countries.
Adding value to Africa’s physical and human resources through manufacturing provides
one potential route to enhanced African competiveness. It is widely accepted that the
most important driver of long term economic growth is improved productivity (Krugman,
2006). Over the last decade the majority of productivity growth and job creation has
come from innovation, primarily by small and young firms (BIS & NESTA, 2011).
According to Hargreaves (IPO, 2011:10), innovation creates and grows new markets for
things that have not been seen or done before. These factors combined indicate that
innovative firms are key to economic growth. Seeing how design knowledge has
become a crucial asset in modern production systems, African countries need to look at
how to develop effective design strategies and policies that will facilitate cultures,
resources, structures and institutions of design. This paper is divided into six parts: the
abstract, the introduction, definitions of working concepts, an analysis of two developed
countries’ design policies, then findings and conclusions.

Conceptual Framework: Design Policies and Economic Growth

Design plays an important role in the process of linking creativity and innovation. Cox
(2005) views design as the link between creativity and innovation because it shapes
ideas to become practical and attractive propositions for users or customers; design
may be described as creativity deployed to a specific end. Creativity is the generation
of new ideas – either new ways of looking at existing problems, or of seeing new
opportunities, perhaps by exploiting emerging technologies or changes in markets (Cox,
2005:2). Innovation is the successful exploitation of new ideas; it is the process that
carries them through to new products, new services, new ways of running the business
or even new ways of doing business (Cox, 2005:2).
The Creative Economy Report (2010), views design as a creative activity because it
produces goods or services with creative content, cultural and economic value and
market objectives. The shape and form design takes in a society or country depends on
the circumstances of its birth, its lineage and what influenced design during the coming
of age of the national economy (Hara, 2008:427). For example, at the time of the
industrial revolution in the United Kingdom, the government came to realise that
economic success depended not only on material and cost factors, but also on the
quality of workmanship and appearance (Heskett, 1980:20).

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2.1 Design Policies

Design policies can be defined as the process by which governments translate their
political vision into programmes and actions in order to develop national design
resources and encourage their effective use in the country (Raulik- Murphy and
Cawood, 2009:7). Sparke (1986:69) notes that the roots of twentieth century design
promotion organizations lie in the art and craft revival movements such as the Swedish
Design Society that was formed in 1845 to act as a support system for the maintenance
of high standards in design. In 2009, respondents to a study by the European
Commission on Design as a driver of user-centred innovation, the most significant
barrier was considered the lack of awareness and understanding of the potential of
design among policy-makers (See Policy Booklet, 2010). One of the first design
promotion organizations in the twentieth century was the Design Council created by the
British Government in 1944. Amongst the functions of the design promotion
organizations in Europe was to develop design as a competitive strategy, promote
economic and political nationalism, the supremacy of industrial capitalism and middle
class values (Sparke,1986:56). Verganti (2009:236-37) notes that the typical approach
to design policies in Europe tends to centre on the following: collaborations the more the
better, encouragement of local collaborations, collaborations between firms and
designers, and educating designers on business.
According to Raulik- Murphy and
Cawood, (2009:7) design
promotion, design support and
design education are the main axis
for fostering the use of design for
competitiveness. However, in their
view to gain maximum advantage,
the implementation of these
schemes should be determined by
strateggic plans or government
Figure 1: Schematic Representation of the
policies (see Figure 1).
elements of a National Design system:
Raulik- Murphy and Cawood, (2009)

2.2 Economic Development and Growth

The meaning of Economic Development has been the subject of much debate for a long
period of time. Myint (1980) provided two general approaches to economic
development:

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The fight against poverty. This approach focuses on the problems of widespread
poverty, hunger, and misery in developing countries and on the question of what can be
done in order to realise improvements of the situation in the short term.
The analysis of long-term economic and social development. This approach
concentrates on comparing developments in different countries, regions and historical
periods in order to gain a better understanding of the factors that have long-term effects
on the dynamics of socio-economic development.
The first approach focuses mainly on the prevailing problems of developing countries
and solutions to overcome them. The disadvantage of the approach is that it tends to
encourage quick fixes to problems and as a result it takes a short-term perspective to
economic development. This approach is well illustrated by Secondi (2008) who defined
economic development as the “branch of economics that studies relatively poor
countries.” This approach takes a limited view to economic development. The second
approach takes a long-term approach to economic development. In this approach the
purpose of economic development is to study why, in the long-term, such great
differences in development have occurred in the different parts of the world.
Economic growth is the increase in the amount of the goods and services produced by
an economy over time and it is measured in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP),
which is an estimate of the total income earned in the country in any given year.
Economic growth is obtained by an efficient use of the available resources and by
increasing the capacity of production of a country, and it facilitates the redistribution of
incomes between population and society (Haller, 2012: 66-71).

Case Studies

UK
The UK is the 6th largest economy in the world based of GDP, 2012. In the recent
Global Competitiveness Report, the UK is ranked 8th, two places up from its rank last
year. Key to its high competitiveness is the efficiency of its labour market and its
sophisticated and innovative businesses that are highly adept at harnessing the latest
technologies for productivity improvement (World Economic Forum, 2012).
The design industry’s importance to the UK economy is widely recognised. The industry
is a key part of the knowledge economy, accounting for about 7% of the economy’s
Gross Value Added (GVA). The UK design industry employs up to 350 000 people, with
businesses investing up to GBP35 billion on design each year, based on recent analysis
of the design industry by Thompson, Sissons and Montgomery (IPO & Design Council,
2012:14).
Design makes a significant positive contribution to the UK’s competitiveness (DTI,
2005). It is a major driver of innovation, enabling firms to develop more valuable
products and services, and streamline their business processes. High-quality design is
one of the UK’s main selling points in the global economy, and helps to sustain a range
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of export activities in the UK (IPO & Design Council, 2012:14). The government’s
Innovation and Research Strategy for Growth (BIS, 2011) highlighted design as one of
its core themes.

3.1.2 Design Promotion

Design promotion in the UK is led by the Design Council, whose mission statement is:
“To bring the transformative power of design to the things that matter.” The Design
Council is the UK government’s official advisor on design and has been involved on
shaping a number of national policies. The Council is jointly sponsored by the
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) and the Department for Culture,
Media and Sport (DCMS), with funding of £5.6 million. The Council’s policy focus is on
four key strategic themes around ageing, economic growth, communities and active
living (Design Council, 2011).
The Design Council has a long history. At various stages through its evolution, the
Council has been used by the British government as a stimulus to growth for the British
economy. The Council was set up in December 1944 as the Council of Industrial Design
to assist Britain to use design to regain the competitive advantage lost to competing
nations during the Second World War. Its objective was: To promote the improvement
of design in the products of British industry.

One of the defining moments in the history of the Design Council was in 2005 when
government published the Cox Review of creativity in business, which identified the
need for urgent action if UK businesses are to compete with rivals in fast-emerging
global economies. The review recommended support for the Design Council's
programme and called for it to be made available across the UK to help SMEs use
design as a business tool (Cox, 2005).The Cox Review was critical to the Design
Council’s work since it clearly identified the role of design in the innovation process.

Following the Cox Review, the UK government produced a design driven innovation
strategy, the Innovation Nation White Paper, in 2008 (BIS, 2008). In this strategy design
is set out as an important part of the innovation process, defined as the link between
creativity and innovation. The White Paper emphasised that the best way for the UK to
compete, in an era of globalisation, is to move into high-value goods, services and
industries, underpinned by design knowledge.

The White Paper outlines several practical measures aimed at ensuring that businesses
and people in the UK are well placed to benefit from the opportunities and prosperity
created by the demand for innovation. These measures include: (BIS, 2008:31-39)

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an initiative to provide at least 1,000 "innovation vouchers" a year by 2011, helping to
support and fund SMEs to work with universities or research organisations to develop
new products or services;
expanding the network of National Skills Academies, with one academy for every major
sector of the economy;
piloting an index to measure UK innovation; and
introducing an annual review to provide a comprehensive assessment of how innovation
is being promoted in the public and private sectors.

In 2010, during a period of austerity, the UK government carried out a review of the
Design Council which resulted in the Council’s work being refocused (BIS, 2010). The
Council’s current work is guided by its latest mission statement: To bring the
transformative power of design to the things that matter. The current purpose is
delivered through three strategic priorities:
v To improve the built environment – we show how design helps create sustainable
communities, and improves our cities, housing and infrastructure.
v To stimulate innovation – we use design to bring new ideas to market and to
create more successful businesses and better public services.
v To improve the nation's health – we demonstrate how design helps identify and
solve tomorrow’s problems and improves life for our ageing population.

Italy
In 2012, Italy was ranked the eighth largest economy in the World and it was considered
the 42nd most competitive country in the world. The Global Competitiveness Report
(2012-2013) argues that Italy’s competitive strength rests in a number of areas. First, its
enterprise environment, in particular its well-developed clusters, broad presence in the
value chain and corporate activity spread among many firms, ensuring competition.
Second, Italy is characterized by its ability to compete based on its unique products and
processes rather than on low costs or natural resources. The macro sector of the
cultural and creative industries in Italy in 2004 contributed to 9.31% of the GDP if the
whole chain of value production is considered (White paper on creativity, 2009).
However, Italy’s overall competitiveness performance continues to be hampered by
some critical structural weaknesses in its economy. Its labour market remains extremely
rigid, hindering employment creation and its financial markets are not sufficiently
developed to
provide needed finance for business development (Global Competitiveness Report,
2012-2013).

The process by which design policies are formulated by governments can play a crucial
role in influencing the behaviour of individuals, industry and the public sector (See

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Policy Booklet, 2010). Hara (2008:426) observed that because of its high quality of
ideas and its plastic arts, not in mass production but in relatively small scale industrial
production that integrates the hand work of craft into the production process, Italian
design has achieved originality, excellence and increasing fame. Despite Italy having a
reputation as a renowned centre of design, it has no real national design policy or
substantial research in the area (Arquilla et al, 2010).
The authors of this paper therefore undertook a literature review of the few documents
emanating from Italy on the subject and these included:
Local diffuse, and bottom-up: A new design policy for Italy? By Arquilla et al, 2010
White paper on creativity, towards and Italian model of development (2009) decreed by
the Ministry of Heritage and Culture

3.2.1 Findings
The paper by Arquilla et al (2010) on a new design policy for Italy is written from a
design management perspective. In their study, Arquilla et al (2010) found the following:
Italy’s innovation strategy depends on three main documents which include:
1. The National Research Program (Ministry of University and Research or MUR)
whose mandate is to convey the status of Italian Scientific and Technological
Research
2. Industria 2015 (Ministry for Economic Development or MED) contains [political
guidelines or developing and improving competiveness
3. The plan for Innovation 2012 (Ministry of Public Administration and Innovation or
MPAI)

Arquilla et al (2010) also noted that none of these three main documents make any
explicit mention of design and to talk about a relationship between policy and the Italian
design system is a contradiction in terms, an oxymoron. In their view, Italy’s lack of a
real national design policy can be attributed to a number of key reasons which include:
• The lack of systems or tools at a national level to collect and verify the results
generated by design.
• Established in 2007, the Italian Design Council’s mission is to promote the
culture of design in Italy. Though it operates under the auspices of the Ministry
of Heritage and Culture, the council however is only an advisory body.
• The actions and initiatives that include design are territorially fragmented and
disconnected, leading to a replication of efforts.
• The Italian government lack of funding to sustain design driven innovation
• The government focus on creativity and innovation projects
The Ministry of Heritage and Culture is the only subject actually trying to make a move
towards a truly national design policy for Italy. The White Paper distinguished between
three categories of design found in Italy and these included: product design (fashion,

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industrial or craft), communication design (graphic, publishing and multimedia) and
service design (interior and environmental).

The White paper noted that it is difficult to assess economically the contribution of
design for a number of reasons. The first problem is the very definition of ‘design’ in the
whole chain of value creation. The second problem concerns the ways in which
members of professional design associations are recorded in statistical sources. On the
collation of statistical data the White paper recommended collaboration between
professional associations and the Italian Design Council to draft annual reports on
trends in the sector as happens in other countries like the United Kingdom.

3.3 South Africa

South Africa is ranked as the 52nd most competitive country out of 144 surveyed in the
2012/13 World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Index, making it the second
highest ranked country in Africa after Tunisia (32nd). The report points out that South
Africa shows up well for business sophistication 38th), and innovation (42nd)-benefiting
in the latter case from good scientific research institutions (34th) and strong
collaboration between universities and the business sector in innovation (30th).
Weaknesses that the country will have to address to further enhance its
competitiveness include infrastructure (63) and its labour market efficiency (113th).

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Science,

Technology and Industry Outlook report (2010) report on South Africa, found that the
country’s trade in high-technology industries increased by 4 percentage points between
1997-2007, indicating a shift away from primary production. During 2002-04, a very high
61% of firms engaged in non-technological innovation, and an above average 21%
introduced new to market product innovations.

South Africa’s innovation strategy depends on two main documents which include:
v The Ten-Year Innovation Plan (TYIP): 2008-2018 whose mandate is to
strengthen the country’s bio-economy; to develop space science and technology;
to focus on energy security; address climate change; contribute to a greater
understanding of the role of science in stimulating growth and development
(OECD, Science, Technology and Industry Outlook Report, 2010).
v The Technology Innovation Agency (TIA) whose mandate is to work on the
National Space Agency (OECD, Science, Technology and Industry Outlook
Report, 2010).
.
With regard to design, none of the two documents make explicit mention of design, and
it is often disguised in semantics as innovation or technology. According to the World

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Design Survey (2008) it was found that South Africa does not have a dedicated national
design policy or substantial research in the area. In addition, similar to design polices in
Italy, South Africa’s management of design seems to be fragmented at a national,
regional and institutional levels s. At a national level the Survey observed that they are
two main documents which imply design activities: (1) the National Industrial Policy
Framework of 2007 published by the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI); (2) the
Creative Industries Policy-Strategic Plan (2012-2017) published by the Department of
Arts and Culture (DAC). The Department of Science and Technology (DST) is currently
working on an Industrial Design Policy for South Africa and has established 23
innovation labs within the country.

Furthermore, The Creative Industries Sector Report (CISR), prepared for the HSRC in
2007, points out that the design sector in South Africa is closely associated with the arts
in the perception of the community, industry and government. This stems from both the
historical ancestry of the industry and from its unavoidable concern with the areas of
aesthetics and fashion (CISR). In a research report by the South African Media,
Advertising, Publishing, Printing- Sector and Education Training Authority (MAPPP-
SETA in 2006 the report identified the following skills needs in the design sector:
v Business, administration and operations management including contract and
intellectual property management.
v Marketing and research.
v Specialist skills, especially related to keeping abreast with developments in
technology
v Presentation and product development

At a regional level each province is responsible for the formulation and implementation
of design policies. The two most active regions for design in South Africa are the
Western Cape (Design) and Gauteng (Creative Industries). The Western Cape’s
position as a leader in the field of design in South Africa was reinforced by the selection
of Cape Town, as the world’s design capital for 2014 by the International Council of
Societies of Industrial Design (ICSID). The honour is awarded to cities that ICSID feels
are dedicated to using design for social, cultural and economic development. In
addition, Cape Town hosts the annual Design Indaba, a successful design exhibition
and conference. Furthermore, Cape Town also hosts the Cape Craft & Design Institute
(CCDI) which was opened in 2001 as a joint initiative of the Cape Peninsula University
of Technology (then the Cape Technikon) and the Provincial Government of the
Western Cape with significant start-up funding from the National Department of Arts &
Culture (CISR, 2006).

At an institutional level the main driver for design seems to be DTI, which is responsible
for establishing the South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) Design Institute which is

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the national Design Promotion Body. The main mandate of the SABS Design Institute is
to promote the benefits of good design in order to stimulate the economic and
technological development of South Africa. With regard to funding for design the World
Design survey (2008) found that there is no dedicated design assistance available, but
is mainly funded through the various innovations funds of the DST and Innovation Labs.
Enterprise funding is available through the Support Programme for Industrial Innovation
(SPII) and the Small Enterprise Development Agency (SEDA) funded by the DST.
Overall South Africa’s science and innovation polices seem to be creating an
environment for innovation. In addition, the main drivers of design in South Africa,
seems to be the DTS and DAC. The absence of a national design policy is reflected in
the fragmentation and distribution of design policy to a number of key players and
regions, including a lack of strategic themes and principles to guide the development of
design in South Africa. The introduction of the technology-driven innovation labs
around key industries with links to universities by the DST, offers the opportunity for the
growth of associated design services within the industrial clusters. In addition, South
Africa’s success with is technology-driven strategies and programmes emphasises the
need to develop and integrate a national design-driven policy in the current national
innovation strategies. Furthermore, the creation of the Cape Craft & Design Institute
seems to indicate that craft traditions, like in Italy are considered an important aspect of
design-driven innovation.

3.4 Botswana
Botswana is the 111th largest economy in the world based of GDP, 2012. In the recent
Global Competitiveness Report, Botswana is ranked 79th, one place up from its rank
last year, which makes it one of the top five economies in the Sub-Saharan Africa
region. Botswana’s impressive growth is largely dependent on the mining industry, and
more specifically, on the diamond industry. Among the country’s strengths are its
relatively reliable and transparent institutions, with efficient government spending,
strong public trust in politicians, and low levels of corruption. However, Botswana’s
primary weaknesses continue to be related to its human resources base. Education
enrolment rates at all levels remain low by international standards, and the quality of the
educational system receives mediocre marks (World Economic Forum, 2012).

Botswana has a relatively developed National Innovation System consisting of a

network of institutions in public and private sector involved in technology management
related activities. However, the country does not have a national design policy and
design is not referred to in the country’s innovation strategies. With the objective of
increasing its competitiveness and prosperity, and reducing its reliance on the diamond
industry, Botswana produced its Vision 2016 Strategy. One of the approaches to
achieving this strategy is through the diversification of the economy with mining,

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agriculture, industry, manufacturing, services and tourism all making a substantial
contribution (Botswana Vision 2016 Council, 2010). Alongside this strategy, the country
produced a diamond beneficiation strategy which aims to create downstream
competencies in the cutting and polishing industry, jewellery manufacturing industry,
diamond trading industry and ancillary businesses (Mbayi, L., 2011). Due to the
diamond beneficiation strategy, a diamond cluster is emerging in Botswana. In keeping
with the government’s diamond beneficiation strategy, in 2008, the Diamond Trading
Company of Botswana started the Shining Light Diamond Jewellery Design competition.
At the 2009 Shining Light Diamond Jewellery competition award ceremony the keynote
speaker, the Hon Minister of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources, Dr Kedikilwe,
noted that the competition was:
v Key to adding real value to the country’s downstream diamond industry and
assisting in the long-term sustainability of the industry.
v An important initiative to unlock the full potential of Botswana’s mineral
resources.
v An important vehicle to unearth latent talent that can be harnessed to create an
internationally appealing and unique collection of diamond jewellery

Key to the continued growth of the diamond industry is therefore design-driven

innovation, the ability to design jewellery that is practical and attractive for users and
customers, as well as creating new meanings. Propelling the development of this
diamond manufacturing cluster is the use of cultural knowledge where diamond design
is inspired by local cultural knowledge. In addition, when Botswana finally achieves a
fully integrated diamond value chain, the local jewellery design industry will act as a
catalyst for the development of other associated design services surrounding the
diamond industry. In this regard, the development of design capability in Botswana is
based on the Italian model, which is cluster based, where design capability develops to
meet the needs of the enterprises within the clusters.

3.5 Discussion
Based on the design system proposed by Raulik-Murphy and Cawood ( 2009), the UK
has a fully developed national design system. The country has government strategic
plans and policies which are used to guide the development and implementation of
programmes to promote and support the use of design. The coordination of design
promotion is done by the Design Council, a non-profit organisation contracted by
government to perform that function. The current work of the Design Council is driven
by the Innovation and Research Strategy for Growth (BIS, 2011). The strategy firmly
places design within the UK innovation system by identifying it as one of the key drivers
for economic growth. The strategy clearly spells out how the UK is going to use design,
alongside other innovation drivers, to stimulate growth.

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The UK’s use of design has been very successful, it is one of the most economically
competitive countries in the world and is considered a leader in their use of design as a
strategic tool. Design is identified in NESTA’s Innovation Index as one of the key groups
of intangible assets which drive innovation and growth in the UK economy (NESTA,
2011).
In contrast to the UK, Italy does not have a national design policy. Due to the absence
of any real national design policy, Italy’s design success seems to have been driven by
the nature of Italy’s manufacturing sector. Davies (1988) observed that the growth of
private industry in specific geographical locations in Italy has created a concentration of
services or industrial clusters that perpetuates the growth of associated design services
in a particular area. The key industrial district identified within the Italian design system
is Milan. Furthermore, successful Italian products are not created from the contribution
of design professionals, but from the formal and informal collaboration of various
professional figures operating in the same company or the vertically integrated
production chains characterising the industrial district of Italy (White paper on creativity,
2009). Similarly, Verganti (2009:14) notes that design driven innovation in the most
distinctive and advanced firms in the industrial district is not codified into steps, rather its
interwoven into relational assets with a network of key relationships.

According to Guy (2000:21) post-war Italy began as a dualistic economy, whereby core
mass manufacturing entities are dependent on a periphery of workshop based
industries. In his opinion, overtime the subcontracted workshops began to forge their
own networks, undertaking their own product development and manufacture,
independently of the core heavy industries. Bursatin (2007:223) once observed that
Italian design was like “an object without an industry”. The White paper on creativity
(2009) argues that what might have seemed a limit, has become one of its strengths,
because Italian design developed and was implemented thanks to the fundamental
contribution of highly skilled craftsmen deeply rooted in the local territory, even though
lacking high standards of education.
Italy’s model of developing design capability is limited in its applicability in that it only
works where there are well developed industry clusters. Development of clusters is a
long-term process and it cannot be easily influenced. The success of the cluster
phenomenon is rooted in the local context, local traditions and local forms of social and
economic organization (Bianchi, P. et al., 1997).
Similar to Italy, South Africa’s lacks a national design policy. The South African
approach seems to focus on developing the economic potential of the creative
industries, and leaving the provinces to make policy for design.
South Africa’s overall innovation policies suggest a strategic investment in technology
driven-innovation, rather than design. The existence of the technology driven-
innovation labs indicates well defined industrial clusters, all that is lacking it seems is a
national design policy that develops strategic design themes and principles that would

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Design and its contribution to economic development: Lessons for Africa - Mwendapole, C. &
Mapfaira,
enable firms to develop more valuable products and services, and streamline their
business processes. Furthermore, the formulation of a national design policy would
also assist in developing a national rather than regional strategy for design promotion,
design support and design education, avoiding replications of efforts. In addition, the
lack of systems or tools at a national level to collect and verify the results generated by
design, could also be addressed in the formulation of the national design policy. Italians
seem to view design as both an economic and cultural product that impacts on the
quality of life of people. Design in South Africa could be promoted as an important
ecosystem of best practices strongly focusing on creativity, innovation and quality of
life.
Botswana does not have a national design policy. However, due to the governemt’s
diamond beneficiation strategy which requires value addition to the gemstones before
exporting to external markets, there is a diamond cluster developing in Botswana which
is inluencing the development of design capability within the cluster. For the diamond
beneficiation strategy to work, the country has to develop competencies required to
perform the value added activities, one of the key competencies being jewellery design.
One notable way the diamond industry is promoting the development of design talent is
through prizes and jewellery design competitions.
In this regard, the development of design capability in Botswana is based on the Italian
model, which is cluster based, where design capability develops to meet the needs of
the enterprises within the clusters. Other than the diamond industry, Botswana does not
have well defined industrial clusters. In the absence of industrial clusters, to ensure the
development of design capability across industry, government has to take leadership
through development of national design policies and design support programmes to
promote the use of design across industry.

Conclusions and Recommendations.

Design is attributed to making significant contribution to the economies of the case
study countries. It is used as a major driver of innovation, enabling firms to develop
more valuable products and services, and streamline their business processes.
The UK has national design policies and strategies that guide implementation of
activities to increase the use of design. The coordination of design promotion is done by
the Design Council, a non-profit organisation contracted by government to perform that
function. The scope of the Design Council’s work is defined through governemnt
policies and strategic plans. The Council runs design support programmes targeted at
business and design promotion programmes targeted at the public to promote the use
of design. Several studies by the UK government and the Design Council have clearly
shown that design has created a competitve advandage for british companies. High-
quality design is one of the UK’s main selling points in the global economy.

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Design and its contribution to economic development: Lessons for Africa - Mwendapole, C. &
Mapfaira,
Italy lacks any real design policies due primarily to the Italian government’s focus on
creativity and innovation. As a result, design policies in Italy tend to be fragmented and
distributed amongst various key players and locations. The key driver for the
development of design in Italy has been the manufacturing sector and its network of
design knowledge systems that have contributed to the successful ‘Made in Italy’ brand.
What the Italian experience shows is that despite a lack of design policies the
integration of design within the manufacturing sector is also key to a country’s economic
development.
4.1 Lessons for Africa
Achieving and maintaining national competitiveness in the global economy is a
challenge that Africa has to take head on. Based on the experiences of the case study
countries, the following recommendations are suggested as a way of promoting the
uptake of design as a key innovation strategy:
African countries need to look at how to develop effective design strategies and policies
that will facilitate cultures, resources, structures and institutions of design
African governments should consider development of national and regional policies /
strategic plans to promote the use of design. Such policies/strategies can be included
within existing innovation policies/strategies. The design policies should outline design
promotion, design support and design education activities to be carried out to develop
national design capability.
Increase the awareness and adoption of design as a key business competitiveness
driver by introducing awareness and support programmes that stimulate the use of
design and also makes design accessible especially to SMEs who may not have
internal design capabilities.
Improving the collaboration between higher education institutions and business with
higher education institution tackling design and innovation related tasks for industry.
Promoting technological and social innovation in higher education institutions through
funding Research and Development activities that addresses local problems.
Encourage collaboration between related industry and remove obstacles that inhibit
development of industrial clusters
Stimulate innovation through prizes and competitions similar to the Shining Star
competition by the diamond industry in Botswana.
Develop a network of innovation/design innovation hubs providing facilities for SMEs to
access design expertise
Encourage greater understanding of the concept of industrial districts and their
knowledge networks (link between design, economics and material culture) and
promote development of industrial clusters.
Encourage greater collaboration between the public and private sector in the
development of national design policies and promotion

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Design and its contribution to economic development: Lessons for Africa - Mwendapole, C. &
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References
Arquilla, V, Bianchini, M and Maffei, S. 2010. Local, Diffuse, Bottom-up: a new design
policy for Italy. Design Management Review, 21 (4):25-31
Bianchi, P., Miller, L. M., Bertini, S., 1997. The Italian SME experience and possible
lessons for emerging countries. UNIDO
BIS, 2008. Innovation Nation White paper. London: BIS.
BIS, 2010. Design Council review: a review by Martin Temple CBE. London: BIS.
BIS, 2011. Innovation and research strategy for growth. London: BIS.
BIS & NESTA, 2011, Annual Innovation Report 2010. London: BIS
Creative Economy Report: a feasible development option, 2010.
UNCTAD/DITC/TAB/201/3
Botswana Vision 2016 Council, 2010. Vision 2016 Booklet.
Brusatin, M. 2007. Arte come design. Torino: Einaudi
Creative Industries Sector Report (2007). Prepared for HRSC: South Africa
Cox, G. 2005. Cox review of creativity in business: building on the UK's strengths.
London: BIS.
Davies, L. 1988. Design Attitudes: Spain, Italy, USA and UK. Textile Outlook
International, The Economist Intelligence Unit: 49-57
Design Council, 2011. Design for innovation. London: Design Council.
DTI, 2005, Economics paper No. 15: creativity, design and business performance.
London: DTI.
Guy, J. 2000, The Culture of Design. California: Sage Publications
Haller, A. P. 2012. Concepts of economic growth and development: challenges of crisis
and of knowledge. Economy Transdisciplinarity Cognition, Vol. 15(1): 66-71.
Hara, K. 2008. Designing Design. Baden: Lars Muller Publishers
Heskett, J. 1980. Industrial Design. London: Thames and Hudson
IPO, 2011. Digital Opportunity: A Review of Intellectual Property and Growth
IPO and Design Council, 2012. UK design as a global industry. London: IPO.
Kimbell, R. and Perry, D. (2001), Design and Technology in a Knowledge Economy: A
Distinctive Model of Teaching and Learning. Engineering Council. London
Krugman, P. 2006. Productivity isn’t everything, but in the long run it is almost
everything. A country’s ability to improve its standard of living over time depends almost
entirely on its ability to raise output per worker. Paris: OECD, Compendium of
Productivity Indicators.
MAPPP-SETA (2006) MAPPP-SETA Sector Skills Plan Update 2006/07: South Africa
Mbayi, L., (2011) Linkages in Botswana’s Diamond Cutting and Polishing industry:
Making the Most Commodities Programme (MMCP) 2011 Discussion paper
Myint, H., 1980. The Economics of the Developing Countries. Hutchinson
NESTA, 2011. Driving economic growth. London: NESTA
OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook (2010) Report on South Africa: Paris

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Mapfaira,
Raulik-Murphy, G and Cawood, G. 2009. National Design System: a tool for policy
making: University of Birmingham.
Secondi, G. 2008. Economic growth, economic development and human development.
The Development Economics Reader. London: Routledge
SEE Policy Booklet, Issue 2 (May, 2010). “Realising sustainable innovation through
design”.
SEE Policy Booklet, Issue 3 (November 2010). “Evaluating Design”.
Sparke, P. 1986. An Introduction to Design and Culture in the 20th Century. London:
Routledge
The Global Competitiveness Report. 2012–2013. World Economic Forum.Geneva
White Paper on creativity: towards an Italian model of development, 2009. Ministry of
Heritage and Culture: Italy
World Design Survey (2008). See project Design Policy and Promotion Map: Cardiff
Verganti. R. 2009. Design Driven Innovation: changing the rules of competition by
radically innovating what things mean. Boston: Harvard Business Press

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An assessment into the effects of students’ background on academic
performance: the case of the Department of Architecture, Kumasi,
Ghana
C. Koranteng, R. Assasie-Oppong and C. Essel
Department of Architecture, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi,
Ghana
Corresponding Email: rcbpd.ghana @yahoo.com

Abstract
The Architecture Department of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, enrols students with background in General Arts, Visual
Arts, Science, and Technical Drawing. These students are faced with challenges in
design studio during their early years in the course. It has been observed that students,
depending on their background, either excel or would have to put in a lot of effort in
order to perform well in design studios. Architectural design studio grades have been
monitored within a period of four years for years 1 to 4 at the undergraduate level. Mean
studio grades of students’ background are presented per class. The results show the
rank of students’ background in conjunction with their performance. Students with Visual
Arts and Technical backgrounds performed better than the General Science and
General Arts groups. The paper concludes by making recommendations on preliminary
courses for students with interest in reading architecture. Tutors are advised to apply
different learning styles to weaker groups.

Keywords: architecture; design studio; performance; students.

Introduction
In this era of globalization and technological revolution, education is considered as a
first step for every human activity (Battle and Lewis, 2002). Architectural education is a
multi-facetted field, due to the complexity of social and cultural aspects associated with
it (Utaberta, 2012). All theory lessons learnt are supposed to be applied in a major
course component called the design studio. Consequently, a design studio seeks to
create an environment in which students work on individual design projects while tutors
move from student to student, offering formative feedback on the projects and reviewing

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Department of Architecture, Kumasi, Ghana - Koranteng, C., Assasie-Oppong, R. and Essel, C.

the work in progress as illustrated by a set of architectural drawings and models

(Crowther, 2010).

The Architecture Department of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and

Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, enrols students with background in General Arts, Visual
Arts, Science, and Technical Drawing. Most of the students are faced with challenges in
design studio, especially during their early years in the course. It has been observed
that students, depending on their background, either excel or would have to put in a lot
of effort in order to perform well in design studios. The aim of the paper is to analyse the
performance of students, based on their background at design studios. The results
should contribute to an improved method of teaching and the realization of students’
needs (based on their background) at design studios.

Architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, including within its fold, for instance,

mathematics, science, art, technology, social sciences, politics, history, and philosophy
(Encyclopedia4u, 2005). Crowther (2010) argues that architectural education has a long
history, just as the profession itself. Moreover, the profession was based on an
apprenticeship model of education. Further, Demirbas (2001) highlighted that
architectural education is not simply a vocational education by training. The course
teaches students to have a complete understanding of problems in the built
environment and to provide genuine solutions to the analysed problems. The process of
analysing and synthesising design problems takes place in design studios.

Numerous studies have been published on how academic performance is related to

students’ background (Turesky and Gallagher, 2011; Esen, 2010; Furnham et al., 2009;
Botvinick et al., 2004; Klecker, 2003; and, Minnaert and Janssen, 1999). The main
conclusion has been that there are various learning needs to match students’
background.

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In Ghana, students who are interested in Architecture should have passes in three core
courses (English language, Mathematics and Integrated Science) and three elective
courses (Elective Mathematics is however compulsory). The main programmes are
Visual Arts, General Arts, General Science and Technical. The options from the
Technical programme are Technical Drawing and Engineering Science, Building
Construction, Woodwork, and Metal Work. The Visual Arts programme has General
Knowledge in Arts (History and General Concepts of Art), Graphic Design and Picture
Making as options. Moreover, the General Arts programme offers Economics and
Geography as the main choices. The key alternatives in the General Science
programme are Chemistry and Physics.

By and large, in most countries in Europe and North America, the preferred choice by
most architecture schools is students with diverse educational backgrounds, and with a
wide range of skills and knowledge. Furthermore, students ought to have had lessons in
Geometry, Physics and courses in Calculus (algebra and trigonometry).

The quality of students’ performance is a concern for educational institutions. In

architecture, one needs the right background in order to perform well in design studio.
Farooq (2011) puts it this way, “architecture is as much background as it is foreground”.
Utaberta (2012) expresses design studio as the most dominant subject with the highest
credit hours per week and it is meant to provide students with expertise and knowledge
necessary to produce innovative, creative and competent design solutions. In addition,
Bermudez (1999) stated that there is the need to think about the future (futuristic
designs) in architectural education. Generally, creative and explorative designs (in
architecture) do not have to be difficult, but Esen (2010) argues that coming up with a
design solution is very complicated and tends to confuse students. Esen (2010) further
states that the process based teaching (forward and backwards) in design studio can be
a tricky task for students who have not been exposed to the process in their secondary
education. The background of students is as important in being able to analyze and
think critically with respect to studio design (Atanas, 2012; TWE, 2006; and Reffat,

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2006). Tracking students’ performance is a preventive process and could be applied at

early stages in order to identify poor performers and hence apply different learning
styles (Atanas, 2012). Students’ academic background may impact positively or
negatively on the design process and eventually, on performance.

2. Approach
The study being presented has the objective of analysing students’ background in
design studio (core course with 14 credit hours) at the Department of Architecture,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. Until recently,
the Department has been the only institution in Ghana where Architecture could be
studied. The findings should help educators to realize the need to apply diverse
teaching styles in design classes. Students would also get to know the performance of
the various background groups, consequently, an idea of the effort needed for the
course.

In the determination of the performance of the students, the cumulative studio grades
(core course) of years 1 - 4 were used as an indicator. For year 4, the performance of
their first three years was factored into the calculation of their mean studio grades.
Similarly, years three and two followed the same approach. Only the first semester
results of year one could be used (second semester is still in progress). A total of 315
students in the undergraduate programme at the Department formed the core of the
study.

Using descriptive method of analysis such as frequency and relative frequency

distribution plots, mean, mode, and quartile values were calculated. Besides, rankings
based on performance of the various students’ background were generated. Finally,
students’ opinions on the performance of the various backgrounds were sought through
a questionnaire. Two classes (Years 3 and 4) were asked to rank the various groups

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because of their long-term stay in the programme. In the process, 74 out of the 148
students, representing 50% of the students (Years 3 and 4) gave their votes.
The results have been tabulated and graphed using MS Excel application.

3. Results
The results of the analysis of studio grades for the undergraduate programme in
architecture (Years 1 – 4) are presented.

Fig.1: Frequency (F) and Relative Frequency (RF) distribution of students' background (Years 1
(Y1) to 4 (Y4))

Table 1: The mean studio grade and standard deviation (St. Dev) of students (Year 1 (Y1) to Year 4
(Y4))

Visual Arts General Arts General Technical

Science
Mean St. Dev Mean St. Mean St. Dev Mea St.
[%] [%] Dev [%] n [%] Dev
Y1 64.2 4.7 61.0 4.8 60.6 4.0 63.5 6.2
Y2 63.8 3.8 62.4 4.6 62.3 5.1 61.4 5.5

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Y3 66.4 3.0 59.8 3.5 60.5 4.4 60.7 2.7

Y4 62.8 1.6 59.6 2.9 60.1 4.2 61.0 2.9
Mean per
64.3 3.3 60.7 4.0 60.9 4.4 61.7 4.3
background

Fig.2: Plots showing the minimum; 1st quartile (Q1); 3rd quartile ((Q3), median grade is mid of Q1
and Q3), maximum, and mode of mean studio grades of Year 1 students

Fig.3: Plots showing the minimum; 1st quartile (Q1); 3rd quartile ((Q3), median grade is mid of Q1
and Q3), maximum, and mode of mean studio grades of Year 2 students

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Fig.4: Plots showing the minimum; 1st quartile (Q1); 3rd quartile ((Q3), median grade is mid of Q1
and Q3), maximum, and mode of mean studio grades of Year 3 students

Fig.5: Plots showing the minimum; 1st quartile (Q1); 3rd quartile ((Q3), median grade is mid of Q1
and Q3), maximum, and mode of mean studio grades of Year 4 students

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Fig.6: Plots showing the minimum; 1st quartile (Q1); 3rd quartile ((Q3), median grade is mid of Q1
and Q3), maximum, and mode of mean studio grades of students (Years 1-4)

Table 2: Rank of best performing background based on students’ mean studio grades (4 points
allocated to best group and 1 to least group per class) and votes by Years 3 and 4 (Y3 and Y4)
students

Year Year Year Year Total Rank Rank (Y3

Background
1 2 3 4 & Y4)
Visual Arts 4 4 4 4 16 1st 1st
General Arts 2 3 1 1 7 3rd 4th
General
1 2 2 2 7 3rd 3rd
Science
Technical 3 1 3 3 10 2nd 2nd

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4. Discussion
The presented frequency and relative frequency distribution of the students’ background
(see Fig. 1) demonstrates the ratios of students per class. Generally, General Arts and
General Science students outnumber the Visual Arts and Technical group (about 2.5:1).
The exception is year four, where about 43% of the class have General Science as
background. The reason of high student ratio for General Science and General Arts
could be linked to the number of students who take the various courses at the
secondary school level. More students enrol in General Arts and General Science than
the Technical and Visual Arts. Informal discussions with students revealed that some
secondary schools do not even offer Visual Arts or Technical programmes.
Consequently, every academic year at the Department will have more students with
General Arts and General Science as background.

The mean grade of the first year students in Table 1 and Fig. 2 show the Visual Arts and
Technical having a higher mean score (64.2% and 63.5%). The General Arts and
Science have a mean score of 61%. The standard deviation is however higher at the
Technical group (6.2). Furthermore, the quartiles (Q1 to Q3) do not show a wide
dispersion. The differences are within a range of 6%. The Visual Arts group performed
better than all the other groups in Year one. The result could be linked to the general
knowledge in arts (history and general concepts of art), graphic and picture design
acquired at the secondary school level. The skills make it easy for them to graphically
better convey their messages. The importance of some of the acquired skills (sketching)
has been found to help in solving problems and critical thinking (Lehman, 2006 and
Reffat, 2006). The highest score (maximum studio grade) is from the Technical group
(83%, see Fig.2). Architecture is a multi-facetted course and various lessons learnt
ought to be applied in design studios (Utabert, 2012). The Visual Arts group in Year one
seems to be at ease with the programme. Tutors may need to device various learning
needs to match students’ background (Furnham et al., 2009; Botvinick et al., 2004; and
Minnaert and Janssen, 1999).

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In year two, the highest grade dispersion is seen in the General Science group as
compared to the remaining three groups (Fig. 3). The highest mode score is 63.5% for
the General Arts group. The overall highest studio grade is 75.5% from the General
Science group, but this does not positively reflect in the groups’ general performance.
Coming out with design solutions may be difficult (Esen, 2010) for the General Arts and
General Science groups. Visual Arts has the highest mean score and therefore
performed better in the class. General Arts and Science follows with a difference of
0.1% score in-between them (62.4% and 62.3%). The Technical group is about 1%
(61.4%) behind in the class. The difference in grade between the General Arts and
Science groups has been minimal (0.4% in Year one and 0.1% in Year two). This result
is consistent in all classes as seen in Table 1. The strengths of the two Generals groups
is similar. Tutors who offer formative feedback on design projects to students (Crowther,
2010) should spend more time with the General Arts and General Science groups.

The results in Year three follow the same pattern as that of the first years (Visual and
Technical groups better). The quartiles show a close dispersion of studio grades for the
two best groups (see Fig. 4). The mode for Visual Arts (67.5%) is very high as
compared to the rest of the class (55% to 60%). The groups’ good performance could
be related to their ability to better understand design problems and provide a genuine
solution to the design challenges (Demirbas, 2001). Art or sketching is generally known
to help in analysing problems and critical thinking (Lehmann, 2006; TWE, 2006; and
Reffat, 2006). The ability to sketch with ease is to the advantage of the Visual Arts and
Technical groups. The improvement on the mode of teaching and the provision of
answers to students’ needs towards a good class performance could be supported by
the Visual Arts and Technical groups.

Table 1 and Fig. 5 illustrate the good performance of the Visual group in Year four. A
close dispersion of studio grades can be observed for all the groups except General
Science. The Technical and General Science groups bracketed for position two. A
stronger relation to better performance is observed for the Visual Arts and the Technical

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group (see Fig. 6 and Table 2). The rankings of the students in Years 3 and 4 on which
group does better in design studio does not differ from the mean score ranking. Visual
Arts and Technical are the group performing better in studio. General Science and
General Arts have similar strengths and challenges (graphic communication) in all the
years (Years 1 to 4). Perhaps, the apprenticeship model of education and the
application of different learning styles (Atanas, 2012 and Crowther, 2010) should be
enforced to help the weaker groups.

5. Conclusion
The understanding of students’ background in relation to performance at design studios
is important. This pioneer study should form the basis of literature in studying
Architecture students’ performance in Ghana. The study which used studio grades as
performance indicator showed that Visual Arts and the Technical groups encounter less
difficulty in studying Architecture. The groups which need most attention are the
General Science and General Arts groups. Tutors are advised to concentrate on the
weaker groups by helping them to improve on graphic communication (sketching) since
that is a key factor in Architectural education. Aspiring Architecture students from the
weaker groups should develop skills in Art before enrolling in the programme. Moreover,
the Department of Architecture could probe the institution of a preliminary course where
aspiring students may learn geometry and sketching before beginning their programme.
This would help give them a good start in the course. Moreover, the least background
number (Visual Arts and Technical) are the ones performing well. The possibility of
enrolling more students from the best groups should be investigated.

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Context of Research and Practice, (available at
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on Top of Intelligence to Academic Performance in Higher Education, Learning
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_Graz.pdf), Accessed: February 9, 2010.

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An assessment into the effects of students’ background on academic performance: the case of the
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using Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 7(1):
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Developing Participatory Assessment Strategy to Improve the Quality
of Students’ Learning in Graphic Design Education
E. F. Eshun
Department of Communication Design, Faculty of Art
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology
PMB, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana
Email: [email protected]

Abstract
This paper contains results of a exploratory study that tested the viability and
acceptability of participatory assessment model designed to fully involve students in
proper studio-based learning and fair peer-assessments of their studio project work
(SPW) by providing concrete evidence of independent progressive documentation via
design research journal and portfolio of their peers’ contributions to the work-process
and end-product(s). Two compatible components – the Peer Assessment Criteria Model
(PACM) and the Progressive Evaluation Model (PEM) – were developed to enable
students participate in the development of assessment criteria to be used in evaluation,
provision of feedback and to show concrete evidence of their fairness in the entire peer-
assessment process; a robust work process that has an in-built opportunities for
revisions. The model was tried through experimental usage by the researcher and
students of one undergraduate course (Graphic design) at level 200 in the Department
of Communication Design of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology in
Kumasi, Ghana. The trials were conducted in the 2012/2013 academic year. The results
the study generally indicate positive acceptability of the model and a significant
relationship between the students’ acceptance of the assessment tools and the levels of
usefulness, comprehension, ease of use, and fairness they attributed to them. In
discussing the aggregate findings, the paper also recommends ways of using the peer-
assessment in design studio.
Keywords: Peer assessment, cooperative learning, student-led coursework, feedback.

1. Introduction
The challenge that has always faced design educators is how best to equip students to
function optimally in their school and future professional environments. In today’s ‘new
era’ with environmental complications perhaps the only constant in any professional
equation, the broad range of subjects students need to master necessitates more than
ever the teaching of assessment strategies (critiques) which can be used to make
sense of them.

An examination of recent design education literature supports this view; Quinlan et al

(2007) of Faculty of the Built Environment (FBE), University of New South Wales, for

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 Developing Participatory Assessment Strategy to Improve the Quality of Students’ Learning in Graphic Design
Education - E. F. Eshun
example, stresses the need for design schools to focus on teaching assessment for
learning skills, to enable both effective evaluation of creative design products and to
facilitate creative problem solving. Davies & Reid (2000) also argue for a paradigm shift
in design education, commenting that the goal of tertiary education should be to change
students’ attitudes toward learning where assessment regime “rewards and promotes
students’ engagement with the higher order cognitive challenges.” Participative
assessment skills are central to such goal (Boud & Associates, 2010). Further,
participative assessment skills comprise important elements of transferable ‘design
management competencies’ which are thought to be essential to effective profession
design practice.

The present study, the investigation of the effectiveness of peer assessment in studio-
based learning environment and the subjects’ attitudes towards the technique of giving
peer feedback, was carried out in order to gain insight for improving the administration
and teaching Graphic Design skill. The instruction technique in the present was
conducted using Graphic Design course provided for second year undergraduate
students in a tertiary institution in Ghana. The participants, enrolled in the
Communication Design Programme, were considered having relatively high Graphic
Design ability. They were, thus, allowed to have their own choice of learning preference
in order to reach the full potential in Graphic Design ability. Peer assessment was the
alternative that was chosen for such purpose.

2. Theoretical Framework
Assessment is considered key to student’s learning and improved education (Boud &
Falchikov, 2005; Black & William, 1998; Kearney & Perkins, 2011; Bain, 2010; Boud &
Associates, 2010). Peer assessment, one of the sustainable assessment methods has
been explored, experimented and reported across several disciplines, at different levels
and with varying assignments (Tiew, 2010; Brew, 2011; Gielen et al., 2011). Hamer
(2005) and Leighton (2004) conclude that there are no longer any barriers to prevent
the routine use of peer assessment and reckon that gradually peer assessment in
higher education is becoming a mainstream activity.

Peer assessment is key in formative assessment as well as summative assessment

(Bostock, 2000; Prins et al., 2005; Li et al., 2008; Cestone et al., 2008; Wilson 2002;
Wood, 2009; Li et al., 2010). Ballantyne et al (2002) and Bostock (2000) posit that peer
assessment encourages students to become critical, independent learners as they
become more familiar with the application of assessment criteria and develop a clearer
concept of the topic being reviewed. It is believed that peer assessment can promote
student accountability, student responsibility towards their peers’ learning (Cestone et
al., 2008); encourages excellence, skills and deepens learning (Li et al., 2008;

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Ballantyne, Hughes, and Mylonas, 2002); provides increased positive feedback
(Peatling, 2000; Kwok, 2008; Diefes-Dux, & Verleger, 2009); supports, advisory and
corrective (Bay, 2011) with positive effects on student satisfaction (Wong & Ng, 2005;
Khabiri et al., 2011) and aids learning effectiveness (Prins et al., 2005; Khabiri et al.,
2011) in different disciplines in higher education.

The validity and reliability of peer assessment in higher education has been well
explored (Bostock, 2000; Prins et al., 2005; Li et al., 2008; Cestone et al., 2008; Tiew,
2010). Peers explicitly or implicitly hold themselves mutually responsible for the
successful implementation of the assessment process (Kwok, 2008). Li et al (2008) note
that peer assessment provided a scaffolding guide that helped the students gradually
shift their roles from assesees to assessors and students find it easier to make sense of
assessment criteria if they examine the work of other students alongside their own.
Brew (2011) acknowledges the significant role play by participative assessment on
pedagogy in three key areas; “firstly, by encouraging re-evaluation of the relationship
between learning and assessment in the context of a growing demand for lifelong
learners and reflective practitioners; secondly by emphasizing the dual role of
assessment with respect to formative and summative needs and thirdly by moving
assessments away from student reproduction of discipline knowledge and displays of
memory rather than learning, to demonstrations of problem-solving, communication and
presentation skills.

Brown (2004-05) reckons that “if assessment is to be integral to learning, feedback must
be at the heart of the process.” Traditionally, written teacher feedback has dominated
the discussions on feedback. Extensive studies have been done on assessment and
feedback to date as reported by Williams & Kane (2009). Ertmer et al. (2007) and
Pokorny & Pickford (2010) in their reviewed articles, note the importance of feedback
and the challenges associated with it use in the learning process and doubt its full
usefulness especially written feedback to the student. Likewise Spiller (2009)
commented on the divergent views expressed by both students and teachers on
feedback. Both researchers raised the issue of timing and how assessment is
conducted. Despite the numerous work done on feedback very little has been done on
student perceptions of feedback Pokorny & Pickford (2010). Blair (2011) also notes that
the use and importance of feedback in art and design education dates back to many
centuries; its use is well established and integrated into the studio pedagogy. She
however, acknowledges the issues raised in the National Student Survey (NSS), a
questionnaire survey in UK on final year degree students which highlighted on feedback
and assessment in Art and Design. Among the concerns raised in Blair’s findings are
students’ preparation, quality of feedback, time and timing of feedback.

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Brown (2004) however cautions about its time-consuming nature and suggested no-
quick exist. The findings from Rae and Cochrane’s (2008) study indicate that students
make best use of the feedback receive when they are adequately prepared, that is,
assessment item is clearly presented, assessment criteria is communicated before
commencement of assessment and instruction on how to use it to feed forward. Keppell
et al (2006) also suggest that the importance of peer learning and peer assessment are
about students providing feedback to each other for the benefit of the collective effort.
Although Pokorny & Pickford’s study was inclusive and dealt with teacher feedback, it
shed some light on the potential of feedback in the learning process. Yang (2006),
accepting the importance of written feedback, view the overemphasizing on the
negative point as detrimental to student’s learning and argue for more positive teacher
attitude to providing feedback.

The research questions addressed in this study may be summarized as:

a. Do assessment criteria improve skills in analysis and evaluation?
b. Does peer assessment improve feedback on studio projects?
c. Does practice at peer assessment improve learning?

3. Methodology

The Present Study

The study was carried out at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology,
Department of Communication Design between October and December 2012 with 130
undergraduate students enrolled in a Graphic Design (DAD 252) course as participants.
The Graphic Design course was an edge-cutting course for students registered for
Bachelor of Art in Communication design. This course was unique in that it was taken
by students with interest in two design disciplines and had a large student population.
This Graphic Design course aimed to provide students with a strong foundation in visual
communication approaches to the design and implementation of broad applications and
to provide a practical experience and knowledge in developing visual literacy
applications in real world scenarios. The Graphic Design course was traditionally taught
as studio-based course by a seasoned instructor. The peer assignment review process
was embedded within the course and marks earned on the assignment formed part of
the final course evaluation. As a result, student participation in the peer assignment
review process was mandatory. This study focused on the peer assignment critique
process that was introduced in the student’s first assignment.

Building on the ‘assessment for learning’ and participatory assessment debates, the
author was keen to introduce participatory assessment in a way which will engaged
students fully in studio tasks and impacted on the potential ‘feedback’ in studio critiques
for their future professional development too. Studies have strongly suggested that
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students engaging with peer assessment can be key way of enhancing student learning
(Black & Wiliam, 1998; Topping et al, 2000; Cassidy, 2006). When reflecting on the
assessment scheme for the module, the author included a formative peer assessment
as a key component and assessed its impact on student learning through an action
research project.

This study investigated two aspects of teaching and learning in a new studio
environment; the student’s assessment experiences and the learning reflections. It was
decided to use a comments and a survey to gauge the students' reactions to the peer
assessment, and the learning environment. The questionnaires were tailored so that
students could recommend adjustments to maximize the benefit of the studio
assessment to all students’ learning. The questionnaires also contained questions to
establish the perceived usefulness of the participatory assessment in the studio. At the
end of the questionnaire provision was made for students to add additional comments
about what they liked and disliked about the participative assessment. The students
were surveyed during week 5 of semester 1. At this stage, students would have had
adequate hands-on exercises in conceptualization in graphic design; students had been
exposed to the studio teaching methodology; introduction and training in peer
assessment. Students had completed or were near completion of their studio portfolio
work.

Although critique and feedback are part of studio pedagogy, the students were anxious
about other students assessing their work and feeling ‘over-exposed’. They were in
agreement of named assessor over anonymous assessors. Again, students needed to
be prepared to undertake the responsibilities of giving compulsory feedback (both oral
and written) to each other. A peer assessment workshop was held to explain the
processes and standards to the students and to answer any question or make changes
in the light of their suggestions. Students were provided with copies of professional
designs, selected students works and samples of written feedback were exemplars in
the training, students were also given copies of the draft assessment rubric for review
and revision before use in the studio. Suggested key areas for feedback were discussed
as a group and the purposes of the exercise were highlighted. Viewing each other’s
work for ideas about compositional structure, how to give feedback, use graphic design
terminology, among others were suggested as a key opportunities for learning
alongside receiving feedback from other students on their work. Discussions also took
place about how using the assessment rubric was a potential way of students’
familiarizing themselves with the assessment criteria and demystifying the assessment
process.

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Module: Assessment Strategy

Pooling Assessee and Assessors

Each student performed a dual role, at one point in the assessment process a student
became an assessor to another student and later assessee to a different assessor refer
to Fig. 1. Each student was required to have two assessors. At any point in the
assessment process an assessor was mandatory required to provide both written and
verbal feedback on the work-in-progress submitted by the assessee for critique.
Assessors were manually pooled and care was taken to avoid “buddies” teaming up; at
the end of each project module assessees had the option to request to maintain or
change assessors.

Fig. 1: Diagram showing pooling of assessee and assessors.

Assessment
It is expected that students will undertake the core studio work as individuals and in
collaborative groups at some stages. Much of the work reflects on realistic work
problems and real situations. A portfolio will be developed in each semester's studio.
This will be assessed on several occasions, with an initial peer evaluation to enable
revision and re-evaluation of the initial concepts along with student’s individual process
book; teacher assessment of final portfolio and a self assessment component.

Creating the Studio Assessment Procedure

To apply the Progressive Evaluation Model (PEM), I developed a framework with the
following stages:

Students Preparation
Students were prepared for the innovative assessment activity. The preparation
involved presenting, discussing and creating with students the criteria for assessing the

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artifacts - the Peer Assessment Criteria Model (PACM) (Appendix A & B). Students
were provided with example artifacts created by professionals and students from
previous studios. The students were taken through four-hour presentation on
assessment, training in how to use assessment criteria and rubric in peer assessment
and grading. In addition, students were taught how appropriate use design terms to
provide constructive feedback; studio practices were discussed and norms were created
for the assessment process.

Production of Artifact
The nature of artifacts students created (graphic design products) varied from simple
assignments that could be prepared in one week to large projects that were created
over weeks. When several cycles of assessments were performed (Fig. 2), the
instructor allowed students to revised their artifacts based on the recorded feedback
and assessments: (a) prior to the assessment of their artifact based on reviewing their
peers’ work, and (b) following the assessments of their artifacts based on feedback and
assessment received from peers.

Presentation of Artifact (Pin-up)

Students submitted and presented their comprehensive concepts/design solutions in
studio pin-ups; the pin-ups gave the students the opportunity to discuss submissions in
a friendly manner. The studio critiques are designed to help the students learn from
each other and resolve their design solutions. Studio interactions and discussions are
encouraged.

Studio-based assessment
The students used the PEM tool to provide feedback and assessments for their peers.
The assessment included a score and justifications based on the earlier defined criteria
and developed assessment rubric (Appendix A & B). Assessments were combined and
published; at the end of each stage students could see the summary of the
assessments: the summary of the assessments: the descriptive statistical analysis of
the grades and the feedback were discussed openly. Stages 3 – 4 are repeated in
several cycles according to the number of artifacts and their forms of presentation.
Providing students an opportunity to assess their peers and view the feedback of the
assessments in several cycles is an important part of the PEM.

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Fig. 2: The Progressive Evaluation Model (PEM)

Peer Assessment
The final artifact submissions were subjected to another cycle of assessment involving
the peer assessor, self and the instructor. The instructor also based his assessment on
the defined criteria used for the projects.
(i) “Assessing-the-assessors” was based on the following:
(a) Degree of participation in the peer assessment activity (the extent to which students
fulfilled the requirement to provide scores and justifications to peers).
(b) Quality of feedbacks (the extent to which justifications were aligned with criteria and
depth of ideas in claims).

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(c) Respecting classroom pre-defined norms (use of appropriate language, providing
constructive critique, etc.).

After all individual’s assessments were computed, instructor checked for variations
between peers and instructor scores. The sampled students’ scores served as excellent
indicators for the students’ understanding of the criteria and contents. Additionally, they
served as a point of reference for the instructor to compare with his own assessment;
using the justifications, helped the instructor validate his own scores.

(6) The final/formal grade

The final/formal grade for the project included, in addition to peer assessments of other
studio activities, a grade for the artifact (provided by instructor) and a grade for each
student as assessor.

Data Collection
The research was a small scale qualitative study which followed a naturalistic paradigm
to capture the students’ sentiments, learning experiences and the impacts the peer
feedback activities might contribute towards their learning. Focus group rather than
structured individual interviews or surveys were chosen in order to allow the students’
agenda to emerge and predominate through the interactions of the group. 30 minutes
sessions were facilitated with 20 students. The sample was purposefully chosen
(Creswell 2005) because they were taught by the author as teacher researcher in the
studio-based course. Participation in the focus group interviews was voluntary. All the
participants had a reasonable command over both written and spoken English and had
foundation knowledge in graphic design. The discussion was recorded and transcribed;
in addition written comments were received from the entire class. Thematic analysis
was applied to the data. Ten significant categories of comments were identified from the
data independently by the researcher and the data coded within these categories.
These categories were then reviewed to see how they grouped into clusters from which
emerged five key themes: attitudes towards the peer assessment practice’, ‘graphic
design ability’, ‘co-operative learning’, ‘providing constructive feedback’ and ‘challenges
to peer feedback’.

4. Findings and Discussion

Instructor’s Observation
Data has been collected from several sources, and in a number of formats. Taking a
discursive approach to the interview results, and taking into consideration that the studio
environment was convenient for the interview to be conducted, I have found a number
of underlying themes.

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The opportunity to make conversation with peers in a flexible and collaborative way, and
make friends in the degree were also high on the list of responses. The survey showed
that this informal interaction was important and gave them opportunity to develop their
communication and analytical skills. Contrary to the popular opinion of using more than
one assessor, some students however felt that having a number of peers assessors
could be detrimental to idea development that is “many cooks spoil the broth’’. In
addition, the students felt that they often didn't know who to trust for correct opinion. The
most overwhelming negative theme was related to the students' perception of bias and
incompetence of peers on the subject. Initially, many of the students found it difficult to
draw links between the design projects, but between the brainstorming activities and the
creative process as well.

Two of the factors that are becoming more and more evident in the success of the
assessment programme are;
Students’ commitment to the assessment process, giving it the time and effort equal to
other assessees.
Providing the students with feedback which is required, and the threads linking the
content together. This needs to be timely.

Students’ Feedback
Theme 1: Attitudes towards the peer assessment practice
Subjects had highly positive attitudes towards the implementation of peer assessment in
the studio and their creative product being assessed by peers for graphic design ability
development. In particular, they stated that the assessing peer benefited the in several
aspects. In they could improve their general design ability. They could also learn to
critique their own design. In addition the assessment technique helped increase their
enthusiasm in studio work. Ellmers, Foley & Bennett, (2008) maintained that learners’
attitudes have direct effect on learners’ creative process and achievement. Learners’
positive attitudes were an important learning catalyst because they helped open
learners different perspectives towards the creative process. The learners,
consequently, feel loosen up with the learning task they are encountering and gave the
researchers insight into this theme by sharing their thoughts as illustrated below.
“I am in favour of the peer assessment, my reason being that it has helped me to be
bold to defend my works and also helped me learn how to use my Graphic Design
terminologies. I have realized that whenever I use the terminology to defend my work,
my peer assessor sees me to be serious and know what I am about. Therefore does not
give me any marks that I don’t deserve.”

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“I accept the peer assessment with the reason being that although I am able to
communicate my ideas effectively with my peers I am seriously challenged to use
professional language.”

“Peer assessment really made me improve upon my performance. My assessor

corrected me all the time when I was wrong and even learnt from how my friends
assessed and were assessed.”

Theme 2: Graphic Design ability

Through cooperative working in groups of 3 students, the participants’ design ability
significantly improved. The improvement included the more accuracy in using technical
elements, completeness of creative process and better idea organization. This can be
attributed to the fact that in the process of peer assessment, learners could learn from
the peer’s error and make use of them in composing their own work. They also
enhanced and remember technical rules leading to their design ability improvement
thinking better with fewer errors. Eventually the number of error decreased to the
minimal or none existence. Sober (2009) argued that learners had the opportunity to
learn from each other and share their skills and strengths; this is especially true when
observing the learning methods and processes that other students utilize (Moore &
Teather, 2013). Similarly, Kahiigi et al. (2012) suggested that when learners review
students’ work they are able to evaluate other student’s assignments and reflect on their
own, thus facilitating a better understanding of the course concepts. The students saw
the exercise as being important, as illustrated below.

“Peer assessment helps us to know our mistakes from our friends and also it helps us to
open up to criticism”

“Yes, I think peer assessment should be maintained because it encourages individual

students to work hard and effectively meet the requirements of the course. Peer
assessment encourages students to bring out greater parts of their effort into executing
the work. This brings out the best in the student to produce excellent works.”

“I think the peer assessment was interesting and supportive …. My assessors tend to
show me where I went wrong by providing me with good ideas and how I should have
gone with that concept I chose. The self-assessment helped me to know how well am
performing in class.”
Theme 3: Co-operative learning
It was found that through the peer assessment process the participants closely
cooperated in every step in carrying out the task given. Those considered more
proficient were helpful to those poorer classmates. Thus, peer assessment activities in
the present study can be assumed to develop the learner’s social and cognitive ability.

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Vygotsky (1978) suggested importance of teacher-student and student-peer interaction
in the process of learning in the educational environment; learning would occur in the
situation where learners have good relationship and each participant helps each other
stakeholder. Furthermore, Tudge (2000) and Ertmer et al (2007) suggested that
cooperative learning encourages learners to cover more grounds. It also helps the good
and weak learners to learn and develop themselves together in additional to learning
how to be share and co-operate to achieve individual goals as well as collective goal.

It was found in this study that, through the process of giving feedback to peer, the
participants became consistently more confident in their verbal communication ability.
Consequently, they became active learners. The finding supported the finding in
Butcher & Cash (2007) and Ertmer et al (2007) studies. They found that through sharing
ideas in carrying out learning activities, the learners could generate more ideas, learn
new words, understand the course they were learning, and gain the professional skills.
It was also found in the present study that the learners discover the need to assess the
work of others and through negotiation, persuasion and tact to achieve the best team
solutions (Sober, 2009). Students commented on their experience:

“I think this form of assessment is the best because it is very interactive and allows you
to be criticized by your own peers but in the end they come with a better way by which
you can come out with the work.”

“I believe that the arrangement and pairing was fair enough and the various criteria
used for assessment was good and very adequate. It helped student designers to know
their weakness and how to develop ideas in the right order to prepare us for future
professional work.”

“The peer assessment enables us - the students to feel free without any tension on us
to talk about our works and how we really went through the developing process to the
end. Also, it gives way to open criticism and a chance to defend yourself. It’s really a
perfect way of handling our assessment.”

Theme 4: Providing Constructive Feedback

This theme is essentially about the process of providing the students with peer
feedback.

From the interviews it can be seen that most students fell in the middle range, feeling
adequately prepared for this aspect of peer assessment. The percentage feeling poorly
prepared in response to all questions about feedback was lower than what I expected,
however, and reflects again some of the lack of coordination between what is seen,
expected and what is appropriate. I know from discussions with participants at various

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times that not all students would agree with their students’ perceptions of the state of
their preparedness for providing feedback; but the data show, as we might hope, that
most students feel they have come this far in the university with at least some basic
ideas of what is involved in providing feedback, and that in the main studio they find the
actual oral feedback less problematic than some aspects of their written feedback
discussed earlier which feed into the subsequent work. For instance, Dannels et al.
(2011) report that generally there was consensus among the interviewees that the use
of the constructive feedback did help students to develop a better understanding of the
subject matter when compared to unhelpful feedback.

Students’ who have experienced the alternate learning and assessment approaches in
my studio have given their thoughts, which are reproduced below:

“I think the class should go on with the peer assessment method. This is mainly
because there are several other things we learn from our peers which might not be
learnt from the teacher.”

“I think peer assessment is good and should be continued, because it creates an

avenue for us to know our strength and short falls especially giving verbal comments.”
“I support the use of peer assessment the reason being that it helps me to know how
my fellow mates think of a project. It is said “2 heads are better than 1”, it helps me to
gain ideas from my mates so as to better my works and also develop upon my creative
thinking.”

Theme 5: Challenges to Peer Assessment

This theme is concerned with the students’ ability to be fair and accommodating during
the feedback. Besides the findings described earlier, it was found that the subjects had
different opinions on the competence and fairness of the peer feedback providers who
assessed their writing. Minority of the subjects, general considered as weak designers,
wished their creative output had been assessed by more proficient learners. They
thought that the proficient peer had more integrity and would provide them with correct
and more appropriate graphic design skills input than their own.
Initially, the students were apprehensive about the assessment process, more
especially the creative projects were to be scored by the peers. Most of the reservations
stemmed from perceived cronyism, unfairness and subjectivity among the students
(Clerke, 2007). On the other hand, other participants, considered friendship to play an
important role in making them real-performers, since the cordiality could be used in
enhancing the ‘feed-forward’ process. Some of the anxious learners gave certain
interesting and productive perspectives. They believed that those weaker learners
would abandon studio sessions and see the instructor after studio with an excuse. At

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 Developing Participatory Assessment Strategy to Improve the Quality of Students’ Learning in Graphic Design
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the same time the weaker learners would have chances to design better work through
the peer assessment task.

However, while showing their satisfaction for the assessment process, the participants
showed certain principles. They stated they would prefer their work being assessed by
the instructor. The response reflected the fact that Ghanaian learners appreciated and
had confidence in their instructor and that were familiar with the traditional assessment
practice which were carried out largely by the class instructor. They thought that the
instructor was the person who had the knowledge and could give them the right
direction for their self improvement. The obtained results were in line with the findings of
studies reported by Eshun & Adu-Agyem (2010). They also believed that the instructors’
critiqued correction would help produce better graphic design. Most students expressed
some apprehension, with responses like:

“I reject peer assessment because people have their differences. We all have those we
like and those we do not like because we are human beings. If I don’t like someone and
I am assessing him/her or I have a ‘beef’ with the person, do you expect me to be fair in
assessing the student?”

“Some people get assessed unfairly, sometimes assessors assess works based on the
weakness of the work instead of its strength and it brings about resentment and anger
when there is an issue of unfair assessment.”

“Due to our familiarity and friendship with each other the assessor or assessee, most of
the people in the class are compelled to give higher marks. Some assessors might not
be good and as such will blindly give bad works high marks or ignorantly give good
works low marks. Quarrels are likely to spark up leading to people being at logger-
heads. This is when a friend gives low marks to his other friend.”

“I think it will bring rivalry and enmity.”

“I think my assessor was strict and unfair as well but all in all it was somehow fun
because my assessor is a class mate and a friend.”

“Teacher assessment is preferable because the teacher has the expertise to say
whether or not a work is good or not.”

However, most student comments indicated some appreciation of the value of the
process:

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 Developing Participatory Assessment Strategy to Improve the Quality of Students’ Learning in Graphic Design
Education - E. F. Eshun
“Peer assessment is interactive; new ideas are learnt from fellow peers; assessors are
straight forward and direct in terms of awarding marks; mistakes are well recognized
and distribution of marks is fair to both the assessor and the assessee.”

Practical management
This is an area which can probably do with some rationalization of the process. The
necessity for feedback involved extra organization in handing out, requesting and
collecting of the evaluation sheets during and after each assessment session; for these
reasons assessment booklet is highly recommended
The early and regular demonstrations appear to have catered for those who faced
assessment challenges, rather than training scheduled midway in the semester. Most
students have felt confident enough after completing those exercises to continue on
their own assessment thereafter. A check and review have been kept on the progress of
each student, and periodic portfolio assessment has been laborious. After successful
completion of several trials, the problem of managing large-class size studio-based has
ease a bit through prudent management of the process. It has been possible to report
on the number of students failing to complete all the scheduled works, hence being in
the position to adequately compare progress of the introduction of participative
assessment fairly.

5. Conclusion
Although there is still more to be done in terms of exploring the effectiveness of PEM as
a framework for improving students’ learning, especially within studio context other than
those of the theory-based curriculum, data analysis from this study suggests that the
principles of PEM is relevant and applicable in the design studio context. My
experiences thus far with the participatory assessment have been very encouraging.
Students’ responses are particularly satisfying. They have been quite enthusiastic about
the assessment strategy as measured by responses at the end of semester surveys
and interviews. Nearly twice as many students interviewed agreed that the studio
participatory assessment was useful to their learning as compared to the traditional
teacher-managed assessment. The interactive and feedback components deepen their
appreciation of their own capabilities in the learning process.

Reflections and the future of studio-based assessment

Using a studio-based participatory assessment approach to the teaching of graphic
design in higher education is in its developmental stages. The department is strongly
committed to the exploration and has committed resources to the project to date. Over
the following twelve months the studio faculty team will be actively pursuing students’
feedback to eliminate some of the challenges. Even though the assessment approach
and its regularized affiliated training were fully not in place at the time of writing this
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 Developing Participatory Assessment Strategy to Improve the Quality of Students’ Learning in Graphic Design
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paper, I feel that some of the issues have been addressed, and early intervention is
making the concept achievable.

Implications
Moving forward, many of the issues raised by the students are more specifically related
to the disconnectivity of the content and the lack of transparency in traditional
assessment. The following recommendations are suggested for smooth and effective
implementation of participative assessment in design education.
Students should have access to good and adequate exemplars of graphic design
projects.
To ensure sustainability of the innovative assessment, transparent, robust and
permanent pre-training procedure would be required at the first year of the
undergraduate programme.
To ensure good professional development, the effect of potential bias in students’
assessment and feedback should be dealt with to minimized the negative impact on
peers.
Care, attention and resources must be committed to the developmental research.
Over the next semester many of these problems will be addressed, some may be
solved, and the learning outcomes and philosophy of the concept of studio-based
assessment in graphic design, will be re-evaluated.

Acknowledgement
I gratefully acknowledge the participation of all students from Department of
Communication Design, KNUST, Ghana, who were involved in this research study.
Special thanks go to Dr. Patrick Osei-Poku, a senior lecturer for his continuous support
and encouragement throughout this study.

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 Cognitive arousal as inspiration for design thinking: sustaining eco-
awareness through found objects.

P. George
Department of Surface Design, Faculty of Informatics & Design
Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa
[email protected]

M. K. M’Rithaa
Department of Industrial Design, Faculty of Informatics & Design
Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa
[email protected]

Abstract
This paper is based on a study that aims at exploring the process of design thinking in
the transformation of a found object of decay into an artwork, with a narrative of
sustainability and life. The reason is to create awareness of the role and function of
decayed objects by reusing these to give them new life. It draws on a qualitative design
paradigm that includes embodied experience and phenomenological research. It also
employs qualitative methodologies of reflective journaling and lived experience. The
paper investigates the initial attraction to found objects, in addition to the decision-
making process involved in how they are used in their ‘regeneration’. The process of
identification and appropriation of the discarded found object is explored through
reflection on practicable psychological mechanisms such as motivation, cognitive
arousal, and emotion. A sub-text of this paper is the dilemma encountered in attempting
to establish clear delineations between art and design in both pedagogic and
professional practice domains. Three issues are interrogated: the creation of awareness
by using discarded banal found objects and giving these objects new life through design
thinking; secondly, the creation of awareness around the critical concerns of
sustainability and social responsibility; and, lastly, engaging curricula development in
robust dialogue that advances the sustainability agenda in a multi-/cross-/trans-
disciplinary context in the Faculty of Informatics and Design at the Cape Peninsula
University of Technology in Cape Town, South Africa.
Key words: cognitive arousal, decay, design education, design thinking, documenting,
found object, lived experience, phenomenology, sustainability.

1. Preamble
Lived experience introduces a qualitative research methodology in education and
related fields that is distinct from traditional approaches derived from behavioral or

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Cognitive arousal as inspiration for design thinking: sustaining eco-awareness through found objects. – George,
P. & M’Rithaa, M. K.

natural sciences. This approach is rooted in the “everyday lived experience” of human
beings in educational situations. Rather than relying on theoretical generalisations and
theories, the reference offers an alternative method that investigates and explores the
unique nature of each human situation.

The lived experience approach will investigate and explore the first author’s unique
situation when choosing a discarded found object and how elaborates on how she
interacts with and makes sense of these found objects.

2. Literature discussions
The earliest intaglio prints can be
traced back to the work of 15th Century
European metal craftsmen (as seen in
Figure 1). Goldsmiths and armorers
practiced engraving on metal long
before the first engravings were
printed on paper. The highly refined
art of engraving was done on precious
metal using specialised sharp tools
(Ross, Romano & Ross, 1990:65).

Many Masters, including Albrecht

Durer, Francisco Goya and Pablo
Picasso used this. The technique
evolved over the centuries into an ever
more sophisticated process.

The term intaglio (from the Italian

intagliare meaning to “carve or to cut
into”) covers a multitude of processes
using metal plates for traditional
techniques, such as engraving,
etching, dry-point, aquatint, soft ground,
lift ground and mezzotint (Ross et al., Fig 1: Master LCz (Lorenz Katzheimer)
1990). There are two broad categories of The Temptation of Christ, c. 1492
intaglio processes namely nonacid and
acid techniques (Ross et al., 1990:75).

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Cognitive arousal as inspiration for design thinking: sustaining eco-awareness through found objects. – George,
P. & M’Rithaa, M. K.

Diane Victor, the 20th century artist has experimented with unusual materials and
continues making works with more conventional materials that push the boundaries of

Figure 3: Diane Victor (1995); Practice Box for Martyrs

Figure 2: Diane Victor (2004) Music to Engraved cleavers, velvet – lined presentation
Raise the Dead. Drypoint (Rankin & von case and etching (Rankin & von Veh, 2008:32)
Veh, 2008:32)
her printmaking in other ways as seen in
Figures 2 and 3 (Rankin & von Veh, 2008:32).

Figure 4 shows the first author’s experimentation with unusual materials by engraving or
etching on glass. The glass replaces the etching plate that one can either choose to ink
or to leave un-inked. From previous experience, it becomes apparent that the bulk of
the artworks are engraved on glass.

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Cognitive arousal as inspiration for design thinking: sustaining eco-awareness through found objects. – George,
P. & M’Rithaa, M. K.

Figure 4: Hanging gardens Exhibition

‘Hanging Tessellation’ (source: Penny George, 2012)

2.1. Art Object as Artistic Tools

The art object is a work of art that may or may not fit into the category of artifacts. It is
distinguished by the degree of creativity and aesthetic value it has over a pure utilitarian
object, usually one-of-a-kind designed and handmade by the artist. Throughout history
distinctive designs or artifacts have become art objects (Theisson, 2012). Whereas an
artifact has a definite place in history, it tells a story about its use and is not necessarily
handmade or one-of-a-kind.

Duchamp is believed to have made the first readymade artwork called the Bicycle
Wheel in 1913 (Rosenthal, 2004:5). The object became a work of art because the artist
made a deliberate decision to designate it thus. Other examples include African art and
sculptures that have always been perceived or seen in natural history and ethnographic
museums as artifacts. This continued until the breakthrough moment (considered to be
in 1935), when the Museum of Modern Art mounted a survey of work from West Central
Africa entitled “African Negro Art” Kino (2012). Kino (ibid) quotes Biro, curator of the
Armory Show in describing this as “the moment when African sculptures became seen
as works of art in the United States”. Previous exhibitions of the period confirm that
African art influenced a number of key Modernist artists (Kino, 2012).

Modern designers and artists are increasingly adopting Duchamp’s attitude to the
creative process. Boontje (cited in Margetts, 2006:132) marvels at the resourcefulness
of the artists in stating that, they use “clever ideas done from nothing” to create
interesting artworks. French artist Arman did similar artworks with his welded refuse
“accumulations” in the 1960s. Additionally, young artists continue to use the process of
assemblage, recycling stuff no one else wants into objects of desire but also remake

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P. & M’Rithaa, M. K.

older art with 21st Century economy – something dealers and curators call “referencing”
(Yablousky, 2010).

Boontje (cited in Margetts, 2006:124) refers to his found objects as Rough-and-Ready,

or ‘the idea of beauty in everything’. Similar to Boontje, Hesh also chooses old material:
cheap throwaways that have been consigned to society's junk heap, but uses
throwaways which people also remember fondly from their childhood (Maclough, 1997).
Many of Bullin’s creations have been guided by chance inspiration (McNulty, 2008:13).
He does not necessarily start out with a specific design in mind. He usually finds an item
that sparks his imagination and then builds on this inspiration. The first author follows a
similar process in which chance encounters with discarded objects inspire her.

2.2. Found Objects as Catalysts for Creativity

Sarneel's, a Dutch jewelry artist, working process is as associative as her thoughts. Den
Besten (2010) quotes her as saying “I never make sketches, I only take down notes: a
word, a little scrawl. Most of the creative process happens at the workbench. Things
blurb up in my head, like found objects in my mind”. Similar to Sarneel (ibid), the first
author starts with found objects and creates artworks and sometimes the work of art can
already be a complete image in her head once she has found the object.

On the other hand, Buthelezi does not use randomly collected rubbish, but specifically
found materials (Seipel, 2009:13). He uses second-hand materials as well as recycling
discarded everyday materials. One may well consider him part of the modern recycling
process as he transforms rubbish into art. Seipel (ibid) points out that he reached a
crucial stage in his development as a artist when he conceiving of the experimental idea
of melting plastic foils together by means of a customary heat gun. This creative
process cannot be compared to ‘objet trouve’, the ‘assemblages’ or the ‘ready-made’.
The wrapping is not just combined but melted together in a process the result of which
resembles painting.

Bourlanges (cited in Malarcher, 2012:22) is another artist who experiments with

aesthetic effects of chemical changes. Her Decay project explores how traces of time
and use can be embedded in textiles. Wearing a carbon fiber suit over a white blouse,
Bourlanges captures gestures of the body – bending, stretching, scratching, and
rubbing – and records them as imprints on the blouse. She then translates them into a
lace-like pattern of lines that ebbs and flows across a fabric (Malarcher, 2012:22).

Fine artist Marcus Kenney from Isle of Hope collects objects that cover up all his space
in his home. Paskevich (2013) quotes Kenney as saying “I work intuitively. Very rarely

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do I start out with a specific idea in mind. I let things evolve and I never try to stay in one
place too long.” He further adds that “I’ll find something without really thinking about
how I’m going to use it … then one day it hits me” (Paskevich, 2013). This is a
phenomenon that many artists can relate to. To this end, the Ohio-born artist, Carol
Williams still finds uses for the remnants, boards that been washed up by the sea that
she prefers to call “assembly” instead of the French-accented assemblage. She prefers
to keep things simple without tampering with the natural elements of reclaimed items. “I
just see things that are old and weathered as beautiful, and I used to have to find
everything by myself,” she says (Paskevich, 2013).

Karin Olah became an emerging Charleston artist as she refined a process she calls
“fabric-collage-paintings,” often employing “retired” fabrics to highlight her paintings
(Paskevich, 2013). These processes aid the artist in recalling a childhood devotion to
quilting and everything else fabric in a distinctly phenomenological manner.

Garner uses found objects to make compelling and provocative statements about a
grab bag of social and political issues: production and consumption, education,
unemployment, and postcolonialism enlivening a discourse. Unlike Duchamp’s
perennially stimulating Fountain, Garner’s found objects are placed in an autonomous
junkyard of a performance. Future Tense, a configuration of ready-mades whose
presence is so much circumscribed by the artist's foregone conclusions that they have
little chance of a future in our imaginings (Heuser, 2012).

2.3. Engaging with the Imperative of Sustainability

The most agreed-upon or used definition of sustainability (Button, 2011:1) comes from
the Brundtland Commission and dates back to 1987 in which it is described as
“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
the future generations to meet their own needs”. The Oxford dictionary associates
sustainability with the quest to conserve an ecological balance by avoiding the depletion
of natural resources (Soanes, Catherine & Stevenson, 2009:1452). The word ‘sustain’
comes from the Latin word ‘sustinere’ (Borjesson, 2006:6), which means ‘to hold up’
and, as part of the concept of sustainability, the dictionary meanings of ‘nourish’, ‘keep
up’, ‘prolong’ appear to be the most appropriate. According to Borjesson (2006:6), Fry
(2003) defines sustainability as actions to secure not only the future of the world but
also our well-being, as well as that of future generations. This definition concurs with the
most agreed-upon definition.

Marcuse (1998:105) challenges the widely accepted Brundtlands definition of

sustainability. He strongly suggests that the goal is “meeting the needs” and the
remainder, “making it sustainable”, is obviously a constraint on the appropriate means

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to be used. Other formulations, defining sustainable development through a “rule of

constant capital” in which the goal is to pass on to the future the same stock of “capital”
as we have today, seem to drop the broad goal entirely and simply require that the
human and natural capital (a perversion of the term?) of one generation be passed on
unimpaired to the next (Marcuse, 1998:105). Others focus on the “carrying-capacity of
supporting ecosystems” a much more questionable concept from the outset. No one
who is interested in justice wants to sustain things as they are now. Sustainability plays
very differently in the environmental sphere, where the whole point is simply that
conditions as they are cannot be sustained and the only question is how rapidly to
improve them. If the environmental status quo were sustainable, environmentalists
would be without a cause.

Shedroff (2009:xxi) further argues that sustainability is not a well-defined discourse.

Arguably, many commentators believe it is identical to the idea of green or eco
considerations that take the environment into account. Adam Werbach, a highly
controversial environmentalist, believes that the term ‘green’ has become so
problematic that he suggests using ‘blue’ instead (Arnold, 2009:1) – notwithstanding the
popular association of green with the ecological concerns, whilst blue is often
associated with clean air and efforts at reduction of carbon emissions. Some groups of
environmentalists are primarily concerned with plants and animals (other than with
people), and ever so often the ‘green’ movement is portrayed as a way to promote old,
flawed economics in order to ensure ‘business as usual’. This could be a threat to our
present way of life and could possibly result in society having less of everything.
Balancing both large and small ecosystems in the environment in a way to serve human
needs on all levels, as well as systems, is the key (Shedroff, 2009:xxi).

Consensus on the issue of sustainability is difficult to attain because it means different

things to different individuals and groups. In this regard, Shedroff (2009:2) believes the
only way to approach sustainability effectively is from a systems perspective. However,
due to the interconnectedness of most other things to one another, to design anything
effectively is to consider what it connects to – in other words, an integrated, systemic
and holistic ethos is desired. Cross (2011:75) concurs with this view in challenging
innovative designers adopt the ‘systems approach’. Additionally, from his studies of
innovators, Maccoby (1991) also suggests that innovators have “a systems mind, one
that sees things in terms of how they relate to each other in producing a result, a new
gestalt that to some degree changes the world”.

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2.4. From Discourse to Responsible Action

Design is both ‘part of the problem’ and ‘part of the solution’ to sustainability agendas
(Shedroff, 2009:284). Design can bring many benefits but it is very difficult to measure,
especially developments that are projected into the future. Already design thinking
processes are currently being utilised in some South African educational fields,
businesses, government policies and initiatives, and individuals. Even so, designers are
deemed powerless convincing these groups the value that specific design process
solutions itself can enhance (Shedroff, 2009:22).

Borjesson (2006:12) considers affective sustainability and the real world to be generally
ever-present where design is involved and points out that both designers and
manufacturing companies should implement responsible design if we want to
strengthen the impact of sustainability as Arnold and Button are advocating. There are
grounds to believe that many designers are honest and the emphasis on the importance
of responsible sustainable design might only be done because it is suitable. Borjesson
(2006:12) also refers to Victor Papanek’s book, ‘Design for the Real World’, which
according to her was a revelation for many when it was published in 1971.

Papanek believed that responsible design is a significant way to come to terms with a
wasteful society. There are a few designers contradicting their professional social
responsibility. Borjessen (2006:13) states the design of everyday objects is guided
largely by fashion and style. These objects are therefore considered to be ‘occasional’
dissimilarly to buildings, which Lavelid (2003 cited in Borjessen, 2006:13) argues should
last for centuries.

Wood (1997:5 cited in Borjesson, 2006:13) suggest that priority be placed on a strategy
“to quantify materiality rather than celebrating a temporal experience of Being”, which
Borjesson considers to be a discourse on sustainability. Our current existing economic
system discourages the longevity in designed objects. Undeniably if products were
designed to last longer our wasteful consumer society would be at risk because our
nation has become so dependent on consumer goods with a short life span.

Hill (2003:44 cited in Borjesson, 2006:13) is quoted as saying that “it is not because we
are committed to a particular economic ideology that we desire the new even if it is
upon the new our market economy depends”. One can therefore deduce that the nation
is bound to desire the new. It is human tendency and behaviour to state individuality
through possessions and taking the increasing production of ranges of objects and
there diversity for granted. Designers constantly desire to express their talents by
designing new user-friendly objects and in so doing entice people to desire the new.

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If we want to contribute to affective sustainability by possibly reducing the desire for new
by designing more timeless products, it might slow down the wheels in the economic
system thus preventing a wasteful society. On the other hand it is very important to
stress that affective sustainability should not hinder innovation (Borjesson, 2006:14).

Arguably, to strengthen the impact of responsible sustainable design, designers,

manufacturers and the individual need to implement responsible design without limiting
innovation. This imperative informs the authors’ endeavors to constitute a growing
awareness around the role and function of discarded found objects by innovatively
giving them a new life whilst concomitantly contributing to sustainability awareness. As
articulated by Borjessen we believe that the first author’s process will not only contribute
to sustainability but effectively advance awareness of sustainability in a demonstrable
way subsequently increasing the desire for the rekindled discarded object into a new
and sustainable life.

Effective sustainability is approached in different ways in other disciplinary areas

suggests that storytelling can serve as an effective method of fostering change. Grace
and Kaufman (2013) examine the role of storytelling in effecting positive change in
worldview and attitudes toward sustainable agriculture. The hypothesis of the study is
that story-based treatments will be more effective in promoting positive change than will
Information-based treatments. Stories are rich in meaning, and are powerful tools for
communicating desired behavior.

Similar to Digby (2006) and Camic (2010:85), the first author’s found objects will create
meanings through narratives and storytelling. The inherent narratives, stories and
journeys inform her research rather than present it in a case to be argued and proven
(Jacobs & Don, 2008:95).

2.5. The Economy of Recycling Glass

The Roman Empire nation used more glass than any other ancient civilization. After the
discovery of glassblowing the slower processes of casting and polishing phased out and
glass vessels became commonplace throughout the empire by the first century A.D.
(Whitehouse, 1997). Glass has become cheap and has several practical advantages
over other materials. Unlike other materials in out waste stream, glass is infinitely
recyclable. As the Consol corporate advert states "Glass is 100% recyclable, it adds
nothing, and leaves nothing".

Glass can be recycled many times it also saves water, natural resources and reduces
waste landfill. Using cullet (recycled glass) means that one-ton of cullet will generate the

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ability to remake one ton of bottles. Consol, the glass recycling company has invested a
great deal of finance for the recovery and recycling of used glass. As part of its social
responsibility and community development programmes. Consol is committed to
ensuring that recycling of glass continues to benefit both the environment and
entrepreneurs throughout Southern Africa.

Other factors why glass recycling is beneficial; It Conserves our irreplaceable natural
resources; it saves energy through lower melting temperatures; conserves landfill
space; reduces litter; has educational value; is linked to job creation and income
generation; Generates funding for charities, schools, and welfare organizations.
Statistically the Glass Packaging Industry, Consol Glass and Nampak Glass produce
glass estimated in the region of one million tons per annum. Of this less than 40.1% of
the glass containers produced in South Africa is recovered and recycled.

This study will attempt to place renewed emphasis on sustainability and social
responsibility. In contrast to Nash who uses garbage to create objects with a utilitarian
purpose Nash (2012) I will be using waste material to produce artworks. The fact that
Cape Town, South Africa, has been selected to be the World Design Capital in 2014
and one of the most urgent design challenges is the problem of refuse collection and
removal in the townships. The objective is to co-design a solution with the community,
for the community, and by the community that takes all the challenges around refuse
into account. This study will endeavour to encourage communities to become conscious
of consumption and refuse collection. Already Consol has established 40 formal glass-
collecting agents in Gauteng townships collecting no less than 500 tons per month.
Through further investment and links with government department Consol intends on
providing more entrepreneurial opportunities in growing this market to even greater
heights. Expansion into the Western Cape and Greater Durban areas are to be initiated.
The result will be that all artworks created for this study will incorporate found objects,
like the glass jar figure 7, which places emphasis on sustainability and social
responsibility.

3. Design Methodology
A phenomenological stance facilitates apt descriptions of ‘lived experience’ of a
phenomenon. Phenomenology reflects on one’s lived experiences to how one engages
with found objects in the world through transforming the found objects and giving them
new life by means of practicing effective sustainability.

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The research method is going to adopt a convenience or accidental sample which is not
representative of a population as the objects are presented to the researcher by
accident (Leedy, 1993: 200). Artworks created will incorporate found objects that are
selected randomly. The possibility of a thematic approach could be later investigated
not with the choice of the found object but the inclusion and the incorporation of
engraved glass as seen in previous work in figures 5 & 6.

4. Discussion
For the purpose of this paper the findings of a single-case study (mayonnaise glass jar)

Figure 6: WOODEN BRUSH SERIES - detail

Figure 5: De Kay Police Report - detail
‘Challenge Machine versus Diatoms’as
Found object with un-inked glass engraving
seen
Found object with inked glass engraving
(source: Penny George, 2006)
(source: Penny George, 2009) in
Figure 7 will be discussed. A case study is
situated between the descriptive survey method and the experimental method (Leedy,
1993:186). This concept starts with the observation that all research takes place in the
form of single studies (Yin, 2011:100).

The study of this sample would seek to develop and discuss how the findings might
have implications to enhance understanding of this particular concept in this case (Yin,
2011:100), the found object a mayonnaise glass jar.

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The following is an entry from the first author’s reflective

journal:
On Saturday, 02 February 2013 while diligently washing the
dishes amongst them were mayonnaise and gherkin jars.
These you have to soak to remove the labels. I find myself
storing so many of these in my kitchen cupboards and was
about to discard them when at that very moment they
presented themselves to me. In my experience working with
found objects it is not necessarily the hunt for the object but
the instantaneous surprise and the delightful sensory feeling
when I stumble across an object, which frequently is at an
unexpected place or time. Like an elemental surprise
revealing itself to me. I presume the experimentation with
unusual materials by engraving or etching on glass triggered
me. As previously mentioned the glass replaces the etching
Figure 7: Mayonnaise glass jar
plate that one can either choose to ink or to leave un-inked. Found object
From previous experience as seen in Figures 5 and 6, it (source: Penny George, 2013)
becomes apparent that the bulk of the artworks are
engraved on glass.

Results has been identified that the found object

process involves the interaction of aesthetic,
cognitive, emotive, mnemonic, ecological, and
creative factors in the seeking, discovery, and
utilization of found objects but (Camic, 2010:81).
Camic (2010:90) also reveals in his data analysis that
the instantaneous surprise was one of his
unanticipated findings.

The mayonnaise glass jar triggered me possibly

involving the identification of the found object
processes as mentioned by Camic above to engrave
on the glass substituting the etching plate. Using this
jar reminds me of preservation jars of a series of
using several of these jars will be called ‘Preservation
Jars’ as seen in transformed glass jar in Figure 8 (with
the arrow indicating the engraving). Inside every jar
a plant a cacti or succulent will be created from Figure 8: Mayonnaise glass jar
different found materials like, felt, wool, sewed transformed:
2013)
(source: Penny George,

paper, folded paper, croched plants and air plants

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etc. just to name a few. Each jar will be enclosed with crochet hemp. Different glass
engravings will be done on each jar complimenting to what is inside the glass jar.
Incorporating all of these elements suggests the preservation life and decay.

By constituting a growing awareness around the role and function of discarded found
objects by innovatively giving them a new life whilst contributing to sustainability
following in Consol beliefs and systems.

5. Conclusions
The goal of phenomenological research is to describe on ‘live experience’ of a
phenomenon (Groenewald, 2004). Merleau-Ponty (1945, 1962) in (Poulsen &
Thøgersen, 2011:32) believes that phenomenology reflects on our lived experiences to
how we as humans are engaging in the world through different forms of intentionality,
how we direct ourselves towards the world, for instance through spontaneous pre-
reflective of thoughtful actions.

Phenomenology reflects on one’s lived experiences, which enables one to investigate,

interrogate and explore the unique situation when choosing a discarded found object
and how to engage with found objects in the world through transforming the found
objects and giving them new life by means of practicing effective sustainability. The
20th Century graphic artist Diane Victor has experimented with unusual materials in the
1995. From the first author’s previous experience it becomes apparent that the bulk of
her artworks are engraved on unusual material like glass therefore the possibility of a
thematic approach could be later investigated.

Modern designers like Tord Boonjie and artists like Marcus Kenney are increasingly
adopting Duchamp’s attitude to the creative process and continue to use the process of
assemblage, recycling stuff no one else wants into objects of desire. This is a
phenomenon that so many artists can relate to. Consensus on the issue of
sustainability is difficult to attain because it means different things to different individuals
and groups. Shedroff (2009:2) believes the only way to approach sustainability
effectively is from a systems perspective. Maccoby (1991) also suggests that innovators
have “a systems mind, one that sees things in terms of how they relate to each other in
producing a result, a new gestalt that to some degree changes the world”.

Arguably, to strengthen the impact of responsible sustainable design, designers,

manufacturers and the individual need to implement responsible design. By constituting
a growing awareness around the role and function of discarded found objects by
innovatively giving them a new life whilst contributing to sustainability similarly like
Consol, the first author demonstrates a strong commitment to ensuring that recycling of

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Cognitive arousal as inspiration for design thinking: sustaining eco-awareness through found objects. – George,
P. & M’Rithaa, M. K.

glass continues to benefit both the environment, entrepreneurs, designers and artists.
The resultant explorations with found objects elaborated in this paper demonstrate that
cognitive arousal can be triggered even by the most banal or mundane of artifacts
thereby offering powerful demonstrators of eco-awareness in advancing discourse on
the important issue of sustainability.

• 6. References
• Arnold, C. 2009. Forget Green advertising, think Blue if you want to win over
consumers. Read.
• Borjesson, K. I. 2006. The affective sustainability of objects; a search for causal
connections. University of the Arts London.
• Button, R. 2011. Defining Green and Sustainability. Baffalo Rising.
• Camic, P. M. 2010. From trashed to treasured: A grounded theory analysis of the
found object. Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts, 4(2), 81–92.
• Cross, N. 2011. Design Thinking (1st ed.). Oxford: Berg Publishers.
• Den Besten, L. 2010. Like Found Objects in My Mind. Metalsmith, Vol. 30(2),
p36–45, 10p.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=48949236&site
=ehost-live
• Fry, T. 2003. The voice of Sustainment: An Introduction. Design Philosphy
Papers. http://www.dephilosphy.com/dpp/backissue. [14 November 2011].
• Grace, P., & Kaufman, E. 2013. Effecting Change through Storytelling. The
Journal of Sustainability Education, Winter.
• Heuser, H. 2012. Future [S]ense? The Lost Found Objects of David Garner.
Broadcastellan blospot. [12 March 2013]
• Jacobs, Don, T. 2008. The Authentic Dissertation Alternative Ways of Knowing,
Research, and Representation. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
• Kino, C. 2012. How African artifacts became Art, Inspiring modernists. NY
Times: 26 October 2012
• Leedy, P. D. 1993. Practical Research Planning and Design. 5th ed. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Company.
• Maccoby, M. 1991. The Innovative Mind at Work. IEEE Spectrum, 23–25.
• Maclough, B. 1997. Linda Hesh. Metalsmith; Exhibition in Print, 17(4), p24–24,
1p.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23816744&site
=ehost-live
• Malarcher, P. 2012. Surface Design Creative Exploration of Fiber and Fabric.
Surface Design Association, 36(2), 1–66.

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P. & M’Rithaa, M. K.

• Marcuse, P. 1998. Sustainability is not enough. Environment & Urbanisation,

10(2), 103–111.
• McNulty, I. (n.d.). Bullins, Benjamin. New Orleans Homes & Lifestyles, 10(2),
p13–91, 2p.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=31119577&site
=ehost-live
• Nash, H. 2012. Materials and work process. Heath Nash makes cool things.
www.heathnash.com [30 June 2012]
• Paskevich, M. 2013. The Art of Found Objects. Coastal Isles.
• Poulsen, S. B., & Thøgersen, U. 2011. Embodied design thinking: a
phenomenological perspective. CoDesign, 7(1), 29–44.
• Rankin, E., & Von Veh, K. 2008. Diane Victor (pp. 1–99). Johannesburg: David
Krut Publishing.
• Rosenthal, N. (n.d.). Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968). In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art
History.
• Ross, J., Romano, C., & Ross, T. (1990). The Complete Printmaker. New York: A
Division of Macmillam.
• Seipel, R. 2009. Mbongeni Buthelezi Imizwa Yama (My Feelings). Cape Town:
Global Calenders & Publications cc.
• Soanes, Catherine & Stevenson. Concise Oxford English Dictionary. 11th ed.
2009. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
• Theisson, A. 2012. Art objects versus artifacts. Helium [13 March 2013].
• Whitehouse, D. 1997. Looking Through Roman Glass. Archaeology Magazine
Archive.
• Yablousky, L. 2010. Artifacts/The Frieze Art Fair: Salvage Instinct - New York
Times Style Magazine: 12 March 2013
• Yin, R. K. 2011. Qualitative Research from Start to Finish. New York: The
Guilford Press.

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 Improving design skills of architectural students through the
application of concepts and critiques

E. Quansah, C. Essel and C. Koranteng

Department of Architecture,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
Corresponding Email: [email protected]

Abstract
The forth and backward process in architectural designs coupled with the integration of
theoretical data and courses into the design process represents a challenge for young
architectural students. The problem is worsened when, due to his/her background, the
student is not able to process information quickly. In an attempt to improve the design
skills of architectural students, a second year class of the Department of Architecture at
the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology was taught the application
of concepts in design studios. The results demonstrate that talented students could
develop their design abilities and weaker students, who embraced criticism and
supervision, could improve on their general perception of architectural design. 100% of
the students found criticism to be necessary for improving their design. Small class
sizes, continuous supervision or interaction as well as the use of concepts and ideas in
the design process are recommended.
Keywords: architectural designs, concepts, exploration, creativity, form.

1. Introduction
The application of concepts and working with forms (three dimensional (3D) types) in
3D space are exploratory processes in the creative education of architectural students.
The educational process is enhanced when design schemes are backed with positive
criticism. The use of forms and concepts helps students to better appreciate the design
process since it opens up new dimensions in the creative process in architecture. The
importance of forms and explorative processes has been one of the core issues in the
architectural discourse (Reffat, 2006 and Alexander, 1964). Ching (2007) describes
form as the manner of arranging and coordinating elements and parts of a composition
so as to produce a coherent image. In this regard, the conclusion of Alexander (1964
and 1966) on the synthesis of forms and architectural forms being the solution to design
problems is supported. Crisman (2007) analysed form as the shape and configuration of
a building under the aspects of size, scale, colour, proportion, rhythm, articulation,
texture, colour and light.

Most of the time, architectural compositions based on concepts have been the result of
spatial perception, thinking, orientation and experience. Critical thinking and reasoning
are made easy through the use of concepts in architectural design studios. These
studios serve as spaces for design generation, evaluation and the development of
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 Improving design skills of architectural students through the application of concepts and critiques -
Quansah, E., Essel, C, & Koranteng, C.

design alternatives (Gross and Yi-Luen, 1997) which are simultaneously enriched by
juries (criticism). Jormakka (2008) iterates on the use of concepts in producing good
architecture based on nature, geometry, and a list of points (for instance, Le Corbusier’s
five and Alexander Christopher’s 15 points). Concepts which are essential
representations for thinking, problem solving and communication could also be
diagrammatic. Moreover, diagrams are about the configurations, connections, shapes,
and orientations of physical forms (Do and Gross, 2001).

The efforts of architectural students in finding good answers to design problems are
supported by juries. During the jury sections, criticisms are pronounced by jurors based
on student presentations and interaction with lecturers and peers. Eshun and Adu-
Agyem (2010) report of criticism in studios as a valued activity which is shaped by social
factors like rapport and perceptions of shared critiques among participants.
Furthermore, the positive contribution of critiques towards a better learning environment
is reported by Taylor (2008). The desire of students for regular and effective supervision
(juries) is generally shared in architectural design studios because of the feedback
received whether a student’s design is going in the right direction or not. The
importance of juries for the learning process can therefore not be overemphasized
(Dickson, 2008). The study presents the outcome on the use of concepts supported by
juries in improving designs of architecture students. The process serves to positively
contribute to architectural training in Ghana.

2. Research methodology
In an attempt to improve the design skills of architecture students, a second year class
(group 2010/2011) of the Department of Architecture at the Kwame Nkrumah University
of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi in Ghana was taught the application of
concepts (additive and subtractive forms, the use of numerals and alphabets, etc) in
design studios. The explorative study had a one hour practical session during which
sketches were worked on (twice a week for a period of five weeks), based on concepts
presented. Thereafter, design tasks were issued where students were expected to use
concepts in solving the problem. Juries were organized (six times every three weeks for
a period of three months) for students to present and receive feedback on their pieces
of work, which were essential to the design process (see Graham, 2003 and Shaffer,
1999).

The students were given a questionnaire which was aimed towards the refinement and
improvement of the quality of studio critiques and the use of concepts in design
schemes. Part of the questionnaire had been used in similar studies in the past (Eshun
and Adu-Agyem, 2010). The questionnaire was expanded to cover student’s thoughts

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on the use of concepts in architectural studios. The output of the results which showed
percentage and frequency values, was structured in MS Excel. Furthermore, the mean
and standard deviation values were calculated based on the results of the student’s
design portfolios (three semesters) since their enrolment in the architecture programme.
The purpose was to compare the student’s output before and after the introduction of
concepts. The portfolios were graded by external examiners.

3. Results
Extracts of the student’s works are presented with Figs. 1 to 14, showing various
concept based designs. Tables 1 and 2 illustrate the statistical results from the
interviews and portfolio examinations. Out of 42 sets of questions distributed in the
studio, 38 were filled and returned, which represents a 90.5% response rate. Questions
given in classrooms are known to have a high response rate (Oppenheim, 1992).

Figs. 1 and 2 demonstrate the use of the spider’s web in achieving the design. The
relation was on the flexibility and tensile strength of the web. The web (Teflon material
supported with poles) was eventually used to harbour the service units.

Fig.1: A conceptual work being derived from a spider’s web.

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Fig.2: Sketch design of the spider’s web based design of a snack bar.

For the children’s library project in Figs. 3 and 4, gradation was the main idea. School
children are to graduate from a lower to a higher class and this hierarchy was related to
the opening of a furniture piece (see Fig. 3). Figs. 4 and 5 have similar concepts of
overcoming barriers (class or stage as mountains). A similarity to Fig. 2 is obvious but
there is a difference in the choice of materials.

Fig.3: An illustration of “gradation” being transformed into a composition.

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Fig.4: Conceptual view of a children’s library showing “gradation”

Fig.5: Deriving a 3D form from books and mountains (stages to be climbed).

Fig.6: An illustration showing the results of the “books and mountains” process.

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The manipulation of basic shapes and alphabets are the underlying principles to Figs. 7
to 9. The basic shapes were extracted, combined, extended, rotated and extruded to
arrive at the compositions. They show marks of creativity.

Fig.7: Conceptual forms developed from the manipulation of basic shapes.

Fig.8: Final result of the “basic shapes” design.

Fig.9: A design developed from letters and numerals.

The concept of enlightenment through the eye and traditional sitting posture formed the
basis of the design. The use of multiple concepts shows the exploratory output that
could come from such applications (Figs. 10 to 14). Juxtapositions and manipulation of

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a cylinder (multiple concepts) are effective processes in arriving at a good composition

(Fig. 14).

Fig.10: Enlightenment as a design concept through the eye and traditional sitting posture.

Fig.11: A perspective demonstrating the “enlightenment” building.

Fig.12: An elevation representing the “enlightenment” building.

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Fig.13: An internal view of the “enlightenment” building.

Fig.14: Elevations of a design developed from the juxtaposition and manipulation of a cylinder.

The results of the interview s with the 38 students are presented. The males were
twenty nine in number (76%) and the females 9, representing 24%.

Table 1: Results of the interviews on student’s perception on critique and concepts

Very
Not at all Somewhat Agreeable agreeable
Freq Percent Freq Percent Freq Percent Freq Percent
. . . . . . . .
Does studio critique affect creative
production? 1.0 2.6 13.0 34.2 18.0 47.4 6.0 15.8

Yes, frequently Occasionally Rarely Never

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Freq Percent Freq Percent Freq Percent Freq Percent

. . . . . . . .
Do you reflect on comments or
critiques? 25.0 65.8 11.0 28.9 1.0 2.6 1.0 2.6
Do you see the impact of critiques to
be positive on your work? 25.0 65.8 12.0 31.6 1.0 2.6 0.0 0.0
Do you see the impact of critiques to
be negative on your work? 1.0 2.6 10.0 26.3 22.0 57.9 5.0 13.2
Do you enjoy critiques? 7.0 18.4 23.0 60.5 8.0 21.1 0.0 0.0
Does your studio work improve after
critiques? 24.0 63.2 12.0 31.6 2.0 5.3 0.0 0.0
Does your studio work worsen after
critiques? 1.0 2.6 4.0 10.5 18.0 47.4 15.0 39.5
Are you nervous when going for
critiques? 19.0 50.0 12.0 31.6 4.0 10.5 3.0 7.9
Are you confident when going for
critiques? 8.0 21.1 18.0 47.4 9.0 23.7 3.0 7.9
Are you nervous when your work is
being discussed? 7.0 18.4 21.0 55.3 7.0 18.4 3.0 7.9
Are you more confident after
critiques? 16.0 42.1 17.0 44.7 4.0 10.5 1.0 2.6
Do you think critiques are
necessary? 31.0 81.6 7.0 18.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Should critiques be a regular
feature? 22.0 57.9 12.0 31.6 3.0 7.9 1.0 2.6
Do you see the impact on the use of
concepts learnt (subtraction, etc) to
be positive on your work? 23.0 60.5 12.0 31.6 2.0 5.3 1.0 2.6
Do you see the impact of concepts
to be negative on your work? 0.0 0.0 4.0 10.5 15.0 39.5 19.0 50.0
Do you enjoy the use of concepts? 21.0 55.3 14.0 36.8 3.0 7.9 0.0 0.0
Does your studio work improve after
the use of concepts? 19.0 50.0 17.0 44.7 2.0 5.3 0.0 0.0
Does your studio work worsen after
the use of concepts? 0.0 0.0 2.0 5.3 17.0 44.7 19.0 50.0

To illustrate the improved performance of the students as a result of the effective

approach learnt and applied, their architectural design scores were used (see Table 2).
The mean value of their performance increased from 59.7% with a standard deviation of
5.1 (ARC 158, first year design course code) to 64.2% (standard deviation of 4.8) at the
end of the first semester of year two (ARC 257).

Table 2: Results of 14 students on studio performance

Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
ARC 158 60 60 57 60 64 59 52 58 69 60 53 70 58 56

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ARC 257 62 74 59 64 68 62 64 60 71 62 60 71 62 60

4. Discussion
A review of the results on the use of concepts towards the improvement of architectural
designs, interviews, and the outcome of the calculated means of student’s performance
leads to the following observations. The connection between theory (concepts) and
practice (designs) functions effectively when students are able to undertake critical
examination, have fun with the design process and are confident in exploring new
paths. Conceptual architecture explores new ideas by building on known theories;
however, the outcome is always intriguing. Figs. 1 to 14 demonstrate the fascinating
output of second year architectural students. Conceptual diagrams (could be abstract)
work well if the abstractions can be manipulated with a high degree of competence.

The application of concepts in architectural education enhances the aims and objectives
of design studios, which according to Wampler (2011), are for students to develop a
flexible systems approach towards design, and to be able to translate strategies into
built material investigations which test their ideas, demonstrating proficiency with the
conventions of drawing and the tools for fabrication. TWE (2006) ascertain the fact that
initial architectural diagrams are mostly captured in a hierarchy of 2-dimensional
bubbles. However, an effective approach is representation in 3D space through
concepts, which are essential for thinking, problem solving and communication. The use
of concepts during the initial stages of designs has the ability to engage imagination and
enhance creativity (see Figs. 1 to 14). This view correlates with Reffat (2006) and
Lehmann (2006).

Concepts which lead to impressive designs have architectural design principles

(elimination, repetition, scaling, combination, proportions, rhythm, balance, etc) as their
basis (Bielefeld and Khouli, 2007 and, Woehrle and Woehrle, 2008). The student’s
perception on the use of concepts in design studios showed that over 90% of had a
positive attitude towards the subject matter. Specifically, 92% were of the view that
concepts learnt impacted positively on their work. Also, the same percentage of
students said that they enjoyed the use of concepts in their work. The opinion of the
students tallies with those of Lehmann (2006) and Reffat (2006). Furthermore, about
95% saw improvements in their work after having used concepts as design generators
(see Table 1).

The general view on criticism showed that 63% (frequency of 24) of the students agreed
that critique affected creative production (Table 1). Besides, high values were recorded
on the positive contribution of critiques in design studios (above 95%). A positive impact

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of critiques on the subjects work was reported by 97%, and 100% were of the view that
critiques are necessary. This is against the background that only 79% enjoyed critiques
and 82% of the students reported being nervous when going for critiques. Nervousness
was reported by 74% of the learners when their work was being discussed. The high
levels of student’s assertion to critiques could be related to the confidence generated
within them through the use of the concepts and a better learning approach. In studies
related to design exploration, Reffat (2006) and Lehmann (2006) have demonstrated
that the employment of concepts was able to engage imagination and enhance
creativity. This naturally contributed to the increased confidence levels of the students
towards the importance of juries. Being nervous before and during presentations seems
to be a human trait. The nervous attitude has also been demonstrated by Eshun and
Adu-Agyem (2010) in similar studies.

The explorative nature of concepts in enhancing creative exercises resulting in

improved performance could be observed in the results of some of the already well-
performing students (Table 2). A clear improvement in their scores was documented.

5. Conclusion
An explorative exercise with the aim of improving student’s perception and explorative
capabilities was embarked on. In the process, students were taught the use of
concepts, underwent supervision, and criticism to build on their work. Furthermore,
interviews were conducted to assess student’s perception on criticism and the
application of concepts in design studios.
The process lead to good designs and improvement in student’s design skills. Since
supervision and juries are important aspects in architectural training, smaller class
sizes, interaction with students as well as the use of concepts and ideas in the design
process are recommended.

6. Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the immense contributions of Messrs Bibang Bi Obam Assoumou
Stahel Serano, Inkoom Ekow Aseda, Koanda Abubakar Haruna, Koranteng Richard Adu,
Brossy Jude, and Essandoh Kobina Nyansah, second year students of the Department of
Architecture, KNUST, Kumasi, who worked on the exercises with great passion.

7. References
• Alexander, C. 1964. Notes on the Synthesis of Form, Harvard University Press,
Cambridge.

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• Bielefeld, B. and Khouli, E.S. 2007. Basics, Entwurfsidee, Birkhaeuser Verlag

AG, Berlin.
• Ching, F. D. K. 2007. Architecture: Form, Space, and Order, 3rd Edition, New
York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
• Crisman P. 2007. Form and composition, (available at
http://www.wbdg.org/resources/form.php, Accessed: March 18, 2011).
• Dickson, M. 2008. Formative Assessment in the Formation of Studio Culture,
National Forum on Studio Teaching Assessment, Australian Learning and
Teaching Council, New South Wales: University of New South Wales.
• Do, E.Y. and Gross, M.D. 2001. “Thinking with Diagrams in Architectural Design”,
• Artificial Intelligence Review 15: 135-149, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Netherlands.
• Eshun E.F. and Adu-Agyem J. 2010. “Learner Perceptions in Design Critiques:
Impact on Creative Development”, Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 30,
No. 3, pp.42-50.
• Graham, E. M. 2003. Studio Critiques: Student and Faculty Perception and
Reality, (available at http://www.etd.isu.edu/dos/available/etd-0611103-184324),
Accessed: March 18, 2011.
• Gross, M.D. and Yi-Luen, E. 1997). “The Design Studio Approach: Learning
Design in Architecture Education”, In: Design Education Workshop, J. Kolodner &
M. Guzdial (Editors.), EduTech/NSF, College of Computing, Georgia Institute of
Technology, 8-9 September, Atlanta.
• Jormakka, K. 2008. Basics, Methoden der Formfindung, Birkhaeuser Verlag AG,
Berlin.
• Lehmann, S. 2006. Notes from Newcastle, Teaching Architectural Design in the
Context of Research and Practice, (available at
www.slab.com.au/teachArch.pdf), Accessed: January 12, 2010.
• Oppenheim, A. N. 1992. Questionnaire Designs, Interviewing and Attitude
Measurement, London: St Martin’s Press.
• Reffat, R.M. 2006. Architectural Exploration and Creativity using Intelligent
Design Agents, (available at
http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/ARCH/rabee/publications_files/03Reffat_2_ecaade03
_Graz.pdf), Accessed: February 9, 2010.
• Shaffer, D. W. 1999. The Design Studio as a Model for Education, (available at
ttp://dws.www.media.mit.edu/people/dws//papers/designstudio/index.html),
Accessed: Accessed: March 19, 2011.
• Taylor, M.J. 2008. Spoken Feedback Using Mobile Technology National Forum
on Studio Teaching Assessment, New South Wales: University of New South
Wales.

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Quansah, E., Essel, C, & Koranteng, C.

• TWE, 2006. Bubble diagram Stratification, Timbre works Engineering, (available

at http://clubweb.interbaun.com/~rc/Papers/BubbleDiagramStratification.pdf);
Accessed: December 04, 2010.
• Wampler J. 2011. Applied Architectural Design Studio 2 (available at
http://architecture.mit.edu/subjects/fa10/4114.html); Accessed: February 15,
2011.
• Wöhrle, R. E. and Wöhrle, H. 2008. Basics: Entwurfselement Pflanze,
Birkhaeuser, Berlin.

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 A Platform for Design for Social Innovation

T. Jachna
School of Design, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
Hung Hom, KLN, Hong Kong
[email protected]

Abstract
The Jockey Club Design Institute for Social Innovation (JCDISI) was recently founded at
the School of Design of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The vision of this
institution is to become a hub of international design innovation and entrepreneurship
for the collaboration of academia and the private and public sectors in developing and
realizing innovative design ideas to bring positive change to society. It constitutes an
open platform for collaborative interdisciplinary design projects, which can be applied to
the real world. Engaging critical social issues of Hong Kong and the region, the JCDISI
concentrates on project development and knowledge transfer in four strategic themes.
Design-related events and seminars, as well as a major annual signature event,
promote the application of design to social innovation with a focus on entrepreneurship,
thus creating a “third place” between business, industry, society, and academia. This
paper details the vision and inspiration of this new Institute, and reports on the
experiences and challenges of the first half-year of the institute’s establishment,
reflecting on the opportunities, lessons and dilemmas met in setting up such an
institution.
Keywords: Design, social innovation, Hong Kong

1 Introduction
Once known primarily as a low-cost manufacturing centre, Hong Kong’s economy has
been increasingly shifting to a service-based model. The service sector accounted for
93% of the city’s GDP in 2010 (Information Services Department, 2012). With this
shifting dynamic, knowledge-based professions such as design have been gaining
increasing attention as economic sectors in recent years.

There is widespread acknowledgement that design has evolved from a secondary

profession concerned with superficial differentiation to a leading area of human
endeavour operating at the strategic level of identifying and articulating holistic
strategies for driving change – both sweeping and incremental – within society,
business and institutions. Designers have ceased to be concerned merely with the
articulation of the formal and material aspects of things, and are shifting to processes
and products grounded in methodical understanding of user behaviour and
requirements, socio-cultural dynamics and the mechanisms of innovation, in the
technical as well as the societal sense. An object-focused view of design is giving way
to a perspective that concentrates on an understanding of complex systems in order to
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formulate strategically-placed design interventions to achieve intentional beneficial

change within these systems. From this perspective, a stream of thought and action is
emerging that explores the potential of design to effect positive change in society –
design for social innovation.

This paper will detail the first steps in conceiving and setting up an institute for the
facilitation of design’s potential for social innovation, within the specific social and
cultural context of Hong Kong. At issue are the ways in which such an institute can
catalyze the identification and activation of latent intellectual property in the school of
design in which it is situated and the initiation of constructive engagement with the
society within which it is situated through design-facilitated and design-led social
initiatives. We are at the beginning of what will be an ongoing experiment, and the
intention of this paper is to establish the basis for a dialogue with like-minded
academics and designers attending this conference. The aims of this paper are to share
the experience of envisioning and establishing this institute with others who may be
involved in setting up institutions, projects or programmes for the promotion of design
for social innovation, and to provide a benchmark documentation against which the
future development of the Institute may be gauged.

1.1 Design for Social Innovation

The concept of innovation is central to design, and positions of the role of innovation in
design are constantly evolving. In its most essential sense, the word innovation refers to
the creation of something new and original. In the modern industrial mindset in which
design developed throughout the twentieth century, innovation was conventionally
conceived in terms of advances in technology, and the role of design was to apply these
technologies in useful products. In the late twentieth century, design came to be
regarded not simply in terms of application of technical innovations, but as a driver for
innovation in its own right (Brown, 2009). In this period, the elements of novelty and
originality in innovation often pertained to the identification or creation of markets, and of
value understood in the monetary economic sense (Heskett, 2009).

The principle of social innovation emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, as a conceptual
framework for discussing the potential to overcome systemic problems in societies
through reconfigurations of the way people work together in areas such as business
(Drucker, 1967) and research (Taylor, 1970). Social innovations typically require
collaboration across conventional boundaries between disciplines or organizations,
raising the importance of coordination and facilitation of cooperation between such
nominally separate entities (Mulgan, 2006). The “social” aspect of social innovation
refers to both the social needs served by such innovation, and also to the
reconfiguration of social relationships (Murray, et al., 2010). Such is the current

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relevance of this concept that US President Obama has established a White House
Office of Social Innovation and Civic Participation to support grassroots initiatives for
social change (Christensen, 2012).

Social innovation has entered design discourse increasingly in the past decade. Ezio
Manzini has pioneered the introduction of social innovation thinking to design (Manzini,
2010) and he is also the founder of the DESIS Network (www.desis-network.org), a
global community of (currently) forty labs working on research into design for social
innovation. Social Innovation has become a prominent term in the way that innovative
design firms (IDEO, n.d.; Frog Design, n.d.) communicate their vision, mission and their
work, and the School of Visual Arts in New York has begun to offer an MFA in Design
for Social Innovation (SVA, n.d.).

1.2 The PolyU School of Design

The School of Design (SD) at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU) is the
leading provider of design education in Hong Kong. It is the only institution of higher
learning in the territory to teach a full range of design programs from sub-degree
through Bachelors and Masters degrees to PhD. SD currently is home to around 1,300
students and more than 70 academic staff members. The school is highly
interdisciplinary in nature, providing education in disciplines including advertising
design, animation, communication design, digital media, environment and interior
design, interaction design and product design. In recent years, it has consistently
appeared in listings of the world’s top design schools. In 2009, Business Week included
the PolyU School of Design in its roster of the top 30 design schools in the world for
design strategy teaching (Wong, 2009), and in 2012 Business Insider magazine ranked
the school as one of the 25 best schools of design in the world (and the only Asian
school on the list) (Dickey, 2012). The human-centered approach and commitment to
socially relevant design have long been trademarks of SD.

1.3 The Innovation Tower and the Hong Kong Jockey Club
In the summer of 2013, the School of Design is moving into the newly completed
Innovation Tower on the PolyU campus. An international competition for the design of
the building was won by the London-based Pritzker Prize winning architect Zaha Hadid.
The Innovation Tower consolidates for the first time all of the spaces of the School of
Design under one roof, as well as new public-oriented facilities including a design
gallery, event spaces, collaboration spaces and a resource center. A substantial portion
of the construction budget of the Innovation Tower (to cover the expected cost overrun
above the Hong Kong government’s funds allocation for the project) was provided
through a generous donation from The Hong Kong Jockey Club, the largest charitable
organization in Hong Kong. The Hong Kong Jockey Club has historically channeled its

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proceeds from horse racing betting in Hong Kong to support a wide range of groups and
initiatives for social good in Hong Kong society.

Beyond the support of the capital works project of the Innovation Tower, the Jockey
Club also agreed to fund the startup of the Jockey Club Design Institute for Social
Innovation, a new institution to be housed in the Innovation Tower, to facilitate the
application of design knowledge to initiatives for the betterment of society. The JCDISI
is envisioned as a pivotal new institution in responding to the changing roles and
context of the design discipline. It is intended to provide a body of research,
methodology and practice to support the further development of theory and practice in
the crucial dimension of design for social innovation.

2 The Jockey Club Design Institute for Social Innovation (JCDISI)

2.1 Background
Among Hong Kong’s eight universities, the PolyU is designated as the territory’s applied
university, educating students for professional careers in Hong Kong’s strategic
industries. Students, faculty members and researchers of the school are practiced at
producing knowledge, ideas and technological innovations responding to the
opportunities and challenges in the local, regional and global society. However, by
nature the ideas emerging from any innovative professional school will tend to
challenge, rather than perpetuate, the status quo of the profession that it serves,
traversing traditional disciplinary boundaries, often evading obvious paths to commercial
viability and necessitating a shift from accustomed ways of thinking and acting. As such,
strategies for the introduction of these innovations into application is rarely obvious, and
is too often met with an insurmountable hurdle posed by the gap between academia
and the public and private sector entities who drive and regulate design as an economic
sector.

To address this gap, the JCDISI is envisioned as a space for the interface of academia,
the public sector and the commercial sector, within which innovative design ideas can
be given the support and expert guidance for development into real-world viable
projects. Providing these possibilities is JCDISI’s central purpose. Existing outside of
the accustomed role of governmental institutions, beyond the usual purview of
education or business and outside the remit of professionally-focused bodies such as
the Hong Kong Design Centre, this space requires a new type of entity, the need for
which emerges from the ongoing transformations in the design field.

The JCDISI provides a support structure to leverage all the various research directions
and expertise of PolyU into applied projects for social good. The Institute is intended to

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nurture the development of intellectual property generated within academia, and the
development of this intellectual property into strategic socially relevant initiatives,
together with public sector and commercial interests. It will also host design-related
events for the design community and the general public to promote the integration of
design and social innovation, including seminars, workshops, public lectures and annual
conferences. The vision of the JCDISI is: To become a “third space” in the Hong Kong
design landscape, between academia and business, for the development and
commercialization of innovative multidisciplinary design projects and products and the
promulgation of best practices in design innovation for social good.

2.2 Strategic Themes of the Institute

JCDISI’s activities concentrate on four strategic themes that reflect the core areas of
expertise of the PolyU School of Design and which build upon established activities of
SD’s various design research labs and ongoing interdisciplinary collaboration with other
PolyU departments such as Engineering, Applied Social Sciences, Business, Hotel and
Tourism Management, Construction and Environment, Health and Rehabilitation
Sciences, and Textiles and Clothing. These themes also address urgent social issues
and important commercial sectors in the society of Hong Kong and the greater Pearl
River Delta Region. The four themes are:
Service Design – concentrating on the human-centred design of the products and
systems that enable the delivery of social services, for the governmental sector as well
as including important industry niches
Sustainable Environment – addressing the need for environmentally and socially
conscious approaches to the design of products, services and environments in the
urban context, including design for mobility systems, design for public space as well as
living environments for elderly and disadvantaged groups
Holistic Health – promoting the potential of design to contribute to healthy lifestyles and
positive aging, as well as products and systems in the area of medicine and
rehabilitation sciences and other aspects of health care
Adolescent and Family Development – dealing with design applications for the purpose
of encouraging the positive holistic development of adolescents, incorporating an
existing project funded by the HKJC – the Positive Adolescent Training through Holistic
Social Programmes (P.A.T.H.S)

2.3 Activities of the Institute

Around the above-mentioned strategic themes, the JCDISI will carry out a number of
core activities. It will serve as a platform for the development of promising design ideas
with social innovative elements from SD into projects or products that will be put into
commercial production or practice in the real world. Researchers and research teams

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will be invited to submit their projects for consideration for support. Projects will be
chosen based on their viability, social innovativeness and potential for interdisciplinary
collaboration. The JCDISI will facilitate the formation of teams to supplement the
expertise of the originating research team and provide guidance and training for project
teams, in areas such as collaboration, product development and knowledge transfer,
and will where appropriate invite relevant experts and community leaders to provide
consultation on the projects.

The JCDISI will also host a series of seminars, public lectures and workshops intended
to support active projects and promote public interest in design for social innovation.
These events will target the Hong Kong design community, secondary and tertiary
students, families and children, marginalized groups, NGOs, community leaders, and
the general public. A signature event – the Design for Social Innovation Festival – will
be held annually. The event aims at an international audience and will raise awareness
and recognition of best global practices in design for social innovation. One component
of the Festival will be the Design for Social Innovation Expo, exhibiting projects
representing exemplary design for social innovation projects, and showcasing projects
of the Institute over the preceding year. Another primary component will be a series of
symposia, workshops and other events constituting the Design for Social Innovation
Global Forum.

The Institute will establish an archive, which will serve as repository of knowledge and
exemplary projects in design for social innovation, including a database and archive of
previous and current projects exemplifying best practices in design for social innovation,
as well as design-related intellectual property, projects and products produced through
the collaborations facilitated and hosted by the Institute. A new design gallery at the
entrance level of the Innovation Tower can host periodical public exhibitions drawn from
the JCDISI’s repository. The JCDISI will also maintain a web portal that will serve as a
point of access to the repository’s digital component and public information, as well as
serving as a social networking site extending the reach Institute globally.

A wide spectrum of people will benefit from the activities of the JCDISI. Public lectures
will be aimed at members of the general Hong Kong public, while various types of
seminars and workshops would address secondary and tertiary students, young
professionals, entrepreneurs and executives from the Hong Kong design industry,
marginalized groups, NGO and community leaders and other professions. The Design
for Social Innovation Festival will target a global audience of designers, design
academics, businesspeople, entrepreneurs and policy makers.

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3 Progress and current initiatives

3.1 Staffing, space and governance

The JCDISI was inaugurated with a ceremony in February of 2012 and began operating
in summer of that year. An international search was conducted for the Director of the
Institute. The search revealed several interesting candidates who had been involved in
different aspects of social innovation in design within Hong Kong and abroad. Finally,
Mr. Alvin Yip was identified as the most appropriate candidate for the post, officially
taking up the post in September, 2012. Mr. Yip – an architect by training – was formerly
an academic staff member of the PolyU School of Design and has been extremely
active in charities and design-related initiatives in Hong Kong. The Jockey Club funding
provides for an administrative officer and four project staff, all of whom have been hired.

The JCDISI is housed within the spaces of SD on the campus of the PolyU. With the
move of the School of Design into the Innovation Tower upon completion of
construction, tentatively in July of 2013, the JCDISI will occupy its own suite of spaces
in the twelfth floor of the building.

The JCDISI is managed by a Management Committee, which directs the activities of the
Institute and monitors its operation and delivery of outcomes, and governed by an
International Advisory Committee, which provides guidance and advice on the
development of the Institute. Both of these bodies have met several times since their
founding in summer of 2012. To establish a foundation of shared knowledge upon which
to embark on the definition of the new Institute, in December 2012 the JCDISI arranged
a set of social innovation workshops run for the members of the International Advisory
Committee and the Management Committee by internationally recognized scholars in
design and social innovation: Prof. Jeremy Myerson, Director of the Helen Hamlyn
Centre at the Royal College of Art in London, and Prof. Kees Dorst, Director of the
Designing Out Crime initiative of the University of Technology Sydney.

3.2 Current activities of the JCDISI

Four types of projects have been identified for JCDISI: Seeding projects, development
projects, realization projects and strategic projects. A description of the nature of these
different project categories and current projects in each of these categories follows:

3.2.1 Seeding projects

These are small-scale projects requiring only a small investment of JCDISI resources in
terms of funds and manpower, but with the potential to develop into strategic projects in
the future. The first seeding project undertaken was the World Design Capital Workshop

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“The Jaffe Road Project: mapping transient urbanism”, which was a visioning exercise
for future developments in the public street spaces of a specific location in Hong Kong.

3.2.2 Realisation projects

These are projects of 3 to 12 months duration leading to concrete deliverables and
demonstrable results. JCDISI is currently developing the following realisation projects:

Location-based game design

(a collaboration between SD and the PolyU Faculty of Applied Social Sciences) to
develop a digital interactive location based game aimed at preventing drug abuse
among youth in Hong Kong, building on existing knowledge and research on youth
education and drug abuse as well as digital games at the two participating departments.

Maker faire for social innovation

(in collaboration with Make Magazine) a community-driven event to “celebrate arts,
crafts, engineering, science projects and the Do-It-Yourself (DIY) mindset” by giving
local students, artists, technicians, educators and hobbyists the opportunity to exhibit
their creations. Maker Faires have been held around the world and this will be the first
event of this type in Hong Kong.

‘Experiencing dementia’: interactive installation for dementia education

(with team members from the DISI, the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK), and
the Jockey Club centre for Positive Ageing (JCCPA)) this initiative is developing an
interactive installation to teach caregivers, family members, professional contact groups
and general public about the perceptual world of dementia sufferers.

Hawker reload - Fa Yuen Street hawker stall improvement research project

(with intellectual support from the Food and Health Bureau (FHB) of the Hong Kong
government) to devise new safer designs for hawker stalls for Hong Kong’s street
markets, reacting to two fire accidents caused in the Fa Yuen Street Outdoor Hawker
Stall area in Dec 2010 and Nov 2011.

Oi Man Silver Age Centre

(with the Citizen Home Safety Association (SCHSA) and PolyU Institute of Active
Ageing) to initiate an ‘Encore Fellowship Program’ to provides an opportunity for retirees
to contribute their professional knowledge and skills to DISI’s social innovation projects;
and a ‘Co-Creation Design Workshop’ to identify emerging markets among the senior
community and encourage young designers to join in co-creating products for this
market.

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Lighting for learning

(with the Helen Hamlyn Centre for Design, Royal College of Art, London) a project to
explore potential applications of low-energy lighting to support and enhance the learning
process and educational needs within technology driven pedagogical environments in
secondary schools.

3.2.3 Strategic projects

These are projects of over 12 months’ duration, intended as recurrent and with
intermediate results. The strategic projects currently in progress include:

Connectivity and mobility design of a future business district: Kowloon East project
(Prof. Martin Smith, Dr. Tim Jachna, Mr. Peter Hasdell, Mr. Fred Han)
(with the Helen Hamlyn Centre of Design of Royal College of Art, London) to develop a
proposal for connectivity and mobility design for the Kowloon East development area, in
the context of its transformation from a former industrial zone to a new business district,
concentrating on interventions to foster a high quality of urban public life.

PMQ: creative industries landmark

(Prof. Michael Erlhoff, Prof. Roger Ball, Dr. Patrick Mok, Mr. Benny Leong)
The Police Married Quarters (PMQ) is a heritage building in Hong Kong which is being
re-envisioned as a space to incubate and promote local young designers. This
publication will collect articles and research from a cross-disciplinary team of local and
international experts and scholars on the topic of creative industries incubation in Hong
Kong in recent decades to inform the development of this initiative.

Pocket U: virtual city of learning

(Prof.HC Man, Dr.Alwin Wong, Dr Angela Ho)
JCDISI is a consulting partner on a project within the ‘City of Learning’ campaign, a
program to promote self-learning and self-advancement through high-tech knowledge
based culture in Hong Kong. Public launch is scheduled for 2013.

Red Cross project - HExpace (Humanitarian Experience Space)

(with Eureka and the Red Cross) JCDISI will serve as a curator for a multi-media-driven
experience space to raise awareness of man-made and natural disasters and promote
humanitarian action. Experience design paradigms are applied to engage participants’
emotions and memories.

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3.2.4 Development projects

These are long-term projects of significant importance in terms of capacity-building of
the Institute. The current development projects being undertaken are:

Innovator/thinker in residence program

(Prof. Matthew Turner, Dr. Jackie Kwok, Mr. King-Chung Siu)
A program to host visiting thinkers in the area of social innovation, to promote the
development and exchange of ideas in the area, addressing both local and global
issues through workshops and seminars. Historian of Asian design Prof. Matthew
Turner, arrived as the first Innovator in Residence in 2013.

JCDISI premises: furniture and lighting for social innovation award

(Mr. Scot Laughton, Dr. Ernesto Spicciolato)
An award scheme for socially innovative furniture, interior product and lighting concepts,
in the areas of socio-material innovation, local economy booster, community
empowerment and design for all. Winners will be promoted during the Annual DISI
festival and listed in the Design for Social Innovation Directory.

Social innovation connection (SIC)

(Prof. Wang Min, Mr. Lau Sai Leung)
A website that will serve as a social platform for news, research, interviews, and insights
into social innovation in the international context. Conceived as a point of contact for
the sharing of trends and projects in social innovation worldwide, incorporating existing
social platforms such as Facebook, Youtube, Linkedin, and Weibo.

Design support schemes

Four design support schemes (1) Support for Competition Scheme, 2) Support for
Community Workshop Scheme, 3) Support for Design Demonstration Scheme, 4)
Support for Design Publication Scheme) to support teaching and research that
responds to actual social challenges and opportunities, but is not covered by other
major sources of funding.

DISI Festival
Planning of the first Design for Social Innovation Festival (see above) to recognize and
promote global best practices in social innovation collaborative design initiatives and
knowledge transfer, and particularly to promulgate the activities and achievements of
the Institute.

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4.0 Challenges

As of this writing, the JCDISI has been in existence for less than nine months. The
Hong Kong Jockey Club has initially committed to support the Institute for its first three
years, after which a review will be undertaken. Within this time, the JCDISI must
demonstrate its relevance and effectiveness in pursuing the remit for which it was
established.

From the social innovation workshops run by Profs. Dorst and Myerson in December of
last year, an understanding emerged of the need for social innovation initiatives to be
based in an immersed understanding of the culture and society in which they operate. A
distinction was also recognized between on the one hand projects that seek to “fix” a
system by identifying specific manifestations of failure or irritation and applying design
thinking to addressing these problems, and on the other hand projects that aim to
“transform” a system, recognizing that failures and irritations are symptoms of deeper
flaws in systems that call for a complete rethinking of the system as a whole. It was
agreed that an institution such as JCDISI must take on challenges of both of these
types: the former to generate regular tangible and demonstrable deliverables in the
service of the local society and the latter to address social ills over the long term at their
root causes.

This is the first such institution within a university in the region. With no culturally
appropriate template to follow, the JCDISI is essentially constructing its own model as it
evolves. There is not yet a strong culture of NGOs and governmental services working
with universities to develop innovative or entrepreneurial approaches to addressing the
needs of society. In general, Hong Kong lacks a tradition or culture of social innovation,
and where responses to social needs are typically assumed to follow a government-
provided welfare-based approach to social needs. Thus, the internal challenges of the
JCDISI are matched with the challenges posed by a need to help in building
understanding of social innovation in Hong Kong society and the public and private
sectors.

References
• Brown, T. 2009. Change by design: how design thinking transforms organizations
and inspires innovation. New York: Harper Collins.
• Christensen, C. 2012 July 1. The White House Office on Social Innovation: a new
paradigm for solving social problems. Huffington Post. Available WWW:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/clayton-m-christensen/the-white-house-office-
on_b_223759.html (accessed 15 June 2013).

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• DESIS Network website. Available WWW: www.desis-network.org (accessed 15

June 2013).

• Dickey, M.R. 2012 November 23. The world’s 25 best design schools. Business
Insider (online edition). Available WWW: http://www.businessinsider.com/the-
worlds-25-best-design-schools-2012-11?op=1 (accessed 3 April 2013).

• Drucker, P.F. 1967. The effective executive. New York. Perennial Library.
• Frog Design, n.d.Design for social Iimpact. Available WWW:
http://www.frogdesign.com/ services/expertise/social-innovation.html (accessed
18 June 2013).
• Heskett, J. 2009. Creating economic value by design. International Journal of
Design. 3(1):71-84.
• IDEO. n.d. Social innovation. Available WWW:
http://www.ideo.com/expertise/social-innovation

• Information Services Department, Government of the Hong Kong SAR. 2012

January. Hong Kong as a service economy. Available WWW:
http://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/service_economy.pdf
(accessed 3 April 2013).

• Manzini, E. 2010. Small, local, open and connected: design for social innovation
and sustainability. The Journal of Design Strategies. 4(1):8-11.
• Mulgan, G. 2006. The process of social innovation. Innovations: technology,
governance, globalization. 1(2):145-162.
• Murray, R., Caulier-Grice, J., and Mulgan, G. 2010. The open book of social
innovation. Young Foundation. Available WWW: http://youngfoundation.org/wp-
content/uploads/2012/10/The-Open-Book-of-Social-Innovation.pdf (accessed 20
June 2013)
• SVA (School of Visual Arts), n.d. MFA DSI Design for Social Innovation.
Available WWW: http://dsi.sva.edu (accessed 20 June 2013).
• Taylor, J.B. 1970. Introducing social innovation. Journal of Applied Behavioral
Science. 6:69-77.
• Wong, V. 2009. World’s best design schools. Business Week (online edition).
Available WWW:
• http://images.businessweek.com/ss/09/09/0930_worlds_best_design_schools
(accessed 3 April 2013).

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 Design thinking as a strategy for marketing: a case study of Cocoa
Processing Company, Ghana

Dorcas Dufu
School of Business
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi-Ghana
[email protected]

E. Appiah
Faculty of Informatics & Design
Cape Peninsula University of Technology,
Cape Town-South Africa
[email protected]

Abstract
For years, managers have accepted and tried several strategies, methods and theories
in order to achieve greater growth rates and profits for their companies but new times
and the complex challenges of today’s world call for more strategic and integrative
design-led solutions. Consequently, the use of design thinking as a marketing strategy
has became the main trigger for this exploratory research that aims to assess the
theoretical contributions of design to business. Using the concept of Design Thinking as
prescribed by Levitt, this research looked at a shift from plain technology improvements
to real endeavours which addressed the needs of consumers, helping to generate
powerful and sustainable solutions that could tackle both current and future challenges,
using Cocoa processing Company, Ghana as a case study. Relevant insights were
drawn and integrated within design and business literature based on the set objectives
of the study through interviews with personnel from the Marketing. Findings showed
evidence of high level of integration between the various departments at Cocoa
Processing Company (CPC) but minimal between the organization and its customers.
Expectantly it was realised that CPC through collaborations with students in
multidisciplinary teams with background in design, business and technology could
assess its current design capabilities and identify the gaps in their design process and
thus would go a long way to help improve the fortunes of businesses and institutions
with their local consumers.

Keywords: Marketing strategies, Design Thinking, idea development, Consumer

satisfaction, Integration

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Introduction
The marketing concept, though already existed, came into the limelight and became
known as the right way of doing business when Prof. Theodore ''Ted'' Levitt form
Harvard Business School, published his essay "Marketing Myopia" in the Harvard
Business Review in the early 1960’s. Unfortunately for consumers however, the truth
still remains that only few companies practice marketing in the sense that Levitt
championed. Many executives still confuse total marketing with basic selling. As Levitt
(1975) pointed out, selling concerns itself with the tricks and techniques of getting
people to exchange their cash for your product; not the values that the exchange brings.
Marketing, however views the entire business process as consisting of a tightly
integrated effort to discover, create, arouse and satisfy customer needs.

Presently, due to the continuous instable nature of the world, markets are growing faster
and everyone is being affected by information overload, hence organizations need
marketing strategies that would serve as the prime driver of sustainable competitive
advantage. There is therefore the need for organizations to use mind-sets and
procedures from the field of design to make out unarticulated wants and deliberately
imagine the way to unlock such opportunities (Lafley, 2011). Design over the years has
somehow been seen as downstream step in the process of product development; using
it to enhance the appeal of an already existing product. Currently, organizations ask
designers to come up with solutions that meet both the seen and unseen needs of its
customers to help build an upstream and system that would optimize customer
experience and satisfaction. Moreover design should be seen as a means through
which customer satisfaction and company profitability can be optimized whilst
enhancing products, environment, communications and identity (Kotler & Rath 1984).

Design issues forces a company to focus on the consumers' wants and needs and the
product's ability to satisfy them, rather than the processes within the organization. Kotler
and Rath (1984) are of the view that the objective of using design thinking as a strategic
marketing tool is to create total satisfaction for the consumer, which translates into
profits for the company. Total satisfaction is accomplished by communicating
information about products, services and organizations to consumers, suppliers,
employees and shareholders through product design, information design, environment
design and corporate identity design.

Recently, design thinking has emerged as the quickest organizational path to innovation
and high-performance, changing the way creativity and commerce interact (Brown &
Wyatt, 2010; Serrat, 2010). According to Fraser (2009), the greatest payout of design
thinking lies in the design of strategies and business models for organizational
performance that creates both economic and human value. Broadening the definition of

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design, she argues that it can be the path to understanding stakeholder needs, the tool
for visualizing new solutions, and the process for translating cutting-edge ideas into
effective strategies (Fraser, 2009).

Companies that integrate the principles of design thinking in their innovation processes
often share a certain mind-set or are striving to cultivate a more creative and human-
centred company culture. The focus of this study was to investigate how Design
Thinking is being used as a critical strategic tool for the manufacturing and marketing of
products of Cocoa Processing Company (CPC). The research was driven by the
researchers enquiry into how well design thinking process was being used as a
marketing strategy to improve the sales and fortunes of CPC, especially through the
level of integration and consumers satisfaction.

Design and design thinking issues

‘Design’ from an organizational perspective, does not operate in isolation, but in relation
to a range of different disciplines, organisational units and functions i.e. marketing,
research and development, production, engineering, finance, law and brand
management. Depending on their level of ‘design literacy’, organisations tend to view
design in one of several ways: in terms of aesthetics (look and feel); as a process; as a
response to users’ needs; or (increasingly) as a strategic business component or tool
(Wefler & Associates, 1980; Bayley, 1985).

According to Candi, (2010) whereas the functional aspect can easily be understood as
utility and performance; the aesthetic aspect of design is concerned with the visceral
and experiential part that encompasses the human senses and meaning (Candi, 2010).
In The Integrative Disciplines, Buchanan (1992) categorises design in relation to
business in four ways: Design of symbolic and visual communications (graphic design,
brand identity, corporate identity), design of material objects (products, furniture,
textiles), design of activities and organized services (customer service) and design of
complex systems or environments for living, working, playing and learning (interiors,
architecture and urban development).

Design though might have several meanings and perspectives; is above all a
communication process. This implies that design plays the role of conveying information
about a product or an organization to consumers and or clients. For this research, the
design activities were aimed at both the user- centred and problem-solving process of
design for marketing. Used to describe first-class products some countries are
characterized by their user-centred design and examples are Japan (cars), Italy (shoes,
and Switzerland (watches).

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Marketers, in their use of “design,” limit its scope by referring to advertising, point-of-
sales of materials; packaging labels, and annual reports Pribble (1985). To Wefler
(1980) it is understandable when the term design covers disciplines such as product
designing, packaging, interiors, graphics, publications and fashion since they are the
most recognized. According to Trout & Ries (1972), the market adapts well to a product
or service through positioning. Positioning is therefore seen as a long-term strategic
effort by a company to own a "place" in the prospect's mind, since "share of mind" in the
long-run to marketers is more important than "share of market". The customer then
becomes the most important source from which such information can be gained and not
the marketing manager.

For Kotler and Rath (1984),the process of seeking to optimize consumer satisfaction
and company profitability through the creative use of major design elements
(performance, quality, durability, appearance, and cost) in connection with products,
environments, information, and corporate identity" serves as a strategic marketing
weapon (Kotler & Rath, 1984). Kotler and Rath (1984) through the description break the
value of design as a marketing tool down into its major elements to bring out the best
understanding.

For Brown (2009) design thinking is generally applying a designer’s sensibility and
methods to problem solving, no matter what the problem. It is not a substitute for
professional design or the art and craft of designing, but rather a methodology for
innovation and enablement (Brown, 2009). Design Thinking can therefore be described
as a tool to aid the process of discovering unmet needs, opportunities, create new
solutions and reinvention as well as transform businesses. It embraces a problem
solving perspective instead of getting trapped with the constraints and former
arguments that goes with solving problems and also transforming organizations. “This
discourse typically emphasizes designers’ passionate “mind-set” (Dunne & Martin,
2006) or a “design- attitude” (Boland, 2008; Boland & Collopy, 2004) that does not worry
about constraints, but is rather an on-going expectation that each project is a new
opportunity to create something remarkable and in a way that has never been achieved
before. This presupposes that a day’s thinking out-of -the -box is even not enough any
longer to generate breakthrough ideas (TED, 2009).
Contrary to the old, traditional management styles and their methods, which are
restricted by financial analysis and analytic approaches, Design Thinking provides
proactive tools and methods to cope with the risks that would rise without prediction.
Due to the complex nature of design, ’design solutions therefore tend to be holistic. It
requires the ability to embrace many different kinds of thoughts and knowledge -art,
science and technology- and perhaps more importantly, the ability to integrate them

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(Utterback, 2006). This thinking process also involves team approach, and the goal is to
unlock the creative potential of the organization and its partners. ‘The power of
interdisciplinary teams is undeniable, and the ability of design teams to see the entire
picture and context as well as the details of it make Design Thinking approach rather
unique’(Lockwood 2009). With its unique and integrative characteristics “Design
Thinking” has created excitement among a lot of people previously untouched by
design, and has generated new opportunities for designers to engage with business
management, and other functions and levels within the organization (Lockwood, 2009).
Design Thinking is based on matching balance between three overlapping main criteria
in order to achieve breakthrough success. Design thinkers need to analyse what is
technologically feasible (what can be produced), what is economically viable and finally
what meets the human needs; in other words what is socially desirable (what should be
produced) (Clark & Smith, 2008; Brown & Katz, 2009). These criteria are also offered
as tools for non-designer managers in various organizations to implement the problem-
solving approach of Design Thinking.

The case study profile

Ghana’s Cocoa Processing Company is one of the largest producers of cocoa products
in the world and a leader in the cocoa confectioneries. Though it has one of its core
values as aiming towards its customers delight and not just mere satisfaction, the
company still faces the challenge of low patronage of its confectionery products on the
Ghanaian market causing a drastic fall in sales. Their products are well known and their
prices seems to be moderate but anecdotal evidence suggest that Ghanaians prefer the
exported confectionery products because of a series of flaws in the overall design of
their system. Most of CPC’s confectionery products are either in medium or large sizes
that are bigger than most average consumers will need or can afford, and are tailored
towards the external markets. The producer of the best cocoa products, CPC, are
therefore missing the opportunity to design products which best fits the natives of its
country of origin because it failed to consider the culture and needs of the local
consumer.

This missed opportunity, although an obvious omission in hindsight is all too common.
Time and again, initiatives falter because they are not based on the client’s or
customer’s needs and have never been prototyped to solicit feedback through
integration. Even when researchers do go into the fields, they may enter with perceived
notions on what needs and solutions are. This flawed approach remains the norm in
most business sectors. There is therefore the need for organizations to come up with
systematic solutions that are grounded in their clients or customers’ needs to help curb

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these challenges. This is where many approaches flounder, but it is where design
thinking, a new approach to creating solutions excel.

The focus was on how CPC was using design thinking as a strategic marketing tool
within their organization through integration and customers’ satisfaction. Using
purposive sampling method key informants were identified and interviewed. 8
participants were interviewed from the marketing, production and research and
development departments while 18 people were sampled from its customers within the
Tema metropolis. Participants within CPC were picked based on their years of
experience within the various departments and also the level of knowledge within their
various departments as well as those of other departments they integrate with to come
out with products to be offered to customers. The customers were also picked based on
the number of years they had either associated with CPC as distributors or patronized
their products on the retail level. In addition to the in-depth interviews, the researcher
also made use of information from CPC’s web pages, research and annual reports.

Design thinking: Integration and consumer needs

Design thinking processes develop deep consumer insights from which radical
innovations and team work can be cultivated. The first phase of the process is for the
organization to see things from the consumer’s point of view. This can be done through
observation and interactions since the usual traditional techniques such as focus groups
and surveys, which in most cases simply ask people what they want, rarely yield
important insights.

To this, the study found out that even though CPC usually undertook market research in
relation to products pilot tested on the market to check the customer’s reaction towards
their products, such studies were focused not on the average consumer but their major
distributors. The respondents indicated that though there were times CPC worked with
customers own specifications concerning specific products, such customers tends to
come from outside the local consumers. For example different recipes and products
have been tailored for markets in Japan, the US market, and Nigeria. This implies that
though there had been times that locally, CPC had come out with products just for the
local consumer, these products had not yielded the required profit for the organization,
as captured indicated in responses to an interview.

….’when ‘Aspire’ was brought into the market, there was a market
research done later and it was realised that a group of people who
though liked CPC chocolate products, could not risk taking it because of
its sugar content. So when this was mentioned to the R&D department,

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they developed a recipe to suit that market, but this was after they had
come out with the product’.

Design thinking is based on matching balance between three overlapping main criteria
in order to achieve breakthrough success and they are as follows: design thinkers need
to analyse what is technologically feasible (what can be produced), what is
economically viable and finally what meets the human needs, in other words what is
socially desirable (what should be produced) (Clark & Smith, 2008; Brown & Katz,
2009). Businesses are embracing design thinking because it helps them be more
innovative, better differentiate their brands, and bring their products and services to
market faster.

By working closely with the clients and consumers, Design Thinking allows high-impact
solutions to bubble up from below rather than being imposed from the top. That way
CPC could achieve its long-term strategic objective of not only maximizing profit through
its ‘share of market’ but also owning a ‘place’ in the prospect’s mind, which is known as
‘share of mind’.

Design thinking: Integration and ideation processes

The level of integration as a way of idea developing within the various departments in
CPC was used for analysing the third and final stages of the design thinking process,
which were ideation and implementation respectively. Ideation is the process of
generating, developing, and testing ideas that may lead to solutions‘ (Brown, 2008).
Ideation centres on brainstorming of ideas and then implementation the path from the
project room to the market. At the ideation stage, design thinking mentions the
importance of interdisciplinary groups instead of multidisciplinary ones. Interdisciplinary
groups allow everyone who takes part in the group process to share the collective
responsibilities and the design of the system is no longer contained in the head of a
single individual or group. Rather, it is emergent across multiple individuals or groups.
From the point of view of the respondents working within the organization the level of
integration was very high on multidisciplinary rather than interdisciplinary.
…… ‘through customer’s ideas or complaints collected by the marketing
department through market research, the R&D (Research and
Development) department then crystallizes them into recipes’.
Prototypes are done at the laboratory and then taken to the production
unit. ……This therefore brings Quality Assurance on board to check the
specifications and quality. Then when everything is done we have to
order the material hence the need for the accounts department to do

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the costing whether if the organization tow towards that direction it’s
sure to earn profits or run at a loss”.

As another respondent put it

…..‘As a company one department is a customer of the other and this is
based on internal marketing. So for instance production has marketing
as its number one customer since production produces for marketing to
sell. Production would also have to depend on purchasing to bring in
the inputs for them to produce. So there is a high level of
interconnection between the departments I would say”.
Even after production has finished producing, the products do not go
straight to the marketing department. The laboratory section of the R&D
takes control of the products and understudies them for a long period of
time and be convinced that it is conducive for consumption before they
release them to the marketing department. So after R&D is satisfied with
the production, they would then send it to the stores who would turn put it
on the tally to inform us that those products have been released and are
available at the stores’.

Our study acknowledged such integration of various departments but revealed major
gaps of continuity and interdisciplinary. Our analysis reveals that these various
departments are brought in at the stages where there are needed but were not part of a
holistic idea development process. For example, a respondent remarked
“….at the implementation stage the R&D, marketing and
production department would have to communicate with sufficient
clarity to gain acceptance across the organization especially from
management by providing the recipe and showing that it will
work in its intended market”.

Such communication should be at the developmental stages of ideas within

interdisciplines, which allow everyone to ‘own’ the process. With each ‘owning’, the level
of ‘sufficient clarity’ will be easy and quick for assimilation since all the departments
were involved in the idea development.

It was also observed that that CPC had a product Innovation committee which
coordinated the activities between marketing and the production, accounts and
engineering. They met every fortnight to get updates on new developments with
respect to its products and the way forward. According Manu(2007), business needs to
learn from design how to manage creativity from the inception of a concept through
iterative stages to its implementation in products, systems, and services that are useful

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and desirable for a large group of people. Design needs to learn from business how to
rigorously analyse the risks and rewards of any new creative idea and how to employ
the tactics that will make it beneficial to users. Design thinking requires the ability to
embrace many different kinds of thoughts and knowledge -art, science and technology-
and perhaps more importantly, the ability to integrate them (Utterback, 2006) within
acceptable limits of time and space. Design thinking process also involves team
approach, and the goal is to unlock the creative potential of the organization and its
partners. That is why Lockwood (2009) said that ‘the power of interdisciplinary teams is
undeniable, and the ability of design teams to see the entire picture and context as well
as the details of it at a glance makes Design Thinking approach rather unique’’. With its
unique and integrative characteristics “Design Thinking” has created excitement among
a lot of people previously untouched by design, and this has generated new
opportunities for designers to engage with business management, and other functions
and levels within the organization (Lockwood, 2009). It was surprising none of our
respondents within the organization possesses any design background and do not see
any relevance in design within the organization at this stage.

Design Thinking Capabilities and Tools

Incorporating Design Thinking into business practices requires certain capabilities – a
tool kit that includes observational techniques, needs mapping, opportunity scanning
and rapid prototyping. These tools facilitate the identification of problems and allow us
to creatively solve for them. This process comes with a “responsibility to shape the
future,” as businesses often have, where we need to acknowledge and act upon this
human need for meaning, identity and connectivity.

Design Thinking needs to be seen as a culture – it is not just what marketers and
designers do, or how their work is organized, it also includes the effect it has in many
other fields. Design Thinking is about seeking out possibilities and demonstrating the
willingness to make inexpensive mistakes to expand one’s scope of thought and work.
Ultimately Design Thinking is a bridge builder, an interface that brings us together,
helping us to shrink the gaps between people and processes, customers and the
company. As a new concept, Design Thinking needs to be carefully adopted and
integrated with traditional business management practice. It should not be exploited as
a marketing tool, tactic or an excuse for creative ideas to avoid analytical based
criticism or common sense business logic. It should be positioned as a creative logic
tool that can facilitate innovation and strategic transformation.

Applied Design Thinking in business problem solving incorporates mental models, tools,
processes and techniques from design, engineering, economics, the humanities and

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social sciences to help identify, define and address business challenges (i.e. strategic
planning, product development, innovation and corporate social responsibility). This
integration when executed correctly forms a highly productive dynamic between
traditional business management approaches and design approaches complementing
and enhancing one another in a symbiotic fashion.

The increased adoption of multidisciplinary approaches to business problem solving,

including the application of Design Thinking, helps organizations fill in critical, and often
overlooked, knowledge gaps and information deficiencies. By combining the two,
organizations establish more complete and ultimately competitive bodies of actionable
knowledge and insights that allows for a human centric and future-oriented approach.
This approach does not discount or diminish the value of traditional and other analytical
business methods in problem solving, rather by leveraging the best qualities of both
business and Design Thinking, it establishes a more sensitive, powerful and potent
analytical tool set that escalates our thinking to a new level. This results in a more
holistic perspective and learning experience that is meaningful, valid and practical.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the results of this study have revealed that, CPC through its Marketing,
R&D and Production activities made no mention of any activities by designers nor
design thinking processes. Dumaine (1991) acknowledges that managers within
organizations looked upon design as pure aesthetics, a matter of simply dolling up a
product long after it has been engineered, typically failing to give designers enough
authority to be effective. Meanwhile what they failed to see is good design addresses
the consumer's every concern - how a product works, how it feels in the hand, how easy
it is to assemble and fix, and even, in this era of environmental concern, whether it can
be recycled. It remains that companies as diverse as Ford, IBM (Olins, 1985) and Sony
(Lorenz, 1986) have achieved significant commercial success through their
organization-wide use of design as a strategic marketing tool. This makes design critical
to consumer satisfaction and corporate success. Therefore if marketing and design
people understand and valued each other’s methods, intentions and processes more
clearly, then corporations and consumers would both benefit. Finally marketers and
designers must learn to appreciate and respect each other's skills and realize they can
achieve greater success through cooperation than through opposition.

References
• Bayley, S. (1985). Introduction. In T. Conran, The Conran Directory of Design (p.
8), S. Bayley (Ed). New York: Villard Books.

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Appiah, E

• Boland, R. J., &Collopy, F. (2004). Design Matters for Management. In R. J.

Boland & F. Collopy (Eds.), Managing as Designing (pp.3-18). Stanford: Stanford
University Press.
• Boland, R. J., Collopy, F., Lyytinen, K., & Yoo, Y. 2008. Managing as Designing:
Lessons for Organization Leaders. Design Issues,24(1), pp.10-25.
• Brown, T. (2009). Change by design: how design thinking transforms
organizations and inspires innovation. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
• Brown T., Katz B., (2009). Change by Design: How Design Thinking Transform
Organizations and Inspires Innovation. New York: HarperCollins Publisher.
• Brown, T. & Wyatt J. (2010). ‘Design Thinking for Social Innovations’, Stanford
Innovation Review, winter 2010.
• Candi, M., (2010). Benefits of Aesthetic Design as an Element of New Service
Development, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 27, pp.1047-1064.
• Clark, K. and Smith R., (2008). Unleashing the Power of Design Thinking. Design
Management Review, 19(3), pp.8-15.
• CPC, (2010). The Company: The Cocoa Processing Company;
http://www.goldentreeghana.com/the company.html; Accessed June 18, 2012.
• Dumaine, B. (1991). Design that sells and sells and… Fortune. pp. 86-94.
• Dunne. D., and Martin, R. (2006). Design thinking and how it will change
management education: An interview and discussion. Academy of Management
Learning and Education, 5(4), 5\2-523.
• Fraser, H. M. A., (2009). Design Business: New Models for Success. Design
Management Review, 20(2), pp. 55-65.
• Kotler, P., & Rath, G. A. (1984). Design: A powerful but neglected strategic tool.
Journal of Business Strategy. 5(2), 16-21.
• Lafley, A.G. (2010). Design Thinking – A strategic approach for value creation
Posted on June 30, 2011
http://evangeldesign.wordpress.com/2011/06/30/design-thinking-a-strategic-
approach-for-value-creation; Accessed June 2,2012.
• Levitt, T. (1975). Marketing myopia. Harvard business review on Management.
New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc.
• Lockwood T., (2009). Design Thinking, Integrating Innovation, Customer
Experience, and Brand Value. New York: Allworth Pres.
• Lorenz, C. (1986). The design dimension: The new competitive weapon for
business. New York: Basil Blackwell Inc.
• Manu, A. (2007). The Imagination Challenge: Strategic Foresight and Innovation
in the Global Economy Berkeley, California: New Riders.
• Olins, W. (1985). Management by design. Management Today, pp. 62-69.

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Appiah, E

• Pribble III . J., (1985) Integration of Design and Marketing in Higher Education
Published in Journalism Abstracts
• Serrat, O. (2010). Design thinking. Washington, DC: Asian Development Bank.
Available at http://evangeldesign.wordpress.com/2011/06/30/design-thinking-a-
strategic-approach-for-value-creation; Accessed June 2,2012.
• TED, (2009). Available at: http://www.ted.com/search?q=tim+brown (Accessed
05.05.2012).
• Trout, J., & Ries, A. (1972).The Positioning Era. New York: Ries Cappiello
Colwell (reprint from Advertising Age, 1972, April 24, May 1, May 8).
• Utterback, J. M. (2006). Design-inspired innovation. Hackensack, N.J.: World
Scientific.
• Wefler & Associates, Inc. (1980). A credo for the future. Design Firm
Management (1), 1-4.

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 Designing a board game for the education of malaria prevention and
control

F. O. Dartey,
School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
[email protected]

V. Joseph,
Public Health Consultant, Doncaster Council, Doncaster, UK
[email protected]

M. Ofori Dartey,
Faculty of Development and Society, Sheffield Hallam University,
Sheffield, UK
[email protected]

Abstract
Eradication of malaria in developing countries is a global issue and a public health
concern. In Africa, it is the leading cause of child mortality and is responsible for 1 in 6
child death. Interventions, such as home-based management of fevers; environmental
sanitation; the use of Insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) and indoor spraying etc. have
been designed to prevent and control malaria in Africa. Most of these interventions were
developed by the medical professionals and are based on didactic method of teaching.
Using metaphors in healthcare communication, a model is proposed based on the
concept of football game, a popular sport in Africa. The model, referred to as 'Malaball'
(derived from Malaria Ball) is based on user-centred design approach. The aim of the
project was to design an effective communication tool to be used at home by the family
to educate malaria prevention and control. In a user testing workshop with participants
from developing countries, it emerged that the tool makes the prevention message easy
to understand and practicable. This paper presents graphic design model as a tool for
health promotion in the education of malaria prevention and control.
Keywords: Health game, Board game, Ethno-user testing workshop, Communication
tool, Health promotion, design phenomenology, Metaphor

1.0 Introduction
A game is a physical or mental contest with a goal or objective, played according to a
framework, or rules, that determines what a player can and cannot do inside a game
world [Baranowski et al., 2008]. Games are adaptable, stimulate interaction between
groups or individuals and provide fun, and are regarded as tools to motivate and
support learning [van der Stege et al., 2010]. They have long been used in learning
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environments [Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004; Beentjes, 2001; Feierabend & Klingler,
2001] and according to Dieterle [2009] the fun-factor has been used by teachers and
trainers to increase and reinforce learning effectiveness. Game-based learning is a type
of problem-based learning (PBL) in which the problem scenarios are placed in the
context of the games [Mann et al., 2002]. They have been applied in studies in health
promotion and health communication campaign [van der Stege et al., 2010; Lieberman,
2009; Brox et. al., 2011]. Health promotion enables people to increase control over, and
to improve, their health [WHO, 2009] is the process of enabling people to; while health
communication campaigns raise awareness to, improve knowledge about health issues.

Metaphors are used everyday by health professions to explain health information and to
communicate to patients [Hawkins, 1999; Sim, 2003; Reisfield and Wilson, 2004]. It
makes dissemination of knowledge easier [Yi et al., 2005], permeate in our thoughts
and speeches as well as have a profound effect on behavioural experience [Reisfield
and Wilson, 2004], and facilitate communication by giving coherence to the distinctive
events of illness [Sim, 2003; Reisfield & Wilson, 2004]. Metaphors often serve as
powerful tools for establishing a consensual understanding in the therapeutic
relationship, and influencing patient experience in ways that promote adaptation and
positive self-regard [Reisfield and Wilson, 2004].

Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people

through the bite of the infected female anopheles mosquito. Specific population risk
groups include young children, pregnant women, people with HIV/AIDS, international
travellers from non-endemic areas and immigrants from endemic areas and their
children [WHO, 2012; CDC, 2010]. In Africa, a child dies every minute from malaria
[WHO, 2012]. The disease caused about 660,000 deaths in 2010 globally of which 90%
occurred in Africa [WHO, 2011]. In Ghana, Malaria is a major cause of poverty and
reduces productivity which accounts for about 32.5% of all out-patients department
(OPD) attendances and 49% percent of children under five admissions [NMCP annual
report, 2009].

Four main strategies have been put in place to reduce malaria morbidity and mortality in
Ghana according to GHS [2013]. They include;
- Multiple prevention, which includes promotion of treated bed nets usage;
chemoprophylaxis in pregnancy and environmental sanitation,
- Improvement in malaria case management at all levels (from household to health
facility),
- Encourage evidence-based research to come up with effective interventions,
- Improve partnership with all partners at all levels.

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Malaria treatment is important to cure people with malaria infection; but causes a huge
financial drain on the economy; especially the developing and poor nations [WHO,
2012]. Prevention is the key strategy to control the spread of malaria infection, which is
of public health importance [WHO, 2010; GHS, 2011].

The scale up of malaria prevention and control interventions from 2004 to 2009 had a
great impact in malaria endemic countries [World Malaria Report, 2012]. However,
global funding for malaria prevention and control such as; long-lasting insecticide nets
(LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS), levelled off between 2010 and 2011 and
progress in the delivery of some life-saving commodities has slowed [World Malaria
Report, 2012] and this threatens to reverse the impact in the fight against malaria.
There is the need to maintain the momentum to prevent resurgence [World Malaria
Report, 2012].

One of the key strategies underpinning malaria prevention is educating the general
population. This is mainly done through malaria campaigns by health personnel, and
may not appeal to the local population especially the population with low literacy rate.
There is the need to develop innovative ways of educating such people to achieve
optimum yield. The Malaball board game has been designed to serve that purpose.

This paper discusses the tactics and strategies adapted to inform the design and
development of the ''Malaball' board game and the results of the testing workshop.

2.0 Background
Public health communication interventions are designed to impact on the health of the
target audience with desired health improvement goal and results measured to see the
effectiveness in achieving change [Zoller & Dutta, 2008]. There are three published
malaria games, which include:

1) Malaria games [Noble Media AB, 2003],

2) Stopmalarianow [Stop Malaria Now, 2012]
3) Swat Malaria Mosquitoes [MSF, 2013]

Analysis of the malaria games

- There are two educational malaria games on mosquitoes on the noble prize
website published by Noble Media AB [2003]. The estimated play time for each game is
5 - 10 minutes.

To begin the games the player is taking through some information on mosquitos and
malaria. The player is expected to answer some questions before the games
commences. One of the games concentrates on mosquitoes and the other on malaria

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parasites. In the mosquito game, the player assumes the position of the mosquito and
the player has to avoid factors that will kill it (mosquito). The second game is about
malaria parasites. With this game the player assumes the position of the malaria
parasite and again avoids factors that will kill it. In terms of graphic design, the games
have interesting graphics, good colour contrast, readable fonts, good layout and simple
to play. However, in terms of it being a health promotion tool, it is not good enough as it
does not seem to cover prevention and control of mosquito breeding. Malaria is
transmitted or transferred by mosquitoes. Malaria prevention and control is about
preventing mosquito breeding and biting and not only killing mosquitoes as the game
seem to portray. Although the game provides information on causes of malaria, it does
not focus on prevention and control.

- There is also another malaria game – Stopmalarianow (Stop Malaria Now,

2012). The concept behind this game is about a couple travelling and having to wait at
the bank of a river for a canoe to help them cross the river. The baby is at the back of
the father and both parents are swatting mosquitoes to prevent biting them and the
baby. The graphic design is good with appropriate colour contrast and an interesting
layout which an African can identify with. It is also simple to play. The player is expected
to kill the mosquitoes which is not all what malaria prevention and control is about.
Stopmalarianow game also provides information on malaria transmission and causes.
Thus, it also educates the player about how malaria is transmitted. Though it educates
on causes and some prevention of malaria by killing the mosquitoes, it fall short of
educating you on what you have to do to prevent breeding which is one of the main
prevention factors of malaria as advocated by malaria expert agencies such as Roll
Back Malaria and Malaria Consortium. Thus, again it cannot be a good health promotion
tool for malaria as the tool failed to educate about prevention and control of mosquito
breeding. The game as stated on the home page is meant for Africa, but the game is
published in Spanish which is not spoken in Africa. Thus, it may not reach its target
group.

- Swat Malaria Mosquitoes [MSF, 2013] game is also another game online
published by Medecins sans frontiers or Doctors without borders [MSF, 2013] . This
game also educates the player about transmission of malaria, symptons and treatment
of malaria. In the game, the player assumes a virtual personality called ‘Manu’ who
swats (kill) mosquitoes around him. In graphic design contest, the colour contrast is
good, nice clipart which African can again easily identify with and a repetitive African
folk song as soundtrack. Swat malaria mosquitoes like the two other games discussed
above also provide scanty information on malaria prevention if not at all. It however,
edges the player to kill mosquitoes which are one part of preventing malaria but fail to
educate on malaria control. Swat malaria mosquitoes game again fall short of being a

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good health promotion tool for malaria as it did not talk about all the prevention and
control methods of malaria.

All these games are targeted at African audience but they are all published on the
internet which has a very limited access penetration in Africa. Thus, the target group
cannot access them to use them. Malaball has been designed to talk about how to
prevent mosquito breeding and control as advocated by health agencies which work on
malaria like World Health Organisation, Malaria Rollback, Malaria Consortium. It is also
a board-game which can be accessed easily and easy to use by the target group.

3.0 Research Methodology

The research project utilised the idea of design phenomenology to inquire the user’s
experience and perception, through experiential approach of using user-testing
workshop. The purpose of using phenomenological approach in the design and the
development inquiry methods was to identify phenomena through how the users
perceived and experienced the product [Lester, 1999]. A Phenomenological study is a
study that seeks to examine the human experience through the descriptions provided by
the study population [Brink et al. 2006].

Objective of project: To design a board game that which would entertain and also be
able to persuade players to change their health behaviour.

4.0 Design and Development

Research indicates that Malaria is a vector - borne disease [Sharma & Dutta, 2011;
Serandour et al, 2007; Egbendewe-Mondzozo et al., 2011]. Analysing literature on
research findings on malaria, it was noticed that vector borne diseases can be
controlled through putting some defensive mechanism in place to fight off the attacking
disease factors. The design is therefore based on a team game in which utilises the
defence and attack system. Further literature research indicated that, in most
developing countries especially in Africa, football is very popular, from children through
to older adults and it is enjoyed by both genders [Williams, 2003; Saavedra, 2003;
Rubin, 2009]. Therefore, the football game was adopted to be used as the metaphor to
develop the board-game.

Initially, a five-a-side football game was designed. However, it emerged during a field
survey that there are many factors that needed to be talked about in malaria prevention
and control. The team size was increased to ten (10) players. Football is played with a
player standing formation. There are many different player standing formations such as
the 4-4-2 formation (that is 4 defendants, 4 mid-fielders and 2 strikers), 4-3-3 formation,
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4-5-1 formation etc. These player standing formation are created depending on the
coach or the technical team tactics. The board game was developed based on the 4-4-2
formation, which is the most popular known football formation in the world [Arnason et
al., 2004a; Arnason et al, 2004b]. There are ten (10) playing cards for each team
making a total of twenty (20) playing cards in all. The playing cards are referred to as
'player' cards. Each card represents a player and contains a set of instructions to
perform. There are 10 'player' cards for team mosquito and 10 'player' cards for team
health. There are also 10 yellow cards of which 6 are of team health and 4 of team
mosquito. The red cards are also 10 of which 5 are of team health and 5 of team
mosquito. For every game there should be rewards. To make the board game as much
real as possible, red and yellow cards system were included as in real football.
Consulting football commentators, FIFA website [fifa.com, 2012] and some football fans
the designer learnt that often red cards are shown near the '18 area' (the ‘box’ in front of
the goal post) and that is the place where most people understand the need or why the
red card was issued. The designer also learnt that not more than three (3) red cards are
often issued in a football match [Colwell, 2000; Jewell, 2012]. Therefore, three (3) red
spots were created by the designer within or near the '18 area' of each side of the 'pitch'
of the board game. Referees in real football matches, usually issue up to three (3)
yellow cards to a team unless the game is very bad that more than three (3) yellow
cards are issued to a team [Colwell, 2000; Jewell, 2012]..With this in mind, three (3)
spots were also created on each side of the 'pitch'. As in any competitive games
rewards are giving to motivate and also encourage participation, there are also rewards
in the ‘malaball’ game which is referred to as 'Free Kick' cards and they are 5 in
number. The ‘free kick’ games are awarded to motivate players. The size of the board
game is 42cm X 29.7cm. The game has been designed to be big enough to fit on a
coffee table of about 50cm X 35cm.

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Dartey, M. O.

Figure 1: Picture of Malaball board game

The board game (figure 1) is targeted at the developing nations where low literacy rate
is an issue [Dada, 2006; Tosun, 2000]. The instructional cards are designed in two
formats. One set of instruction cards is designed for the literate and another set
designed for illiterate. The set designed for the illiterate contain drawings or pictograms
(Figure 2) with less text to aid comprehension.

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Figure 2 - Picture-aided instruction card & Non-picture instruction card

4.1 Prototyping
After a series of designs, a final one was settled on and developed to be tested in a two
(2) hour User-Testing Workshop. Staff nurses from developing countries working at
Doncaster Royal Infirmary, Doncaster, South Yorkshire, UK were deem as a
representatives of the intended public health workers (who are our secondary
stakeholders) as many of whom have practiced health promotion in their various
countries of origin before relocating to the United Kingdom. There were also people who
were not medical personnel but were recruited to test the game as 'lay people' or our
primary stakeholders. The participants were from Kenya, South Sudan, Ghana,
Cameroon and Dominica (Caribbean). People who were from the same country were
paired and tasked to give their feedback. Others were paired as multinationals to also
see how people from different countries can play the game. There were 6 teams - Team
1 (South Sudan), Team 2 - (Kenya and Dominica), Team 3 (Ghana), Team 4 (Ghana),
Team 5 (Ghana) & Team 6 (Cameroon and Ghana).

An assessment by two English female lecturers at Sheffield Hallam University,

Sheffield, UK who lectures in public health indicated that Malaball could be a useful
communication tool. And an assessment by a Ghanaian male medical doctor (who
practices in Ghana) also indicated that the Malaball board game is a very useful tool.

4.2 User-testing workshop findings

The user-testing workshop was organised to test the board game's 'effectiveness',
'affection' and 'usability'. The findings are presented according to the analytical
typologies of the effectiveness, affection and usability. Verbatim quotes from the
participants are labelled by the country and gender of the participant. This is done so
that the voices and perceptions of the gender and of various countries on the malaball
game can easily be noted. This is important to the project as the game is meant to be
used in various countries.

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Figure 3: A picture of Malaball board game during the user-testing workshop

4.2.1 Effectiveness
The feedback from the user-testing workshop was impressive and in favour of the board
game. The effectiveness of the malaball board game to convey the message was
perceived to be effective as indicated by this quote of a Kenyan female nurse participant

"my grandmother can even play this game and would understand the messages".

This quote implies that the malaball game is easy to play which the South Sudanese
participants affirmed by saying

"simple to use!"

The effectiveness of the message to be understood by all was proved by the Kenyan
indicating that her grandmother

"would understand..."

and is also buttress by what the Ghanaian male medical doctor said

"this makes the health promotion teaching about vector-borne diseases practicable and
very easy to understand."

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A Ghanaian female nurse participant also talked about the easy comprehension of the
messages by saying

"so easy to remember and understand."

Again the effectiveness of the malaball game to convey suitable messages was also
touched on by the Kenyan female nurse participant who said that

"the message was suitable as it touched all areas of prevention and treatment if
infected."

The suitability of the message was also picked on by a Ghanaian male sports presenter
participant who also said

"I have heard of malaria but the game highlights many basic things that back home we
seem to take for granted."

It could be deduced from the analyses of the feedback that the Malaball board game is
effective in conveying the message and an effective teaching tool as clearly indicated by
the Ghanaian medical doctor's quotation and this quote from another Ghanaian female
nurse participant who also said

"is very good, teaches and learning at the same time to achieve the goals."

In fact, most of the feedbacks indicated that the Malaball game is an effective teaching
tool.

4.2.2 Affection
The feedback on affection of the Malaball was also impressive as indicated by the
feedback from the South Sudanese participants who said

"it's fun. Interesting / enjoyable."

A male Dominican participant also said

"...fun playing."

The Kenyan participant made this statement

"the metaphor...was appropriate as its a common / familiar game to all"

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...goes to affirm the love or like of the football metaphor. A Ghanaian female nurse
participant also said

"I enjoyed playing the game."

Again analysis of the feedback on affection indicated that the use of the football
metaphor is appropriate and is liked very much.

4.2.3 Usability
The participants gave good feedbacks on the usability of the malaball game. Usability
for the purpose of analysis was divided into (1) as a teaching or learning tool and (2)
playing it as a game for the analysis purpose.

- As a teaching / learning tool: The Ghanaian medical doctor made a statement

that malaball makes health promotion practicable and easy to understand the
information. A Ghanaian female nurse participant also said

"is very good, teaches and learning at the same time to achieve the goals."

- Playing it as a game: A Ghanaian non medical female participant also said "easy
to play." The Ghanaian male sports presenter said

"it's easy to use. The rules of the game not so much complicated. You don't take long to
understand it. The moment you get it, you flow along with it and enjoy it. The most
important thing to me is the basic awareness it creates."

The Dominican male participant also said

"Its easy to use and understand the concept."

Again analysing the feedback on the usability, the participants stated that the malaball
can be used as a teaching / learning tool and it makes teaching or learning easy to
understand. The participants also agreed that malaball as a game is effective and easy
to play. Simply put, the South Sudanese participants said the malaball game is "Simple
to use."

There were some constructive feedbacks as well. The South Sudanese participants
gave this feedback on effectiveness

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"some of the content re: wording may need to be reviewed/rephrased."

The Ghanaian sports presenter also suggested that

"when two players collide (fall on the same spot)...it becomes a foul and the one who
collides with the opponent made to see the referee for punishment."

Another criticism was the quality of the players. The players were made out of paper
and were falling down easily. Thus, initially it did put some people off until they
understood that they can still play the game even if the players are falling. In the second
phase of the research project the players will be made of plastic cast.

4.3 Evaluation of Malaball board game as a health game

Using Lieberman [2010] guidelines on developing health games, 'Malaball' was
evaluated as a health game using the feedback of the user-testing workshop.

4.3.1 Potential impact on target audience

- Behaviour change, not just knowledge gain: Lieberman [2010] stated that apart
from increasing the factual knowledge of the player, it is good to motivate and
improve the player's health behaviour. A feedback from a Ghanaian male
participant said this "I have heard of malaria but the game highlights many basic
things that back home we seem to take for granted." Again a Ghanaian female
participant also said this "it is very educative and show/teaches me how to clean
my environment to prevent malaria." Thus, the Malaball game not only conveys
messages but can also motivate and impact on health behaviours.

- Consider the social environment: Lieberman [2010] asked designers to think

about how a game can impact on the social interaction of the players. As a
Kenyan participant said "my grandmother can even play this game and would
understand the messages". Clearly, it indicates that the malaball game can bring
families together in such a way that grandchildren can even play with the
grandparents.

- Your target users: Lieberman [2010] asked what subgroup does your game
target especially well? The malaball game was designed to be played by the
whole family, that is for both parents and children, and also by both educated and
non-educated. There are two sets of instructional cards, but convey the same
messages. One set has pictorials to aid comprehension for the less educated or

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non-educated and like the Kenyan said "even my grandmother..." Often in Africa,
most grandparents are non or less educated. So the Kenyan implied that her less
educated grandmother can equally play the game and understand the
information as well.

4.3.2 Quality, accuracy and content of message

- Well established, well tested approaches: Lieberman [2010] asked does it (the
game) incorporate behaviour change strategies that are known to work well? The
messages on the instructional cards were derived from Rollback Malaria, WHO
policy on malaria and other trustworthy agencies policies and messages on
malaria.

- Cause-and-effect logic: Lieberman [2010] stated that in designing health games,

the designer should think about the cause-and-effect factor. The malaball has
been developed based of cause-and-effect system. The Team health is suppose
to do some things which will prevent breeding of mosquitoes (defence system)
while team mosquito is attacking hoping to take advantage of lapses in the
defence system.

- Age-appropriate: Lieberman [2010] advocate that age-targeted games should

have its health behaviour models appropriate to the target age group. Malaball is
a family friendly game and as such it can be played by all ages.

4.3.3 Creativity and Originality

- New and fun: Lieberman [2010] stated that games developed for health should
provide fun and be original, and it should be challenging and engaging. Malaball
game is original and feedbacks from the user-testing workshop indicated that it is
fun to play, challenging and engaging as a South Sudanese participant said
"initially, you might think it will take some few minutes to play but no. It is very
engaging and can take hours to play and you will not notice it."

- Intergenerational play: Lieberman [2010] advocated that games that bring

different age groups together should lead to interesting game play experience
that could impact on health behaviours. During the user-testing workshop, a
couple of kids played the game with their parents. Thus, malaball game is
intergenerational.

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4.3.4 Potential for further development and use
- Easy to expand: Lieberman [2010] tasked designers to design games that can be
expanded such as adding more content. Malaball, is designed to be adaptable
and it is the wish of the researchers to try on some other vector-borne diseases.

4.3.5 Potential to engage and motivate target audience

- Motivational strategies: Lieberman [2010] stated that games should be designed
with well-established strategies to engage and motivate. Malaball has been
designed with strategies like the possibility of getting a red card, yellow card and
free-kick cards to reward. Malaball has been designed to engage and motivate
players.

- Appealing content and challenges: Lieberman [2010] tasked designers to design

games that contain content and / or challenges that would be appealing and
motivating. Feedbacks from the user-testing workshop indicates that malaball is
appealing on the metaphor used; the content and the challenges are all engaging
and does motivate behavioural change.

- Sustained engagement: Lieberman [2010] entreat game designers to design

health games that will sustain players' engagement for a long time and always
wanting to come back and play. Feedbacks from the user-testing workshop attest
to the fact that the game sustains engagement.

- Transfer from game to real life: Lieberman [2010] advocate that games should
inspire players to use in their daily lives the knowledge, attitudes, skills, or
behaviours acquired from playing the game. Again, feedback from the user-
testing workshop attested to transferring of knowledge acquired from playing
malaball to real-life e.g. as stated by the Ghanaian male sports presenter
participant: "I have heard of malaria but the game highlights many basic things
that back home we seem to take for granted."

5.0 Design Knowledge Discussion

Cross [1999] stated that 'design knowledge resides in its processes: in the tactics and
strategies of designing.' Cross [1999] again stated that the most important part of design
research is the methodology used.

When a product is developed, it is assumed to be used within a certain context by a

user population within a certain environment [Maguire, 2000]. Studies [Whiteside et al,
1988; Wolf, 1989; Maguire, 2000] have identified that products performed well in their

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laboratory experiments, but do not work well when transferred to the real world. They
thus developed contextual research, where designers would work with people in
carrying out their design work in real situations rather than in artificial situations. This led
to usability workshops which are widely used by the human-computer interaction (HCI)
community. Interviews, participatory design and user-testing workshops are some of the
many methods the HCI community use in communicating with stakeholders and end-
users and in conducting user-centred design [Cohene et al., 2005; Kensing and
Blomberg, 1998; Hughes et al., 1993]. However, in some circumstances, there are
obstacles that impede the interaction or communication with stakeholders or end-users.
Some of these obstacles are languages, locations and cultures [Cohene et al., 2005]. In
our case it is location.

Malaball is a board game developed to be used as a communicating tool / learning aid

in health promotion in developing countries especially for Africa, was designed and
developed in UK. Testing on British people will not give us the right feedback. Our
options were either to travel and go down to Africa to hold trials or organise user-testing
workshops in UK using similar ethno-demographic people as potential users. We chose
to utilise the second option. User-testing workshop stimulate real-life situation. User-
testing workshops also provide the designer an opportunity to interact with potential
users to explain better to users and also get a first hand feedback. Our tactics in
designing and developing the malaball game was to find ethno-demographic people,
who will be as close in terms of behaviour and culture as possible to our intended users.
And our strategy was to organise a user-testing workshop in order to interact with the
potential users. Again, user-testing workshop was thought of as it would offer us the
opportunity of getting many different nationals under one roof to try the product and
exchange views. In user-centred design approach, location which is the access to the
right users can be a challenging issue to design researchers on shoe-string budget. We
adapted our design process to account for the issue of location by using what we term
'ethno user-testing workshop' to solve the issue of location. We termed it 'ethno' as the
participants of the user-testing workshop consisted of a specific ethnography.

6.0 Conclusion
This is the first phase of the malaball research project. The feedback from this first
phase is significant as it indicates that a board game such as Malaball, could be used in
promoting malaria prevention and control. Apart from educating the target, it also
provides fun and brings family together. Malaball board game could be an effective and
affective communicating tool as the results of the first phase indicates. A board game
could be a cost effective way of undertaking health promotion and this is going to be
tested in the second phase in some selected African countries.

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This is also compelling evidence in the field of healthcare visual communication, as it
revealed that a board-game could be used in engaging and educating a target audience
on behavioural change. Much of the interests in health games have been concentrated
on interactive video-games. But the results of this research project attest to the fact that
board-games could effectively be used as a behavioural change tool. In an area where
video-games cannot be afforded, board-games can effectively be used to engage and
educate its audience.

This study also contributed in addressing one of the major challenging issues of user-
centred design process which is location. It is recommended that design studies, facing
the challenging issue of location in designing and developing of health promotional
materials outside the geographic area of the intend users, could use ethno-user-testing
workshop to solve the issue of location and access to potential users in their designing
process.

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 Psychological Impact of the Colour in Design

Zoran MARKOVIC
University of Botswana,
Department of Industrial Design and Technology,
Gaborone, Botswana
<[email protected]>

Slobodanka RADANOVIC
RS Studio, Zrenjanin, Serbia
<[email protected]>

Abstract
Colour has the biggest impact on final users in design, including architectural and
interior design. This impact is sometimes even greater then impacts of all others tools
and techniques combined together (shape, form, dimension, balance, symmetry, scale,
accent, focus, etc.). This impact depends on many factors - cultural background of final
users is one of them. The main research questions are whether colours affect final
users and how strong cultural influence affects the impact which colours make on final
users. The paper presents preliminary results of the research regarding influence of
cultural background on psychological impact of colour in interior design. The Research
started in 2012 and has been conducted on numerous locations worldwide. Preliminary
results (obtained from the first three countries) support the research hypothesis. The
Research intends to describe and present current situation regarding cultural influence
on colour impact in interior design, and aims to revisit previous works in this area, but
including a multi-cultural background (e.g. Kaya/Epps, etc.). It conducts analyses both
on psychological (personal) and sociological (group) level.

Key words: Colour Psychology, Psychological impact, Culture, Cultural Background

1. Introduction
Conducted analysis of all tools and techniques used by designers in interior design
indicate that colour has the biggest impact on final users. The paper presents
preliminary results of the research regarding cultural background and its influence on
psychological impact of colour in interior design. The Research started at the beginning
of 2012 and it is still conducted on various locations worldwide. The Research has been
fully finalised in Botswana and Serbia, and it is in its final stage in Kenya; it has started
in Slovenia and India, and it is in the preparation phase in Brazil, Singapore and
Malaysia. The plan is to finalise all data collections by June 2013, prepare the results
matrixes for each country before October 2013 and finalise a comprehensive
comparison study during the period from November 2013 to January 2014. The
preliminary results obtained from the first three countries support the research
hypothesis and they are presented hereto, together with the research methodology,
research tools, forms, matrix and plan of the final comparison. Explanations and details
how and why these countries were selected, together with analysis of cultural circles are
also given in the research report hereto.
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 Psychological Impact of the Colour in Design - Markovic, Z. & Radanovic, S.

2. Research project

2.1 Research Question, Hypothesis and Expected Results

The main research questions are whether colours affect final users and how strong the
cultural influence affects the impact which colours make on interior design. The
Research starts with a hypothesis that such influence is profound and colour impact
differs in each and every cultural circle that we have analysed. When we go into details,
our hypothesis could be developed for the prevailing gamma in these areas –
sandy/earthy colours prevailing in Botswana; strong and vibrant colours prevailing in
Kenya; white and grey/light blue colours prevailing in Serbia, etc. Through experiments
we will proof our hypothesis to be right or wrong. If it proofs right, it will be a great
breakthrough; interior designers, even paint manufacturers would use these results in
everyday practice. Furthermore, it will open new research fields regarding colour vs.
cultural background. The results would be empiric and exact, showing psychological
interference of particular colours with cultural backgrounds presented in numbers
(percentage, etc.). Before we start analysing cultural influence, we have to proof the
existence as well as the level of power of impact of colours on users/visitors of a
particular interior design. And, as usually, answers to these main questions will be given
at the end. Only upon finishing the analyses of all collected data, we will be able to list
and describe these impacts and influences. During the work on this project, we have to
keep in mind that we are taking the road less travelled as this area of research is still
not fully established.

2.2 The Main Goals of the Research

The Research is intended to establish, describe, proof and present the current situation
regarding cultural influences on colour impact in interior design and to analyse
psychological (personal) and sociological (group) impacts. The planned experiments will
proof or disproof the preliminary research hypothesis and redo known experiments, but
with a multi-cultural background. They will find, proof, describe and present
contemporary cultural influence on colour impact – from psychological to sociological,
revisit and renew previous research in this area (Kaya/Epps research at University of
Georgia, USA, etc.).

2.3 Research Teams (Scientific Disciplines) and Informants Involved in the

Research
This research was planned as a multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary method from the
beginning. The Research team involves several specialists from different areas: Design,
Interior Design, Psychology, Sociology, Coloristic, Architecture, History of Interiors,
Design and Architecture, etc. Due to the fact that so many people are involved in the
research, the main team was divided per countries, not per disciplines. In every country-
team (sub-team) there are some different specialists. For example, a research team
from Serbia has the same core members as all other teams but it also incorporates a
very strong sociology group. A team from India incorporates a medical physiologist, a

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 Psychological Impact of the Colour in Design - Markovic, Z. & Radanovic, S.

specialist in humans’ physical reactions on different impacts, including colour impacts. A

team from Slovenia has some members who are very strong in technological mode of
thinking, etc.
To maintain similar target groups, all sub-teams would work with
volunteers/informants students. Groups of students should include approximately equal
number of males and females between 20 and 30 years of age, and they should come
either from technical or design schools. This will create similar experimenting groups
and lead to minimum influences of other elements in final results. Comparing these
results, the research team could be able to concentrate on a cultural component in
differences within the matrix.

3. Methodology

3.1 Project Methodology

For this research we are planning to use a Mixed Method (combined Qualitative and
Quantitative methods, both emerging and predetermined approaches, both open and
closed-ended questions, and both quantitative and qualitative data and analysis).
Research Sub-teams would collect both quantitative and qualitative data and use them
for the best understanding of the research problem. Data collection would involve
gathering both numeric information, as well as text information so that the final database
represents both qualitative and quantitative information. Numbers of the same type of
emotional impact will go parallel with analysing particular type/colour, together with
recording all details.
3.2 Tools and Procedures
Main sources of data collecting are interviews with volunteers/informants. To collect
good and useful data, the informants have to be from the similar group. But, even more
important is that research tools have to be similar in every country. We have divided all
research tools into two groups – for preliminary interview and for final interview.

Figure 1. Interview space Figure 2. Interview tools

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Figure 3. Preliminary interview tools Figure 4. Waiting area for the informants

During the preliminary research, we collect data regarding general prevailing colours for
each country/cultural circle. In this group there are 30cm rulers, brushes, crayons and
folders, all of them assorted in six basic colours. At interviews, informants are expected
to choose colours as per their own priority, from each of the tools. These results could
be used later as a preliminary and rough estimation. It is important to highlight that a
waiting area is also full of colours. It psychologically prepares an informant for the
discussion on colours.

Figure 5. Colour cartons – Plane Figure 6. Colour cartons – Colours combinations

The main part of interview is comparing associations, emotions and intensity of colours
according to informants’ feelings and understanding. During the interview, the research
team uses cartons with 6 basic colours (3 primary and 3 secondary), 6 light tinted basic
colours, 3 gray scale colours (white, gray and black), and 5 colour combinations. The
most critical element of this part is that all research teams will have available the very
same colours (“My blue has to be everyone’s blue”).

Figure 7. Interview – interviewer, informant Figure 8. The part of the Research Team
and secretary who record every answer in Serbia

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from the informant.

Informant’s name: ____________________ Informant’s    No:  _________________  
Informant’s    Cod:  ________________  
Informant’s Cod/No: __________________  
Informant’s Department/School :__________ Card    (Colour)    No.  ______  
 
Informant’s Gender: __________________ EMOTIONS  
The  First  Emotion:  _____________________  
Chosen colour - brush: ________________ Other  Emotions:  _______________________  
Chosen colour – ruler: _________________ _____________________________________  
Intensity  of  the  First  Emotion  (  0-­‐1-­‐2  )  ______  
Chosen colour - pen: __________________  
ASSOCIATIONS  
Chosen colour - folder: _______________
The  First  Association:  ___________________  
Other  Associations:  ____________________  
_____________________________________  
Table 1: Form No. 1. General information  
POSITIVITY  
Positivity    (  +  /  0  /  -­‐  )  ___________________  
Intensity  of  the  Positivity  (  -­‐2  –  +2  )  ________  
 
Table 2: Form No. 2. Particular information for each colour or colour combination

During it, interviewer shows cartons with different colours to informant who
responds how he/she reacts to this colour, and what emotions are present. Teams fill in
two types of forms. One form is for basic information on the informant (gender, age,
school and department, national and cultural background etc.) with preliminary research
information (preferred colours of a pencil, brush, ruler, etc.). The second form concerns
each colour-carton.

4. Preliminary results and conclusion

4.1 Preliminary Results

Preliminary results have been finalized for the first group of countries – Botswana,
Serbia and Kenya. Preliminary results show similarities, but they still vary in all three
countries. The most prevailing colours are blue and red. For Serbia the blue colour
leads with 26% and red 24%. For Botswana the red is similar to green, violet and
orange, but the blue is leading with 33%. In Kenya the blue colour is also prevailing with
35%, followed with red 27%. This opens a new question regarding the blue and its
prevailing through different cultural circles. On the other hand, percentage, balance of
other colours and even the most prevailing colour vary in all three countries.

SERBIA
chair brush pencil ruler folder TOTAL
red 21 30 22 19 28 120 23.72%
orange 9 4 10 2 5 30 5.93%
yellow 10 14 7 9 12 52 10.28%
green 15 17 15 23 16 86 17%
blue 25 29 28 26 25 133 26.28%

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Table 3. violet 10 10 22 25 18 85 16.8%

TOTAL 90 104 104 104 104 506 100 %
Preliminary results for the first three countries

KENYA (preliminary investigation)

note-book TOTAL
red 7 7 26,9 %
orange
BOTSWANA 5 5 19,3 %
yellow 2 2 7,7 %
brush pencil folder TOTAL
green 3 3 11,5 %
red 9 11 8 28 17,3 %
blue 9 9 34,6 %
orange 3 11 7 21 13,0 %
violet 0 0 00,0 %
yellow 7 5 1 13 8,0 %
TOTAL 26 26 100 %
green 7 9 9 25 15,4 %
blue 23 11 20 54 33,3 %
4.2 violet 5 7 9 21 13,0 % Preliminary
TOTAL 54 54 54 Conclusion
162 (54x3) 100%
The paper introduces
this research, presenting its methodology, tools, procedures and preliminary results.
The final research will be prepared and the comparison matrix done when all involved
teams finalise their data collecting. Looking only at preliminary results we could
conclude that the research hypothesis is proved. Even preliminary results show some
similarities, but differences between countries exist and they show influences of cultural
circles. Due to lack of space the full matrixes with preliminary and full results could not
be presented hereto (results obtained so far for Serbia only contain more than one
hundred pages). The Research continues and we expect full and final research results
before the end of 2013.

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 Psychological Impact of the Colour in Design - Markovic, Z. & Radanovic, S.

5. References
• Rompilla, E. 2005. Color for interior design, The New York School of Interior
Design
• 2. Nemcsics, A. Colour dynamics: environmental colour design
• Gill, M. 2001. Color harmony for interior design: a guidebook for creating great
color combinations,
• Poore, J. 2006. Interior color by design: a tool for architects, designers, and
homeowners
• Pile, J. F. 1999. Color in interior design
• Adams, F. M., & Osgood, C. E. 1999. A cross-cultural study of the affective
meaning of color. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 7, 135-157,
• Ainsworth, R. A., Simpson, L, & Cassell, D. 1993.7. Effects of three colors in an
office interior on mood and performance. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 76, 235-241.
• Boyatzis, C. J., & Varghese, R. 1994. Children's emotional associations with
colors. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 155, 77-85.
• Ballast, D. K. 2002. Interior design reference manual. Professional Pub. Inc.
Belmont, CA.
• Choungourian, A. 1968. Color preference and cultural variation. Perceptual &
Motor Skills, 26, 1203-1206.

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 Assessing thermal comfort and design strategies of residential
houses in Ghana

B. Simons, C. Koranteng and J. Nkrumah

Department of Architecture, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana.
Corresponding Email: [email protected]

Abstract
A 10-month period of monitoring temperature and relative humidity values in semi-
detached houses on the campus of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology (K.N.U.S.T) in Kumasi was studied. The thermal conditions prevailing in the
spaces were analysed using recommended design strategies to achieve comfort, as
well as the Bioclimatic Chart, modified for warm countries. The main purpose was to
find out which of the sustainable design strategies (thermal mass, night ventilation,
comfort ventilation, evaporative cooling, etc) and air velocity would have a
commensurate effect on thermal comfort in Ghanaian semi-detached houses. The
results showed that the most effective design strategy would be comfort ventilation.
Further, the plots on the Bioclimatic Charts resulted in the use of an air velocity of
0.5m.s-1 to attain comfort. This outcome implied that designers ought to enforce passive
design recommendations in the orientation, placing of building elements and the use of
efficient systems.
Keywords: Bioclimatic; psychrometric; thermal comfort; ventilation.

1. Introduction
Thermal comfort is generally defined as a state of mind which displays satisfaction with
the thermal environment. The main factors are temperature, humidity, air-movement
and radiation. Over the years, researchers have attempted to provide a range of
acceptable comfort indices which are normally referred to as the comfort zone. Previous
studies have in-part concentrated on some of the factors of comfort (for instance,
temperature in relation to activity, etc). According to Szokolay (2004), Olgyay introduced
a chart in 1963 (the Bioclimatic Chart) with temperature and relative humidity on its
axes. The chart has an aerofoil comfort zone in the middle, with the possibility of
extension by air-movement and by radiation at high temperatures and low temperatures
(Fig 1).

Fig. 1: Olgyay’s Bioclimatic

Chart (Szokolay, 2004).

The effect of 0.5 m.s-1air-

movements on thermal
comfort has been reported
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by Gut and Ackerknect (1993) to have a cooling effect of 1 to 1.7 °C at a corresponding

ambient temperature of 25 to 30 °C.

The most recent comfort indices used are the effective temperature and its standardised
versions. These indices take activity and clothing into consideration (thus, at higher
activity level, clothing is reduced). Further, slopes bordering recommended comfort
zones on psychrometric charts (Fig 2) are characterised by temperature tolerance (at
higher humidities, temperature acceptance is reduced (Szokolay, 2004)).
Fig. 2 : Comfort zone with recommended design strategies by Givoni and Murray (Lechner, 2001).

For tropical countries, a temperature range of 22 to 29 °C as the comfort zone has been
suggested by international and local researchers (Olgyay, 1963; Koenigsberger et al.,
1974; Ferstl, 2005; and Koranteng and Mahdavi, 2010).

Studies on design strategies on climatic zones, conditions and recommendations have

been cited by Lechner (2001). Zones of design strategies to be implemented have been
plotted on psychrometric charts (Fig 2). The main zones recommended are comfort
ventilation, the use of thermal mass, night ventilation and evaporative cooling.
The positive potential of thermal mass (depending on outdoor environmental conditions)
and natural ventilation have been the focus of recent studies (Koranteng and Mahdavi,
2010 and, Mahdavi and Orehounig, 2009). The studies which were based on building
performance simulations concluded that thermal mass and night ventilation could
improve the thermal conditions of indoor spaces. This approach is however only
efficient in regions with a high diurnal temperature difference of more than 10°C
(Szokolay, 2004). With thermal mass, the building envelope and floors are used to
store cool air during periods when the temperature outdoors is lower than the indoors.
The stored cool air is then released into the internal space whenever there is a
temperature imbalance. Night ventilation is the use of outdoor air to cool building fabrics
in the night whereas comfort ventilation can be used during the day. Comfort ventilation

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depends on air-movement and has been found to be appreciable at wind speeds of 0.2
to 1.0 m.s-1 (Szokolay, 2004). Furthermore, comfort ventilation assists the evaporative
cooling potential of the human skin.

Ghana is characterised by high temperatures and humid conditions. These conditions in

part, contribute to thermal discomfort in semi-detached houses. Most of the time, the
outdoor air velocity is low and this is coupled with low diurnal ranges culminating in the
inefficient use of thermal mass and comfort ventilation. Additionally, sustainable design
principles of orientation, shading, window sizes and positioning, efficient building
materials, etc, are not exploited. Neither are scientific methods and low power
consuming equipment (for instance, fans are capable of improving the thermal
sensation of a space by 2-3°C (Hyde, 2000)) used to support design recommendations
towards indoor comfort. Against the background of prevailing characteristics of the
climate and practices in Ghanaian construction, it is imperative to find out which design
strategies and air velocities work efficiently in Ghanaian houses. The solutions would
help contribute to the few studies on thermal comfort in Ghana and narrow down the
existing knowledge gap.

This paper analyses the thermal performance of semi-detached houses in warm and
humid Ghana. The study is based on the bioclimatic chart modified for warm countries
(Szokolay, 2004) and design strategies recommended by Givoni and Murray in Lechner
(2001).

2. Methodology
The study uses recommended charts and design strategies (Szokolay, 2004 and
Lechner, 2001) to analyse the thermal performance of semi-detached houses in
Kumasi, capital of the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The twelve buildings under the study
are situated on the campus of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology (K.NU.S.T) and are called the “Four Star Estate” housing (Fig 3). The
thermal performance of the 4-star rated buildings is worth studying, since they are the
only star-rated residential facilities on the campus of K.NU.S.T and are representatives
of semi-detached dwellings in the region.

Fig. 3: View of a semi-detached building, K.N.U.S.T.

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Each detached unit has an area of ca. 90 m² and contains a gracious entrance with the
living area and kitchen oriented towards the north. Two bedrooms and a bathroom are
situated at the rear (southern orientation) of the house, which are separated by a
corridor to the northern oriented spaces. All the active spaces are cross ventilated and
the corridors have windows on the eastern and western sides. The form aspect ratio of
1:1.80 per block is ideal for rectangular buildings with north-south orientations
(Koranteng and Abaitey, 2010).

To analyse the thermal performance of the buildings, indoor sensors that measured the
temperature and relative humidity values were mounted in the spaces (living area,
kitchen, corridor and bedrooms). The monitored variables were limited to temperature
and humidity because financial constraints prevented us from mounting sensors
capable of observing occupancy patterns, light switching on and off activities, frequency
of equipment usage, etc. The outdoor environmental conditions were also monitored.
The observation period was 10 months, from September 2008 until June 2009.
Nonetheless, the data for the months of November and December was lost due to a
malfunction of the loggers. The data loggers are capable of measuring temperature and
relative humidity values from -20 to 70°C and from 5 to 95 % with an error of ± 0.4 °C
and ± 3 % respectively.

To a large extent, the data gathered was processed with MS Excel, because of its high
compatibility with a number of other applications. Other software applications used in
the study were Greenline and Hoboware pro. Greenline was used to launch and
download the files from the data loggers. The downloaded temperature and relative
humidity values were screened in Hoboware pro software, after which the data points
were exported to an MS Excel file. In MS Excel, the text files were imported, screened,
and built together in monthly tables. Since the data was recorded in minute intervals,
formulae sheets were generated to produce mean hourly values, and the output values
were graphed in charts and analysed. Two charts were used for the graphs: a
psychrometric chart with recommended design strategies and a bioclimatic chart which
shows that different air-movement values should be employed to attain thermal comfort.

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3. Results
The mean monthly values tabulated and plotted in the charts show points of minimum
and maximum temperature in relation to the prevailing relative humidity values. The
points were joined with lines which indicate the monthly thermal behaviour of the
respective spaces. Fig 4 shows the mean monthly outdoor temperature and relative
humidity values in relation to the comfort zone and the recommended design strategies.
The mean outdoor values plotted in the modified bioclimatic chart for warm countries
are illustrated in Fig 5. The thermal behaviour prevailing in the bedroom is
demonstrated in Fig 6 and Fig 7. Further, Figs 8, 10 and 12 show the mean temperature
and relative humidity values of the corridor, kitchen and living areas in relation to the
comfort zone and design strategies. Demonstrations of the thermal conditions on the
bioclimatic chart of the corridor, kitchen and living areas are shown in Figs 9, 11 and 13.

Fig. 4: Mean monthly outdoor temperature and relative humidity values in relation to the comfort
zone and design strategies.

Fig. 5: Mean monthly outdoor temperature and relative humidity values in relation to the comfort
zone and air-movement.

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Fig. 6: Mean monthly bedroom temperature and relative humidity values in relation to the comfort
zone and design strategies.

Fig. 7: Mean monthly bedroom temperature and relative humidity values in relation to the comfort
zone and air-movement.

Fig. 8: Mean monthly corridor temperature and relative humidity values in relation to the comfort
zone and design strategies.

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Fig. 9: Mean monthly corridor temperature and relative humidity values in relation to the comfort
zone and air-movement.

Fig. 10: Mean monthly kitchen temperature and relative humidity values in relation to the comfort
zone and design strategies.

Fig. 11: Mean monthly kitchen temperature and relative humidity values in relation to the comfort
zone and air-movement.

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Fig. 12: Mean monthly living room temperature and relative humidity values in relation to the
comfort zone and design strategies.

Fig. 13: Mean monthly living room temperature and relative humidity values in relation to the
comfort zone and air-movement.

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4. Discussion
The mean outdoor temperature and relative humidity values plotted on the design
strategies chart show that all monthly values are outside the comfort zone (Fig 4).
Furthermore, the design strategy to be employed in attaining thermal satisfaction is
comfort ventilation. Thermal mass with night ventilation, high thermal mass and
evaporative cooling characterize the month of January. Monthly points outside the
comfort ventilation zone imply the use of conventional air-conditioning to achieve
comfort. According to Fig 5, the month of January is comfortable whilst during all other
months; air-movement of about 0.5 m.s-1 would be required for thermal comfort.

The thermal performance of the bedrooms oriented towards the south shows
uncomfortable conditions. All the months are outside the general comfort
recommendations (Fig 6). Comfort ventilation and high thermal mass could be used as
a design strategy for the month of January. Conversely, the application of thermal mass
as a design strategy would not be economical for the other months of the year. The only
strategy that could prove efficient is comfort ventilation. In Fig 7, the bioclimatic chart
modified for warm countries shows most of the month of January to be comfortable. An
extension of the comfort zone to 0.4 m.s-1 air-movement would result in all months
within the zone. The reason for the performance of the southern oriented spaces could
be the inadequate overhang of the building in shading the building envelope. Even
though the windows have been recessed and the spaces cross ventilated with an
orientation towards 45° east of the prevailing wind direction, the effect of direct and
reflected solar radiation could have contributed to the performance of the spaces
(Lauber, 2005 and Heerwagen, 2004).

The thermal situation of the corridor was similar to that of the bedroom spaces. The
plotted values in Fig 8 show representations outside the general comfort zone. High
thermal mass could improve the thermal performance of the space in January
(Koranteng, 2010). However, the most effective approach towards thermal relief is
comfort ventilation. An air velocity of 0.4 m.s-1 would guarantee thermal comfort (Fig 9).

The northern oriented kitchen space had temperature values of 28 to 34 °C and relative
humidity values between 60 and 80 % (Fig 10). The relative humidity values fall within
the recommended range for comfort (Ferstl, 2005). Conversely, most of the temperature
values are above the maximum recommended value of 29°C (Koranteng and Mahdavi,
2010). The frequent addition of latent and sensible heat from cooking in the kitchen
space makes the room vulnerable to poor thermal performance. This is the main reason
why cooking areas have to be placed in prevailing wind directions and if possible,
separated from living areas. To attain comfort, the installation and use of fans (Hyde,
2000) with a velocity of 0.5 m.s-1 would contribute to improving the performance of the

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space (Fig 11). Furthermore, a comfortable and clean indoor environment can be
achieved by the adoption of an effective ventilation system, both in terms of providing
thermal comfort and removing contaminated air (Alamdari, 1994).

In Figs 12 and 13, comfort ventilation and an air velocity of 0.4 m.s-1 could provide
comfort in the living room. Even though the space is oriented towards the cool northern
side, it has poor indoor thermal conditions. The possible reasons for the behaviour of
the space are the bedrooms and corridor spaces blocking air from the prevailing wind
direction, direct and reflected solar radiation and conductive sensible loads from the
attic space of the roof (Koranteng, 2010). The pressure difference created by
temperature variations makes the size and position of windows in naturally ventilated
buildings an important criterion in sustainable and passive building designs (Walker,
2010). Fans ought to be used in the buildings, since their effect would be a thermal
sensation reduction of air temperature values of 2 – 3 °C (Hyde, 2000). Late afternoon
discomfort could be alleviated by using dehumidifiers; On the other hand, their energy
consumption needs to be considered. The most imperative strategy would be the use of
sustainable design principles of orientation, shading, ventilation, planting, insulation and
efficient building materials (Dubois, 2008). In addition, buildings should be able to
respond to changes in climate by rejection of solar heat, and have the thermal integrity
to maintain internal comfort, despite the influence of climatic forces acting on the
building envelope (Salmon, 1999).

5. Conclusion
To effectively study the thermal performance of semi-detached houses towards the
improvement of comfort, staff bungalows at K.N.U.S.T were thermally monitored over a
period of 10 months. The main objective was to find out which sustainable design
strategies and air velocities work efficiently in Ghanaian houses. The thermal values
plotted on comfort and design strategies graphs showed conditions of discomfort in the
buildings. These were due to the mean room temperature of above 30°C and relative
humidity values of above 80% represented outside the comfort zone boundaries in the
charts employed. The most effective design strategy to attain thermal satisfaction was
found to be comfort ventilation. Further, an air velocity of 0.5 m.s-1 was capable of
achieving comfort in the buildings. The use of sustainable design principles of
orientation, shading, and efficient building elements can contribute to thermal comfort
sensation in houses and as such, these measures have to be employed by designers.

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Nkrumah, J.

6. References
• Alamdari, F., 1994. Applications of CFD in the Built Environment, Microclimate
Centre, BSRIA, Bracknell, England.
• Dubois, P., 2008. Shaping Buildings for the Humid Tropics,
www.earthbagbuilding.com/pdf/shapingbuildings1.pdf, Accessed: April 18, 2011.
• Ferstl, K., 2005. Fundamentals of Climatically Appropriate Building and Relevant
Design Principles, In: Tropical Architecture by Lauber W., First Edition, Prestel
Verlag, Munich, Germany.
• Gut, P. and Ackerknecht, D., 1993. Climate Responsive Building, First Edition,
SKAT – Swiss Centre for Development and Cooperation in Technology and
Management, Switzerland.
• Heerwagen, D., 2004. Passive and Active Environmental Controls: Informing the
Schematic Designing of Buildings, First Edition, McGraw Hill, New York, USA.
• Hyde, R., 2000. Climate Responsive Design, First Edition, E & FN Spon, United
Kingdom.
• Koenigsberger, O.H., Ingersoll, T.G., Mayhew, A. and Szokolay, S.V., 1974.
Manual of Tropical Housing and Building: part one, Climatic Design, First Edition,
Longman Inc., New York, USA.
• Koranteng, C., 2010. The Energy Performance of Office Buildings in Ghana,
Journal of Science and Technology, JUST, Vol.30, No.2, pp 114-127.
• Koranteng, C. and Abaitey, G.E., 2010. The Effects of Form and Orientation on
Energy Performance of Residential Buildings in Ghana, Journal of Science and
Technology, JUST, Vol.30, No.1, pp 71-81.
• Koranteng, C. and Mahdavi, A., 2010. An Inquiry into the Thermal Performance
of Five Office Buildings in Ghana, 10th Rehva World Congress, Sustainable
Energy Use in Buildings, CLIMA 2010, Antalya, Turkey, May 9 – 12, 2010.
• Lauber, W., 2005. Tropical Architecture, First Edition, Prestel Verlag, Munich.
• Lechner, N., 2001. Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Design Methods for Architects,
Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, USA.
• Mahdavi, A. and Orehounig, K., 2009. Building Energy Use Via Intelligent
Passive Cooling, 6te Internationale Energiewirtschaft, TU Wien, IEWT 2009.
• Olgyay, V., 1963. Design with Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architectural
Regionalism, First Edition, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, USA.
• Salmon, C., 1999. Architectural Design for Tropical Regions, First Edition, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
• Szokolay, S., 2004. Introduction to Architectural Science: The Basis of
Sustainable Design, First Edition, Architectural Press, Oxford, UK.
• Walker, A., 2010. Natural Ventilation,
www.wbdg.org/resources/naturalventilation.php, Accessed: February 11, 2011.

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 Recombinants: theoretical propositions to practical dispositions for
resolving conflicts in African Metropolis and periphery

Rexford Assasie Oppong

Department of Architecture, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana.
[email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This paper is exploratory and uses Accra, Ghana as a case study to draw examples of
conflicts and contradictions that exist between African Metropolis and Periphery. This
paper argues that the attainment of sustainable merging of the periphery and the
metropolis is a complex system of urban development practices and theories. To
connect the metropolis and the periphery, individual behaviors and institutions, this
paper proposes “recombinant design” as a tool to investigate the modularity of the
periphery and metropolis. This paper concludes amongst others that the development of
recombinant tools based on “localisation theory” provides great opportunities for
establishing an ‘African Centre of Recombinant Urban Studies (ACORUS)’ for study of
the dynamics of the relationship between the African Metropolis and its periphery.
Keywords: Recombinant, African Metropolis and Periphery, Conflicts, Contradictions,
City of Accra, Ghana

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This paper seeks to use Accra, Ghana as case study to draw theoretical examples of
conflicts and contradictions that exist between African Metropolis and its Periphery. This
paper is structured into five distinct parts. Following this introduction is a snapshot of
recombinant as a theory/theorem. The third part deals with recombinant as design or
social tool for development and the fourth part explores in depth, ways in which the
theory/theorem of recombinant tools could be applied to better understand the City of
Accra and beyond to affect other cities of sub–Saharan Africa in general.The final
section recaps some of the issues of this paper. Responsive urban architecture
development and land-use planning system appear complicated and seemingly elusive
with a mixture of virtues and vices. As a result, major cities of Ghana are confronted
with challenges similar to what pertain to most growing African cities, seen for example
in urban sprawl, that lead to suburbia growth associated with inappropriate high density
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development, inadequate infrastructural/services provision, lack of preservation of

traditional architecture and public open spaces, to generate a responsive land-use and
African urban living environment. Literature is replete with the need and great demand
to tackle urbanization and built environmental issues in most African cities. A number of
scholarly works (including those by Stren, 1994; Onibokun, 1994; Mabogunje, 1994;
Antwi, 2000; Mbiba and Huchzermeyer, 2002; Mahama and Dixon, 2006; Jenkins et al.,
2007; Crook 2007; as well as Obeng-Odoom, 2009/2010a/2010b) constitute a
significant body of positive contribution to urbanisation issues in Africa and Ghana as
evidenced for example in the observation that, nearly 90 percent of the low income
displaced tenants and families relocate to the peripheral areas or suburbs in Kumasi-
Ghana (Adarkwa & Oppong, 2005). From these peripheral locations, they commute
over considerable distances to work daily in the city of Kumasi (Adarkwa & Oppong,
2005). That hints the useful role the periphery plays for urban outcast whose livelihoods
depend on the city. Yet, the city and the periphery are perceived as two different
entities. Tactics for resolving and managing conflicts (e.g. spatial) to merge the city
[metropolis] and suburbia [periphery] remain non - existent or a minimalist concept in
Africa even though the periphery ‘functions as an important locus of acculturation into
city life and a vivid zone of transition between rural and urban cultures’.

Nuanced with the forgoing, this paper discusses amongst other pertinent questions as
follows:

1.1 Can the periphery be thought of as a full­‐fledged part of the city that
reaches beyond a mono­‐functional zone for dwelling?
This section seeks to dwell on existing body of knowledge especially by Kevin Lynch
(1960) and Léon Krier (1984; 1980) with Accra, Ghana as an example to deal with the
above question. Krier, in his writings demonstrates that mono-functional zoning that is
productive, commercial, administrative, educational, residential, and recreational is the
technical instrument of fragmentation. Krier and others including Paul Drewe have
argued for and against mono-functionalism and blamed urban design masters such as

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Le Corbusier for city-peripheries throes. Krier on one hand notes; ‘functional zoning is
not an innocent or neutral planning instrument; it has been the most effective means in
destroying the infinitely complex social and physical fabric of pre-industrial urban
communities, of urban democracy and culture. The true grandeur of a city depends on
the intelligence of its physical and social organization, on the familiarity of its public
spaces, the beauty of its monuments and finally, on the wisdom with which one knows
how to exploit the beauties and the accidents of nature to the greatest advantage of all
its citizens. It depends, above all, on the identification of each citizen with the present as
much as with the past’.

As perceived, the periphery destroys the structure of the historical centre. Mono-
functional zoning promotes high concentrations of administrative and commercial
activities in the historic centre, and the periphery remains a purely residential area. The
old city becomes the heart of too-large a body, and under the combined pressures of
building speculation and the growing tertiary sectors, it slowly disintegrates, with the
population in the centre dropping. Mono-functional zoning can be identified as the most
radical instrument in the destruction of cities, for example, in Europe. Not only does
Mono-functional zoning promote land and building speculation at the large scale, but it
also strengthens the centralising tendencies of political bureaucracies and justifies the
monopolization of commerce. Thus, it destroys the refined and delicate physical fabric
of most cities, and it has also become the most brutal means for destroying the social
fabric and the complex cultural and economic relationships within the surviving urban
community (Krier, 1980).

Paul Drewe on the other hand, notes that; the creation of mono-functional zones for
dwellings, work and facilities, for example, for recreation, naturally induces traffic
between zones and the rise of the automobile and the accompanying expansion of the
road network have produced a “mobility problem” that is still unsolved today
(Drewe,2000). Again, Drewe (2000) asserts that ‘mainstream urbanism has rather been
dominated by zonal thinkers like Le Corbusier(1929/1987) as opposed to network

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thinkers such as Ildefons Cerdà (1815-1876) who, when the government of a time in
Spain finally gave in to public pressure and allowed Barcelona’s city walls to be torn
down, realised the need to plan the city’s expansion so that the new extension would
become an efficient and liveable place, unlike the congested, epidemic-prone old town
within the walls. And Frank Lloyd Wright (born Frank Lincoln Wright, 1867-1959), whose
thoughts on suburban design, proposed subdivision layout that strayed from traditional
suburban lot layouts on a philosophy of community planning hinged on decentralization,
Wright advocated that new communities must be away from the city but all services and
facilities should be by factories side by side, and that farm and home could coexist.

Positing Accra, Ghana against the foregoing, Accra which began in the 16th century as a
small trading- town, has been for the past 125 years, the economic and political capital
of Ghana. Currently Accra is a major West African city and home to about 3.5 million
people. It exhibits the benefits as well as the disadvantages of a world metropolis.
Accra’s growth is phenomenal as its peripheries are engulfing other regions such as the
eastern and southern eastern as well as the western portions of Ghana (Figure 1).

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Figure 1: A and B- context maps of Accra and Ghana; C – conceptual boundaries

of the city of Accra and that of the peripheries merged to form one entity

Boundaries of the City of Accra and that of the peripheries are apparently merged but
the two are notably administered as separate entities. The peripheries of Accra are
treated as “mono­‐functional zone for dwelling” but the reality is that since most of the
periphery-dwellers are ‘ejected occupants’ of the City of Accra, they inadvertently
become dependants of the city; especially for socio-economic livelihoods because all
the industries, economic and recreational facilities are concentrated in the city of Accra.
What makes Accra case interesting is that the peripheries of the City appear mono-
functional zones without mono-functional planning qualifications: there are sub-
metropolitan authorities with conflicting devolved responsibilities for the day-to-day

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functioning of the peripheries. For instance, the sub-metropolitan authorities depend on

the central government for development budget allocation amongst many others. That
somewhat corroborates Léon Krier’s argument elsewhere that mono-functional
programming and the privileged allocation of financial resources to such programmes
are its political and economic motor as industrial development is effected through the
fragmentation of integrated and multifunctional complexes of cities, villages, districts,
quarters, parishes into mono-functional suburban zones viz. residential
neighbourhoods, campuses, shopping centres, industrial parks and so forth.

Again, Accra as metropolis is formed by a smaller independent and autonomous

suburbs and towns. However, Accra does provide for functions of the daily lives of those
suburbs and towns as single city. The growth and form of the peripheries seemed to
have rendered the Accra metropolis centre-less and limitless, even though a metropolis
must have a center and a well-defined, readable limit. The peripheries of Accra have
grown to assume the same dimension of the city of Accra (Figure 2). Yet, the
peripheries depend on Accra amidst dearth of infrastructural networks, especially roads
and transport. The peripheries are characterised by amorphous planning of high density
residential and commercial as well as recreational and educational facilities: And,
perhaps, the peripheries could be thought of as a full­‐fledged part of the city that
reaches beyond a mono­‐functional zone for dwelling.

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F
igure 2: maps juxtaposition of (A) portion of Accra city central core and (B)
portion of periphery

[Suburban] of Accra, Ghana

The conclusion from the foregoing, perhaps, supports Krier’s assertions that ‘the city
needs no suburb to live and the suburb cannot live without a city and a suburb without a
city is like a cancer without a body...mono-functional zoning of cities only dissolves
complex urban communities into cities for sleeping, cities for working, and cities for
consumption. The only solution now is not better public transport, but the elimination of
much of the commuting traffic by integrating again urban functions like living/working in
the same urban area’. The question that follows, then, is:

1.2 How can the connections between city centre and periphery be conceived?
There exists a plethora of works published on the city, the peripheries or suburban,
much of which, purely, combine theoretical or technical in contemporary philosophical
approach to deal with the developed or the so-called first world countries. This paper
contends that tactics for resolving and managing conflicts (e.g. spatial) to merge the city
[metropolis] and suburbia [periphery] remain non - existent or a minimalist concept in
Africa even though the periphery ‘functions as an important locus of acculturation into
city life and a vivid zone of transition between rural and urban cultures’.

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Ellen (1996), unless otherwise mentioned, asserted that there has been tremendous
growth of suburbs around cities after the Second World War and there have been a
number of attempts to “reconceived the city” without a consensus among urban social
scientists. Since 1960s, cities have tended to be defined in a deliberately vague way, as
settings in which certain characteristics appear together but need not occur in every
case. Likewise urban historians as well as architectural historians, theorists, and critics
have also been unwilling to pin definitions on the city. It is not surprising, then, that
urban designers – architects and planners – have been struggling with the question of
how to define the canvas upon which they labour. Among several others, it is argued
elsewhere that “if the city is redefined, so the process of urban growth- or urbanization –
and the lifestyle of city dwellers – or urbanism-must be. Castells (1972) proposed that
we define the urbanization in global terms as the integration of regions into the world
system and that we define urbanism as the culture of the world system. Castells (1972)
asserted that “the city is not a framework but a social practice in constant flux the more
it becomes an issue, the more it is a source of contradictions and the more its social
manipulation is linked to the ensemble of social and political conflicts”. Wallerstein
(1974) similarly redefined urbanisation as the growth and development of the world
capitalist system and urbanism as the culture of this system.

Again, eschewing the “traditional dichotomy of city and country,” Loic Julienne and
Jean-Marie Mandon chose to speak of “an urbanity which touches all sectors of
activity”. It is not, says Ingersoll, the city which is disappearing but the suburbs as all
well become urban. After the Second World War when massive suburbination could not
be explained by Ernest Burgess’s theory of graduated concentric zones, and as “way of
life” in cities no longer conformed to Louis Wirth’s description in “Urbanism as a way of
Life”; Herbert Gans revised Wirth’s thesis in “Urbanism and Suburbanism as Ways of
Life”, in which was the explanation that rise of metropolitan regions in the United States
revealed the inadequacy of the rural/urban distinction posited by Wirth. Rather, one’s
“way of life,” Gans said, has less to do with whether one lives in the city, the suburbs, or

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the countryside, than with such factors as social class, life-cycle stages and rates of
social mobility, unless people are free to make choices.1

Figure 3: Percentage of the world’s population living in urban areas, 1975, 1995
and 2015. Source: Population Information Programmes 1996).

Circumstances of urbanism are occurring very fast and moving ahead, and not
backwards and therefore pragmatic methods and theories are needed. The world as a
whole is experiencing a rapid rate of urbanisation (Figure 3).The growth rate of urban
population on African continent is high and it is predicted to rise by several authors (see,
for example, Mabogunje, 1968; Aluko, 1971; Bascom, 1955; Olotuah, 2005). The
resultant effect of the high rate of urbanisation has been the formation of more
peripheries or suburban areas which are fully grown with population to that of a city but
continually depend on their parent cities for survival with consequent conflicts and
contradistinctions.

1
For more of this, see, “Crisis in the Architectural Profession” at www.larduser.net/writingcincy/wp-

 
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As indicated earlier on in this section, there is the need for tactics to resolve and
manage conflicts to merge the city and periphery as the periphery functions as an
important locus of acculturation into city life and a vivid zone of transition between rural
and urban cultures. In that regard, this paper proposes Recombinant Design as
methodology to generate “informed urban design model(s)” to serve as policy rationale
for the creation of sustainable metropolis in Ghana and Africa in general. Following the
foregoing theoretical insights, the next section considers recombinant –its theory and
practice, and explores how it can be applied to urban design issues for African
metropolises and peripheries, with Accra, Ghana, as the focus.

2.0 RECOMBINANT AS THEORY/THEOREM

Many biologists and other scientists as well as entrepreneurs have benefited from the
concept of “recombination or recombinant” as a theory that arose from the works of
Stuart Kaufman, a biologist at the Santa Fe Institute. As a medical doctor by early
training, Kauffman moved to the study of theoretical biology and complex systems in
positions at the University of Chicago and University of Pennsylvania, with international
recognition in his work to bring complex systems thinking to issues of evolution.
Recombinant refers to the way that old ideas can be reconfigured in new ways to make
new ideas. Metaphorically, the underlying thesis of recombinant is an insightful way to
model the production of new knowledge as a natural centerpiece for a theory of
endogenous aggregative growth. The growth may lie not so much in one’s ability to
generate new ideas or to process an abundance of potentially new seed ideas into
usable form. It has been applied into benefit and enhanced knowledge in economics
(Weitzman, 1998), biophysical and biochemical and DNA studies and analyses (see, for
example, Glazer and Nikaido, 2007; Tsutomu Arakawa and Philo, 2002; Fry, 1992;
Bennett, 1986; Richards, 1978), and in the music industry known as InSoc
Recombinant.2

2
See, www.informationsociety.us for more on InSoc Recombinant

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3.0 RECOMBINANT AS (URBAN/SOCIAL) DESIGN TOOL

According to Luoni (2011) recombinant as a design tool integrates metrics from ecology,
engineering, architecture, urban design, and social policy into design patterns not
possible in their respective parent disciplines. Much like recombination in the biological
sciences where the concept has been applied extensively, recombinant is tactically
plausible for policy triangulation, administration, and design through various
development tools involving ecotone, matrix, transect, map, and table to sort and
sequence environmental resources. Likewise, design’s disciplinary capacity is thickened
by the absorption of another’s tools (metadisciplinary), enabling co-evolutionary
planning approaches solicitous of feedback with the social; and environmental energies
of a local context. Again, Luoni (2011) asserts that, the University of Arkansas
Community Design Center (UACDC) in its mission to advance in Arkansas through
education, research, and design solutions to the physical environment is developing a
repertoire of recombinant design methodologies applicable to community development
issues in Arkansas with currency that goes beyond the state. UACDC design solutions
introduce a triple bottom line, integrating social and environmental measures with
economic development. UACDC works multilaterally with clients, collaborators, and
government agencies to build networks that facilitate creative development,
triangulating development in policy, best management practices, and design.
Recombinant development embeds ecological metrics into otherwise obdurate or
stubbornly entrenched planning conventions governing land-use policy and
infrastructure (Luoni, 2011).

On the social realm, recombinant is akin to the Chicano activist and writer Armando
Réndon’s concept of the Barrio Union – where neighbourhoods-based organisation,
with its own community or multi-use facility, charged with providing a forum for residents
to meet, discuss their needs and interest, share their understanding of issues facing
their communities, and develop actions plans to address these concerns; residents
select officers from among themselves to speak for the communities in question to:
“bargains collectively with city, county, state or authorities to remedy possible
complaints, such as street lighting, paving, sewer improvements, improve police for fire

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protection, … zoning laws, and distribution of jobs in businesses or industries relocating

near communities”(Orosco,2007).

In order to fully comprehend the complexity of cities, David Grahame Shane (2005)
argues that recombinant urban modelling techniques provide a methodology for
understanding the polymorphous layers of influence that shape the city form. Although
the Shane’s modelling techniques provide a clear and concise method of analysing the
morphological changes that have occurred throughout history, we would argue that his
generalised approach concentrates mainly on the top down approaches to design,
engaging primarily with architects and planners with little mention of clients or the users
of urban space. This paper wishes to argue that embodying perspective of the city user
has the potential to understand the successes and failures of the functionality which are
prescribed to urban space and additionally highlights the potential of practices that
deviate from conventional uses. Finally, the ensuing section, albeit not tentative, as way
forward, explores ways in which the theory/theorem of recombinant tools including:
media of mapping, cinematography and/or as narratives could be applied for a better
understanding of how the City of Accra and its peripheries functionally interrelate. The
paper seeks to illuminate the city of Accra in an attempt to make the city more legible
and more comprehensible to its inhabitants.

4.0 THE WAY FORWARD: RECOMBINANT AS URBAN DESIGN STUDY TOOL IN

GHANA
Reflexively, the application of recombinant as urban design study tool in Ghana,
specifically to the city of Accra is apparently weak because little is known of the theorem
in the field of urbanism in developing nations; unlike the developed nations (Francis and
Lorimer, 2011). A painstaking World Wide Web searches for developing nations that
have used or using recombinant as urban development/design tool always end in futility
thus far. Notably, recombinant as a tool abounds in the medical sciences, for example,
in the area of biotechnology in developing and third world countries (see, Kenny and
Buttel, 1985; Niba, 2003, Madan, 2005).Therefore, with hindsight, poverty, illiteracy,
logistics and integrating the knowledge of recombinant for diverse urban development

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professional use are possible but surmountable obstacles in a developing nation like
Ghana. Insomuch as these obstacles are real, constant contact with a complex and
ephemeral visual landscape of the city has bred a population remarkably adept at
navigating those complexities casually, indifferently. And, whole academic fields, from
public relations to visual studies programs, have emerged to examine and control the
verbal-visual amalgam that makes up much of the texture of everyday life (Isenstadt,
2001). In the light of the foregoing, this paper proposes to explore mapping, narratives
and the media of photography and cinematography/filming as recombinant tools/tactics
in Accra, Ghana.

4.1 Understanding the City through medium of Mapping

In order to fully comprehend the complexity of cities, Shane (2005) argues that
recombinant urban modelling techniques amongst others provide a methodology for
understanding the polymorphous layers of influence that shape the city form. “Mapping
has emerged in the information age as a means to make the complex accessible, the
hidden visible the unmappable mappable” (Abrams and Hall, 2006). Coincidentally,
there is Cultural mapping project using Danish-Osu, a historic suburb of the City of
Accra with the aim of gathering data on cultural assets and human resources of the city
of Accra in order to generate strategies to turn Accra into a cultural capital of West
Africa. This paper suggests the use of mapping as a pilot recombinant tool to configure
day time, night time, seasonal time to show the complexities and temporal dimensions
of Danish-Osu, Accra. We present the argument that mapping as a recombinant tool will
help teach the city of Accra dwellers to perceive their cities in new ways. Mapping could
be applied to pull up, for instance, three major issues together, that is: what can the
heritage space ( the historic places, sites and structures of Danish Osu), the people
(various groups such as the local residents, tourists and visitors who move through the
space at Danish Osu), the people’s activities ( everyday life ways, special occasions,
festive events e.g. the August Street Carnival streaming through the space) create
scenarios for future meaningful development of such historic space to help make Accra
an African cultural capital?

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It is envisaged that the use of recombinant tools would not only enhance the proposed
Accra Cultural Mapping project but carry relevance to the author’s desire for future
postgraduate programme in urban studies to be mounted in Department of Architecture
of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi. The use of
cultural mapping in Accra would pay particular attention to the use of public space and
disused space which could be considered as the residual remnants of urban
development. The uses of other cities in Ghana are also plausible.

4.2 Understanding the City through Narratives

There are increasing demands that public spaces should not be only convivial but also
communicative – of history and other narratives, requiring the incorporation of media
into the environment (Frenchman, 2001). The role of the media cannot be
overemphasised as a tool for democratization (Warf, 2007). According to Holcomb
(2001) for society to function, there must be some shared image of reality. Without that,
communication is impossible. The demand for “mediated environments” is raising
important challenges for designers not only in terms of how to physically construct such
places, but also in deciding what messages they should carry. The response is leading
to what we see today as new practice of city design (Jenkins, 2001). Reading from
Lynch (1960) the perspective of someone who studies cinema and not cities, what one
can find most striking is that he discusses urban form in a vocabulary that closely
parallels the ideals of the classically constructed narrative. Lynch (1960), for example,
speaks of a “melodic” structuring of landmarks and regions along a succession of paths,
which he suggests might follow a “classical introduction-development-climax-
conclusion”, pattern (Jenkins, 2001).

4.3 Understanding the City through the media of photography,

cinematography/filming
In addition to the foregoing, the paper proposes to use photography, cinematography
and/or video film making techniques to develop a way of analysing the patterns of

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interaction with the built environment of the City of Accra. Photography and
cinematography have the capabilities of capturing the city’s images from wider
perspective or everywhere (the 110th floor, the sidewalk, lower balcony, pages of a
guide book, the country side, on a street corner, at the train station, [on the train or bus,
or air], through the rear-view mirror or to say the least, ‘the way things are’ (Jenkins,
2001) By capturing the temporal qualities of open urban space, the study would
investigate the association between types of use and spatial organisation as a way of
demonstrating the effect that various different models of urban design have on its users.
Information retrieved from the video films would be correlated against additional data
sets such as climatic conditions, historical background/case histories and narratives,
economic land values, and documented social vices to provide an illustration of the
relationship between the inhabited reality and normative models of urban space.

Lynch (1960) saw urban design studies as a way of building a more educated and
appreciative audience for city design. He recognised that our images of the cities are
shaped partially by formal properties of the cities themselves and partially by the
process of perception through which we construct mental representations of those
properties (Jenkins, 2001). An ill-considered development deal may mar the urban
landscape, blocking our ability to see important landmarks or move fluidly between
nodes.

In one sense, the cinema would seem to be the perfect form to express the dynamic
properties of the city of Accra, since like city design, cinema is a “temporal art from”; but
the cinema brings its own expectations about what a classically constructed story looks
like – expectations that urban-based stories are often unable to satisfy. Classically
constructed stories remain focused on particular characters, their motives, their goals,
their memories, and their experiences. The challenge for the filmmaker is to create a
story that situates the individual in relation to the city in such a way that the film
preserves what is distinctive about the metropolis-congestion, simultaneity,
heterogeneity, randomness, fragmentation in short incoherence (Jenkins, 2001).

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Arguably, the Accra study would present the viewpoint that the embodied-perspective of
the city-user has the potential to understand the successes and failures of the
functionality which is prescribed to urban space, and additionally highlight the potential
of practices that deviate from conventional uses. The use of urban space is directly
connected to a multitude of social values and technological implications. This new urban
modelling technique (recombinanting) essentially plays on the importance of
appropriation of space to determine its future use, and gives more urban actors the
tools for shaping the built environment.

5.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Thus far, this paper has briefly presented and theoretically explored the city of Accra as
a case for African metropolis and ‘cancerous’ peripheral growth. Again, it has hinted that
the periphery plays a useful role for urban outcasts simply because their livelihoods
depend on the city. Yet, the city and the periphery are perceived as two different
entities. It has also hinted that Mono-functional zoning can destroy cities, induce land
and building speculation at large scale, however, on the positive side it strengthens the
centralising tendencies of political bureaucracies to justify the monopolization of
commerce. This paper contends that as long as African governments do not provide
housing and socio-economic opportunities within cities for their ever increasing
populations, then attention must be given by Great African cities to their peripheries
which are almost invariably, sporadic, and mad in nature, with “disturbing possibilities”.
Following, this paper has argued for recombinant as tools/tactics for resolving and
managing conflicts (e.g. spatial) to merge the city [metropolis] and suburbia [periphery]
in Africa so long as the periphery ‘functions as an important locus of acculturation into
city life and a vivid zone of transition between rural and urban cultures’. For instance,
Corbusier argued that:

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The city determines everything: war, peace and toil. Great cities are the spiritual
workshops in which the work of the world is done. The solutions accepted in the
great city are those which are singled out in the provinces; fashions, styles,
development of ideas and technical methods. That is the reason why the
reorganization of the great city carries with the renewal of the whole country
(Corbusier, 1929/1989:85).

African cities appeared “brutalised and battered by torrents” of the peripheries but
recombinant DNA of design and planning resilience3(Sterner,2011) that include
residential, commercial, and retail components, transportation networks, public events
spaces, enhanced access and effective connection between City and Periphery as well
peoples’ perceptions/narratives should lead the way to avoid conflicts between African
metropolis [city] and periphery [suburban] as research elsewhere (Falk,2008) has
shown that urban development that includes a wider social mix-matrix and careful
design and management, is formula for conflict avoidance. This paper has explored
mapping, narratives and the media of photography and cinematography/filming as
recombinant tools/tactics for Accra, Ghana; and therefore, concludes that development
of recombinant tools based, perhaps, on “localisation theory”, is likely to provide great
opportunities for establishing ‘African Centre of Recombinant Urban Studies (ACORUS)’
for training/practice and research. ACORUS is still exploratory and perhaps, Design,
Development and Research (DDR) 2013 Conference can join this exploration for
developing African cities through recombinant design.

3
Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS) suggests- an adaptive theory as an emerging discipline that studies the
way systems self-organise, learn, and change proactively. It is argued that a central concept of CAS theory is
resilience- the ability of a system to absorb disturbance and adapt to change without passing a threshold into a
qualitatively different state and resilience as a concept provides an important conceptual framework for
designers to navigate or even celebrate complexities in the built environment to create cities, communities
and systems that are resilient and sustainable.  

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 The power of visual culture and traditional education in the national
development of Ghana

M. Adi-Dako
Centre for Cultural and African Studies, FoA, CASS, KNUST,
West Africa, Kumasi-Ghana
Email: [email protected]

R.D. Debrah
Department of Communications Design, FoA, CASS, KNUST
West Africa, Kumasi-Ghana
Email: [email protected]

E. Antwi
Department of Painting and Sculpture, FoA, CASS, KNUST
West Africa, Kumasi-Ghana
Email:[email protected]

Abstract
This paper shows the potential relevance of Ghana’s traditional educational system to
national development. The research explores the various dimensions of traditional
education in tandem with the sophisticated visual culture of contemporary times, and
the commonalities they share. By noting the abrupt end to our traditional communication
system which was orally and visually based, and its supplanting by the western model
during colonization, the work points back to the characteristic visual perspective that
marked and underpinned the traditional educational system, which the western
approach now targets to optimize on all levels. Contemporary visual culture is capable
of strengthening traditional education to aid in closing the yawning gap between the few
literate and massive illiterate segment of the population, perpetrated by the colonial
paradigm. Thus the importance of this work lies in its call to the challenging and creative
combination of Ghanaian traditional education with contemporary visual culture, in order
for the country to experience the possible unusual development and growth such a
blend could result.

Keywords: visual culture, traditional education, hologram, literacy, adinkra, pictograph

1. Introduction
Visual Culture although a fairly modern term, refers to an ageless phenomenon; the
interpretation of the visual in all cultures. It is said to be defined within the study of Art
history, as a focus on the cultural meaning of a work of art, rather than on its aesthetic
value (Art and Visual Culture, n.d. :para. 3). We do recognize that ‘art’ is the core of any
culture; the means by which we express ourselves, whether visual, aural or otherwise.
Frequently we are tempted to define this term merely as a conglomeration of images,

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but it has more … trying to interpret the visual culture of a people would be synonymous
with trying to acquire the messages existing in their visual arts, therefore, the
predominating visual media they use in communication and information.

Visual Culture as far as this paper is concerned is looking at traditional visual media —
pictures and traditional symbols created such as the Adinkra symbols depicted in figure
1, sculptures (figure 2), and dance (figure3) as opposed to oral culture and print culture,
based on language, words, and writing; which have been the means of cultural
continuity in Ghana.

Figure 1: Adinkra Symbol, Asante;

(Picture: courtesy Agbo, Heritage group).

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Figure 2: Traditional Sculpture of a stool;

(Picture: courtesy, earthmetropolis.com).

Figure 3: Traditional Cultural Performance;

(Picture: Debrah, 2013).

The visual has always been our access to the past. The earliest recorded
communications are pictorial, and artifacts are central to the reconstruction of history.
As far back as existing evidence verifies, Ghanaian intellectual and cultural activity,
before the colonization of the Gold Coast, comprised paintings on objects, human
bodies and on domestic walls, as well as sculptures (metal, wood and clay) of objects,
human figures, animals, textiles and symbols(as shown in figure 5-7). Although most
ethnic groups had their own languages and words then, their traditions, insomuch as
they could record anything and depict it for future generations, was a visual one.

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Traditional Ghanaians and their artifacts of visual culture, as a permanently-portrayed

manifestation of their inventiveness and cultural creativity, antedate written culture.
Some of the earliest examples (figure 4a – 4c) of such pictograms and cuneiforms in the
world were found in present day Iraq, Egypt and China dating from the end of the fourth
millennium B.C.E. (Griffin and Collins, 2007:84-85).

Figure 4.a: Earliest cuneiforms from Iraq;

(Picture: courtesy citrinitas.com).

Figure 4.b: Earliest Pictograms from Egypt;

(Picture: courtesy, firehow.com).

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Figure 4.c: Chinese writings;

(Picture: courtesy, eteacherchinese.com).

Figure 5. a: Adinkra cloth;

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Figure 5. b:Kente cloth; (Pictures: Debrah, 2013).

Figure 6.a: Sample of Gold Weight and Sculpture; (Picture: courtesy, amazon .co. uk).

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Figure 6.b: Sankofa Sculpture;

(Picture: courtesy, overstock.com).

Figure 7: Body Art; (Picture: courtesy, Super Stock.com).

In Ghanaian traditional societies, the ancient teachings and legends, as well as the
knowledge necessary for socialization, were passed on visually and orally mainly
through the family and Master/Apprentice system (Johnson 1970:21). In these societies,
the most important roles, next to the rulers’, were those of the master carvers, master
metal smiths, master weavers, master sculptors, master drummers, master dancers,

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chief linguists, master poets and storytellers who passed on the lore of the culture
visually and orally, as they taught their apprentices, or through recitation of oral
tradition, dance, sculptures and prints. Rattray (1924: 8-9) testified of how
craftsmanship in wood, textile, gold, bronze and pottery is highly developed among the
Asante; having being carried on by guilds in specialized villages giving hereditary craft
services to the courts.

All the forerunners of the text introduced by the colonial masters were based on visuals;
pictographs or writing that is pictorial in character such as the 21st century Adinkra
symbols printed piece of cloth created by an African American (student from University
of Michigan trying to make some sense out of our traditional Adinkra symbols as shown
in figure 8, title- I am focused when I am home). Eventually, these symbols, given the
time, would have possibly come to be expressed in conventional signs, and logographic
writing, or writing in which individual signs would have represented individual words
such as is found in China and other Eastern countries (figure 4c). As Kahn rightly puts
it; “Outside interference can sometimes be counter-productive” (Hughes, 1945: 9).

Figure 8: An Adinkra Print (Picture: Debrah, 2013).

The introduction of written culture, writing based on alphabets, or a system of about

thirty or fewer letters or characters by the colonial educators in English, replaced and
downgraded our traditional system of education and made colonial education
synonymous with literacy: to say therefore, that a person is literate today, 50 years after
independence, has been tantamount to saying that he is educated. Conversely, a
person who is illiterate is considered to be not just someone who is unable to read, he is
looked down as being less than what he ought to be as a human. Thus the colonial
masters, the Church and formal schooling today, frequently require the severing of the

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previous tie that had existed with traditional culture; knowledge based on the visual. The
question one is tempted to ask is, would our development not have taken a better turn
had the traditional system not been interrupted by colonization?

Today, to most of the “educated” few city dwellers or post-modernists, the paradigm for
education is formal literacy. Many a man in government has declared that if one wants
well-educated and well-behaved children, the first thing to do is to send them to school
to learn to read and write. However in spite of over 200 years of literary education in
Ghana, a greater percentage of Ghanaians are still not properly “educated” and are still
living and empowering themselves through the apprentice system based mainly on
visuals and orals as depicted by figure 9.

Figure 9: Master/ Apprentice System; (Picture: Dako, 2013).

This has perhaps been one of the core reasons behind Africa’s slow progress in
economic, social and political development. The literary culture adopted by most African
nations has been the privilege of an educated few, who unfortunately control/
(mis)manage the governance and finance of the continent, whilst the majority of the
African populace are forced to cope with a degenerating traditional educational,
economic and political system. National resources are no longer directed at traditional
institutions, to help the majority of our people under their control, but are spent primarily
on the promotion and strengthening of literary culture and lining of the pockets of a few
“educated” Ghanaians. Even in recent times traditional funds have paradoxically found
their way to promoting literary education at the expense of traditional education, through
the Otumfuo Educational Fund (Osei, 2002:162).

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2. Traditional Ghanaian Education

Our traditional Ghanaian educational system was based on the Master/Apprentice
system, a system of learning the skills of a craft or trade from experts in that field by
working with them for a set period of time. This system in Ghana, as practiced for
thousands of years, has been void of written culture or writing based on alphabets. It
was oral and more visually based. Whatsoever the traditional man desired to do or was
perceived to have a potential to become, a Master was sought for him in that field to
train with. Traditional Education, developed thousands of years ago, sprang from the
African’s struggle for survival and enlightenment. It was formal or informal. By Informal
African education, we refer to the general socializing process by which the traditional
Ghanaian youth acquired the knowledge and skills needed to function in their society
(Sarpong, 1991: 10- 11). Traditional Formal education refers to the process by which
Masters/teachers instruct apprentices/students in crafts or trade within traditional
institutions.

Before the introduction of reading and writing, People who lived in the land of
Guinea(Reindorf, 2007:17), which later became the Gold Coast, and now Ghana, lived
in an environment in which they struggled to survive against natural forces, animals,
and the cruelty of other humans. To survive, the traditional man developed skills that
grew into cultural and educational patterns, fostered in the society to ensure the
continuity of communal life, a harmonious environment and towards effective
governance. For a particular culture to continue into the future, people had to transmit
traditions from one generation to another. Educational processes for example, involved
sharing information about hunting, cultivating food and providing shelter; making
weapons and other tools; learning languages; and acquiring the values, behaviour, and
religious rites or practices of their people (Agyeman-Duah, 1990-1995).

Warren (1970: 61), notes that through direct, informal education, parents, elders, and
priests taught children the skills and roles they would need to play as adults. These
lessons eventually formed the moral codes that governed behaviour. Since they lived
before the introduction of writing, preliterate Akans in Ghana for example, used oral
tradition, or story telling such as the popular “Anansesem” (as depicted with modern
illustration in figure 10 for teaching children even today), as well as proverbs and visuals
such as carvings, symbols and dances to pass on their traditions and history from one
generation to the next. By using spoken and dance language for example, the traditional
Akan man learned to create and use symbols, words, or signs to express his ideas.
Unfortunately as has been stated earlier, the traditional Ghanaian did not see these
symbols growing fully into ideograms, pictographs or letters just as we have in China or
Japan. Rather, a foreign developed alphabet system and mode of writing was imposed,
preventing the natural evolution of communication structures and skills that was

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possibly emerging out of the growing traditional system of education in Ghana. Even
today, so many years after the introduction of the English alphabet foreign students
(from university of Michigan) have been able to communicate effectively, using our
traditional adinkra symbols (as depicted in figure 11).

Figure 10: Ananse Character Design; (Picture: Archives Department of Communication Design,
KNUST, 2013).

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Figure 11: Adinkra symbols and illustration to express thoughts; (Picture: Debrah, 2013).

3. The importance of traditional education today

Over the 200 years since the introduction of Western formal education many Ghanaians
still live their lives established on traditional visual and oral based education. This
system of education that has sustained the traditional ‘Ghanaian’ for thousands of years
has received little or no support. Instead, it has been relegated to the background,
hoping to completely get it off the scene as we rapidly improve the lives of the people
through formal education. However, based on anecdotal evidence, it appears that in
spite of the large sums invested into formal education and the diligent government
campaign on literacy, more and more of our people are resorting to traditional
educational (Master/Apprentice) system in trades and crafts such as tailoring, auto
engineering, hair dressing, carving, weaving and others, for their livelihoods.

Majority of Ghanaians trained in formal schools with standard Western laboratories,

equipment and tools are more comfortable living and working in western countries that
have advanced in the use of such facilities, along with the written language that
introduced it, than in Ghana. Many students trained in our Universities are living and
working in England or the United States of America. The only benefit Ghana is deriving
from the huge government investment in such people is the periodic remittance of
foreign currencies sent to relatives.

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4. The traditional Ghanaian man and his thoughts.

The Human Brain - Text vs. illustration

Figure 11: The functions of the brain; (Picture: Courtesy, Encarta Encyclopedia, 2008).

Schlain suggests this simple exercise which helps to give an appreciation of our mental
orientations: First, fold your hands and inter-digitate your fingers. Now, please observe
which thumb is on top. If you have placed your left thumb over your right, as many
right/left?-handers do, then the non-dominant right side of your brain plays a larger role
in your psychic makeup than you may have previously believed (Shlain,1991: 392) .

Brain lateralization research has confirmed that there are indeed two different kinds of
cognition (Shlain, 1991). The left hemisphere of the brain controls speech and abstract
thinking, willing, analysis, logic, discrimination, and numeracy (our ability to calculate
and work with numbers). In contrast, the right brain deals with spatial perception, facial
recognition, and music appreciation. It is more visually oriented, nonverbal and
comprehends the language of cries, gestures, grimaces, cuddling, sucking, touching,
and body stance. Its emotional states are under little volitional control and betray true
feelings through fidgeting, blushing, or smirking (Shlain, 1998).

Stewart (2002:2-11), recommends the need to understand both approaches, in order to

employ the best method in solving problems. The temptation lies however, in the
possibility of institutions or individuals limiting or preventing one’s disposition by being
over-bearing or intolerant. But society is best enjoyed through the unbridled expression
of the ingenuity of all. Yet unfair as it may seem, the linear monolithic and convergent
mode of thought is usually made to prevail over the divergent and/orrhizomic thinking.

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Western literary culture and its dominance in our institutions in Ghana, has favoured
one aspect of the human brain and personality over the other. In our contemporary
educational systems where we emphasize more on will, speech, abstraction, analysis,
logic, discrimination, and numeracy as we commonly find in the sciences and
engineering, we tend to crowd out the visual artistic aspects of our lives that deal more
with our visual culture: spatial and gestalt perception, music creation and appreciation,
image recognition, perception of the form or style of speech over content, aesthetic
appreciation, and visual-pattern recognition.

Not surprising therefore that in our universities, we tend to miss the point of effectively
making the results of our research useful to our people. We easily forget that science
without technology means little to humanity, and that technology is simply science made
useful to man through art. We cannot help but learn to effectively integrate both ends of
the field to see the needed results.

Certainly, visual cognition is often much quicker and more accurate than literary
cognition based on or influenced by words and logic. One picture is worth a thousand
words. It is easier to get more acquainted with what we’ve seen in picture form, than
what is described with words. It is easier to picture in our minds the policeman one met
today, than to take a pen and paper and write down in detail what he looked like (as
shown in figure 12) . This is because the act of describing the policeman’s face has the
effect of impairing our otherwise effortless ability to recognize that face. Drawing
attention away from the visual to the cognitive interferes with visual memories (Gladwell,
2007).

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Figure 12: A Policeman on duty; (Picture: Debrah, 2013).

The human brain has a part (the left hemisphere) that thinks in words, and a part (the
right hemisphere) that thinks in pictures, so that, what happened when a description
was made of the face in words was that the actual visual memory was displaced. The
thinking process was bumped from the right to the left hemisphere. It is a scientific fact
that we are an awful lot better at visual recognition than we are at verbal description
(Gladwell, 2007). As shown far earlier by Donald (1991); “The post-modern era, if it can
be reduced to any single dimension, is especially characterized by its obsession with
symbols and their management.”

Bill Gates with Microsoft 95 operating system, which is more visual than literary, has
changed the world more than any other revolutionary in our time. The Digital Operating
system (DOS) which is text based was only limited to a few experts. “…first conceived
as a means of relief from the tedium of manually tabulating numbers in business and
scientific environments, the technology has been rapidly and successfully exploited in a
myriad of areas which touch all our lives...”(Pender, 1997: 2). So then with the
introduction of the Microsoft 95 operating system, even a toddler now learning to read
and write, and cannot spell “start”, knows the visual buttons to press to enter his/her
game. Every Tom, Dick and Harry (every “Ama”, “Kofi” and “Akos” as Ghanaians will

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say it) now can use the Microsoft PC because it is more appealing and welcoming than
its predecessors such as the DOS.

5. The advantage of sight

The human eye can visualize many things at the same time, but the human ear is
single-channeled. If you hear several voices or different pieces of music simultaneously,
unless you attend to only one, the result is cacophony — you are unable to perceive
anything but noise (Jewison, 1999: 55-59) .

Visual perception is different from aural perception. In fact most movie montages and
introductions use split screens to show multiple actions taking place simultaneously.
Movie editing software allow inserts, super-impositions and other effects that cause the
eye to absorb many different things at once without confusion or overload, but the ear’s
inability to take in multiple soundtracks — multiple dialogues — at the same time is
further evidence of the greater power and advantage of visual perception compared with
aural perception, (word-based) communication (Jewison, 1999: 55-59).

6. Strengthening Traditional Educational System through Post-Modern

Multimedia
Today, the development of photography and subsequently film, television and video
technology means that a mass image-based culture, though more sophisticated could
begin to emerge again, after visual culture had been overwhelmed by verbal and literate
culture for over two centuries in Ghana. According to Merlin Donald (1991:pp): “Modern
scientific graphics, cinematic special effects, and various other computer graphics
capabilities are direct extensions of what vision can do and what it can be used for.” The
drastic shift from vision based traditional education to text based education has created
a yawning gap and hole in our development as a people. One could have a pastime
reading misspelt words inscribed on vehicles; “Stay Bless” goes for “Stay Blessed”,
“Annonting” for Anointing, “Lunching” for launching and “Instante” for Instant on buses,
taxis and sign boards in Ghana (as indicated in figure 13, is a signage with lots of
spelling mistakes but the illustration of the “mobile phone” gives customers information
about the services offered by the mobile repairer).

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Figure 13: Image of a signage; (Picture: courtesy, Google images).

Written culture after all these years has not fared very well with a majority of Ghanaians.
Even most drug dispensing pharmacies have stopped using text and figures in
dispensing their drugs. Instead they are relying more on visuals, drawing on medicine
boxes (figure 14), in order to get patients to take the right doses.

Figure 14: Illustrated prescriptions on a Coartem package; (Picture: Debrah, 2013).

It is easier to find young men who are better acquainted with the British premier league
teams such as Chelsea and Manchester United (as indicated in figure 15a) than with
what is happening on their very local front between teams such as “Kotoko” and Hearts
of Oak (local Ghanaian league).This is so due to the powerful visuals they use in
branding. For example figure 15b shows the entrance leading to the changing room of
players, at the Baba Yara Sports stadium Kumasi. One can clearly see that it is a bit

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difficult at this point of view, to tell from the graphics (branding) that it is world cup
qualifier match.

Figure 15a: Image of African footballers and logos of Arsenal and Chelsea; (Picture:
courtesy, Google images).

Figure 15.b: Ghana vs. Sudan match; (Picture: Debrah, 2013).

This is because the surge of visuals coming from England is better advanced, cheap
and easy to access. More people are learning from films, DVDs, and the internet than in
the classrooms. The point here is that through visual documentation and education we

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can reach our people more effectively than with text. Most useful research work from
our universities, published in foreign journals may only get to their actual beneficiaries
through visual education. For example one such important finding done on Aflac toxins
on the KNUST campus, published in a newspaper or foreign and peer reviewed journal
has not effectively crossed the road to Ayigya (a village directly opposite the University)
and yet this village cooks most of the corn meals consumed on campus by students and
lecturers alike.

Drama is one effective way of disseminating such knowledge or information to folks who
are not literate. Films can effectively break down “hard” information for the benefit of the
majority of our people who depend less on text.

7. TV, DVD, PC, the Internet and digitalimaging

Television, DVD’s, PCs and the Internet are by far the most important of the
technological and cultural innovations currently running through visual culture. All these,
although a hybrid of sound, text and a lot more visuals, appeal more to the functions of
the right hemisphere of the brain and by-pass the critical, evaluative, logical, and
linguistic processing of the left brain. This explains why media advertisement which
appeals to the right hemisphere of the brain becomes successful even though illogical
sometimes. An example is the Cargo Gin Bitters commercial also known as “Oboshie-
adverts” – it’s a popular Ghanaian alcoholic beverage advert by City Publicity for Baron
Distilleries, Ghana (figure 15a-b).

Figure 16.a: Cargo Gin commercial

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Figure 16.b: Cargo Gin commercial; (Picture: courtesy, YouTube, GH.).

For example there are many songs, which although not at par with our philosophies, we
find ourselves unconsciously singing, until we have had time to analyze them (eg.
“Zaphenath Paneah”- popular Ghanaian song by Nicholas Omane Acheampong, 2012).

Today, with the coming of High Definition video, one can set the machine to record
anything that is broadcast at any time and then watch it at leisure, whenever one wants
to do so. So then, with the necessary equipment, a student could for example, use
modern holographic technology, record a lecture that has been missed and bring the
lecturer to his/her bedroom to deliver.

The point is that an auto mechanic apprentice can with video or holographic technology
study under a number of masters in the comfort of his room to possibly complement his
practical apprenticeship with his master. We have the power visually, with video or
holographic technology and the computer, to document and pass on information to the
less endowed majority of our population. We can use this postmodern technology to
build and strengthen our traditional educational system and help equip and empower
our so called “uneducated” folks.

TV, DVDs, computers and the internet have had other far-reaching effects; they have
brought the world of commerce into our homes and have influenced children
tremendously. Now children typically spend much more time watching TV, playing video
games and surfing the internet than they spend on their homework. This may be good
or bad, depending on many considerations, including whether one thinks that left-or
right-brain interests should prevail.

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Figure 17. a: Good vision; Figure 17. b: The Ghana flag;

Figure 17.c: Lapaz Toyota; Digital Images; (Picture: Torto’s, 2013).

Digital imaging and digital technology make creating and disseminating images even
easier than it was before. Now even very young children are creating digital images on
computers as well as using digital cameras and/or cell phones that allows them to make
and share digital photos or videos (as depicted in figure 17a- c, These images above
are digital illustrations by seven year old boys). Further, these images can be sent
throughout the world in seconds or less using computer technology and the Internet.
People can view these images either on screen or print them out with present-day
digital-based computer printers or holograms. Digital imaging has further expanded the
role, power, ubiquity, and impact of visual culture to almost all of the people of the entire
world.

It is clear from the above discussions that literary education in Ghana, has for the past
two centuries or more now, developed an educational system based on criteria for
relevance, criticism, logic, adequacy, and judgment— a system completely based on
language and writing as against our already existing traditional educational system that
is based on those holistic, gestalt, uncritical and intuitive faculties and processing
mechanisms of the right hemisphere of the brain. This, of course, would be bringing an

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inevitable conflict between literary and visual culture and those who think that word-
based literary culture is or should be the norm; intellectually, morally, educationally,
politically, will tend to see visual culture, and especially its rise to dominance, as a threat
to everything that they perceive as being true and good (New World Encyclopedia,
2009).

Writing and written language has had its shortcomings and has not done well in helping
us to develop fully as a people. It is evident that we in this part of the world are seeing a
definite preference for visual and oral communication because of our strong
reservations about the ability of the written word to convey the true and complete
understanding of what we wish to say. In addition, writing which is somehow related to
printing has been very expensive for ordinary Ghanaians. It is now far cheaper and
easier to store information on CD than to print on paper. Print technology in Ghana is
still expensive and complicated.

8. Conclusion

If Ghana is to develop and be truly independent politically and economically, we will

need to focus more on strengthening our cultural resources and investing enormously in
traditional education; to push our abandoned majority out of the mire clay and sinking
sandsin which they find themselves. We will need, with the help of digital imaging and
video technology, to visually document all aspects of our professional processes and
traditional forms, styles, technology, construction processes, designs, classifications,
songs, dance, rites, stories and more, making them available cheaply for public
education.

We will also need to create an effective platform for collaborative exercises and projects
between those in the world of text and those who rely more on visuals. The whole
breakthrough and boost of Information Communication Technology today, is
underpinned by rapid similar integration of both sides of the human faculty in one
coherent system.

9. References
v Agyeman-Duah, I. [Ed] (1990-1995).Kyeremateng and Culture (The
Kyeremateng Memorial Lectures 1990-1995) Centre for Intellectual Renewal.p.
54.
v Art and Visual Culture.(n.d.). Retrieved from,
http://www.students.sbc.edu/lollis04/ArtandVisualCulture9.htm (accessed 15
September, 2012).
v Barry, B. H. (1945).World Futures a Critical Analysis of Alternatives.The John
Hopkins University Press. London. p.9.

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Debrah, R. D. & Antwi, E.

v Donald, M. (1991).Origins of the Modern Mind.Three Stages in the Evolution of

Culture and Cognition.Harvard University Press.p. 355.
v Gladwell, M. (2007).Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking.Back Bay
Books.
v Griffin J. and Collins p. (2007).Wear Your Chair, When Fashion Meets Interior
Design. Fairchild Publications Inc, New York. p. 84, 85.
v Jewison, N. (1999). "Chess With Sex," Sight and Sound . p. 58-59.
v Johnson, C. E. (1970).Art and Culture Among The Ashanti of Ghana. Arkansas
Academy of Science Proceedings, Vol. XXIV. Pine Bluff Arkansas 71601. p. 21.
v Laurie, S. A. (1999).Art Across Time, Volume I. From Prehistory to the
Fourteenth Century.McGraw-Hill College. New York. p.1.
v New world Encyclopedia Contributors.Visual Culture (internet). New World
Encyclopedia; 2009 November 23rd, 17: 04 UTC (Cited 2009 Dec 20).
v Available from
http//www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/visual_Culture?oldid=946226,
v (accessed 20 November 2012).
v Osei, K. (2002).A Hand Book on Ashanti Culture. Cita Press Ltd. Buokrom,
Kumasi. p.162.
v Pender, K. (1997).Digital Graphic Design for PC and MAC users. Hartnolls
Limited, Bodmin Cornwall. Great Britain. p. 2.

v Rattray, R. S. (1924).In Charles E Johnson Art And Culture Among The Ashanti
of Ghana.Arkansas Academy of Science Proceedings, Vol. XXIV. Pine Bluff
Arkansas 71601.
v Reindorf , C. C. (2007).History of the Gold Coast and Asante. Ghana Universities
Press. Accra. p.17.
v Sarpong, P. (1991).Girl’s Nubility Rites in Ashanti. Ghana Publishing
Corporation. p. 10,11.
v Shlain, L. ( 1991 ).Art and Physics.Parallel Visions in Space Time and Light. Quill
William Morrow. New York. p. 400.
v Shlain, L. (1998).The Alphabet Versus the Goddess: The Conflict Between Word
and Image. New York: Viking.
v Stewart, M. (2002).Launching the Imagination.A Comprehensive Guide to Basic
Design. [1st Ed] McGraw-Hill Higher Education. New York. p. 2,11.
v Warren, D. (1970).The Akan of Ghana (An overview of the ethnographic
literature), Techiman.p.61.

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 Using WikiEducator to Improve the Academic Performance of
Distance Learners at the Centre for Continuing Education, University
of Cape Coast

S-P. K. Aheto
Centre for Continuing Education, University of Cape Coast, Ghana
[email protected], [email protected]

P. Nyagorme
Centre for Continuing Education, University of Cape Coast, Ghana
[email protected] , [email protected]

P. M. Agyei
Centre for Continuing Education, University of Cape Coast, Ghana
[email protected]

Abstract
Today, technology has made it possible for learners to access learning resources
irrespective of time, space and culture. Despite these advancements in e-learning with
its associated impacts on formal education delivery, significant challenges remain with
regard to how Distance learners can improve their academic performance using any of
these technologies. In an attempt to solve this problem, much hope has been placed on
the use of open source e-platforms. The purpose of this paper is to assess how
WikiEducator, an open source e-platform, influences learning to improve academic
performance of Distance education learners in the University of Cape Coast (UCC). The
e-platform was used on Distance education learners (Business option comprising
Commerce, Management and Marketing) of the Centre for Continuing Education, UCC
to facilitate learners’ self-assessment after each unit, session and the entire module for
a liberal course known as Resource Perception and Management. The study
hypothesized that: There is no statistically significant positive relationship between
academic performance by Business students of CCE and the use of WikiEducator e-
platform, Using WikiEducator e-platform has no statistically significant positive
relationship with level of motivation of Business students of CCE and there is no
statistically significant positive relationship between the use of WikiEducator and the
level of satisfaction of Business students of CCE. Data was collected from a sample of
200 participants out of 518 participants who were exposed to the WikiEducator e-quiz
platform in a Study Centre through an online questionnaire. Pearson Product Movement
Correlation Coefficient was used to test the degree of relationship of WikiEducator,
satisfaction, motivation and academic performance. It was found that, the WikiEducator
e-platform provided easy facilitation to respondents’ preparation towards end of
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 Using WikiEducator to Improve the Academic Performance of Distance Learners at the Centre for Continuing
Education, University of Cape Coast – Aheto, S-P. K., Nyagorme, P. & Agyei, P. M.

semester examinations. Positive significant relationship was found between

WikiEducator and motivation, academic performance and satisfaction. The learners
were motivated to have enough practice via the e-platform, partly due to the instant
feedback on their performance without anyone else tracking their performance which
positively influenced their ultimate performance in their quizzes and final examination.

Keywords: academic performance, Distance Education learners, e-platform,

motivation, satisfaction, study centre, WikiEducator.

Introduction
Education has always placed a very important part in quality of human life. The central
role of education as a tool for societal development is acknowledged worldwide.
Societies, all over the world, therefore place great demands on educational systems for
flexibility to deliver formal education to the ever-growing range of learning needs of
Distance learners. According Anderson and Kanuka (2003), traditionally, tertiary
institutions delivered their teaching programmes to learners through face-to-face
interactions interlaced with print-based course materials. This phenomenon presented a
tripartite challenge of access, equity and equality in educational delivery especially in
Africa (Abisai, 2011). It has become evident that present educational systems are ill-
equipped to meet the challenges confronting the populace. There is, therefore, an
urgent need to look for alternative solutions and the means for doing things differently
rather than doing more of the same. This calls for seizing the opportunities that
surround us. The recent advances in the digital technologies such as the advents of
internet resulting in emailing, discussion fora, teleconferencing present institutions of
higher learning an opportunity to seek and adopt appropriate educational technologies
to facilitate flexible delivering of educational needs of societies. Due to these related
advancements in technology and its positive impact on education, Distance Education
has become very attractive thereby attracting a number of players to it. Conrad (2006)
posits that Distance learning occurs when learners and instructor do not meet
personally in the same physical space. Correspondingly, Roffe (2002) argued that
Distance learning refers to the way people communicate and learn by electronic means,
which has emerged as a key source of competitive advantage in the information
society?

Background to the Study

The aim of the University of Cape Coast (UCC) was to expand access to higher
education by offering alternatives to qualified candidates who are unable to enrol in full
time residential programmes (Koomson, 2009). In Ghana, many qualified applicants
who are seeking admission to mainstream institutions are being denied access due to
limited physical infrastructure and other logistics existing at the Universities. A case in

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point was the admission trend at UCC. From 2001 to 2008 academic year, the total
number of qualified learners who applied to the University were 77,596 out of which only
28,167 were offered admission. This implied that about 64 percent were not offered
admission to the University (Koomson, 2009). Generally, the story is the same for other
Universities in Ghana. According to Gyamera (2004:148), the five universities in Ghana
can “only admit 40% of qualified applicants” due to infrastructure problems. This
situation has posed serious capacity development problems for Ghana. In 2000, the
University introduced Distance learning programme, organised under Centre for
Continuing Education (CCE), to cater for quailed applicants who do not gain admissions
into the mainstream. The report of the basic statistics of CCE (2011) indicated that
learners’ enrolment figure stood at 36,790 spread across the length and breadth of
Ghana.

Statement of the problem

Many of the Distance learners are adult and preferred self-directed learning
environments. However, the CCE programme was modeled such that learners come to
their Study Centres fortnightly for tuition. Some of the learners most often failed to
attend such interactions due to weekend activities involving wedding, funerals, and
other family commitments. Combinations of these and other related factors such as the
learners study habit and style apparently result in low motivation to study, poor
satisfaction, and low academic performance of such learners. Many educational experts
often advocate for using alternative modes of delivering academic programmes to the
learners. However, no relevant usage project has been undertaken to ensure
effectiveness or the effects that ICT usage will have on the academic performance, level
of motivation and satisfaction of the Distance learners. This study therefore piloted an e-
learning platform using WikiEducator applications (Quiz) to ascertain the efficacy of
large scale introduction of e-learning platform into the operations of CCE programme.

Hypotheses
i. H0: There is no statistically significant positive relationship between academic
performance by Business students of CCE and the use of WikiEducator e-
platform. H1 There is a statistically significant positive relationship between
academic performance by Business students of CCE and the use of WikiEducator
e-platform.
ii. H0: Using WikiEducator e-platform has no statistically significant positive
relationship with level of motivation of Business students of CCE.
H1: Using WikiEducator e-platform has a statistically significant positive
relationship with level of motivation of Business students of CCE.

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iii. H0: There is no statistically significant positive relationship between the use of
WikiEducator and the level of satisfaction of Business students of CCE.
H1: There is a statistically significant positive relationship between the use of
WikiEducator and the level of satisfaction of Business students of CCE.

Theoretical framework
This study was based on cognitive information processing theory. The theory
centred on the processes and structures through which an individual receives and
stores information and focuses on cognitive processes during learning; these
involve processing instructional input to develop, test, and refine mental models
until they are sufficiently elaborated upon and reliable to be effective in novel
problem-solving situations (Zhang & Aikman, 2007). A major assumption of the
cognitive learning model is that a learner’s attention is limited and therefore
selective. With more interactive and richer media available, a learner who prefers a
self-directed and interactive learning style has more flexibility to meet individual
needs.

Based on this, the study assumes that an instructional method that is designed to
provide a greater variety of interactions and richer media and immediacy of
feedback should be more effective in improving learning outcome than the
traditional face-to-face interactions. In an e-learning environment, students and
instructors are physically separated. According to Liaw (2007), cognitive
information processing theory, leads to increased student engagement thereby
improving learning outcome.

Literature Review

History of WikiEducator
WikiEducator is an international online community project for the collaborative
development of learning materials, which educators are free to reuse, adapt and share
without restriction. According to WikiEducator (2013), the platform was launched in
2006 and is supported by the non-profit Open Education Resource (OER) Foundation
(COL, 2009). Dr. Wayne Mackintosh created the prototype of WikiEducator on a
desktop machine, making the very first edit on 13 February 2006. On 12 February,
2006, Dr. Mackintosh registered the WikiEducator domain name in New Zealand and in
April 2006, the prototype was moved onto a hosted server with the financial assistance
of Commonwealth of Learning (COL). COL provided sponsorship and leadership for the
project, including receipt of a $100,000 grant from The William and Flora Hewlett
Foundation to develop WikiEducator. Furthermore, WikiEducator became an

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independent entity on 1 July 2009, headquartered at the new International Centre for
Open Education at Otago Polytechnic in Dunedin, New Zealand. While COL continues
to provide some financial support for WikiEducator, the Open Education Resource
Foundation maintains the technical and operational infrastructure of the WikiEducator
community in accordance with the policies approved by the WikiEducator Community
Council (WikiEducator, 2013)

The relevance of WikiEducator in Distance Education

Studies have suggested that learner engagement is higher with interactive
communication and multimedia instruction: higher interactivity can lead to higher
learner engagement and better learning outcome (Northrup, 2001). According to
Larsen and Vincent-Lancrin (2005), face-to-face exchanges are important when they
enable other forms of sensory perception to be stimulated apart from these used within
the framework of electronic interaction. However, the influence of distance and time is
waning now that the technological capacity is available for knowledge-sharing, remote
access and teamwork, and organising and coordinating tasks over wide areas (OECD,
2004). WikiEducator's stated goal is to build a thriving and sustainable global
community dedicated to the design, development and delivery of free content for
learning in realisation of a free version of the education curriculum by 2015
(WikiEducator, 2011; 2013). A variety of learning resources are available on
WikiEducator: direct instructional resources such as lesson plans and full courses, as
well as learning-support resources, such as individual school portals and funding
proposals (WikiEducator, 2013). There is justification of the the use of WikiEducator in
Distance Education, however its design and adaptation among the practitioners in
developing countries have not fully been conceptualised in relation to learners’
satisfaction, motivation and higher academic performance.

The nature of Distance Education and the need to provide opportunity for learners to
interact with instructors and other learners makes it imperative for the use of media,
which can ensure effective communication (Yusuf, 2006). Tucker (2009) opines that
WikiEducator houses free course material and portals for collaboration on such
materials and is one of the 190 top web sites in the world and that “Free learning
resources are a powerful tool for empowerment and growth”. Since the attributes of
WikiEducator platform support tools for technology led education, Distance Education
players stand the chance of benefiting from the collaboration from the community. This
has a strong link with the corroboration of Shachar and Neumann (2010) who assert
that the improvements of technology, the widespread internet access, the increased
legitimacy of online learning within established universities and employers, and the
increased participation of adult learners in higher education with clear preferences

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toward learning anytime and anywhere will further drive future improvements in the
quality of Distance learning programmes. There has been a reasonable number of
research work in the area of WikiEducator utilisation for educational purposes but none
of them have touched on how it could be useful in the support of quizzes in Distance
Education.

Factors influencing academic performance

The students’ performance (academic achievement) plays an important role in
producing the best quality graduates who will become great leaders and manpower for
the country thus responsible for the country’s economic and social development (Ali et
al., 2009). Discourse in the related areas of Distance Education, quality assurance
and academic performance of Distance education learners continue unabated. In
their research, Shachar and Neumann (2010) maintained that, the last decade of the
20th Century and the first of the 21st have seen dramatic changes due to the exponential
proliferation of telecommunications and the internet to all aspects of life. Said
technological changes have also influenced education systems to pursue the
development, incorporation, and blending of new and innovative methods of and for
delivering education.

Students’ academic performance measurement has received considerable attention in

previous research, it is challenging aspects of academic literature, and science student
performance are affected due to social, psychological, economic, environmental and
personal factors. These factors strongly influence the students’ performance, but these
factors vary from person to person and country to country (Shachar and Neumann,
2010) sometimes based on the mode of delivery. Sankaran and Bui (1999) investigated
the factors that affect student achievement in web based Distance Education and
observed that students’ age had an effect on their success. Mushtaq and Khan (2012)
identified four factors that affect students’ academic performance. These factors are
students’ communication skills, learning facilities, proper guidance and family stress. As
cited in their research, Galiher (2006) and Darling et al. (2005), used Grade Point
Average (GPA) to measure student performance because their main focus was on the
student performance for the particular semester. Some other researchers used test
results or previous year results since they were studying performance for the specific
subject or year (Hijazi & Naqvi, 2006; Hake, 1998). Furthermore, research studies
shows that students’ performance depends on many factors such as learning facilities,
gender and age differences, etc. that can affect student performance (Hansen, 2000).
Again, Noble et al. (2006) posit that learners’ academic accomplishments and activities,
perceptions of their coping strategies and positive attributions, and background
characteristics (i.e., family income, parents’ level of education, guidance from parents

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and number of negative situations in the home) were indirectly related to their
composite scores, through academic achievement in high school. In effect, there are
myriad of factors that have the capacity to influence the academic performance of every
learner with Distance Education learners as no exception.

Factors influencing the level of motivation of Online learners

Reeve (2005) explains motivation as the incentive or energy that drives an individual to
take an action. There have been a lot of research works in the area of motivation; they
suggest that a student’s motivation for any given task can range from intrinsic to
extrinsic (Deci and Ryan, 1985). Of the two types of motivation, Distance Education
learners are mostly driven by intrinsic motivation. In their research, Deci and Ryan
(1985) identified variables that encompassed intrinsic motivation. According to them,
enjoyment, perceived value, autonomy, competence, and relatedness formed part of the
variables of intrinsic motivation. Others have also researched into the factors of
motivation for online learning. Example is Jones and Issroff (2005) who did some work
in affective and social issues in online learning environments and pointed out the
importance of understanding the nature of students’ motivation in participating in online
discussions. To support the later, Attitude toward online classes also has been linked to
the use of online discussions and a sense of community students feel (Drouin, 2008;
Moisey et al., 2008. This can positively contribute to the quality of class and confidence
in technology skills in any related participation in online discussions. Furthermore,
Antino (2008) opinioned that, motivation and self-regulation have also been identified as
important to success in online learning. Research in instructional technology and
motivation demonstrates a relationship between motivators and teaching practices
(Gautreau, n.d.). Among the most prevalent motivation factors identified are
achievement, compensation, personal growth, administrative support, and personal
fulfilment (Betts, 1998; Lawler and King, 2003; Rogers, 1995).

The quantum of work that focuses on motivation in online and Distance Education
cannot be underestimated. Students in online classes have a high-degree of
autonomous freedom and can choose their own learning preference, which might be
beneficial for learners with intrinsic motivation (Ryan and Deci, 2000). In toting it up,
Yang et. al. (2006) reported that motivation positively influences social presence among
peers in online collaborative learning. The numerous research findings have not
touched on motivation in relation to online quizzes.

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Factors influencing Distance learners’ level of satisfaction of the Distance

education programme
Satisfaction can be viewed as an outcome of a consumption activity or experience
(Hennig-Thurau and Klee, 1997; Parker and Mathews, 2001; Padilla, 1996). Astin
(1993) also defined student satisfaction in terms of student’s perception towards their
college or university experience, and perceived significance of the education that they
received from an institution. An important factor in satisfaction with Distance learning is
student-instructor dialogue (Chen, 1997). A number of studies have examined student
satisfaction in Distance Education (Beare, 1989; Bink et al., 1995; Jones, 1992; Klesius
et al., 1997; McCleary & Eagan, 1989). Allen et al. (2002) and Wang (2003) argued that
in any educational institution, the satisfaction of a student can be determined from his
level of pleasure as well as the effectiveness of the education that the student
experiences. In their proposal, Sloan Consortium developed and posted on its website
an “A Quality Framework” to promote the quality of online programmes in higher
education. They named the specific structures as the “five pillars of quality” - student
satisfaction, access, learning effectiveness, faculty satisfaction and cost effectiveness.
They further stated that, they are to be “understood and applied by each institution as
appropriate” (Moore, 2002). Here, student satisfaction is the first on the list. They again
identified five possible variables under student satisfaction: Improve access,
Individualized instruction, Livelong learning, Value and Collaboration as attributes of
student satisfaction in Distance Education. In his assertion, Fredericksen et al. (2000)
put forward that, students with higher levels of satisfaction towards various aspects of e-
learning courses are reported to show considerably higher levels of learning than
students with low level of satisfaction. Additionally, some authorities support the fact
that there are other factors that influence the level of satisfaction of Distance learners.
To them, the availability of Distance Education, the course offerings, and the increasing
number of students enrolled, all speak to the importance of this method of instruction
(Zapalska & Brozik, 2006). Even though, a number of studies have been conducted in
Distance learners’ level of satisfaction of Distance education programmes,
unfortunately, none of them handled satisfaction in terms of online quizzes.

Methodology
The study adopted a non-experimental descriptive design utilising qualitative
method in collecting and analysing the field data and the efficacy of WikiEducator,
an open source e-platform, on motivation, satisfaction, and academic performance of
Distance Education learners in the University of Cape Coast (UCC). The e-platform was
used on Distance Education learners (Business option comprising Commerce,
Management and Marketing) of the Centre for Continuing Education, UCC. Data was
collected from a sample of 200 participants from a Study Centre through an online
questionnaire. Even though the entire population of Distance learners who were

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exposed to the WikiEducator e-quiz platform were 518, in selecting the sample, the
researchers were guided by the suggestion by Nwana (1992) who espoused that if the
population is a few hundreds, a 40% or more sample size will do; if several hundreds a
20% sample size will do; if a few thousands a 10% sample size will do; and if several
thousand 5% or less sample size will do. The 200 participants for the study formed
about 40% of the 518 Distance learners who were exposed to the platform. Pearson
Product Movement Correlation Coefficient was used to test the degree of relationship of
WikiEducator, satisfaction, motivation and academic performance.

WikiEducator Quiz platform used in the study

Participants launched into the WikiEducator page on the link: http://wikieducator.
org/Kafuiaheto/Quizes. Upon getting to this page, participants had access to click on
any of the links to the quizzes Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 show how questions on the
platform were presented.
Figure 1: Screenshot showing the opening webpage on WikiEducator platform that linked the
question and lecture notes in portable disk file (pdf) format pages.

(Source: Authors, 2013)

Figure 2: Screenshot showing how the multiple choice questions on the WikiEducator platform
were presented.

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(Source: Authors, 2013)

Figure 3: Screenshot showing how the fill-in questions on the WikiEducator platform were
presented.

(Source: Authors, 2013)

Figure 4: A screenshot of an answered multiple choice questions on the WikiEducator

platform

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(Source: Authors, 2013)

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Figure 5: Screenshot of an answered fill-in questions on the WikiEducator platform

(Source: Authors, 2013)

Figure 6: Screenshot of a feedback from a submitted quiz on the WikiEducator platform

(Source: Authors, 2013)

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Figure 7: Screenshot of a feedback from a submitted quiz on the WikiEducator platform with
scores

(Source: Authors, 2013)

Feedbacks in terms of correct and Right (Green), Wrong (Red) and Not answered
(Blue) questions were usually captured after respondents submit their test. Again,
their scores are immediately returned beneath the question items with the
feedback. The platform gave the opportunity to respondents to reset in situations
where they wanted to re-take the quiz.

Results

Test of Hypotheses
In testing the various hypotheses, Pearson Product Movement Correlation Coefficient
was run on the various variables. The results are shown in Table 1. The data was
analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 18 (SPSS v18).

Table 1: Correlations between dependents and independent variables

Wikieducator Students' Academic
E-platform Motivation Satisfaction performance
Wikieducator E- Pearson
platform Correlation

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Sig. (2-tailed)
N 200
Motivation Pearson
.355**
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 200 200
Students' Pearson
.468 .058
Satisfaction Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .031 .412
N 200 200 200
Academic Pearson
.561** .698** -.067
performance Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .023 .000 .347
N 200 200 200 200
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-ailed).
(Source: Field data, 2013)

Table 1 revealed the following on how the independent variables relates to the
dependent variable; Academic performance: r(200) = 0.561, p>0.05;Satisfaction: r(200)
= 0.468, p<0.05; Motivation: r (200) = 0.55 p<0.05. In relation to hypothesis one (H1),
since it was observed that academic performance relates moderately positive at 0.561
with a p<0.05 and that the relationship is significant, the null hypothesis (H0 1) was
therefore rejected but the alternate hypothesis (H1 1) maintained. This means that there
is a positive relationship between students’ academic performance and the use of
WikiEducator. Therefore an introduction of WikiEducator will assist in improving
academic performance. This study supports an earlier study by Shachar and Neumann
(2010).

With respect to hypothesis two (H2), the null was put forth as “Using WikiEducator e-
platform has no statistically significant positive relationship with level of motivation of
management students of CCE”. In reference to Table 1, motivation correlated
significantly, p<0.05 and positively, r(200) =0.55 but moderately with WikiEducator. As a
result we reject the null (H0 2) hypothesis but the alternate (H12) is maintained. The
implication is that WikiEducator motivates students. A number of studies including that
of Gautreau (n.d.) side with this finding.

Hypothesis three (H3) was formulated as: (H0 3) there is no statistically significant
positive relationship between the use of WikiEducator and the level of satisfaction of

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Business students of CCE. (H1 3) there is a statistically significant positive relationship

between the use of WikiEducator and the level of satisfaction of Business students of
CCE. Satisfaction as indicated in Table 1 is r(200) = 0.468, p<0.05. It shows that
satisfaction has a positive and significant relationship with WikiEducator, meaning an
introduction of the platform will result in an increase in the satisfaction level of students.
From the above discussions we concluded by rejecting the null hypothesis, however,
the alternate hypothesis stands same. The outcome on satisfaction in this study is
strongly consistent with Moore (2002) attributes of student satisfaction in her “five pillars
of quality”.

Conclusions
It was found that there was a positive relationship between students’ academic
performance and WikiEducator use. Again, the study revealed that there exist positive
relationship between the use of WikiEducator platform and the level of Distance
Education learners’ motivation and satisfaction.
These findings confirmed the assertion by Abisai (2011) that pacing and adult learners
with constant flow of information address the tripartite challenges of access, equity and
equality in educational delivery system.
In a nutshell, the study revealed that designing and developing e-learning platform for
education impact positively on learners’ academic performance, satisfaction and
motivation.

Recommendations
WikiEducator has the potential to build strong capacity of Distance Education providers
if well harnessed. The providers and Learners stand a better chance to gain if online
platforms are incorporated in the design of Distance Education programmes especially
in the area of quizzes. Since WikiEducator is an open source and a community platform,
it is recommended that, Distance Education learners use it to find relevant information
for their studies. Thus, the proliferation of telecommunications and the Internet to all
aspects of life can be explored further and adopted in the area of online quizzes for
distance learners.

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 Navigating Indeterminacy through the application of User Journeys

J Hobbs
Department of Multimedia, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
[email protected]

T Fenn.
Department of Multimedia, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
[email protected]

Abstract
Of the defining characteristics of indeterminate problems, the presence of overwhelming
amounts of data presents one of the largest challenges to the designer. The complexity
presented in understanding, managing and using data as it is discovered, aggregated,
mapped, organized, interpreted, synthesized and transformed through human-centered
design processes, in the context of the environment of the problem-ecology, requires
that the designer has tools that can assist with designing solutions from these large
bodies of data. User journeys have become a frequently applied tool for research and
design in the practical fields of Design Thinking, Service Design, User Experience
Design and Information Architecture Design. In our paper we reposition User Journey
Design as both a tool and a rigorous self-reflective, data-driven process through
information gathering, synthesis and into design, which assists the designer in
navigating the complexities of indeterminate problems.

Keywords: Design cognition, User Journeys, complexity, indeterminacy, data and

information, analysis and synthesis.

Introduction
The proliferation of indeterminate problems in a world of increasing complexity, not least
within developing contexts, can place new demands on stakeholders, educators,
students, design practitioners and theorists. In this new paradigm, our experience has
revealed that bridging the spaces of education, practice and theory is rich with
opportunity but lacks in approaches that tangibly assist in bringing these worlds closer
together. User journeys4 provide a structured approach to synthesizing large amounts of
data in self-reflective, humanistic ways, where the path through complexity can be
traced back from artifact to the original problem-formation. It is in this respect that user

4
In this paper we will use the term ‘user journeys’ as an umbrella term for User Journeys which tend to be applied in the design of digital spaces, as
well as Customer Journeys, Customer Journey Maps and Customer Experience Maps which are more frequently applied in the spaces of Service
Design and related cross-channel or channel neutral design practices.
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journeys, as a design tool, not only provide an approach to solving problems that
emerge through complexity, but also narrow the gap between practice, research and
teaching by making the hidden visible.

This paper will present a history and review of the literature and application of user
journeys in practice today. We will then explore related literature from Design Thinking,
in particular the literature concerning the nature of indeterminacy, to set the context for
an approach that broadens the relevance and application of user journeys. To this end a
case study will be presented that demonstrably positions user journeys as a bridge
between education, theory and practice as the designer navigates complexity in a self
reflective, data-driven, human-centered process.

User Journeys

User journeys have been applied extensively in the field of information architecture design over
the past decade with specific reference to the evaluation, research and design of digital
experiences (in particular website design)5. In our experience, the emergence of user
journeys can be viewed as a merging of business process design, customer relationship
management (and the use of relationship and engagement models or cycles) and user-
centered design (empathetic explorations of the user’s experience, needs-based design
and the use of interaction models).

More recently, the rise of human-centered design methods taking root in businesses
(Brown, 2008), multi-channel integration and cross-channel design (Resmini, 2011), and
Service Dominant Logic, in the form of Service Design (Lusch & Vargo, 2006), have
extended the user journey focus to include the full business value-chain, user
experiences that span channels and business unit remits, and an interest in the total
service ecology within which users operate (Browne, 2011). The associated design
artifact became known as Customer Journey Maps.

A user journey is a schematic representation of the path a user will take through
lifecycle stages (usually derived from relationship, engagement or interaction models),
channels, touchpoints, content and functionality, demonstrating related factors such as
the emotional state of the user, interaction modes6, key marketing messages, micro
barriers and breakpoints (drop-off) along the way.

5    
See Caddick & Cable, 2011: 78 for an in-depth practice orientated account of user journey design
6
As users progress through journeys their modes typically change, for example from information gathering, to making choices and narrowing
decisions, to fine-tuning, customizing and personalising

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Figure 1. A customer journey map by Marc Fonteijn (31 Volts) for a trainride experience.
(http://www.servicedesigntools.org/tools/8: 2013)

As a tool, journeys are useful in the information gathering or ‘discovery’ phase when
used to describe current or ‘as-is’ paths taken by users. These journeys highlight both
problems experienced by users and successful moments in the experience. To create
‘as-is’ journeys the designer can personally emulate the experience, shadow users, ask
users to describe the experience, gather analytics to reveal journeys, amongst many
other techniques.

Journeys can also be integrated with other user-centered design tools, such as
personas, to add increased levels of detail when considering experiences through the
multiple lenses of user role or types as presented in Figure 2 below.

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Figure 2. Maya, design studio, developed customer journeys specific to personas in the Carnegie
Library to demonstrate movement through physical locations, catalog schemes and staff
(http://www.maya.com/portfolio/carnegie-library)

In the design phase, an ideal user experience will be conceived and presented as a
mapping of discrete interactions across environments and time through which users are
intended to travel. Individual interactions are linked together and highlight the options
available to users through the journey often employing hooks7 to ensure that users
remain in the journey (i.e. so as not to drop-off) and are compelled to continue. Ideally,
designed journeys are needs-based (Hobbs, 2005) and provide logical progressions
such that users are provided a sense of orientation across time and channels (where
they have come from, where they are and what their next steps or options are, are
explicit in the interaction).

Additionally, designers will seek to ensure that across interactions and stages in the
journey user needs are married harmoniously to the needs of the business or
organization. This is an important and implicit consequence of the fundamental
principles of Service Dominant Logic and Service Design8 as it organically removes

7
Techniques are varied but by way of example hooks can range from special offers, to actionable content that progresses a user to a next step or
items of content aimed at addressing barriers to continuing commonly experienced by users at that point in the journey
8
This point is the author’s interpretation of the eight fundamental principles of Service-Dominant Logic, that is, the designers aim of architecting
systems that provide meaningful value-exchanges between all participants in a particular ecosystem. (Sharpe, 2006)

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barriers where customers would otherwise require persuasion to continue along a

specific path or to customers making certain decisions.

As previously noted, user journeys operate alongside other tools commonly employed in
service, user experience and information architecture design as well as marketing and
IT. By way of example, a generic commercially oriented relationship model with four
lifecycle phases is presented below:

Figure 3. An illustration of a generic commercially oriented relationship model (Hobbs & Fenn)

Each lifecycle phase would have an associated journey: the pre-purchase journey, the
purchase journey, and so on. Each of these journeys would demonstrate how various
scenarios9 link together to form a time-based progression through the relationship
model.

9
Scenarios are a technique applied in human centered design to ‘tell the story’ of an interaction at a low level of detail and thus simply and succinctly
communicating the most important aspects of a designed experience. By way of example, comic strips are often used as a means of communicating a
scenario.

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Figure 4. Linking processes and artifacts across the user journey design method. (Hobbs & Fenn)

Scenarios along a journey will reflect the changing needs, need-states, modes and
emotions of users and the choice, order and linkage of scenarios (the structure of the
journey) by understanding both the types of users engaged with the system and
business needs and rules along the way.

As portrayed in Figure 4, at the level of the user journey artifact, scenarios are
generalized. The illustration presents three important aspects of integrating user
journeys into the design process. One, that user journeys are based on models derived
from research. Two, that the model sets the logic for multiple scenarios to be linked
across various user journeys that too are linked that together constitute a description of
a new system of experience and interaction. And three that at different stages in the
design process artifacts reflect deepening level of detail in describing the experiences.
For example, the journey will not describe all the possible detail in a log in scenario, just
that a log-in is required at this stage in the journey. Instead, storyboards, prototypes,
task flows, process diagrams and use cases will be written to convey the detail of the
log-in scenario referencing back to that moment in the user journey.

Figure 5. This illustration presents the changing levels of detail that the designer engages with at
different stages in the design process. (Hobbs & Fenn)

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Based on the application of the (relationship, interaction or other) model applied initially,
the effectiveness of the eventual design of artifacts within each scenario is judged by its
success in assisting users to move positively through that particular moment in the
journey and can be tested against users representative of the aforementioned personas
and measured through analytics or related key performance indicators.

User journeys tend to focus on the broader system or service environment experienced
by the user and thus act as a tool to synthesise multiple data points, types of users and
the interests of various stakeholders (for example in a commercial scenario: marketers,
sales teams, operations, IT and product managers)10. Stepping into this broader system
or service environment means that the design problem becomes situated in contexts-of-
use (or contexts - of - experience), that is, society as influenced by factors such as
economics, politics, culture, technology, etc.

As an approach, this is in line with an understanding of the role of design as shifting

away from aesthetics and product towards a framing within transdisciplinary problem
solving that effectively, empathetically and sustainably seeks to improve the life
experience of people.

10
Even when a specific product is present, the journey will explore the larger context in which the product operates (when applied specifically to the
understanding or design of a product, journeys - in the definition presented in this paper - will usually be replaced by interaction models that deal with
the user’s experience of the product specifically).

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Indeterminacy and the Principle of the Included Middle

Design, when enacted within the polarities of complexity and indeterminacy shares with
Transdisciplinary Research many cognitive similarities (Fenn & Hobbs: 2012). These
similarities include the integration of knowledge and methods in the act of problem
solving (Jahn et al, 2011: 2) and the intentional inclusion of stakeholders in the definition
of problems (Jahn et al, 2011: 2, Wickson et al, 2005: 1048). However the area of
Transdisciplinary Research that in our opinion best describes the dilemmas of
complexity that confront the designer is Basarab Nicolescu’s Principle of the Included
Middle (1984: 6, & in Max- Neef, 2005: 10). However in order to contextualise the
relationship between Transdisciplinary Research and Design, the following section will
provide a short description of a range of characteristics resulting from complexity, that
can affect design practice.

Complexity can be understood as occurring when the following conditions are present
(Johnson: 2007) in a system:
v A range of interacting objects or agents
v Objects or agents who’s behavior is affected by memory or feedback
v Objects or agents that adapt their strategies according to their history
v Systems are typically open
v Phenomena emerge which are generally surprising and may be extreme
v Phenomena emerge that typically arise in the absence of an " invisible hand" or
central controller
v Systems present a complicated mix of ordered and disordered behavior

In summary, complexity can be said to occur within a system when the system’s
elements and structures cannot be simulated nor easily predicated and thus present
unexpected and unanticipated behavior (Rosen, in Resmini & Rosati 2011: 61).
Klaus Krippendorff suggests in Design Research: an Oxymoron (2007), that design is
inherently a social activity and thus in order to produce meaningful solutions, a designer
must acknowledge and support peoples conceptions and desire and this requires
listening, observing and collaborating so as to understand how people “think and justify
their actions in worlds they always are in the process of constructing” (Krippendorff,
2007: 71-72). Regardless of the mode and technique the outcome of a rigorous
research exploration into social reality is complexity, as social reality is inexhaustibly
intricate and matches Johnson’s criteria for complexity (2007).

Complexity impacts on design in two distinct ways. Firstly, it can be understood as the
context from which the problem emerges and secondly, as the context that provides the
relational logic that the solution must acknowledge. At its most tangible, the complexity

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takes the form of the data generated by the research. It is therefore, the designer’s
purpose to create clarity, that is, the aspect of the design that users will interface with,
from the complexity of the resultant data.

Indeterminacy arises when design problems, situated in social complexities are

characterized as being ill defined, reliant on subjective social agreement and wicked in
the sense that before they can be solved they need to be tamed, defined and limited
(Rittel & Webber: 156). Johann van der Merwe11 in a Natural Death is Announced
(2010:1) describes design as a discipline-neutral groundless field of knowledge that
constantly sources knowledge, skills, practices and contexts from other fields of
knowledge as dictated by the location of the ‘specific design problem’ (2010:8). Van der
Merwe’s (2010) observation implies that design solutions are in their own manner as
indeterminate as design problems and contain no natural form or structure and are
always acts of synthetic construction.

Both Richard Buchanan (1992) and Nigel Cross (1992:12) also warn against the
temptation of applying premeditated and assumptive12 design solutions to complex
problems. Buchannan (1992:10) describes the results of this dependence as “mannered
imitations of an earlier invention” that are may no longer be relevant to the specific
possibilities of a new situation.

The act of designing in response to complex problems is therefore one of bespoke

construction. Rittel and Webber (1973: 161) emphasise the relationship of
understanding the contexts of design problems and the formation of a design solutions
and describe the requirements of design problem solving as follows:
“One cannot understand the problem without knowing about its context; one cannot
meaningfully search for information without the orientation of a solution concept; one
cannot first understand, then solve.”

The formulation of matching problem-solutions is a cognitive process that creates

design solutions by iteratively reducing the range of relevancy though analysis while
simultaneously forming meaning (the solution) through synthetic construction. This
cognitive of synthesis is often described in contemporary models of the design process
as ‘ideation’ (see Figure 6) but due to its iterative nature can be described equally as
the problem / solution ecology.

Figure 6: Basic Design Thinking process. (Harris & Ambrose, 2009). Another example would be
the IDEO methodology (Brown, 2009)

12
or ‘categorical’ solutions as Buchanan terms them

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The concept of a problem / solution ecology evokes for us the Principle of the Included
Middle which, according to Max- Neef, allows “through an iterative process” to cross
different areas of knowledge in a coherent manner, and thus generate a “new simplicity”
(Max- Neef 2005: 13).

The Principle of the Included Middle when adapted to describe design cognition
explains the cognitive jump that designers make when synthesising design solutions
from design research so that the solutions will be accessible and useful to the end-
users. This ability of the individual (researcher or practitioner) to fuse knowledge from a
number of different disciplines and engage with stakeholders in the process of
generating knowledge” (Wickson, et al 2006: 1051) is according to Jahn et al (2011: 3),
the major cognitive challenge of transdisciplinary research, and we would argue, of
design to.

The Included Middle can therefore be considered as descriptive of the site of the
cognitive decision-making that precedes, identifies, selects and orientates the specific
design disciplinary practices that construct the final solution. In the rest of this paper we
will appropriate the term ‘the Included Middle’ and refer to it as ‘Design’s Included
Middle’, to describe this area of synthetic cognition.

User journeys and the Golden Thread

As the designer moves through the design process (note that this is not linear) data
both transforms and stands to degrade. It is of necessity that data transforms as the
sheer mass of it requires not only re-organisation (through the use of models inherent in
user journeys) but also re-interpretation either implicitly (because of the ‘nature’ of the
model) or explicitly (through experience strategies).
The cognitive resolution of Design’s Included Middle through the synthetic composition
of meaning is contained within the user journey. Thus user journeys help to structure
the thinking required for solving the complexity of the problem / solution ecology.

As previously noted, this is achieved by basing user journeys on the large mass of data
derived through research which is organized into a coherent user experience by

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applying models that allow for the synthesis of user needs and modes, business needs,
contextual requirements, channels, content and functionality, etc.

User journeys present the output of synthetic cognition, represented in diagrammatic

plans that are then translated by other design disciplines or developers into final design
artifacts with which users interact. User journeys are the information architecture, the
blueprints, that represent the re-organisation and re-intepretation of data discovered
through research and that act as the basis for design artifacts that will emerge from the
blueprints.

Thus, in addition to serving the function of synthesis tool, user journeys also become
the map through which the life of the data can be traced back from final designed
artifact to the original Discovery phase and problem-ecology. This traceability we refer
to as the “Golden thread” and it provides explicit evidence of the transformation of data
that allows the design process to be both validated and self-reflective.

Figure 7. Above we illustrate the intersection of Design’s Included Middle and the Golden Thread
where user journeys capture the moment of data transformation and traceability through the
process. (Hobbs & Fenn)

Figure 8. This illustration provides greater detail than Figure 7 demonstrating, in principle, the
design process and the transformation and traceability of data back from final designed artifact.
Here, research data (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) transforms at the point of solution where 1 + 2 = A, 2 + 4 = B,
and so on. (Hobbs & Fenn)

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Furthermore, in being self-reflective and as we will now demonstrate, the user journey
provides for the theory of the solution to be revealed, discussed, shared, critiqued and
tested and in so doing becomes available as a tool for educating others and either
continued or related development of practice13.

Case study: The research / discovery phase

The design work lead and managed by Hobbs while consulting to an international
private bank over a three year period serves to demonstrate the points made above.
Early in 2010 the brief to redesign the Bank’s online and mobile banking channels for
the South African market was immediately broadened to understand the problem in the
context of: other channels used by the Bank and experienced by their clients (the
private banker, call centre, branch network, etc); the services of their other business
units (covering wealth management and a variety of investment services) and
international jurisdictions; and the broader ecology experienced by their clients (their
contexts of use, needs, wants and desires, the competitor landscape, local and global
finance and economy landscape, the influence of technology, etc).

Specific research activities to understand the problem ecology included: internal

stakeholder interviews, 150 qualitative client interviews, an online survey, client
feedback received through the online, call centre and private banker channels,
behavioural analytics derived from the incumbent online and mobile banking channels,
cross-sector best practice based on user interaction modes common in banking, best

13
At the 2012 Pervasive Conference in Newcastle, UK (as part of the “Pervasive Information Architectures as Architectures of Meaning for Complex

Cross-channel Systems” workshop organized by A. Resmini, J. Hobbs and T. Fenn) Damjan Obal contributed the paper “Jam me a service: Designing

a cross-channel experience”. In the paper he presents a case-study where he demonstrates the value of information architecture tools for synthesizing

data, making sense of the design thinking process, as bridge between team members from disparate disciplines and communicating and discussing

ideas. His paper is due to published in the Journal of Information Architecture later this year.

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practice from the digital and IT sectors at large and within banking (including retail
banking), business requirements gathering, competitor landscaping and a graphical
discovery.

Naturally this amount of research generated an enormous amount of data (the

consolidated list of requirements delivered 1669 unique items alone). It was therefore
necessary to organize the data such that the problem ecology could be understood and
so the team followed a process where insights and requirements were mapped to user
interaction modes and grouped into themes. A few examples of the user interaction
modes were information seeking, monitoring and advice seeking.

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Figure 9. This image illustrates various sources of data (in the outer ring) being mapped into
themes (the middle ring) and finally into user modes (the inner circle). (Hobbs & Fenn)

Case study: The synthesis / strategy phase

Sixteen design principles and four data-driven personas were developed that would
both inform the user experience strategy for the digital channels and act as tools to
validate designs and manage conflicts and trade-offs14 that would threaten to emerge
later in the process.

14
In the experience of the authors as practicing designers, complex problem ecologies present contradictions, conflicts and paradoxes largely
because of the multiple stakeholders and users present in the ecology. Objectives, needs and experiences amongst these groups will often result in
conflicting solutions and a common means of organisations navigating these conflicts is through trade-offs.

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Figure 10. This illustration demonstrates how research data, mapped to themes elicited user
experience principles and data-driven personas, both of which informed the eventual user
experience strategy. (Hobbs & Fenn)

User journeys were then designed to describe the way in which users should
experience content and functionality across time in the online and mobile banking
channels such that the user experience strategy would be tangibly brought to life. In this
design project the model applied for the journeys was embedded in the user experience
strategy.

Managing the transformation of data through this process, ensuring that key aspects of
data are not ‘lost along the way’ and that there is traceability back to previous iterations
of the problem / solution ecology are what we are referring to as the Golden Thread that
exists in Designs Included Middle.

Figure 11. The Golden Thread provides traceability from design back to research through the use
of interaction modes. (Hobbs & Fenn)

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As illustrated in Figure 11, user interaction modes (previously applied as a model to

map research data) were then used to generate user goal and task sets that were
anchored in the user journeys. The continued application of the same interaction modes
model meant that the journeys could act as a bridge between research, strategy and
design.
The user interaction modes, and their associated data, underwent a process of
transformation during strategy. For example, the insight that clients desired a broad
view of the organization in its totality (across product offerings, business units and
jurisdictions) and not just the Banking proposition, was grouped within the user
interaction modes of information gathering and product adding however in the user
experience strategy framework became drivers for a single-site strategy, personal
financial management and the content strategy.

Case study: The design phase

Since the user journeys were based on tactics emerging from the user experience
strategy, and not directly from the interaction modes meant that a way of tracing data
back to its origins was required to ensure that requirements (data) would not be lost.
This was achieved by a further process of mapping scenarios to user interaction modes
in the journeys, to goals and tasks that were then organized into site maps and
ultimately navigation concepts and lo-fidelity paper prototypes (wireframes).
Although the new user experiences being designed had their origins in research that
was heavily human-centered, the immersion in data, its reorganization and
transformation meant the design process had become significantly removed from the
original understanding of the problem ecology. This suggested that something emergent
and original was taking form however it raised the issue of whether the interpretation

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and transformation of data would produce new experiences and meanings that were not
actually desirable to clients: either because multiple solutions stand to exist (where
some could be more useful, usable or desirable to users than others) or because of the
subjective interpretation of data by the design team.
Figure 12. Wireframe and mid-fidelity (clickable interface) prototypes were generated from user
tasks allowing solutions to be tested against users representative of the personae originally
derived from research. (Hobbs & Fenn)

Thus users were integrated in the process of designing the end product. In the first
round of testing multiple options of screen layout, navigation models, interaction
models, section labeling and graphical interfaces were presented and as a result the
design was refined. In the second round of testing users were asked to accomplish
various tasks by navigating through clickable, mid-fidelity prototypes with associated
observations reactions and questions posed to users and recorded. Again, the design
iterated.

It is worth noting that in both rounds of testing users were selected from the customer
base such that they represented a cross-section of the personae the team had derived
from the research and used before and after user testing as design concepts were
explored.

Case study: A self-reflective process

User journeys provide a structured approach to synthesizing large amounts of data in
self-reflective, humanistic ways, where the path through complexity can be traced back
from artifact to the original problem-formation.
Figure 13 serves to illustrate data flow (as orange lines) flowing back from the final
solution to the original research with the addition of the two-way relationship between
research and user journeys to demonstrate the traceability of data. Additionally it
demonstrates the bridge provided by user journeys between synthesis, research and
final designed solution artifact: the interfaces for the website and mobile experience.

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Figure 13. Flow of data across the design process (Hobbs & Fenn)

It is in this respect that user journeys not only provide an approach to solving problems
that emerge through complexity, but also narrow the gap between educating, practice
and research.

As an educational tool:
For the purposes of producing documentation that would assist business analysts and
developers in building the end online and mobile banking channels, user experience
standards and guidelines documentation were created. Key outputs of the design
process that required understanding, such that the new systems could be developed
correctly, included the user journeys, which presented the over-arching user experience
at the appropriate level of detail to provide understanding for the reader of the
documents.

At key milestones through the design process (that spanned a year) internal
stakeholders required presentation and satisfaction that their needs (both at the project
and business levels) were being met. Again, this meant that the story of the design
process could be clearly told at both low and high levels of detail, which the user
journeys facilitated.
In both examples, the user journeys act as the cognitive bridge to link data, artifacts,
process and understanding.

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As a research and practice tool:

In 2011 the scope of the project extended to include online and mobile banking for the
business and clients in the United Kingdom. The market, business, product offering and
clients were at this stage unknown to the project team and although as much
inheritance of design as possible was desired (to reduce time to market and provide a
global service offering) a process was required to validate this inheritance.
The team in the UK required an understanding of the process that had lead to the
eventual design of the South African system and it was possible to tell this story using a
variety of the artifacts, including the user journeys that had been produced.

The UK team then embarked on a discovery process (including qualitative customer

research, internal business requirements gathering and the production of their own
data-driven personae) after which their data, insights and requirements were mapped to
the user interaction models applied in the South African process. Research data was
mapped to themes, user interaction modes, and the user experience strategy as well as
user journeys such that a Good, Average, Poor GAP analysis could identify the validity
of inheriting the user experience strategy, journeys and related design solution artifacts.
To validate further, the solution was then tested with users from the United Kingdom
market that aligned to their personas.

These examples serve to demonstrate the way in which the user journeys acted as a
key deliverable at the axis of process and design solution and in so doing brought
together teaching others about the design, a theoretical foundation for the replication of
the model (and solution) in other contexts and the ongoing use of design artifacts
across contexts.

And lastly, not desiring to state the obvious, but this paper presents a case study, as
told through the lens of the role of the user journeys applied therein, and thus provides a
further bridge (not just internally to the organisation) for the theoretical debate and
hopefully use of in teaching students and informing practitioners.

Conclusion
Of the defining characteristics of indeterminate problems, the presence of overwhelming
amounts of data presents one of the largest challenges to the designer. The complexity
presented in understanding, managing and using data as it is discovered, aggregated,
mapped, organized, interpreted, synthesized and transformed through human-centered
design processes, in the context of the environment of the problem-ecology, requires
that the designer has tools that can assist with designing solutions from these large
bodies of data.

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User journeys provide such a tool. However three important consequences follow:
v Shifts in meaning occur through synthetic construction (Designs Included
Middle). These meanings pervade the problem / solution ecology and are likely to
impact all stakeholders. It is therefore incumbent on the field to provide ways of
making this meaning explicit and thus available to ethical scrutiny.
v Since the transformation of data is visibly recorded in the user journey it
becomes both a tool for self-reflection and something that can be shared.
v This provides the opportunity for the designer, the discourse and educators to
reflect on design’s role in changing meaning (for society at large) and the tools
applied for this purpose.
v The output of synthetic construction and the associated shifts in meaning are
often hidden in or behind the resultant designed artifact or experience (the chair,
the website, the building). It could be argued that the dominant languages of
critique available in the field of design exist at this end-product level.
v Tools that offer visibility of and reflection upon the hidden generation of meaning
are therefore very important to design and society at large and the current
available methods of critique should be expanded to include this dimension of
making.
v Clearly there is an emergent and urgent need for design approaches that can
both effectively operate in the space of indeterminacy and offer the artifacts of
synthetic cognition for reflection. User journeys are just one such tool available
from the field of Information Architecture design and further exploration of other
approaches and tools from the field of IA warrant inclusion into the broader
discourse of the role of design in navigating indeterminacy.

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 E-government services in developing countries: Factors that
influence citizens’ utilisation of service

Annastellah Sigwejo
[email protected]

Andy Bytheway
[email protected]

Shaun Pather
[email protected]

Abstract
In recent years, developing countries have witnessed an increase in availability of e-
government services. This is good news for all stakeholders, especially citizens, as it
ensures that services delivered by governments and interaction between governments
and citizens can be facilitated, and then evaluated for efficient and effective delivery.
However, despite this positive trend, a low citizen uptake and adoption of e-government
services is apparent. E-government services are implemented as technical projects and
with implicit assumptions that citizens will use these services. As a result, citizens’
expectations of such services are not met. However, to measure citizen’s satisfaction in
such situations, there is the need to have sound information systems management
practices, inter alia, effective strategies for the evaluation of implemented systems.
Given this background, new research is required to investigate and develop a citizen
centric evaluation framework for e-government services. The aims of the research are
to identify evaluation criteria and to develop an effective and adaptable means to
assess e-government services. Using content analysis, this paper reports on the first
stage of the research: the identification and understanding of the factors that influence
citizens’ adoption and utilisation of e-government services. The evidence at hand
confirms that e-government services are underutilised, and the case for developing
sound e-government evaluation is thus made.

Key words: E-government, e-government service evaluation, evaluation factor, citizen

and evaluation framework

Introduction
In this era of constantly evolving information and communication technologies (ICTs)
governmental institutions are under continuous pressure. Since the 1990s, when e-
government initiatives were emerging globally, governments worldwide have been
working hard to deliver information and services electronically. E-government services
are becoming more and more important because individual organisations and
businesses need the efficiency and effectiveness benefits. For example, the availability
of 24/7 services reduces time and cost to the government and to its constituent partners
as well. This becomes attractive for all stakeholders, but it demands that services
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A., Bytheway, A & Pather, A
delivered by governments and the interactions between governments and citizens are
evaluated for efficient and effective delivery, otherwise the benefits might be just an
illusion. Evaluation of Information Systems (IS) projects, which has been prominent on
the IS research agenda since the 1980s has posed some difficulties for practitioners
(Pather & Usabuwera, 2010). These authors argue that notwithstanding the difficulty
involved in developing measures of effectiveness, businesses [and other organisations]
still need to have suitable indicators of the success of their IS investment.

Although e-government services are high on the agenda and many resources are set
aside for it, the success of electronic services delivery is not always clear. Most of the
services are implemented as technical projects (Verdegem & Verleye, 2009) that do not
properly address the citizens’ expectations, and it is implicitly assumed that citizens will
use the services. One of the consequences of this is there is only a low uptake of the e-
government services. The low uptake becomes a challenge as greater efficiency and
other benefits that justify the investment are only possible with wide use of e-
government services (Verdegem & Verleye, 2009). In such situations, sound information
system management practices are required, which include, inter alia, strategies for the
effective evaluation of implemented systems.

An information system (IS) is usually part of a human social structure (Irani et al., 2005),
and therefore the implementation of systems can have cascading negative effects
throughout an entire organisation, if the users’ expectations and needs (including
cultural and structural issues) are not adequately addressed. Therefore, there is a need
to develop a user oriented or citizen-centric e-government evaluation approach. One of
the key issues in this regard is the identification of the factors that influence citizens to
adopt and utilise e-government services.

Therefore, this research focuses on the development of an evaluation framework for e-

government service. Such a framework should be based on providing e-government
practitioners with an indication of IS success from the citizen’s perspective. The aims of
the research thus are to identify evaluation factors and to develop these into an effective
and adaptable means to assess e-government services. Gomez & Pather, (2012) in
arguing that the evaluation field may be too narrowly focused on measuring the tangible
and quantifiable economic benefits, suggest that intangible impacts of ICTs have been
neglected. Based on the foregoing, the investigation into e-government evaluation must
take into account both tangible and intangible benefits of e-government. Dimensions of
the latter would include social, economical and technical aspects, amongst others. Such
a framework will provide valuable feedback for future planning and implementation of e-
government programmes.

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 E-government services in developing countries: Factors that influence citizens’ utilisation of service – Sigwejo,
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Research Background

The literature
Existing literature highlights the revolutionary nature of e-government in governments,
and provides a basis to investigate the evaluation of this phenomenon from a
perspective of citizen derived value and benefits (Jones, Iran, & Amir Sharif, 2007;
Grimsely & Meehan, 2007; Lee et al., 2008). However some scholars suggest that the
evaluation of e-government is neglected, underdeveloped and under-managed (Jones
et al., 2007; Curie, 2008). This is not the result of exclusion, but it shows the extent of
complexity that is fundamental to deriving an appropriate evaluation criteria (Grimsley &
Meehan, 2007). According to Grimsley and Meehan, the most frequently designated
reasons for deficiency of in evaluation are problems of identifying and quantifying
benefits and opportunity costs, lack of evaluation methods and techniques, and difficulty
in interpreting results.

Some studies do take on traditional evaluation approach to evaluate e-government

services. However, for accurate evaluations of e-government services consideration of
multiple perspectives of stakeholders is essential, (Sarmad et al., 2007).The focus here
is to take a broader perspective, acknowledging that e-government not only permeates
government agencies and their operational practices but also society, citizens and their
social activities. Lee et al., (2008), argue that the relationship between citizens and
government services can be successfully transformed only if the citizens’ perspectives
of government services are objectively measured and the areas of improvement are
correctly identified. This implies that the precise evaluation of e-government service
needs to include not only all stakeholders’ perspectives and the social and technical
context of use but also consider inclusion of the specific needs of several groups of
citizens which are using a specific e-government service such student, professional,
and so forth (Sarmad et al., 2007). Generally, to precisely determine the benefits that
associated with e-government evaluation are required though is difficult. E-government
initiatives goals and objectives in practice are very varied as a result the gained benefits
also vary, and the evaluations of the initiatives obviously will vary according to the
different stakeholders’ perspectives on the value of these benefits Beynon-Davies,
(2005).

Analysis of e-government services evaluation approaches

A number of e-government service evaluation approaches have been proposed and
investigated worldwide in developed countries, but relatively few studies have
investigated projects in developing countries. Generally these approaches were
designed to address either tangible or intangible benefits. Tangible benefits are
generally concerned with accounting and financial outcomes while intangible benefits
are concerned with the organisational, social, political or cultural impact of the system.
According to Orange et al., (2007) there are only few evaluation frameworks
approaches that combine both hard and soft aspects.
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The different e-government service evaluation approaches that have been endorsed in
developed countries are based on different theoretical foundations or models, and are
mostly focused on a particular aspect of e-government evaluation such cost analysis.
For developing countries, very few evaluation studies have been done and there is no
guarantee that the theoretical foundations or models are applicable in a developing
country due to the differences in economic, social and structural factors, and people’s
attitudes (Chen, Chen, Huang, & Ching, 2006). In developing countries the citizens’
influence on the use of e-government services might differ, and the evaluation approach
as well. This paper proposes a set of factors which influence the citizens not to utilise e-
government services in a typical developing country- Tanzania.

Tanzania as a developing country

The United Republic of Tanzania (URT) has a territorial area of 945,000 km2 and is
classified as a developing country in East Africa. The majority of its citizens live in the
rural areas, where typically there is low ICT readiness, low ICT literacy, low household
Internet penetration and poor information (Bjørn & Stein, 2007). The URT government
has put in place a national ICT policy (URT, 2003) that emphasises an e-government
strategy. The national ICT policy intends to provide a more coordinated and citizen-
driven focus to Tanzanian’s e-government initiatives, and thus ensure the delivery of
services in a citizen-centred manner through an organised adoption of technologies
(URT, 2008).

v E-government in Tanzania is still in its nascent stages (Yonazi, 2010), however,

substantial progress has been made in implementing e-government initiatives.
These include the establishment of:
v e-Government Agency (e-GA) that is charged with the mandate of providing
coordination, oversight of e-government initiatives and enforcement of e-
government standards in the country.
v A customs transit network connecting all Tanzania Revenue Authority (TRA)
offices for enhanced efficiency in revenue collection.
v The Central Admission System (CAS) for admission of students in higher
learning institutions in a more efficient manner.
v Land Management System (LMS) for application, tracing and obtaining land
related document in a more efficient manner.
v Tanzania Parliament online, for Tanzanian citizens to access information or to
comment about the Tanzanian parliament.

These initiatives aim to enhance work efficiency and improve services delivery to meet
the needs of the citizens in a responsive and transparent manner, (URT, 2008). Despite
this significant progress that Tanzania has made using information and communication
technology, the utilization of e-government services by the citizens remains a challenge.
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The government recognises the potential value of e-government in promoting and
improving efficiency in public service delivery and strengthening citizen’s participation
and engagement. However, the low uptake of the services by the citizens becomes an
issue and for the government needs to realise greater e-government investment and
wider use of the service is required.

Having provided an overview of the Tanzanian e-government initiatives, the remainder

of the paper is organised as follows: a summary of factors identified in the literature are
discussed; then through the analysis of qualitative data obtained in interviews and focus
groups, the general list of factors is critically reviewed and adapted to the perceived
needs of citizens in Tanzania.

General factors obtained from the literature

In the literature discussion in the previous section, the importance of e-government
service evaluation was highlighted. In addition, the important issue of ensuring that all e-
government stakeholder perspectives are considered was also emphasised. The factors
that influence the utilisation of e-government service were synthesised from the
literature discussed and summarised as indicated in the table 1.
Table 1: Summarised factors deduced from the literature review
Factors Description Sources
Awareness E-government services awareness among (Choudrie & Dwivedi, 2005);(Al-
users jaghoub, Al-yaseen, & Al-
hourani, 2010),
Performance The degree to which it can enable citizens to (Wang, Bretschneider, & Gant,
personalise information and services 2005);(Carter & Bélanger, 2005);
according to their own need and (Corradini, Polzonetti, Re, &
circumstances, and by how fast it can Tesei, 2008)
facilitate
Political Desire Lack of political desire can lead to slow or low (Schwester, 2009)
uptake of e-service
Trust Lack of trust between end user (citizens) and (Belanger, Hiller, & Smith, 2002);
government. Citizens’ trust requires (Aichholzer, 2004)
maintaining security in handling of (Carter & Bélanger, 2005);
information, protecting the privacy of citizens, (Papadomichelaki & Mentzas,
and assuring them that their personal 2009); (Godwin Kaisara &
information will be treated confidentially. Pather, 2011)
Without this assurance it will be difficult to (Al-adawi, Yousafzai, & Pallister,
promote the use of e-government services 2005)
Openness Value of information in terms of quality and (Eschenfelder & Miller, 2005);
transparency that government agencies (Sarmad, Alahmary, & Alalwany,
provide to the citizens 2007)
Skills Right technical skills is important to use e- Esteves and Joseph, 2008
government services
Information The ease of understanding (what?) and (Papadomichelaki & Mentzas,
information that is interpretable. Up to date 2009) (Kaisara & Pather, 2011)
information completeness, accuracy,
conciseness and relevance
Accessibility An effective and efficient user interface (Terry & Zaphiris, 2003);
(Abanumy, Al-badi, & Mayhew,
2005)(Papadomichelaki &
Mentzas, 2009)
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Ability/willingne Knowing how to do it. (Gilbert, Balestrini, & Littleboy,
ss Stakeholders willingness and ability to use e- 2004); (Goings, Young, &
government services is important and lead to Hendry, 2003)
successfulness
Reliability Sufficient hardware and software and (Papadomichelaki & Mentzas,
communications capacity to meet peak 2009); (M. Kumar & Charles,
demand. Develop a system that can be 2010); (Iwaarden, Wiele, Ball, &
displayed and used independently of the web Millen, 2003)
browser used.
Quality of The uptake will rise only if e-government (Singgih & Ardhiyani, 2010);
Service services will offer a service level that is at (Zhao, Lu, Zhang, & Chau,
least equal or superior to the basic service. 2012); (Halaris, Magoutas, &
This includes ease-of-use, minimal down time Papadomichelaki, 2007)(G
of IT (for maintenance or error correction). Kaisara & Pather, 2009)
Security/Privac Citizens will only use e-government services (Lam, 2005), Altameem et al.,
y when they can be reasonably confident that (2006), (Goings et al., 2003)
there will be no risks involved with using e- Schwester, (2009)
services. Protection of personal data is key,
as well as easy-to-use security function e.g.
via smart card ID.
Fund/Cost No budget no project (Lam, 2005), (Esteves & Joseph,
2008) (Goings et al., 2003) (Al-
adawi et al., 2005)
As explained in section 2.2 most of the e-government services evaluation approaches
have been undertaken in developed countries. Therefore the literature on this issue is
based mainly on factors, which are related to developed countries. Therefore the factors
that are empirically developed in developed countries’ contexts may or may not be
applicable in developing countries. Thus the factors drawn from the current literature
provide a useful starting point for the research.

Research Approach
In order to carry out this research, it was necessary to select an appropriate research
approach that would effectively and reliably investigate the citizens’ perspective of e-
government services and to identify the key factors which influence citizens’ utilisation
of e-government services. The use of content analysis as a research method was
chosen as a way of analysing data that will bring out issues of general factors for
adoption of e-government services. This was done for the purposes of developing an
evaluation framework in Tanzania. The research design and strategy were based on a
critical review and analysis of a number of articles and published empirical case studies.
In addition empirical evidence drawn from focus groups and semi-structured interviews
were applied in determining the findings. The articles and the sources of empirical data
were carefully selected, specifically looking at those that intended to evaluate the e-
government services from a citizens' perspective. Because of the current and rapidly
evolving nature of the e-government field, the need to support literature analysis with
empirical data was important. The research strategy considered the multidisciplinary
nature of the research domain dealing with the wide range of data required. This
covered all aspects of evaluation, including the tangible and intangible benefits that
influence citizens’ utilisation of e-government services. This strategy also considers the

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A., Bytheway, A & Pather, A
social and technical context of use. The data obtained in this progress research will be
used as a basis in future research studies.

The data collections for this paper was underpinned by interpretivism approach whilst
the documentation and focus group interviews were the methods applied for collection
of data. These were done with the focus on exploring the factors that influence the
citizen to utilise e-government services in Tanzania. The examinations registration
system service that is provided by National Examination Council of Tanzania (NECTA)
was selected as one of e-government services that are online delivered national wide.
Two focus group interviews of forty citizens who are using e-government services
(examination registration system) were conducted. Each of the focus groups was
conducted using the same moderator guide with a set of common group questions and
in each focus group session participants were split into four sub-groups. Participants
were encouraged to reflect on both their personal experiences with the e-government
services as well as their experience during the focus group task. The moderator
facilitates the discussion and the data were recorded on digital media.

The qualitative data from the document and focus group was subjected to content
analysis techniques as described by Corbin & Strauss, (2008). Analysis entailed coding
and categories that developed from synthesising data collected from the different
documentation and focus groups. These categories were labelled based on the
meanings evoked during analysis (see Appendix I). Eleven e-governments service
evaluation factors were derived from the analysis: Awareness, IT Skill, Mind-set,
Preference for face to face, Inadequate infrastructure, Perceived unpreparedness,
Service quality, Perceived benefits, Trust, Inadequate access technologies, Inadequate
infrastructure (see Appendix 1). Through an iterative process of the analysis of
underlying and refinement thereof, some of the factors that give inherent similarities
were merge and the influencing factors were further interpreted and organised within
four categories: User Characteristic, Government Readiness, Service and e-
Government infrastructure (figure 1). Each category is described based on the
understanding gleaned from the evidence.

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A., Bytheway, A & Pather, A

Figure 1: Summary of proposed factors that influence citizen utilisation of e-

government services

Result from the analysis

Hence, based on the analysis described in the forgoing section, four e-government
service evaluation factors were proposed. Based on the understanding gleaned from
the evidence each of the factor are describe below.

User Characteristic
User characteristics such as awareness, IT skill, mind-set, and preference for face-to-
face can have a direct impact on utilization of e-government services. The user
characteristics also differ between different groups of users; different users from
different situations have different user characteristics. The literature present approaches
to determine user characteristics (Kumar, Mukerji, Butt, & Persaud, 2007; Pilling &
Heike Boeltzig, 2007) and accordingly, the understanding the characteristic of users and
deliver the service that citizen demand most is proposed.

Service
Service issue related to various aspects of the service intended to be used by the
citizens, this include service quality, perceived benefits and trust. These issues have
direct impact on utilisation of e-government services. For e-government service to be
utilised, it needs to have characteristics that meet and exceed citizens’ expectations.

Infrastructure
Infrastructure issues such as inadequate access technology and inadequate
infrastructure are very important for the citizen to utilise the e-government services. It
points out the multichannel accessibility (such as mobile phone, Internet kiosk,
telecentres), a wider distribution of services of e-government services. These very
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 E-government services in developing countries: Factors that influence citizens’ utilisation of service – Sigwejo,
A., Bytheway, A & Pather, A
important issues to be address for the government services to be utilised and realise the
returns from e-government investment.
Government readiness
Government readiness issues such as perceived unpreparedness and inadequate can
have impact on the usage of e-government services. As indicated in the literature, the
progress of the e-government can be measured by assessing the preparedness of the
government towards delivering services in an electronic environment (UN, 2008).
Hence a proper designed communications must be employed to guarantee that a
government is prepared to deliver services online.

Conclusion
The work presented in this paper describes an effort to provide a clear and adaptable
set of e-government service evaluation factors. This can be applied in Tanzania, a
prime example of a developing country, to help achieve better citizen uptake of e-
government services. The authors’ critical analysis of e-government services evaluation
approaches revealed that few evaluation approaches covered the citizens’ perspectives,
and this is even lesser in the developing countries and absent in Tanzania. Hence,
evaluation factors were proposed that covers the user characteristic, service,
infrastructure and government relationship affecting the citizen uptake of the e-
government services.

The empirical validation and examination of the proposed factors are the limitation of
this paper, as they have not been applied in the fieldwork. Therefore, the authors in the
next stage, will perform an empirical validation of the proposed factors. Applying a case
study strategy, which will form the basis for further research, will do this. It is hope the
resulting outcome will help identify the real factors that will measure citizens’ satisfaction
in e-government services.

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Appendix 1.
Factors that influence citizen utilisation of e-government services derived from focus group
Code Open cording Axial coding (Factors) Categories
No
USE1 Awareness {15}
Awareness
USE2 Education {20}
USE3 Knowledge on ICT{21}
ICT Skill
USE4 User exposure (AWARENESS) {19} User Characteristic
USE5 Mindset {19} Mindset
USE6 Trust on the Government {16}
USE7 Face to face preference {17 Preference for face to face
GOV1 Poor user Identification system {7-0} Inadequate infrastructure
GOV2 Guarantee {21-0}
GOV3 Manual Practice in e-Services {19-0}
GOV4 Poor Government practices in service provision {20-0}
GOV5 Slow innovativeness of the Government {12-0} Government
GOV6 Political Will {22-0} Perceived unpreparedness readiness
GOV7 Trust on the Government {19-0}
GOV8 Unethical government employees {1-0}
GOV9 Marketing {2-0}
GOV10 Unsupportive practices for e-Government {25-0}
SER1 Accessibility {2-0}
SER2 Affordability {3-0}
SER3 Availability {1-0}
SER4 Service Reliability {19-0}
SER5 Easy to Access {19-0}
Service quality
SER6 Poor Quality Service {19-0}
SER7 Easy to use {25-0}
SER8 Kiswahili {13-0}
SER9 Multilingual {10-0}
SER10 Multichannel {10-0} Services issues
SER11 Benefits {17-0} }
SER12 Incentive {11-0
SER13 Cost {24-0}
Perceived benefits
SER14 Timeliness {21-0}
SER15 Usefulness/Relevance {19-0}
SER16 User Friendliness {20-0}
SER17 Security of service {12-0}
SER18 Trust {14-0} Trust
SER19 Trust on the Government {15-0}
INF1 Availability {19-0}
INF2 ICT Penetration {2-0}
INF3 Lack of Access equipment {19-0}
Inadequate Access technologies
INF4 Availability {19-0}
INF5 ICT Penetration {21-0}
INF6 Lack of Access equipment {18-0} Infrastructure
INF7 Coverage of Network {29-0} issues
INF8 Lack of e-payment systems {11-0}
INF9 Lack of electricity {32-0}
Inadequate infrastructure
INF10 Multichannel {16-0}
INF11 Poor infrastructure {18-0}
INF12 Poor user Identification system {19-0}

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 An application of end-user preferences to producing quality
landscape design course material for distance and e-learning at
KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana
1
A.A. Saah and 2S.S. Mensah
1
Centre for E-learning Technologies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
Email: [email protected]
2
Department of Architecture, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana
Email: [email protected]

Abstract
In fast developing countries such as Ghana, physical development increasingly
competes for space with relatively dwindling natural environment in human
communities. This brought design complexities for development in Ghana to the fore
with implications for educational and developmental strategies in Architecture.
Landscape Design may be sustainable design interface, between physical development
and natural environment, to conserve nature, enhance aesthetics and efficient land use
as solution. Government of Ghana in year 2005 mandated Kwame Nkrumah University
of Science and Technology, Kumasi to urgently provide learning experience for
increasing number of students and professional architects, quantity surveyors and
horticulturist using traditional face-to-face as well as distance and e-learning. However,
much as there was curriculum for landscape design for regular students, there existed
no quality course material for distance and e-learning pathways. Study therefore sought
to develop end-user preferences applicable to landscape design course material
appropriate for distance and e-learning at KNUST. Survey methods and descriptive
statistics were employed in data collection and analysis respectively, using sample size
of 178. Results showed VARK model’s kinetic learners style had a mean of 1.46 which
was higher than the mean score (x=1.26). End-users in the study access learning
process x=1.24 and assess their learning progress with x=1.34. They perceived quality
in distance learning material product (x=1.05) with 145 (81.5%). However, existing
materials designed allowed them access presentation to their senses: sight 58.4%,
hearing 29.8%, and touch 10.7%. Study concluded that producing quality landscape
design course material for distance and e-learning will be enhanced applying end-user
preferences.

Keywords: Landscape Design, quality course material, distance and e-learning

pathways

INTRODUCTION

Background of study
Ghana’s physical development increasingly competes for space with relatively dwindling
natural environment, making design complexities for development imperative.
Landscape Design may be a sustainable design interface for solution. Those seeking
3rd International Conference of Design, Development and Research; July 18 – 20, 2013;
Kwame Nkrumah Universuty Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Appiah, E & Opoku-Asare, N. A (Eds)
An application of end-user preferences to producing quality landscape design course material for distance and e-
learning at KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana - Saah, A. A., & Mensah, S. S.

further training have the opportunity to do so in the dual mode institution of the Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi. Its current academic
programmes in Landscape Design reaches only residential on-campus students, though
there urgent needs and demands require a distance learning mode as well. Distance
learning materials for Landscape Design courses will have to be produced for use by
increasing number of would be end-users who are professional architects, quantity
surveyors and horticulturist and cannot leave their home and work to study in residence.
Distance and e-learning strategies grant the learner autonomy and advantage to learn
anywhere, anytime, and at their own pace accessing Open Educational Resource or
course writer-customised material design.

Research Problem
Course developers and curriculum designers will have to produce distance learning
materials that result in a learning experience that impacts the learner’s cognition, skills
and behaviour enriching learner’s total life. The course developer and writer therefore
requires knowledge and application of those end-user preferences to developing quality
landscape design course material for distance and e-learning at KNUST, Kumasi,
Ghana.

Current landscape design courses available at the college of planning and architectures
have been designed not for the distance and e-learning pathways. This creates a gap in
curriculum and a lack of course material that will be suitable for the new learner; a
distance learner and end-user of appropriate distance learning material based on
learners’ preferences. The study sought to identify these preferences by determining the
perceptions of quality course material and application of end-user preferences to
developing quality landscape design course material for distance and e-learning.

Research Objective and Questions

In general, the study sought to determine the influential factors that affect the
development and production of distance learning materials.

The objective of study stated above led to the following research questions.
1. What demographic and distance learning experience of respondents influence
their perception of quality and participation in distance learning at KNUST?
2. What learning styles will be most suitable for end-users of the course materials
landscape design course at KNUST?
3. What quality-components do end-users prefer in course materials when
accessing the distance learning process, and assessing their own learning
progress at KNUST?
4. What are learners and course writers’ perceptions of production system and of
quality in product of the learning materials?

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Literature Review

End-User and Learning style

Course designers and especially writers need to identify and apply learning styles of
their end-users. There is correlation between learning style and preferences (Kolb,
1984). Also based on Kolb’s theory Kvan and Yunyan (2005) concluded from their
learning style experiment on architecture students that there is significant correlation
between students learning style and academic performance in architectural studio. They
further suggested that studio teachers assess students learning styles early and fashion
studio programmes to cover the diverse learning styles.

Learning style is an individual's natural or habitual pattern of acquiring and processing

information in learning situations. A core concept is that individuals differ in how they
learn (James and Gardner, 1995). The idea of individualized learning styles originated
in the 1970s, and has greatly influenced education (Pashler et al, 2008). One of the
most common and widely-used (Leite et al, 2009) categorizations of the various types of
learning styles is Fleming's VARK model (sometimes VAK) which expanded upon
earlier Neuro-linguistic programming (VARK) models LdPride. (n.d.). Hawk and Shah
(2007) summed this up in the following: 1. visual learners; 2. auditory learners, and 3.
kinaesthetic learners or tactile learners.

End-User Quality Preferences echoed

In Literature the end-users of course material, understand quality to be in terms of what
authorities describe as follows. Kolarik (1999) indicates that quality concept is
complicated. Some authorities have defined quality based on customer benefits as well
as customer burden. Some authorities state the definition of quality in rigid term as
follows: “Meeting and exceeding customer needs and expectations; common
expression”, and “Fitness for use” according to Juran (1989). Further, Crosby (1979)
states it as, “Conformance to requirements”. Others are “To be aimed at the needs of
the consumer, present and future” (Deming, 1986), and “The total composite product
and service characteristics of marketing, engineering, manufacture, and maintenance
through which the product and service in use will meet the expectations of the
customer” (Feigenbaum, 1983). “The loss (from function variation and harmful effects) a
product causes to society after being shipped, other than any losses caused by its
intrinsic function” (Taguchi, 1986); and “The totality of features and characteristics of a
product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs” (ISO 9000,
1992). In a more flexible manner, Radford (1992), Shewhart (1980) and Ishikawa (1985)
respectively as follow, state some quality definitions.

Quality in Course Materials

Course material is distinct from learning material; one being subject specific whiles the
other refers to the medium that carries the material (Saah, 2012). They are distance
learning materials.

Quality is “the standard of how sound something is as measured against other similar
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things; general excellence; a distinctive feature” (Soanes, 2001). Literature explains that
different persons and professions have described quality differently (Stewart-Smith,
1994). The individual person may describe quality based on their personal experience
and association with a good or service; and what burden it takes in acquiring and using
the product and the satisfaction derives (Koralik, 1999).

A working group from the Board of Education in Finland, groups their guidelines for
producing educational content of high quality in four sections. These include
Pedagogical quality that refers to features in the learning material that support learning
and the applicability of the material in teaching and learning processes. Usability refers
to the technical structure and interface design of the learning material as well as the
ease of use arising from these features. Usability is dependent on the user’s
experience. Accessibility in this context means that the learning materials are
accessible to everyone; regardless of their age, physical or mental capacity, disabilities
or health. Production quality: The production of online learning materials fulfils quality
criteria if it is carried out in a controlled and documented manner, steered by
knowledge-based, skills-based and learning-based goals, and if the product meets
professional standards (Lind, 2005).

Quality Products Demanded and Supplied in Distance Education System

Quality products demanded by distance learners and supplied by course developers
and writers are paramount in the distance education system. To this end, Nunan (1991)
comments that what is lacking in terms of quality in distance education are the
perceptions of teachers (facilitators and course writers). They judge quality from the
perspective of a particular discipline. Their perception is generally academic or subject-
oriented. Furthermore, Lampikoski (1992) concludes his study of external and internal
factors, which influence quality in distance education that, the influence of the internal
factors is greater than the influence of the external factors. In the end, students in
distance education systems are in the best position to assess the quality of any
particular distance education program. Ehlers (2004) argues for a quality concept
focusing on a learner’s or end-user’s perspective.

Quality Theories for Production

Concerning Process Theories for Production, Kolarik (1992) has established that the
“Process” (input-throughput-output) is an important aspect of the production system for
every “Product”. He further indicates that “People” (who are the customers and
consumers, the target groups whose choices affect characteristics of the product) are
part of the production system. Also those Principles (of quality standards of practice and
values) are required for quality products to be made.

For Project Management Theories for Production, a quality product requires a

perspective of it as a “Project” (constraints of time, cost, quality, and risk). These
theories see production of course materials as a project (Good, 2003). In project
management objectives, a project is a planned series of related activities for achieving a
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specific business objective (Laudon and Laudon, 2007).

Production System for Quality Learning Product is also important. In creating quality, a
process design for results, Kolarik (1999) proposes a production system very helpful in
this study. The effect of production system is benefit or added value.

From the field of production and quality, in combination with scientific bases for
production researcher formulated the conceptual framework for production theories and
best practices that factor into the production of distance learning materials produced by
distance learning institutes. The conceptual framework is shown in the Figure 1.

Marketing concepts Technology (Equipment, Software

P r o d u c t i o n

(market mix) product, applications & Material Resources)

Quality Distance Learning Material

price, place, people,
publicity

Course Material Writing

(QCMW) Template (see
Quality control: what to

End-user preference
embedded Quality
produce, for whom to
produce The

Table 3)
Theory
Mix for a
Optimum inventory production
level: how much to
O f

model
produce, when to produce
F i e l d

Project Management Human Expertise (Knowledge &

(Project Lifecycle) Technical skills) & Experience
(organizational) in ODeL publishing
industry

Figure 1: Conceptual framework for theory mix and quality product output for the QCMW template.

(Source: Adapted from A. A. Saah, Quest & Questions For Quality Course Material Production: An
Experience of Applying Learner Quality-Factors at KNUST, Accra: AIRD. 2012, p. 18)

METHOD

Research Design
Study was an exploratory research type hence the following research design.

Population of the Study

The research population comprised the four hundred and sixty (460) who were top
continuing students, graduates and professionals from KNUST Department of
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Horticulture and College of Architecture and Planning.

Sampling Method and Sample

The types of sampling methods used were the stratified random sampling for the
population, convenience sampling for the groups and simple random sampling for the
individual members in each stratum of the population. The researcher stratified the
population into continuing students and professionals. Sampling methods yielded two
hundred and one (201) respondents. Further, editing of questionnaires and recorded
interviews yielded one hundred and seventy-eight (178) questionnaire respondents
responses viable for analysis. Sample size was determined according method by
Krejcie & Morgan (1970).

Data Collection And Processing

Data collection
Questionnaires designed for 5 Likert scales were used in relation to respective research
questions. These were self-administered after a pre-test.

Data processing
This involved editing of returned questionnaires for accurate entries and entry into
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS).

Presentation and analysis of data

Presentation of data
Data processed was presented in tabular and chart forms and to make analysing easier
and clearer. Figure 1 and Tables 1-4 were generated.

Data analysis
SPSS was used in the analysis for descriptive statistics. Mean scores were also
determines and compared for the respective variables to make discussion clearer.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Here the result of the study is presented and discussed. Data was analysed using the
SPSS.

Presentation And Analysis Of Responses To Research Question 1

Research Question 1: What demographics and distance learning experience of
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respondents influence their perception of quality and participation in distance learning?

Presentation of Findings for Research Question 1

Sex, Age and Educational & Professional background were presented in the Table 1.

Table 1: Tabular presentation of respondents’ demographics

Learning Centres
Student Professional Professional Total
Variables
architects architects horticulturists
f % f % f % f %
Sex
Female 12 6.74 6 3.37 9 5.06 27 15.17
Male 71 39.89 23 12.92 57 32.02 151 84.83
Total 83 46.63 29 16.29 66 37.08 178 100.00

Age (yrs.)
<20 0 0.00 0 0 0 0.00 1 0.56
20-24 60 1.12 0 0 0 0.00 6 3.37
25-29 22 4.49 4 2.25 19 10.67 33 18.54
30-34 1 3.37 9 5.06 16 8.99 46 25.84
35-39 0 3.37 11 6.18 6 3.37 51 28.70
40+ 0 3.93 5 2.80 25 14.05 41 23.04
Total 83 46.63 29 16.29 66 37.08 178 100.00

Educational & Profession

Bachelor Degrees 56 31.46 2 1.12 41 23.04 91 51.12
Master Degrees 23 12.92 8 4.49 2 1.12 5 2.81
PG Dip / Professional Dip 4 2.25 19 10.68 23 12.92 82 46.07
Total 83 46.63 29 16.29 66 37.08 178 100.00
(Source: field data, 2010)

Statistical Analysis of Data from Research Question 1

Sex of Respondents
Sex of Respondents distributed as follows: female 15.17%, and male 84.83%. This
compares with the view that more men than women access tertiary education (Dzidonu,
2003).

Age of Respondents
Respondents Age showed that most of the respondents were mature students being, 30
years old and above with 30-34 (25.84%), 35-39 (28.70%) and 40+ (23.04%). This
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showed that they were adults, and pursuing an adult learning strategy.

Educational and Professional background

Regarding academic Program pursued by respondents results showed that 51.12%
were enrolled for Bachelor Degrees, 2.81% Master Degrees and 46.07% reading for
their Postgraduate Diploma and Professional Certificates. It is observed that
undergraduate and graduate programs were equally being pursued by learners.

Respondent’s Distance Learning Experience

In their response to the questions, “Which of your senses have been engage in distance
learning by distance learning materials?” the following were realised: sight 58.4%,
hearing 29.8%, touch 10.7%, smell 0.6%, and taste 0.6%. This implied that quality
course material which had been mostly accessed by sight (technical presented quality)
and hearing; showing that audio visual was key in distance learning materials.

Presentation And Analysis Of Responses To Research Question 2

Research Question 2: What learning styles will be most suitable for end-users of the
course materials landscape design course at KNUST?

Presentation of Finding for Research Question 2

Below in Tables 2, is the tabular presentation of learners’ responses to learner/learning
styles based on VARK Model. In this presentation SD = Strongly Disagree, D =
Disagree, U = Undecided, A = Agree, and SA = Strongly Agree.

Table 2: Tabular presentation showing VARK Model styles respondents do prefer identify with
Values SD D U A SA Mean scores,
-2 -1 0 1 2 x
Variables f % f % f % f % f %
VARK Model 1.26
1. Auditory Learners 10 5.6 8 4.5 18 10.1 55 30.9 87 48.9 1.13
2. Visual Learners 10 5.6 7 3.9 15 8.4 51 28.7 95 53.4 1.20
3. Kinaesthetic
7 3.9 4 2.2 10 5.6 36 20.2 121 68.0 1.46
Learners
(Source: field data, 2010)

Statistical Analysis of Research Question 2

For students and professional architects, quantity surveyors and horticulturist in the
study, the mean scores of auditory learners (x=1.13), visual learners (x=1.20) and
kinaesthetic learners (x=1.46). This showed that much as course material had to employ
auditory and visual learning styles, the kinaesthetic style devices were to be used
mostly in practical work. Fleming (2001) claimed that visual learners have a preference
for seeing (think in pictures; visual aids such as overhead slides, diagrams, handouts,
etc.). Auditory learners do best learn through listening (lectures, discussions, tapes,
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etc.). Tactile or kinaesthetic learners prefer to learn via experience—moving, touching,

and doing (active exploration of the world; science projects; experiments, etc.). Its use
in pedagogy allows curriculum and course developers as well as writers to prepare
course materials that address each of these areas. Students can also use the model to
identify their preferred learning style and maximize their educational experience by
focusing on what benefits them the most.

Presentation And Analysis Of Responses To Research Question 3

Research Question 3: What quality components do learners prefer in course materials
when accessing the distance learning process, and assessing their learning own
progress?

Presentation of Finding for Research Question 3

Below in Tables 3, is the tabular presentation of learners’ responses to the two major
factors: (a) accessing the learning process, and (b) assessing the learning progress. In
this presentation SD = Strongly Disagree, D = Disagree, U = Undecided, A = Agree, and
SA = Strongly Agree.
Table 3: Tabular presentation showing Quality components respondents do prefer in course
material for accessing learning process and assessing learning progress
SD D U A SA Mean
Values
-2 -1 0 1 2 score,
Variables
f % f % f % f % f % x
(a) Learners access The
Learning Process 1.24
with:
1. Preliminary pages
1.08
features
Title page: course code
8 4.5 1 0.6 6 3.4 90 50.6 73 41.0 1.23
and course title
Copyright page: publisher
logo, name and contact of 6 3.4 13 7.3 30 16.9 80 44.9 49 27.5 0.86
publisher, ISBN, editor(s)
Note from Publisher to
learner (how to use the 3 1.7 8 4.5 11 6.2 83 46.6 73 41.0 1.21
learning/course material)
Author: Name and
qualification, occupation, 4 2.2 13 7.3 8 4.5 89 50.0 64 36.0 1.03
professional memberships
2. Course introduction 1.26
Course description or
3 1.7 8 4.5 7 3.9 76 42.7 84 47.2 1.29
overview, course outline
Course objectives 3 1.7 8 4.5 7 3.9 76 42.7 84 47.2 1.29
Evaluation and grading
5 2.8 6 3.4 14 7.9 80 44.9 73 41.0 1.18
policy
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SD D U A SA Mean
Values
-2 -1 0 1 2 score,
Variables
f % f % f % f % f % x
Resources required for
5 2.8 4 2.2 15 8.4 60 33.7 94 52.8 1.31
course
Citations and bibliography,
5 2.8 6 3.4 14 7.9 80 44.9 73 41.0 1.18
reading list/textbooks
List of abbreviation, list of
symbols, notes on 4 2.2 2 1.1 5 2.8 87 48.9 80 44.9 1.33
symbols and abbreviations
Course study schedule,
3 1.7 9 5.1 17 9.6 66 37.1 83 46.6 1.22
and learning journal
3. Reference items 1.53
Table of contents, table of
figures, 6 3.4 4 2.2 4 2.2 87 48.9 77 43.3 1.26
footnotes/endnotes
Captions: tables, figure,
2 1.1 4 2.2 18 10.1 96 53.9 58 32.6 1.80
equation, appendices
4. Technical features
1.19
(readability)
Visuals with colour:
graphics, illustrations, 6 3.4 6 3.4 11 6.2 64 36.0 91 51.1 1.28
figures
Appropriate page size and
6 3.4 7 3.9 7 3.9 85 47.8 73 41.0 1.19
volume of material
Links and transitional
3 1.7 5 2.8 20 11.2 86 48.3 64 36.0 1.14
phrases/words
Comfortable font size,
8 4.5 11 6.2 20 11.2 68 38.2 71 39.9 1.03
type face and style
Comfortable line spacing 3 1.7 8 4.5 16 9.0 70 39.3 81 45.5 1.22
Language
2 1.1 6 3.4 12 6.7 80 44.9 78 43.8 1.27
appropriateness and level
5. Technical features
1.03
(usability)
video clip/interactive CD-
4 2.2 8 4.5 35 19.7 50 28.1 81 45.5 1.10
ROM
Links 6 3.4 8 4.5 28 15.7 55 30.9 81 45.5 1.11
Icons and dialogue boxes 6 3.4 12 6.7 35 19.7 72 40.4 53 29.8 0.87
6. Pedagogy outline of
unit (subject matter 1.32
content)
Unit introduction 4 2.2 0 0.0 2 1.1 61 34.3 111 62.4 1.54
Unit learning objectives 5 2.8 1 0.6 7 3.9 81 45.5 84 47.2 1.34
Unit content 5 2.8 8 4.5 18 10.1 79 44.4 68 38.2 1.11

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SD D U A SA Mean
Values
-2 -1 0 1 2 score,
Variables
f % f % f % f % f % x
Unit interactive sessions
(deductive and inductive
4 2.2 4 2.2 8 4.5 64 36.0 98 55.1 1.39
reasoning) with examples,
exercises/solutions
Numbering and bulleting:
3 1.7 6 3.4 21 11.8 80 44.9 68 38.2 1.15
learning points
Course material divided
3 1.7 3 1.7 13 7.3 72 40.4 87 48.9 1.33
into topical units
Supportive data and
4 2.2 5 2.8 5 2.8 42 23.6 122 68.5 1.53
worked examples
New terms and key words 5 2.8 5 2.8 15 8.4 70 39.3 83 46.6 1.24
Reading activity 4 2.2 8 4.5 15 8.4 90 50.6 61 34.3 1.10
Web activity 4 2.2 2 1.1 9 5.1 60 33.7 103 57.9 1.44

(b) learners assessing

the learning Progress 1.34
with:
1. Questions and
1.44
problems
Self-assessment
4 2.2 1 0.6 6 3.4 54 30.3 113 63.5 1.52
questions
Unit assignment questions 2 1.1 2 1.1 11 6.2 63 35.4 100 56.2 1.43
Discussion questions,
3 1.7 3 1.7 9 5.1 55 30.9 108 60.7 1.47
review questions
Course quizzes 4 2.2 5 2.8 8 4.5 74 41.6 87 48.9 1.32
2. Summaries 1.35
Unit summary 4 2.2 4 2.2 11 6.2 67 37.6 92 51.7 1.34
Course summary 2 1.1 4 2.2 8 4.5 79 44.4 85 47.8 1.35
3. Answers and
1.23
feedbacks
Author feedback: in self-
grading answers and 7 3.9 3 1.7 8 4.5 69 38.8 91 51.1 1.31
answer tips
Learner feedback: of
learning material quality, 3 1.7 6 3.4 13 7.3 76 42.7 80 44.9 1.26
subject matter
Facilitator Feedback: from
4 2.2 7 3.9 11 6.2 97 54.5 59 33.1 1.12
facilitator to assignments
(Source: field data, 2010)

Statistical Analysis of Research Question 3

Descriptive statistics showed generally higher agreements with the assertion that
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learners do have Quality components they would prefer to see in course material for
accessing learning process and assessing learning progress. For accessing learning
process Respondents expressed agreement on preliminary pages features (x=1.08).
Reference items (x=1.53), Pedagogy outline of subject matter content (x=1.32), Course
introduction (x=1.26), and Technical features of readability (x=1.19), Preliminary pages
features (x=1.08), and Technical features of usability (x=1.03). All of these contributed
to the mean score for accessing learning process to be (x=1.24).

Respondents also showed agreement with statements on technical features

(readability) of materials (x=1.19). For technical features (usability), x=1.03. Further,
questions and problems had the mean score of 1.44, summaries 1.35 and 1.23 mean
score for answers and feedback. These did contribute to overall mean score of
respondents assessing learners’ progress, as (x=1.34). This was higher than that of
accessing the learning process, which was (x=1.24). This means that highly valued
internal factors do increase distance learners’ demand for quality in distance education.
Kolarik (1991) agrees that those who directly benefit from their use of a good or service
do demand quality thereof. And this is what is of value to customers and end-users
(Bradbery, 1991).

This meant that a course writing template that will enhance end-users’ accessing
learning process and assessing their learning progress should contain end-user
preferences in Table 3.

Presentation And Analysis Of Responses To Research Question 4

The research Question 4: What are learners’ perceptions of quality in product of the
learning materials? This was answered below by presenting and analyzing its data. See
Table 4 below.

Presentation of Finding for Research Question 4

Below in Table 4, is the tabular presentation of learners’ responses to perceiving quality
in distance learning material product. In this presentation SD = Strongly Disagree, D =
Disagree, U = Undecided, A = Agree, and SA = Strongly Agree.

Table 4: Tabular presentation of Learners’ perception of production system

SD D U A SA Men
Values
-2 -1 0 1 2 scores,
Variables
f % f % f % f % f % x
perceive quality in distance
1.05
learning material product as in the:
1. pedagogy (it does assist learner
to access learning process and
5 2.8 3 1.7 29 16.3 85 47.8 56 31.5 1.03
assess learner's progress in
learning)

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SD D U A SA Men
Values
-2 -1 0 1 2 scores,
Variables
f % f % f % f % f % x
2. presentation (what is presented
5 2.8 2 1.1 26 14.6 87 48.9 58 32.6 1.07
to the senses of the learner)
3. policy direct by what policy exist
in the distance learning institute,
5 2.8 2 1.1 27 15.2 87 48.9 57 32.0 1.06
Tertiary Education Project, and
University
4. personal being selective choice
depending on adult experience 8 4.5 14 7.9 16 9.0 69 38.8 71 39.9 1.02
and learner characteristics
(Source: field data, 2010)

Statistical Analysis of Research Question 4

With respect to how learners perceive production system for distance learning material
to be, they learners had a positive perception of the system that will ensure the quality
they required.

Overall, respondents expressed agreement with the production system. They expressed
satisfaction with the efficiency of the system (x=0.84), product supporting pedagogy and
learning (x=1.03), presentation engaging the senses (x=1.07) and DL policy (x=1.06).
Personal being selective choice depending on adult experience and learner
characteristics (x=1.02).

In summary, respondents’ end-user preferences have been determined to support

VARK Model (Table 2) and QCMW Template (Table 3, and Figure 1), and been
successfully been applied to production and operations management theories and
practice explained by Hill (1992), Adam and Ebert (1987), Heizer and Render (1993),
support effective and efficient development and production of distance learning
materials.

Conclusion
With existing course materials designed to allow end-users in the study access
presentation to their senses: sight 58.4%, hearing 29.8%, and touch 10.7%. And end-
users in the study having accessed learning process x=1.24 and assessed their learning
progress with x=1.34; and haven perceived quality in distance learning material product
(x=1.05) with 145 (81.5%), study concluded that producing quality landscape design
course material for distance and e-learning will be enhanced greatly in applying end-
user preferences to producing quality landscape design course material for distance
and e-learning at KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana.

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learning at KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana - Saah, A. A., & Mensah, S. S.

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learning at KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana - Saah, A. A., & Mensah, S. S.

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 Educational Technology Initiative at University of Education,
Winneba: Access, Usage, and Enablers

Alexander K. Edwards
University of Education, Winneba
[email protected] or [email protected]

Isaac Tete Mensah

[email protected] or [email protected]

Abstract
Knowledge on the state of educational technology at University of Education, Winneba
(UEW) is significant for determining the strategic direction that the University might take.
The problem is that in Ghana there is very little evidence of research on Higher
Education (HE) access, usage and enablers of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) and Educational Technology (ET). The purpose of the study was to
establish a baseline data of the extent of access, usage and enablers of ICT and ET in
UEW to inform institutional strategies for research and development. The study
employed the exploratory mixed cross-sectional design and was conducted with a study
sample of 389 faculty members including management. Convenient sampling technique
was used. Data were collected using questionnaires and semi-structured interviews.
Data were analyzed using univariate and interpretative techniques. Results indicated
that 32 out of 33 academic departments were connected to the Internet via a 1GB fibre
optic backbone. However, challenges identified include (i) access to Internet
connectivity especially for distance education centres, (ii) limited number of computers,
ICT laboratories, and Internet Cafés, and (iii) the lack of 24/7 technical support. Also
fewer number of lecturers had been trained on instructional design, learning
management systems (LMS) and e-resources. Recommendations include (i) provision
of computing facilities should be a priority, (ii) adequately-equipped computer laboratory
should be provided, (iii) recruitment of competent technical support staffs and (iv) a
systematic and periodical training to be conducted for faculty to enhance competencies
in the use of educational technologies for teaching.

Keywords: Educational Technology, ICT Initiative, Accessibility, Usage, Enablers,

UEW-Ghana

Introduction

Background of the Study

There have been significant changes in Higher Education (HE) due to availability of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and Educational Technologies (ET).
The United State of America’s Census Bureau (2011) has defined Information and
Communication technology to include equipment used to provide information and to

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communicate. The Association of Educational and Communication Technology (AECT,

2004) has also defined educational technology as the study and ethical practice of
facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing
appropriate technological processes and resources. Thus Educational Technologies are
technology-based tools and devices that are used for teaching and learning purposes
particularly in most classrooms; ICTs on the other hand are the facilities and
infrastructures that are available for information and communication purposes. These
are all combined in HE institutions to serve as technologies for teaching and learning,
and they bring about efficiency in the communication and the transfer and acquisition of
knowledge in HE. Many researchers have predicted a massive technology revolution
within higher education (HE) (Means, 1994; van Dusen, 1997; Selwyn, 1998). According
to van Dusen (1997), ICT is going to dominate HE and virtual teaching and learning is
the future. Information and Communication Technology literacy is now considered a
basic requirement for the knowledge society for which universities are preparing their
students (Castells et al., 1999; Burbules and Callister, 2000). At an Asian Leadership
Roundtable 2010 conference, Tjeldvoll (2011) emphasized the intensity of the
knowledge-based, market-driven competition in HE globally, resulting in the need for
institutional change towards technology as a whole. “If knowledge is the electricity of the
new informational-international economy, then the institutions of higher learning are the
power sources on which the new development process [of nations] must rely” (Tjeldvoll,
2011, p. 221). Globally HE institutions, whether public or private, are however
challenged to lead in the information age (Drabier, 2003; Lowerison et al., 2006).

This challenge called for the attention of the Ghana government. Thus in 1991 the
Ghana government produced a white paper stipulating eleven policy objectives, which
included the provision of skills in science, technology, social sciences and humanities in
relation to national needs (Effah, 2003). Effah exposed the output challenges in terms of
quality; relevance to national development by referring to the National Council for
Tertiary Education (NCTE) statistics; and the development of employable skills for the
job market. The Ghana government’s agenda is to improve ICT skills as part of the
nation’s human capacity to be effective and relevant in contemporary terms in the area
of ICT from the HE levels.

Thus, to improve HE for sustainable development, many researchers advocate access,

use, and enablers of ICT and educational technology (Drabier, 2003; Kohrman II and
Trinkle, 2003; Lowerison et al., 2006) and a comprehensive strategy for deployment and
exploitation of ICTs within the educational system. Blignaut et al. (2010) advocate for
national policy initiatives and measures that promote pedagogical incorporation of ICT
in all forms of capacity building. Particularly in Ghana, there is very little evidence of
basic research data on HE accessibility and usage and enablement of ICT and ET for
both teachers and learners (Mereku et al., 2009). Mereku et al. (2009) recommended
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further studies in the areas of ICT in particular within institutions of higher learning in
Ghana including the University of Education, Winneba (UEW). The Pan African (PanAf)
conference in sub-Saharan Africa is attempting to address this empirical need. But the
focus has been predominantly on schools in Francophone countries within sub-Sahara
Africa (Karsenti et al., 2011).

This study was launched as a project funded by Partnership for Higher Education
(PHEA) and South Africa Institute of Distance Education (SAIDE) to form the baseline
research that will inform UEW management in their strategic planning. The UEW
management requested this baseline information to ascertain the conditions, availability,
and use of facilities by faculty members for educational purpose. The study is significant
in providing data as a starting point for policies, research and development regarding
infrastructure, access, usage, and enablers of technologies by faculty members of
UEW.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study was to establish a baseline data of the extent of access,
usage and enablers of ICT and ET in UEW to inform institutional strategies for research
and development. The following specific objectives were also considered to guide the
study: (i) to find out how accessible educational technologies are to UEW faculty
members; (ii) to investigate how faculty members are using the available ICT and
educational technology resources to enhance teaching and learning in UEW as an
institution of higher learning; and (iii) to highlight factors that serve as enablers for UEW
faculty members to incorporate educational technologies in teaching and learning.

Research Questions:
The main question that informed the study was: What was the state of ICT and ET in
terms of faculty members’ access, usage and enablers at the University of Education,
Winneba? Also the following sub-questions were considered:
v What are the educational technologies accessible to UEW faculty members?
v How do UEW faculty members use available educational technology resources?
v What are the enablers for the uptake of educational technologies among UEW
faculty members?

Review of Relevant Literature

The entire study was conceptually framed based on a review of related literature on
access, usage, and enablers of ICT and ET in HE institutions.

Access to ICT and ET resources, according to Czerniewicz et al. (2006), is influenced

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by four key parameters - (i) physical or practical dimensions of technological resources;

(ii) resources of personal agency; (iii) resources of contextual environment; and (iv)
resources that give access to digital context to technology.

Most ICT/ET researchers believe that access to ICT has a direct correlation with the use
of ICT; so is usage also related to enablement of users. HE institutions, public or
private, are challenged with an added responsibility to lead in the use of technologies
information age (Drabier, 2003; Kohrman II and Trinkle, 2003; Lowerison et al., 2006).

What matters most, as enabling factors for ICT and ET incorporation in the activities of
HE are not necessarily the number of computers provided, rather the enabling
conditions of use (Czerniewicz et al., 2006). The authors revealed that apart from
availability and ease of access, the reliability of computers and support, it is very
important to have an enabling environment for productive use of technology. These
enablers include practical issues such as opening hours, booking conditions and the
conduciveness of the learning environment.

Part of enabling factor is the self-efficacy concept in technology use. Users ought to
develop skills or competencies to enable them to perform tasks efficiently and adopt the
technology as a tool (DeTure, 2004). According to DeTure (2004), cognitive styles of
learners and their personal self-efficacy are not strong predictors of successful learning
using technology. But the task-ability of learners as a way to ensure enablement in the
use of technology is important in online environment. An enabling factor should include
online technology self-efficacy variables to help students develop self-belief in using the
technology as a tool for learning. An enabling policy should factor in ICT competencies
as well as task-ability (DeTure, 2004).

In addition, part of the enablers is clearly defined institutional initiative in technology

incorporation for the purpose of teaching and learning. Plans should be in place to get
most students to acquire personal computers, using computer laboratories, having
information literacy support, and an enabling technological environment in most
institutions (Kohrman II and Trinkle, 2003). Kohrman II and Trinkle (2003) posit that
strategic planning to include firm decisions in technology enablers within colleges with
small budgets is proactive and encouraging within the context of higher learning.

Studies have shown that as part of the technology strategy in most HE institutions,
enablers for faculty members include (i) ensuring electricity power regularity On-campus
and Off-campus, (ii) the equity of access on Campus environment, and (iii) ensuring
ways to alleviate the digital divide (Dada, 2006; Kohrman II and Trinkle, 2003). For
instance, Dada (2006) mentioned that HE institutional e-readiness should be assessed
to include the sustainability strategies of keeping users enabled throughout their use of
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technology for learning (Dada, 2006). At the institutional level the ICT/ET enablers
thinking should focus on action-oriented concept to bring consistent, dependable, and
uninterrupted use of technology for teaching and learning. Dada (2006) explained
further that this strategic thinking calls for legal, financial, physical, social and
technological infrastructures that are fully functional and maximized in the institution for
enabling users to be e-ready to perform.

Other ICT enablers include motivation and support system (Broos and Roe, 2006).
Motivation to use ICT may be driven by institutional ICT vision (Drabier, 2003).
According to Drabier, institutions that automate most of their essential services such as
e-admission, e-library, e-shopping, etc. are helping to enable their constituents to adopt
and use ICT. Drabier suggests strategic change – as significant enablers towards
technology for change; and a planned change in institutional ICT use should be
progressive. For example, social media technology (SMT) for governance at all levels
should be encouraged (Qureshi, 2009). HE institutions are not immune from SMT
influence in this digital age; therefore there is an augmented call for strong social
networks and social access as enablers to encourage the use of computers in HE
activities. Many faculty members and students know the benefits of SMT and other
technologies for teaching and learning; what is left are the enablers that will precipitate
frequent and skilful use of these tools for innovative teaching and learning (Czerniewicz
and Brown 2006).

These three constructs are reviewed and used to support the present study on access,
usage, and enablers as significant composite factors. They are composite in the sense
that they go together. Within the framework of the three concepts the purpose of this
study still holds that access, usage, and enablers form the bases for effective
technology incorporation in UEW as a higher education institution. Thus, any initiative
regarding ICT and educational technologies must consider these three important
constructs. Therefore by gathering data on these constructs baseline information would
be available for leadership strategic assessment and planning initiatives.

Methodology

Research Design
An exploratory mixed cross-sectional design was employed. This approach involves the
collection of quantitative data followed by qualitative data to elaborate on the
quantitative results (Creswell, 2009). This approach was employed to provide both
quantitative and qualitative data on ICT access, usage and enablers at the university as
a whole (there were three main campuses as at the time of study; a fourth campus is
now established) to explain the general picture of the situation both empirically and
thematically.
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Study Population and Sampling

The sample size was 389 faculty members, of which 97 responded, from the three main
campuses (i.e., Winneba, Kumasi and Mampong without Ajumako, which was yet to be
fully established as at the time of data collection) of the University of Education,
Winneba. The faculty members were conveniently sampled from all the three existing
campuses of the university.

For qualitative data, seven key members of the University were interviewed. This
included five (5) University management team (i.e., the Vice Chancellor, two Deans,
and Principals of Mampong and Kumasi campuses), Head of ICT Department, and the
Coordinator of ICT Technical Operations.

Study Instrumentation:
Data for the study were gathered using a survey questionnaire with close- and open-
ended items. Most of the items for the questionnaire were adapted from ‘The Virtual
Mobius Strip’ - a research report on access to and use of computers conducted in five
tertiary institutions in South Africa (Czerniewicz and Brown 2006).

The entire survey questionnaire was content validated by institutional experts, peer
reviewers, and an external consultant. The close-ended question items were construct
validated using factor analysis to assess their three factor structure namely access,
usage and enablers. The pilot study showed that the questionnaires had good
construct validity (alpha of 0.72) in that only a few items cross-loaded and were deleted
from the questionnaires. For the open-ended items in the questionnaires served as a
guide for designing the items for the interview schedules. Thus, peer reviewers
comments were considered and the necessary changes effected for their
appropriateness.

Data Collection and Analysis:

For ethical consideration, covering letters accompanied questionnaires and introduced
the purpose of the study, confidentiality and voluntary participation. Research assistants
who later went and collected the completed questionnaires gave faculty members the
questionnaires personally.

Time and places where arranged for interviews. Individual interviews were conducted
with University management/authorities (UA) and extracts from the open-ended items of
the questionnaire were tabulated and analysed to ascertain their responses from both
interviews and their opinions from the open-ended questions. Interviews were tape-
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recorded and brief notes were also taken.

The quantitative data collected were captured into SPSS. The data collected were
scrutinized for accuracy, coded and analysed for appropriate descriptive and inferential
statistical records. The quantitative analysis included central tendencies (i.e.,
frequencies, means, percentages, etc.). For qualitative analysis, the interviews were
transcribed into text, reviewed and coded, and content analysed thematically. The
triangulation method was used to check the accuracy of the quantitative and
corresponding qualitative data.

Discussions on Research Findings

The purpose of this research was to gather data to determine the extent of accessibility,
usage and enablers of ICT/educational technologies within UEW to inform institutional
strategies for research and development. However demographic data was also of
interest to the researchers. In all a total of 389 survey questionnaires were distributed to
faculty members. Also seven university management staff was interviewed to generate
qualitative data on their opinions regarding technology initiatives in the business of
UEW as a statutory public institution with the mandate to provide teacher education in
the country.

Demographics of respondents:
In all, the response rate was 24.9% (i.e., 97 out of 389 faculty members responded to
the questionnaire). The number of male respondents was 77 (79.4%), while that for the
female was 20 (20.6%). Most of the faculty/lecturers who participated in the study were
between the ages of 30 and 50 (76.3%).

Table 5: Age Distribution of Respondents

Age (years) Number of %
respondents
20 – 29 3 3.1
30 – 39 40 41.2
40 – 49 34 35.1
50 – 59 15 15.5
60 + 5 5.2
Total 97 100.0

Demographically both gender groups participated and their proportion is a reflection the
university gender ration. According to Table 1, the university has majority of faculty in
the middle age bracket (30-49 years). These are members who should embrace
technologies for their professional practices.
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Accessibility of educational technologies to faculty members of UEW:

With the research question on accessibility, there were 344 personal computers (PC)
and 43 laptops at the academic departments of the University. It was also noted that
more than 75.6% of computers were located in only four (4) of the 33 academic
departments. There were seven ICT laboratories in the University. These laboratories
were used basically for teaching ICT cognate courses. The University also had one
Internet Café located in the North Campus of the Winneba campus of the University.
The University also had a limited number of computing facilities such as LCD projectors
(a total of 47), photocopiers (a total of 26), and projector screens (a total of 14). As
indicated by Czerniewicz et al. (2006) these physical provisions of technological
resources serve as factors influencing access to ICT. They are designed to facilitate
access and use of ICT. The physical presence and accessibility of PCs is widely
recognized as paramount for educational purposes (Preston et al., 2000; Dawes, 2001).
In the case of the UEW, computers are not evenly distributed across departments. This
makes access to computers challenging for faculty members of UEW.

The University had the necessary facilities for Internet connectivity on all campuses of
the University (See Table 2). These facilities do not extend to the distance education
centres that are not located on the University campus.

Table 6: Supporting Facilities for Internet connectivity in UEW

Facilities Description/Units
Routers 8
Servers 44
Wireless Access Points 27
Total Internet bandwidths 310 Mbps
Fibre backbone per campus (155 Mbps 1Gbps
Uplink and 155 Mbps downlink)
Local Area Network (LAN) for every 1Gbps
major buildings on all campuses

Every faculty member had an authentication password that allows for free access to the
University Internet and a personal email address. The University had Internet-native
institution-wide software for managing students’ information and teaching and learning
(i.e., OSIS). It can be used for keeping records such as bio-data, registration of students
and assessment records. This was provided for free use by faculty members to reduce
their workload so far as administrative work such as assessment records is concerned.
However many faculty members were not conversant with OSIS and its use for teaching

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and administration.

According to quantitative data provided, 32 out of the 33 departments at the University

were connected to the Internet. This is a significant number and should reflect high
patronage; the interview data also pointed out that faculty members had access to
Internet services at most of the departments but the services were unreliable, as
suggested by the following comments by a University authority (UA) interviewed and a
statement by a faculty member’s submission in the open-ended question of the survey
instrument.
The major difficulty, I can say, is unreliability of the Internet connectivity ... Sometimes, it
works very well and we are happy and sometimes it is down (UA)

We have access to Internet facilities, but the only problem is that sometimes the net is
off and on .... (Faculty member, open-ended comment)

The fact that the Internet had been on and off was confirmed during the interviews by
the Coordinator for ICT and Technical Operations of UEW that there were challenges in
human resources (operational) to provide support for uninterrupted Internet provision to
the faculty members.
The main challenge right now is human resource. … [there is not] much support staff
and … the few [that are available] are junior staff ... their level of knowledge in IT is not
so high (UA).

The data also revealed that 18 departments had an ICT policy, which motivates faculty
to make use of available educational technologies in teaching and learning. The
interview data also suggested that the University had a vision on ICT development.
However, it appeared that there was no clear policy regarding the access and use of
ICT facilities in teaching and learning.

We have the department strategic plan. What I know is that this department has a
document that contains ICT strategic plan, which forms part of the main University’s
strategic plan … which says we are going to be doing X,Y and so on … that is basically
what we are working with now (UA)

The response of faculties on kind of educational technologies they had access to is

presented in Table 3.

Table 7: Faculty Response on Educational Technologies Availability in UEW

Educational Technology Number of %
respondents
Printers 80 82.5
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Computer (laptop or PC) 75 77.3

Photocopier 69 71.1
Telephone 52 53.6
Overhead Projector 32 33.0
LCD Projector 32 33.0
Scanners 30 30.9
Television 17 17.5
Radio 17 17.5
Digital Cameras 7 7.2
Digital voice recorders 6 6.2
PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) 4 4.1

Table 3 shows that the most accessible educational technologies to faculty members
were printers, computers, and photocopiers. The least accessible ETs to faculty
members were personal digital assistant (PDA) and digital camera. Most faculty
members (74.7%) indicated that they had access to other computers apart from those in
the departments of the University.

On the issue of accessibility to UEW Internet connectivity, majority of the faculty

members (76.3%) noted that they had access to the Internet in their departments. Also,
49 faculty members (52.1%) indicated they had access to Internet in their homes
through service providers and commercial mobile phone companies. This means there
is a continuous access to Internet technology for preparation towards teaching and
personal development among these faculty members. But the issue surrounded Internet
reliability, otherwise the lecturers’ responses indicated mostly satisfactory.

Usage of educational technologies by faculty members of UEW:

On the question of usage, participants were requested to indicate if they were able to
use the computers at their departments whenever they wanted. Forty-three (43) of the
faculty (44.3%) responded in the affirmative. It was also noted from the quantitative data
that most faculty members used the Internet service “Almost Every day” (43.6%) and
“Everyday” (39.4%). Only a few of the faculty (4.3%) surveyed indicated they never
used the Internet. The fact that four (4) faculty answered ‘Never’ is significant. This
indicates that the University has to convince some faculty members on the benefits of
the Internet for teaching and learning. This may call for institutional advocacy and
exposure to the significance of educational technology in contemporary lifestyle of the
society.

It was realised that a large number of faculty members (84.5%) used the computer for
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word processing and only a few faculty members (8.2%) used the computer for e-
shopping. Faculty members were also asked to indicate the subject-based application
that they used. Majority of the faculty members (67.1%) indicated SPSS as the
application software that they used for statistics.

Table 8: Lecturers’ Use of ICT Resources

Number of
ICT Resources
respondents %
Word processing 82 84.5
Research 80 82.5
Communication (e.g., e-mailing) 79 81.4
Obtaining information 77 79.4
Creating presentations 75 77.3
Lesson preparation 74 76.3
Specialised data management software 61 62.9
(e.g., OSIS)
Calculations 55 56.7
Lecture delivery 53 54.6
Managing information is spreadsheet 52 53.6
Music 45 46.4
Chatting 42 43.3
Movie 36 37.1
Supervision 34 35.1
Graphics (e.g., Corel draw) 28 28.9
Posting assignments 25 25.8
Games 19 19.6
Online teaching 19 19.6
E-banking 10 10.3
Shopping 8 8.2
Total Number of Respondents (n) =97

An item on the survey questionnaire asked faculty members to indicate the time they
frequently used the departmental computer outside their lecture periods. The data
(Table 5) indicated that a sizeable number of faculty members (38.1%) did not use the
computer in the department when they are not in the department to teach. But a
significant number of lecturers (32%) indicated using the computers in the department
outside the normal lecture times.

Table 9: Lecturers' Time of Use of Departmental Computer Outside Lectures

Number of
Time respondents %
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Before 8 am 4 4.1
Between 8 am-12 pm 13 13.4
Between 12 pm-5 pm 18 18.6
Between 5 pm-10 pm 5 5.2
After 10 pm 2 2.1
I don`t use it 37 38.1
No Response 18 18.6
Total 97 100.0

Enablers for the usage of educational technologies among UEW faculty members
In this study, the researchers considered factors that enabled and constrained
educational technology use for teaching and learning only. Participants were asked if
they had received formal training in the use of educational technology resources since
they joined the University. Majority of faculty (62.8%) responded in the affirmative.
Faculty members who indicated receiving training in educational technology were also
asked of the type of training they had received. Table 6 shows the areas of educational
technology the faculty members indicated they had received training.

Table 10: Training received by faculty members of UEW in the use of educational
technology
Educational Technology trainings Number of %
offered respondents
Microsoft Office applications 61 62.9
LMS (e.g., Moodle, Blackboard) 30 30.9
Use of digital library resources 24 24.7
Total Number of respondents (n) =97

Table 6 indicates that most faculty members had received training in Microsoft
applications. Fewer numbers of respondents (24.7%) indicated they had received
training in the use of digital library resources (which includes the use of online
resources).

The survey instrument also provided opportunity for lecturers to indicate whether they
wished to receive further training. Eighty-three (83.3%) of the faculty who participated in
the survey indicated they would want to be trained in the proper use of educational
technology for teaching and learning. Those who wished to be trained were given the
opportunity to further respond to specific packages they wished to be trained in. The
results are presented in Table 7, which shows that majority of faculty members (63.9%)
who wished to be trained in the use of statistical application tools e.g., SPSS and LMS.

Table 11: Faculty Members Wished to be Trained to Use Educational Technologies

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Educational Technologies Number of %

respondents
Statistical application tools e.g., SPSS 61 62.9
Learning management Software ( e.g., 61
MOODLE) 62.9
Graphic Software e.g., Corel Draw 42 43.3
Electronic library resources 41 42.3
Microsoft Office PowerPoint 36 37.1
Microsoft Office Excel 33 34.0
Microsoft Office Access 28 28.9
Microsoft Office Word 19 19.6
Number of respondents (n) =97
The open-ended questions also gave the lecturers the opportunity to express their
views on factors that would enable them to use ICT resources and facilities. It emerged
from their responses that the enablers of ICT use were as follows: (i) physical
computers for individual faculty use (ii) access to Internet connectivity 24/7, (iii)
improved networking, (iv) availability of experts to provide the needed technical support.

The opinions of the faculty were sought on two issues of training (i.e., whether they
would want to be trained in the use of technology in the classroom and whether they
would want to be trained in the use of technology for teaching online). The responses
are presented in Table 8.

Table 12: Opinion of Faculty on Training as an Enabler

Faculty members’
Response (%)
Opinions Number of Agree Not Disagree
respondents Sure
I would like to be trained in the use of 87 54 16 30
technology for teaching online.
I would like to be trained in the use of 88 57 9 34
technology for teaching in the classroom.

Table 8 indicates that most of the faculty (54%) wished to be trained in the use of
technology for teaching online, whilst 57% of them indicated that they wished to be
trained in the use of technology for teaching in the classroom (face-to-face). However,
some of them (30% and 34% respectively) indicated that they did not need training in
the use of technology for teaching online and/nor for teaching in the classroom. This
may be because of their indication that they (the faculty (62.8%)) had received some
form of formal training in the use of educational technology since they joined the
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University, indicating their proficiency.

The opinions of lecturers were further investigated to find out what enables them to use
technology generally. The responses are presented in Table 9.

Table 13. Opinions of faculty members on what enables them to use Educational
Technology
% Response
Opinion Number of Agree Not Disagree
respondents Sure
I think it is important to use technology for 89 89 1 10
teaching in the University.
The availability of ICT resources at my 89 28 35 37
department encourages me to use
technology.
The support and enthusiasm of 89 42 36 22
colleagues encourages me to use
technology.
ICT does reduce my workload. 86 49 24 27
I am encouraged to use technology. 87 58 16 26
The realisation of benefits of using ICT 87 85 8 7
encourages me to use technology.
The ICT training I have received 81 68 26 6
encourages me to use technology

Table 9 indicates that most of the lecturers (89%) think it is important to use technology
to teach in the University. Another 85% of the lecturers noted that the realisation of
benefits of using ICT encourages (enables) them to use technology.

Summary of findings
This is a baseline study on current state of educational technology as per faculty
members’ access, usage, and enablers in the University of Education, Winneba. Major
observations drawn from the study are:
The University had the necessary facilities for Internet connectivity for faculty members
throughout the University except the distance education centres that are not located on
the University campus. Thirty-two out of 33 academic departments were connected to
the Internet. Also every faculty member had an authentication password that allowed for
free access to the University Internet and a personal email address. The University had
Internet-native institution-wide software for managing students’ information and teaching
and learning. There were less than 400 Personal Computers and laptops at the
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academic departments of the University. There were only seven (7) ICT laboratories in
the University, which were used basically for teaching ICT cognate courses. The
University also had one Internet Café at the Winneba North Campus. Besides the
computers, the University could boast of limited numbers of other computing facilities
such as LCD projectors, photocopiers and projector screens. These are available at the
ICT department but with restricted access and use only by the technology coordinators
and ICT support teams.

The training faculty members had received was confined basically to the use of
Microsoft Word. Only a few lecturers had been trained on how to use the LMS and the
electronic resources at the library. Most lecturers indicated their desire to be trained on
the use of LMS and SPSS. However, accessibility to the Internet as well as computing
facilities is challenging. Many faculty members complained that technical and peer
support for the use of the computing facilities is not adequate. Continuous technical
support, is a requirement for technology integration in the classroom to be satisfactorily
(Bailey & Pownell, 1998)

Conclusions
The conclusions that could be drawn from the study are presented below. First, the
University had huge infrastructure to support Internet services. However, it lacked
adequate educational technologies such as computers and projectors at the
departments to facilitate teaching and learning. The educational technologies available
at the University wide were not equitably distributed among faculty members in their
respective departments.

Secondly, the existing computing facilities and system support did not effectively
promote effective teaching and learning because they were inadequate and lacked
adequate number of technical staff to ensure their effective usage.

Thirdly, the faculty members wished to be trained in the use of technologies so that they
would be able to incorporate them in teaching and learning activities. However, this was
constrained by limited number of such ICT and ET resources, staff with technical
knowledge in ICT and unreliable Internet services. Finally, the study also helps inform
UEW management that by providing infrastructure is not the ultimate solution to access
and proper usage of ICT and ET; UEW management had to ensure enabling factors.

Recommendations
The following recommendations are for leadership and managerial decisions. Firstly, to
improve on faculty members’ access of computing facilities, every faculty member of the

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University should have access to an ICT computer laboratory with the needed
supporting computing facilities and a comprehensive opening and closing hours.

Secondly, to facilitate faculty member’s use of ICT and ET in every campus of the
University, they should have competent ICT trained person who will liaise with the
management team of the respective campus and the Coordinator of UEW, ICT
Technical Operations to provide the needed technical support.

Thirdly, efforts must be made to motivate faculty members to embrace the incorporation
of educational technologies in teaching and learning. To do this, stakeholders of the
University will have to plan and develop strategies and policies that will compel all
faculty members to acquire the ET competencies. The institution must provide potential
users the motivation to use ICT and ET effectively and efficiently.

Fourthly, periodic assessment of faculty members’ training needs in terms of ICT and
ET should be performed periodically to determine the areas that require further training.
Importantly, such training needs should be provided.

Finally, further research on several aspects of ICT and educational technologies usage
and enablers among faculty members in HE institutions is recommended. For example,
there is the need find initiatives to facilitate effectiveness and data information on
appropriate and desirable proficiencies to support teaching in practice. Thus, the most
recommended research area that comes to mind is assessment of ICT/ET and online
technology self-efficacy among University constituents. This further research area will
be appropriate for empirical data and practical purposes in supporting capacity building
and performance enhancement.

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 Running distance education in studio-based art institutions: the way
forward

G. Y. Annum
Department of Painting and Sculpture
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi
Ghana
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Distance education is one of the effective systems of education for increasing student
enrolment with minimal enrolment challenges. The system particularly avails
opportunities for workers to upgrade their academic credentials and improve their
professional competence in their fields of specialisation. Many institutions in public
universities in Ghana, for example have adopted this system for this purpose.
Unfortunately, studio-based art institutions in general seem to have difficulty in running
this system of education to address similar challenges. This is due to some major
limitations with the predominant print technology for delivering instructional and learning
materials to distance learners. Fortunately, advancement in technology in the area of
videoconferencing offer greater capabilities for providing more interactive distance
learning experience, which studio-based institutions can exploit. However, the cost
extremity of employing videoconferencing technology becomes the main obstacle for its
adoption in financially handicapped studio-based art institutions. In this paper therefore,
the technological weaknesses of the print medium, vis-à-vis the capabilities of
videoconferencing technology for running studio-based programmes in distance
education has been examined. On the bases of the cost extremity of videoconferencing
technology, the design-based and descriptive research methods have been employed
to demonstrate the practicability of developing e-learning materials for running distance
education effectively in studio-based art institutions at a lesser cost than through
videoconferencing.

Keywords: Distance Education; Enrolment Challenges; Studio-Based Art; Print

Medium; Videoconferencing Technology;

Introduction
Most institutions in the world today especially in developing countries, that run distance
educational programmes relate more with theory-based courses whose learning
materials are easy to package for both face-to-face and online accessibility to a wide
variety of knowledge seekers. The print technology has been the predominant mode for
delivering instructional and learning materials of such theory-based courses to learners.
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Since this technology has the limitation of the capacity to deliver practical skills
effectively to the learner, it has been very difficult for studio-based art institutions to
introduce and run programmes in distance education. It is unimaginable how audio-
visuals of practical demonstrations of techniques and styles for executing art projects
can be delivered through the print medium.

As noted by Stewart (2006), teaching practical art courses by distance learning has
always been a challenge for both teachers and students. Text-based subject disciplines
present fewer problems than art courses in the online realm because art courses
require that students create and submit visual materials for appraisal and comment.
Power, (2001) declares that a course in Art would be difficult to offer in e-education. He
does not see art colleges, as candidates for electronic education because for him,
seeing and touching art are not the same as seeing a picture online.

The focus of this article is to discuss the possibility of developing an appropriate

Interactive Learning Material Delivery Technology (ILMDT) that can be adopted for the
running of this system in studio-based art institutions, not withstanding the practical
oriented nature of their courses of study. It must be emphasised here that there exist
modern advanced technologies with the capabilities of actualizing the introduction of the
system of distance education in practical oriented institutions where the presence of the
instructor is always necessary to demonstrate practical working procedures to students.
Videoconferencing, which uses telecommunication channel to mediate the
communication process, is one of such technologies suitable for running computer-
based distance education most efficiently than the widely favoured print medium.

Print medium
Indubitably, ILMDT is the key component that drives distance education for effective
communication and transfer of knowledge (NIL, 2000). Unfortunately, running distance
educational programmes in most developing countries have not advanced regarding
technological developments of relevance to the system. For example, most universities
in Ghana run their distance educational programmes on the print technology. The
technology is one of the oldest and most widely used forms of educational resources.
They include books, pamphlets, magazines, single sheets and even newspapers. This
medium can easily be distinguished from other forms of media by the fact that it is
composed of leaves or sheets of paper on which the information is documented before
compiling them as reading materials, books or printed learning materials.

A major limitation that accompanies this technology is its inability to maximize access to
other categories of information especially in the case of audio-visual documents. It
cannot present motion materials effectively; as a result, they cannot engage all the
senses of the user for a total learning experience. However, it is a medium that can be
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combined effectively with other forms of media to form multimedia packages (Beswick
1975).

It is as a result of the above limitation that the print medium cannot be the appropriate
learning material delivery medium for running distance education in a studio-based art
institution. Should there be the need to include audio-visuals of practical demonstrations
in a course material, there is no way that they can be delivered in the print form. This
implies that in countries where the print technology is the prime delivery medium for
running distance education, programmes that will require the active use of the sense of
hearing and seeing as in the case of studio-based art courses may not survive.
Videoconferencing technology in this case would be the most appropriate.

Video conferencing technology

McIsaac and Gunawardena (1996) once wrote that by the year 2000 many institutions
would probably have adopted telecommunication-based systems for the delivery of
distance education to halt the over dominance of the print medium of the 1970’s and the
1980’s. True to this statement, today more and more institutions that teach at a distance
are moving toward multi-media systems integrating a combination of technologies both
synchronous and asynchronous that meet learner needs. The most advanced being
telecommunication-based medium with videoconferencing as example. The print
medium however, has not been relegated to the doldrums but continue to be used as
supplementary medium in most telecommunications-based systems.

Videoconferencing technologies amalgamate television, video and sound technology as

well as computers to enable instructors and students in different locations to see, hear
and talk with one another. Video conferencing equipment can be set up on desks, with a
camera and microphone to capture the person speaking and a monitor with a television-
like screen and an in-built camera that allows the other person to see the person on the
other line. In simple terms, the technology combines both telephone and television
systems (Sawyer, 2005).

This technology, in the researcher’s opinion could offer the best alternative means of
teaching practical art at a distance because learners can always see instructors
demonstrating procedures for practical execution. However, it could also pose financial
and logistical challenges to institutions, which are financially handicapped. This is
because as indicated by Sawyer and Williams, (2005), it will require students owning
personal computers equipped with in-built webcam and microphones and the
establishment of learning centres equipped with video conferencing equipment. It will
also necessitate consistent electricity power supply and a fast and reliable internet
connectivity that runs on fibre-optic cable technology. This will mean a high cost of
education, which will eventually defeat the essence for the introduction of distance
education.
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The way forward

If ILMDT is the key component that drives distance education for effective
communication, then introducing it in studio art institutions will be a daunting task to
accomplish. This is because studio art courses always require practical demonstration
of techniques and styles for executing projects. The presence of the instructor is always
necessary in the teaching and learning environment. This obviously cannot be achieved
through the print medium. Unless a virtual practical studio accompanies the delivery
mode, it will be very difficult to employ the popular print medium as a means of
transferring practical skills to distant learners. A consideration for Computer–based
instructional and learning material delivery technology will offer the best alternative to
the print technology.

An ILMDT meant for studio-based art institutions to run distance education should be
such as to create a virtual art studio that can replicate a face-to-face environment. This
is a major challenge that has to be surmounted if this system of education should be
adopted. The technology must combine multimedia elements (sound, motion pictures,
still pictures, quizzes and text documents) to help achieve learning objectives in
practical dispensations.

The nature of the delivery technology

An experiment conducted by the researcher to develop a model instructional and
learning material delivery technology yielded positive result. The uniqueness of this
technology and its capabilities is what has been discussed below.

Main interface
The interface of a digital technology to deliver motion/still pictures and text documents
should feature a Menu bar to drop-down Menus, Table of content panel to load all the
topics for the study, and Text fields to open text documents (Figure 1). The use of Tabs
in designing the table of content panel will enable more topics to be added. The
interface must also include a Control Panel that will present the end user with buttons to
control the loading in and out of motion and still pictures.

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Figure 1: Delivery technology (Main Interface)

As a learning material for a practical discipline, there is the need to replicate a practical
studio environment, so that learners can experience hands-on demonstration of working
techniques and styles from instructors virtually. In a face-to-face learning environment,
students are able to ask questions and receive immediate responses from their
instructors. This is not possible in distance learning because the learner and the teacher
are in clear separation in space and time of the majority of teaching and learning activities
(Keegan, 1990). Therefore to enable some amount of interaction between the learner and
the virtual instructor, the technology has to incorporate a display window that will project
and playback accompanying motion (Figure 2) as well as still pictures (Figure 3) of all
studio activities. This is discussed below.

Motion and still pictures display window

The motion-picture display window projects and plays back flash video files of practical
working procedures that learners need most, in the absence of a physical instructor. It
has its own control panel for the learner to pause, continue or restart the streaming
simulation. It comes with a slider that makes it possible for the user to move the
playhead to any location on the timeline of the clip when there is the need to repeat
specific points.

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Figure 2 (Motion-picture display window) Figure 3 (Still-picture display window)

On the still-picture display window, special buttons can be added as shown in Figure 4
to open pages that provide descriptions to the character and function of tools and
materials for practical work. It is also essential to add a button to playback voice
recordings of the instructor to explain terminologies and issues that could possibly have
generated discussions in a face-to-face environment. A set of navigation buttons that
will enable the learner to load in and navigate from one picture to another is also
required for slide presentation. By these navigation buttons, the learner can skip familiar
pictures and select new subjects for study.

Figure 4: Navigation buttons for reviewing still pictures

Special features, which are very useful in electronic learning, include drop-down
keyword box and explanation notes to the content (Figure 5) as well as further reading
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reference pages (Figure 6). These are text fields, which when added will provide
additional information to explain key terms and help them to assess more information
from other sources of literature.

Figure 5: Explanation notes on keywords

Figure 6: Reference page for further readings

End-users of computer programmes often feel exhausted from prolonged sitting behind
the computer screen, reading scrolls of pages. Most often preference is given to
hardcopies of notes rather than softcopies. It must therefore be possible for the distance
learner to print copies of the text documents provided in the e-content material. This
means a print button must accompany each text document displayed (Figure 6). It is
advisable to format printable materials in Portable Document Format (PDF files) to
render them non-editable.
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This technology is ideal for delivery as an optical disc-based multimedia material due to
the huge sizes of the video files that are incorporated which will be a challenge for
domain service providers to contain. Otherwise, it can also be delivered through the
internet infrastructure.

Experimenting with the technology

Since there is currently no art institution in Ghana running programmes through
distance learning, it was necessary to test the viability of this delivery technology with
both practical and theory courses. The practical focused on watercolour painting
technique whilst the theory focused on Thesis Writing skills. A class of Sixty Two (62)
third year Painting and Sculpture students in the Department of Painting and Sculpture
at KNUST all of whom were non-resident constituted the subject of the study. The
learning materials were delivered on both optical disc (DVD) and through KNUST e-
learning site (http://web.knust.edu.gh/elearning/course/view.php?id=24) hence, students
at any point in time could interact with the learning materials even in the absence of the
instructor.

The optical disc-based material was developed with ‘Adobe Flash’. It incorporated the
major multimedia elements of text documents, graphics and most especially audio-
visual materials to demonstrate and explain watercolour techniques in painting. This
was developed with standalone functionality at a production cost of only five cedis
(¢5.00) per DVD. The online material, which was on thesis writing skills was developed
with ‘Microsoft Word’. It showed related links to other useful websites to enable students
interact with other useful information of content materials. This was a strategy to create
learner-centred learning environment and for students to meet their learning needs
through reading, observation and hearing of voice recordings. The essence of this, to
facilitate electronic learning for the first time in the department was to ensure that
without the physical presence of the course instructor, students could meaningfully
understand the lessons of the course.

The issue of paying dearly for missing lectures no longer bordered students because
lecture notes and ancillary materials were always available in the virtual classroom to be
accessed at any time. Students’ attendance in the virtual classroom could also be
monitored. This is because KNUST e-learning site is designed on Moodle platform,
which provides additional functionalities for creating forums, chats and security settings
to control student enrolment and interaction with learning material. The technology was
beneficial to the students all of whom resided off-campus since they only had to meet
for a face-to-face session with the instructor, once every month.

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Ascertaining students learning experience

To ascertain the popularity of this technology and its impact on the students learning
experiences, a questionnaire was administered to each of the sixty two (62) students at
the close of the second semester of 2011/2012 academic year, with the motivation to
submit unequivocal responses to help evaluate the system and the learning medium.
The result was to establish the practicability of the technology to meet the learning
needs of the students, confirm its acceptability and to endorse it as an ILMDT tool to
enable studio-based art institutions to run programmes through the system of distance
education.

The questionnaire was in two parts. The first part sought for brief personal information
about the respondents, excluding their names whilst the second part, composed of ten
questions of five closed and five opened, was to elicit their reaction to the idea of
running those courses through e-learning and the impact of their learning experience.
All the questionnaires administered were retrieved.

Results and discussion

Students responses to the open-ended questions emphatically confirmed ‘thesis writing’
as the only course in the department that was delivered by electronic mode through the
online virtual system, an indication that the system was yet to be embraced in the
department. Again, the results registered a hundred percent (100%) endorsement for
the introduction of the system of e-learning in the department even though bandwidth
constraints pose a critical hindrance to its implementation. Table 1 depicts the
frequency of responses to the closed-ended questions whilst figure 7 to figure 11
represent the percentage distribution of the frequencies.

Table 1: Frequencies of responses from students

Freq. of
Questions Option of Responses
Responses
Are the e-learning materials Yes 57
interactive? No 5
What is the degree of Easily accessible 29
accessibility of the learning Accessible with 32
material over the internet? difficulty
Not accessible 1
What is your candid Excellent 7
assessment of the nature of Very good 42
the learning material in terms Good 12
of Content, and Interactivity? Bad 1

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What has your learning Very exciting 15

experience been like? Exciting 39
Less exciting 8
Unexciting 0
Will you recommend the Yes 62
adoption of this system for your No 0
department?

Figure 7: Are the e-learning materials interactive?

"No" = 5
8%

"Yes" = 57
"Yes" = 57, "No" = 5
92%

Figure 8: What is the degree of accessibility of the learning material over the
internet?

Not Accessible = 1
2%
Easily Accessible
= 29
47%

Easily Accessible = 29
Accessible with Difficulty = 32

Accessible with Not Accessible = 1

Difficulty = 32
51%

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Figure 9: What is your candid assessment of the nature of the learning material in
terms of Content, and Interactivity?

Excellent = 7
Bad = 1
11%
2%

Good = 12
19%
Excellent = 7
Very Good = 42
Good = 12

Very Good = 42 Bad = 1

68%

Figure 10: What has your learning experience been like?

Less Exciting = 8 Unexciting = 0

13% 0% Very Exciting
=15
24%

Very  Exci ti ng  =  15

Exci ti ng  =  39
Exciting = 39 Les s  Exci ti ng  =  8
63% Unexci ti ng  =  0

Figure 11: Will you recommend the adoption of this system for your
department?

"No" = 0
0%

"Yes "  =  62

"Yes" = 62 "No"  =  0
100%

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The area of much concern from the students’ reaction, which poses a big challenge to
the adoption of this system in the department, is the rate of accessibility of learning
materials over the internet. 51% of the class of 62 students indicated that they could
access the materials but with difficulty whilst 47% did not encounter difficulties in
accessing learning materials (Figure 8). This possibly explains why only 24% had very
exciting learning experience through this system as against 63% with exciting
experience and 13% with less exciting experience (Figure 10). It is also an indication
that the network system in terms of bandwidth space in any institution proposing for the
adoption of this system has to be broad enough to enhance smooth flow of heavy
volumes of electronic information if all students are to derive full benefits of the system
of e-learning.

Regarding the level of interactivity of the learning material, which is vital to e-learning,
92% indicated ‘Yes’ as against 8% ‘No’ (Figure 7). Every e-learning material developer
wishes his beneficiaries to enjoy full interactivity of his products. Any section of the
learning population who reports otherwise should be a matter of concern to improve on
the materials. By the students’ assessment of the learning material in terms of content
and interactivity, 68% assessed as very good as against 2% who found the material to
be bad. 11% valued it as excellent whilst 19% deemed it to be good (Figure 9). The
entire class of 62 students (Figure 11) recommended the adoption of this system in the
department so they can always engage with the materials even when they miss face-to-
face sessions. This was a sign that the students who are the focus of education would
embrace the system.

Conclusion
Although there are appropriate technologies like video-conferencing that can facilitate
the running of programmes in distance education for practically oriented tertiary
institutions, it will be very challenging for art institutions in Ghana to run this system of
education. Financial capacity is the obvious difficulty that could threaten its success.
The need for developing the technological acumen to appropriate delivery technologies
that incorporate, Graphics, Sound, Video and Text documents in the development of
course materials for distance learners should be embraced.

Although similar technologies have been employed in specialised fields of study as in

the case of interactive software, adoption of any of these in distance education to
resolve the problem of overcrowding in any studio oriented art institution is yet to be
experimented. The researcher in this article have demonstrated that it is possible to
develop a computer-based educational technology that can help studio art institutions to
also introduce the system of distance education in their institutions as a novelty worthy
of adoption by other practically oriented institutions.

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It is however worth noting that, the success of running this system of education in
studio-based art institutions will immensely depend on a number of factors including
most importantly:
i. Organisation of special training workshops to equip instructors with the
expertise for writing course materials. This is because any vibrant e-content
development unit will require the collaboration of the capabilities of distance
educational course writers and e-learning material developers. It does not take
any one at all to write a course material. It requires a special skill that has to be
acquired through training.
ii. Preparedness to establish ICT centres nationwide which will be the access
points for students who cannot own personal computers, to have easy access
to such devices where they can interact with disk-based learning materials and
also be able to reach their examiners online.

References
Beswick, N. (1975). Organizing Resources: Six Case Studies, The Final Report of the
Schools Council Research Centre Project, Heinemann, London.
Keegan, D. (1990). Foundations of Distance Education, Routledge, London.
McIsaac, M.S. & Gunawardena, C.N. (1996). Distance Education. In D.H. Jonassen,
ed. Handbook of research for educational communications and technology: a
project of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology. 403-
437. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.
(http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/dechapter/tech1.htm). (Accessed July 2,
2010).
‘NIL’, (2000). "How states are implementing distance education for adult learners",
National Institute for Literacy, (http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/
pdf/nifldistance.pdf). (Accessed March 21, 2009)
Power, C. (2001), "Cyberschools take off as colleges go Internet route", Irish Times,
No.13 April.
Sawyer, S. C. & Williams, B. K. (2005), Using Information Technology (Sixth Edition)
pp 204-232
Stewart, M. (2006). Teaching Art at a Distance, Director, Studio Art School, United
Kingdom, Association for Computing Machinery, Inc.
(http://www.elearnmag.org/subpage.cfm?Section=casestudies&article=39-1)
(Accessed September 3, 2009).
Wales, J. (2010), Wikipedia Free Encyclopaedia, Adobe Flash, (http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Flash) (Accessed October 26, 2010).
Wardrope, W.J. (2001), "A communication-based response to distance learning in
business communication", Business Communication Quarterly, Vol. 64 No.2,
pp.92-97.
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 Implication of innovation and aesthetics for business growth among
small and medium scale enterprises (SMES): the case study of
Bonwire kente weaving industry

G. T. Sabutey
Lecturer (HOD), School of Business and Law
University for Development (UDS), Wa Campus, Wa, Ghana /
KNUST Distance Learning, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana
[email protected]

J. Adu-Agyem
Senior Lecturer, Department of General Art Studies, CASS, KNUST, Kumasi

ABSTRACT
Research has shown that application of innovation on products to enhance aesthetic
qualities and marketing as strategy is important to the development and survival of a
business. In the past, the Asante Kente weavers were mostly producing for their Kings,
Chiefs and most important personalities with emphasis on their cultural values. Today,
the art has been commercialized. This study analysed pragmatically the implication of
product innovation and aesthetics for business success through maximized sales and
market share, profit, customer satisfaction and retention, using the Bonwire Kente
Weaving Industry (BKWI) as a case study. Identified research questions concerning
the relationship between product innovation with aesthetic concept and the industry’s
corporate goal were answered with the use of interviews, questionnaires and
observation to stimulate responses from staff of the firm and the consumer of its
products. Data were also collected from available relevant or related literature based
on the topic. The stratified random sampling, focused group discussion, snowballing
and purposive sampling were used to sample master weavers, junior weavers and
apprentices. In all, 80 respondents were selected from a population of 300 weavers,
that constitute more than 30% of the population. Moreover, in the case of the
customers or users of the Kente cloth, questionnaires were administered to express
their views on the innovation and aesthetic concept of the cloth. The researchers
however, thematically analysed the data by utilizing the SPSS Data Analysis
Programme. Analysing the responses obtained from the field study showed that lack of
product innovation and aesthetics as well as strategic marketing strategies put in place
could affect the organisation’s profit and consumer satisfaction because of theirs great
impact on consumers' buying decision. Monitoring and responding accordingly to
changes in consumers’ taste will ensure success in product innovation. Findings also
revealed that, by improving upon existing products, customers’ satisfaction could be
achieved, hence profit. The researchers unearthed from the findings that the Bonwire
Kente weavers are mostly dwelling on innovation and aesthetics as well as effective
strategies such as innovative marketing strategies consisting of internationalization,

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(the case study of bonwire kente weaving industry) - Sabutey, G. T., & Adu-Agyem, J
relationship marketing, sales promotion and exhibitions to enhance value of the trade
and profit. By introducing and improving upon existing products, customer’s satisfaction
could be achieved, hence profit.
Key Words:Innovation, Aesthetic qualities, Business Growth, SMEs, Sales and Profit.

INTRODUCTION
The issue of business growth has become a major concern to many entities, both
governmental and non-governmental bodies due to the fact that, if business thrives,
revenue increases and profit opportunities usually grow with it, hence, increasing
shareholders’ value, enhancing corporate image thereby creating opportunities for
company’s future in the face of competition.

In pursuit of development, companies are exploring simpler, better, faster, cheaper,

creative or innovative and technological ways of producing and marketing company’s
goods and services. For example, in comparison with developed companies like MTN,
Guinness Ghana Limited, Barclays Bank Ghana Limited, and so on, one would say that
they seriously embarked on innovation in their business operations and systems.

Conversely, many businesses have ran downhill due to failure to improve their
operations through exploring innovation to enhance aesthetic qualities, as well as a total
neglect of the force of information technology thereby resulting in technological
deficiency and sweeping most companies off the business world (Kotler and Keller
2006).

It is arguable that, there are a few companies that are still in existence without active
innovation to enhance aesthetics on their business operations and systems. Even in
such situations the rate of company development and growth is retarded. Nonetheless,
there are few Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs) such as the Kente
producing industries that are still vibrant in business by operating solely on indigenous
technology since their items or products of trade are culturally driven, it is again
arguable that to face modern trends, their business would strongly be augmented by
blending such technologies with innovations. This fact can strongly be supported by
what Rose(1996), discussed on Culture Change initiatives based on the findings from
global studies on innovation that Traditional business models no longer hold for
industrial success.

Although, Bonwire Kente Weaving Industry (BKWI) is pursuing Kente production and
sales, a traditional craft, the business appears to be in growth and thriving in a market
flooded with cheaper textiles in Kente products and other similar goods. This paper
focus on the implication of innovation to enhance aesthetic qualities of products, as well
as exploring whether in the current vibrant innovative and technological business trend,
the Kente Weaving Industries are sill embarking on the indigenous ways of producing
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and marketing the textile or have to introduce some innovative ways to remain in
business, maximize profit, fight competitors, maximize market share and satisfy their
customers using the Bonwire Kente Weaving Industry as a case study.

Again, the researchers view that companies or industries of today cannot do without
innovation to improving aesthetic look. This paper, therefore, seeks to identify, analyze,
assess and discuss the role of innovation and aesthetics in business operations such as
production and marketing strategies of the Kente Weaving Industries that enabled them
endure the test of time by achieving industrial goals through growth among small and
medium scale enterprises (SMEs) such as sales and profit maximization, product
survival, customer taste and satisfaction etc., in the mist of today’s vibrant competition
such as the influx of other similar products on the market; and moreover, to use those
concepts or knowledge as a tool to enhance the teaching and learning of business or
marketing strategies in Ghanaian intuitions of learning and other industries in similar
endeavours. It also aims at discovering the causes of innovation, that is causes of
development of product innovation, new strategies and effect of competition on
innovation. The paper also seeks to address the following questions:
• Can lack of innovation to enhance aesthetics affect the organisation’s profit and
consumer satisfaction?
• Do the activities of competitors compel BKWI to innovate and enhance aesthetic
features?
• Is product obsolescence responsible for product innovation?
• Do consumers’ taste bring about product innovation?
• What are the innovative strategies put in place to market their products?

According to Basadur (1995), Firm’s innovation is defined as a deliberate change-

making process of problem finding, problem solving and solution implementation. The
corporate goal of a company could be multifarious but the most common one that cut
across many firms in a competitive market is survival, which is achieved partly through
profits. To achieve this goal, the blend of product innovation and marketing concept
philosophy must be harmonized with the company’s global strategy. What was a
profitable product yesterday may not be profitable tomorrow. Furthermore, successful
new products command substantially higher profit margin than mature or declining
products. However, it should be noted that product innovation is not only carried out at
the declining stage of a product, it can also be done to a totally novel product at the
introductory stage. Marketing of new product goes through a period of growth, reach a
peak, and eventually decline.

According to Avins and Quick (1998), and Midwest Global Group (2007), Several
hundred years ago, Bonwire Kente Weaving Industry (BKWI) was established with
mission statement and goals to manufacture to preserve tradition, design products
mainly for their rulers and important dignities of society, a trade handed down from
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generation to generation. But today, the trend has changed, the products were no longer
meant for only the affluent but the one who understands the philosophy of the products
and could afford. This perception was also confirmed by the staff of BKWI during the
research exercise. When this perception changed, production maximized, eventually
gaining popularity in several towns and villages, other than Bonwire or the Ashanti
Region. Many ethnic groups and other African Nations also adopted the profession;
thus, producers decided to adopt it as entrepreneurship, a business to satisfy economic
needs.
In their view, however, Avins and Quick (1998), elaborated that Kente cloth is a status
cloth. It has great significance for the Asante peoples and their leaders. It is an indicator
of position, gender and authority as well as taste. According to a report submitted by
Midwest Global Group, (2007), in its cultural context of use, Kente is more than just a
cloth. Like most of Africa's visual art forms, Kente is a visual representation of history,
philosophy, ethics, oral literature, religious belief, social values and political thought.
Originally, its use was reserved for their royalty and limited to special social and sacred
functions. There are over 300 different types of cloth designs, each with its name. Each
cloth design comes with numerous variations - in colour and distribution of motifs.
Symbolisms are given interpretations on the basis of the general Akan culture and
aesthetic values. Colour symbolism within the Akan culture affects the aesthetics of
Kente. Colours are chosen for both their visual effect and their symbolic meanings.
For years, the mission of the BKWI was to deliver high quality products and services that
meet the needs of its customers and consumers and at the same time, maintain pride of
the Asante Kingdom and Ghana as a whole as well as ensure good return on
investment.

Concepts of innovation
Many businesses and organizations have ran downhill due to failure to improve their
operations through exploring innovation, as well as a total neglect of the force of
information technology thereby resulting in technological deficiency and sweeping most
businesses off business world (Kotler & Keller 2006). Rose (1996) discussed on Culture
Change initiatives based on the findings from global studies on innovation that
traditional business models no longer hold for industrial success. Simmons (1980), said,
unless countries have access to innovations that have been used successfully, they risk
repeating unnecessary years of trial and error. If they could understand how innovations
are successfully propagated, developing countries could reduce their dependence on
foreign consultants. That is the reason why Shepherd (1990), cried that, innovation is
glamorous, because it can generate large cumulative gains in productivity.

According to Lamberton and Minor-Evans (2002), creativity is your ability to come up with
new and useful ideas. Simply put, it is thinking up new and useful ideas. They further stated
that business factors such as the number and quality of products created are affected
strongly by the creativity or innovation of the people in an organization. This idea was

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supported by Certo (2006), Belch and Belch (1998), Guerrillas (2007), Runco (2004),
Feldman, (1999), and McLaren, (1999),
Kotler & Keller (2006) indicated that, instead of “product-centered” business has shifted
to a “customer-centered” philosophy. This means that, the satisfaction of the consumers
has now become one of the means through which an organization could survive. Again,
they said that product life cycle (PLC) is a model or concept that helps marketers
interpret a product and market dynamics. It can be used for planning and control as well
as useful as forecasting tool. This idea was supported by Gordon in Akindipe (2007).
The author added that innovation covers all that goes on from the beginning of an idea,
to an invention, through to the marketing of a new product and the use of a new
process. The author stressed that, It has become a common belief that a business
enterprise has only two basic functions: Marketing and Innovating. Companies develop
new products to meet shifting consumer demands, to capitalize on new technologies
and to keep ahead of competition. Being innovative is seen as a necessary strategy for
the modern day businesses.

To maintain an effective product mix, a firm just has to modify its existing products or
introduce new ones. This is known as innovation. Stanton (1988), expressed a similar
view. The researchers deduce that product innovation could make an old product
become new. An obsolete product could be modified to satisfy the needs of it users
more than ever before.

Meaning and Concept of Aesthetics

Warren (1990), has pointed out the understanding of the creative process as well as the
process of evaluation of art objects lures and challenges scholars today just as it has for
centuries. During the past several decades the study of these processes in Africa has
provided stimulation for future thought, research, and contention, and has resulted in
fruitful interactions and collaborations between social scientists, art historians and
aestheticians. According to Nyarkoh (2011), Willett (1971), asserted that: ‘‘The greatest
contribution Africa has made so far to the cultural heritage of mankind is its richly varied
sculpture’’, (Personal conversation 2011). It is an indisputable fact that, one of the
greatest contributions Ghana has made so far to the cultural heritage of mankind is its
richly varied Kente cloth. Kente weaving is one of the well known indigenous arts of
Ghana. The Kente weavers of Asante have for centuries produced rich Kente cloths.
The World Book Encyclopaedia (2001), and the New Encyclopaedia (2003), claim that
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy, species of value theory or axiology, which is the
study of sensory or sensory-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment
and taste. Aesthetics is closely associated with the philosophy of art. Today the word
"aesthetics" may mean (1) the study of the aesthetic (all the aesthetic phenomena), (2)
the study of perception (of such phenomena), (3), the study of art (as a specific
expression of what is perceived as aesthetic). This Idea was supported by Ross(1982),
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Haggar (1962), Wilson (1971), Hospers (1969), Amenuke et al (1993), and Adu-Agyem
(1990). In brief, Amenuke et al (1993), added that, aesthetics deals with individual’s
senses of perception which inspires creativity and innovation, reaction to beautiful
objects, events, ideas and so on.
Jessup and Rader (1976) classify the scope of aesthetic experience into the enjoyment
of nature or natural phenomena, the making and appreciation of whatever is beyond
practical and intellectual needs of the things and affairs of daily living, and the
production and appreciation of fine arts. This concept was supported by Gardner
(1982).
Therefore, in summary, the term 'aesthetics' concerns our senses and our responses to
an object. If something is aesthetically pleasing, it is 'pleasurable' and one likes it. If it is
aesthetically displeasing, it is 'displeasurable' and one does not like it. But Coetzee and
Roux (1998), expressed divergent view, that, “African aesthetic standards are different
from the “accepted” standards of uniqueness and individuality; that African works of art,
be they visual, musical, kinetic, or poetic are created as an answer to a problem and
serve some practical end. This idea was supported by Okeke (1982 ). Okeke added
that “The artist is responsible to society. Hence, Africa artists are held in high esteem by
the society because they supply those design needs as are vital to their spiritual and
physical well-being”, (Okeke , P. 62). Vansina (1974) and Gyekye (1996) expressed
similar view.

This philosophy is relevant to this publication. The indigenous Asante Weavers also
play very significant roles in the Ghanaian societies and their works are fully integrated
into ways of life revealing deeds of Ghanaian societies.

Relationship between Aesthetics and Innovation

It is very necessary that researchers link innovation to aesthetics from the concepts
discussed above. It is deduced by the researchers that, innovation and aesthetics are
inter-related. This is because in order for businesses or enterprises to delight customers
to buy their works they have to develop innovative approach from production to sales
coupled with the firms’ business or market mix (product, price, place, promotion ) and
other strategies to gain competitive advantage in an industry full of competition. Mostly,
organisations that are able to achieve this become market leaders in the sense that they
are efficient and effective in utilizing resources, thereby releasing innovative,
aesthetically beautiful and quality but reduced prices; hence maximizing sales and
profit. This concept is directly related to the study. The indigenous Asante Kente
weavers are likely to maximize sales if this concept is employed
.
Consumers’ Reaction to Product Innovation
Kotler (1984) discussed that, consumer reacts to production innovation in various ways
depending on the type of product innovation that is carried out on the product and the
marketing methodology. In addition, the performance of the old product and the market

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reputation of the product manufacturer may determine the subsequent reactions of the
customers.

The success or otherwise of product innovation depends largely on the reaction of the
consumers which of course could be influenced by some of the activities of the
manufacturers of the product. It is obvious that not all “new” products quickly become a
success. Consumers react positively or otherwise to a product with the price of the
product acting as a determining factor. In addition, the quality of the product also
determines the success or failure of the product. These experiences are common to the
Kente weaving industries where some customers were resorting to printed textile of
Kente products due to the high price. Meanwhile, consumers of higher economic and
social status were patronizing the woven fabrics from these industries.

Materials and Methods

This paper utilized the qualitative approach (descriptive survey and case study) as well
as quantitative approach to quantify data in tables, graphs and percentages. The paper
again examined and analysed some studies that have been done on innovation and
aesthetics. The researchers also sought essential information from the sampled
population, individuals and experts who have unearthed the concepts on the study.
In order to ascertain accurate information on the objectives, the researchers employed
questionnaires, interviews and observations. Data were also collected from available
relevant or related literature based on the topic, in the form of textbooks, magazines,
news papers, internet and related sources. The stratified and simple random sampling,
focused group discussion, snowballing and purposive sampling were used to sample
master weavers, junior weavers and apprentices. In all, 80 respondents were selected
from a population of 300 weavers, that constitute more than 30% of the population as
shown in Table 1. These weavers were selected from four Kente weaving centers within
the Ashanti region such as Bonwire, about 20 kilometres from Kumasi, Adanwomase,
Ntonso and Centre for National Culture, Kumasi. Apart from Bonwire being the most
popular for its unique Kente products, these centres are also noted for their beautiful,
elaborate and authentic weaves. Moreover, in the case of the customers or users of the
Kente cloth, questionnaires were administered to express their views on the innovation
and aesthetic concept of the cloth. The researchers however, thematically analysed the
data by utilizing the SPSS Data Analysis Programme.
Table 1 Position / Status of Weavers
Position Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid Master weaver 62 77.5 77.5 77.5
Junior weaver 14 17.5 17.5 95.0
Apprentice 4 5.0 5.0 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
Source: Authors’ Field Study, 2012
The results of the interviews and questionnaires coupled with observations and review
of various related literature on the subject, led to quality discussion of the subject
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matter.The researchers personally sent sets of questionnaire to these experts
(weavers). They were interviewed using one-on-one and focus group methods. Others
were observed in their workshops and sometimes participant observation was done.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this section, the researchers discovered, analysed and discussed the concepts of
innovation and aesthetics based on the findings and the Kente weavers’ philosophy
using samples of Kente cloths selected from the various weaving centres namely
Bonwire, Adanwomase, Ntonso and Centre for National Culture, all in Ashanti Region of
Ghana.

Table 2 Products produced and sold by weavers

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulat.
Percent Percent
Valid Kente cloth 14 17.5 17.5 17.5
Dress and accessory 4 5.0 5.0 22.5
cloth, dresses and accessory 32 40.0 40.0 62.5
all of the above 30 37.5 37.5 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012

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Figures 1a – 1d showing sample of innovated products from BKWI
Fig.1a Fig. 1b

Fig. 1c Fig. 1d

Figures 2a and 2b showing samples of ancient products from BKWI

Fig. 2a Fig. 2b

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Figures 3a & 3b showing samples of various products from BKWI
Fig. 3a Fig. 3b

Fig. 4a Fig. 4b
Figures 4a & 4b showing samples of materials from BKWI

The researchers researched into the kind of art works produced by the weavers apart
from Kente cloth. It has been ascertained from 14(17.5%) out of 80(100%) respondents
that the weavers produce Kente Cloth, 4(5%) indicated that they manufacture dress and
accessories, 32(40%) said cloth, dresses and accessories, 30(37.5%) said all the items
mentioned in the table. It is clear evidence judging from the above table that almost all
the weavers from across the centres produce all the items since the largest percentage
of the respondents confirmed to that. Fig. 1 to 4, however, illustrate innovated products
(cloths), 5 and 6 show ancient (obsolete) products, 7 and 8 illustrate samples of other
products while 9 and 10 show sample of raw materials, e.g. rayon and cotton yarns.
Table 3 Innovations of cloth to enhance aesthetic concept
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid Strongly 72 90.0 90.0 90.0
Agree
Agree 8 10.0 10.0 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field study, 2012

From table 3, data collected on innovation of cloth to enhance aesthetic concepts

revealed that, the indigenous Asante Kente weavers engage in a very vibrant
innovation. A total of 80 (100%) responded to the questionnaire, out of the total number,
72 (90%) strongly agreed to the fact that the indigenous Asante Kente weavers innovate
their products, 8(10%) agreed on this fact. None of the respondents was uncertain or
refused to the question whether the indigenous Asante Kente weavers engage on

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innovation. This means that, innovation serves as one of the factors that enhance the
concepts of innovation and aesthetics among the indigenous Asante Kente weavers as
well as sustaining their profession, improve their economic lives and promote national
culture and tourism.
Upon interview, researchers unveiled that change in customer taste plays a very
significant role to the improvement of Kente designs. Customers mostly bring a wide
variety of choices of designs and colours to be executed for them. It is therefore,
deduced that these designs reflect politics, social, education, aesthetic pleasures,
culture and other important activities. Kotler & Keller (2006) indicated that, instead of
“product-centered” business has shifted to a “customer-centered” philosophy. The quest
to preserve the Asante culture and for that matter Ghanaian culture as well as the
heritage of this profession, made these weavers go extra mile to discovering ways of
constantly improving upon existing designs while maintaining cultural values. The
master weavers expressed emphatically that it was very imperative to improve upon the
designs. The philosophical and the cultural significance or implications are not taken for
granted since these concepts are the most important factors that make the cloth very
authentic.
It is therefore, deduced by the researchers that irrespective of the design, Kente would
always be called as such once it is executed on a traditional loom by an indigenous
Asante Kente weaver. The Kente weavers are so skillful that issues with their profession
are not compromised.
Table 4 Way of Innovation to enhancing aesthetic qualities
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid Material Usage 4 5.0 5.0 5.0
Design Innovation 18 22.5 22.5 27.5
Creative Ideas 8 10.0 10.0 37.5
All of the above 50 62.5 62.5 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012
With reference to table 4, a total of 80 (100%) responded to the questionnaire, of the
total number, 4(5%) said that the indigenous Asante Kente weavers innovate on
material usage, 18(22.5%) confirmed that the indigenous Asante Kente weavers
innovate or enhance aesthetics on design and improving the quality of the cloth, 8(10%)
indicated that the indigenous Asante Kente weavers engage on innovation based on
creative ideas while the largest number of respondents, 50(62.5%) said that the
indigenous Asante Kente weavers innovate in all aspects of the ways indicated in the
table above. No respondent said that the indigenous Asante Kente weavers engaged on
technique innovation alone.
It is therefore, deduced that, depending upon the prevailing circumstances, there is a
way to improve upon the general features and performance of the cloth to enhance
innovation and aesthetic qualities by implementing all the ways stated in the table
above. It is however recalled upon interview and observation by researchers from field
that, right from the olden days the earliest weavers understood the essence to improve
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upon the general appearance of the cloth by changing the materials, techniques and
designs of the cloth. It is therefore, revealed here that Kente designs are not static. This
was supported by Ross(1982), Haggar (1962), Wilson (1971), Hospers (1969), Jessup
and Rader (1976), Amenuke et al (1993), and Adu-Agyem (1990). In brief, authors
lament that, aesthetics deals with individual’s senses of perception which inspires
creativity and innovation, reaction to beautiful objects, events, ideas and so on.
The researchers again deduce that culture is not static, a clear evidence that like their
ancestors, the weavers saw the need that by improving upon the appearance and the
quality of the cloth it can go far even beyond the boundaries of Ghana to sustain and
project cultural values and this they were able to achieve by exporting the cloth and
promoting tourism. For example, upon interview with the master weavers researchers
discovered Kente designs like “ Ohene afro hyen”, literally the king has boarded the
plane, “Toku kra toma”, literally Toku’s soul cloth etc. were wide variety of clothing that
projects the cultural, political, social and aesthetic value of their products as well as
cloths used by kings and higher personalities, especially when travelling outside the
country thereby transcending boarders. Researchers therefore, alarm strongly that there
is no aesthetics among the indigenous Asante Kente weavers without innovations or
improvement, promoting the nation through economic, culture and tourism. Avins and
Quick (1998), stated that Kente cloth is a status cloth.
Philosophically, researchers again deduce that, as a way of life, by maintaining those
good values and conducts acceptable to societies and changing that which is frown
upon, there will be a great significance of life as well as living a great legacy for
generation to generation to inherit like the Asantes, a great inheritance of Kente
designs. According to findings from field, the Asante Monarchy is nothing without Kente
and this is a fact - the Asantehene as well as great personalities such as heads of
states cannot celebrate Ghanaian or Asante functions respectively without Kente cloth.
It is the voice of the Ghanaian culture. This fact could be supported by the 10th
Anniversary of Otumfuo Osei Tutu II, the incumbent Asantehene of Kumasi, Ghana. The
aesthetic aspect could not be exempted. The Asante chief always changes Kente
design for a function and it is because of the innovative power lying in the hands of
these weavers.

Table 5. Kind or ways of Kente Innovation to enhance Aesthetic look

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid New Designs different from 4 5.0 5.0 5.0
existing ones
Blending 20 25.0 25.0 30.0
All of the above 56 70.0 70.0 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012

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In order to discover the ways of innovation the weavers undertake to improve upon
aesthetic look, of the total of 80 (100%) respondents, table 5 reveals that, 4(5%) said
that the indigenous Asante Kente weavers produce entirely new designs different from
existing ones, 20(25.5%) said they innovate by blending existing (indigenous) creation
with new ones, 56(70%) said innovation is in line with all kinds, that is, improvement
(modernization) on existing or indigenous design, introduction of new, genuine creation.
It is however deduced that, kinds of innovation on designs (Adwini) will depend on the
trends and prevailing circumstances.
Table 6 Description of innovation and aesthetics of Kente cloths/ effects of
Innovation and aesthetics on productivity, sale and business success
Frequency Percent Valid Cumulat.
Percent Percent
Valid increases production, sale prices / 16 20.0 21.1 21.1
profit
Product quality improvement 4 5.0 5.3 26.3
improvement in techniques and 22 27.5 28.9 55.3
production process
product versatility maximizes 4 5.0 5.3 60.5
growth and competitive edge 22 27.5 28.9 89.5
all of the above 16 10.0 10.5 100.0
Total 76 95.0 100.0

Missing System 4 5.0

Total 80 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2008
According to table 6, 76 (100%) responded to the questionnaire, out of the total number,
16(21.1%) responded that the innovation increased production, sales and profit,
4(5.3%) said that innovation has helped in product quality improvement, 22(28.9%) said
it assisted in improvement in techniques and production process, 4(5.3%) indicated that
it maximized cloth versatility such as usage, while 22(28.9) said it caused growth and
gave the weavers competitive edge, the remaining 8(10.5%) said that they benefited in
all the above ways. the remaining 4(5%) did not respond to this question. This revealed
to the researchers that, weaving success largely depends on the above factors.
Shepherd (1990), cried that, innovation is glamorous, because it can generate large
cumulative gains in productivity. This is revealed in fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Respondents’ views on effects of innovation to enhance aesthetics

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Table 7 Features differed on your innovated cloths against previous ones

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid improvement on beauty and 48 60.0 60.0 60.0
quality, texture
change of material 10 12.5 12.5 72.5
reduced in weight of products / 22 27.5 27.5 100.0
improved flexibility / improved
texture
Total 80 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012
Figures from table 8 illustrate the fact that, out of the 80(100%) who responded to the
questionnaire, the largest percentage of the respondents, constituting 48(60%) described
that features of innovated items or art works against existing items were in line with the
improvement on beauty, quality and texture of product., 10(12.5%) said they innovated by
changing the type or quality of raw material, 22(27.5%) said that they bring changes by
reducing the weight of products, improve its flexibility and texture. It is therefore, empirical
that matters concerning innovation to enhance aesthetic qualities among these weavers for
cultural impact could not be taken for granted. Weavers embark on vibrant innovative
strategies to gain competitive edge over others elsewhere. Lamberton and Minor-Evans
(2002), supported this fact, that business factors such as the number and quality of
products created are affected strongly by the creativity or innovation of the people in an
organization. This idea was supported by Certo (2006), Belch and Belch (1998), Guerrillas
(2007), Runco (2004), Feldman, (1999), and McLaren, (1999),
Table 8 Set of values / significance /features /characteristics of Cloth
serving as most important values in concepts of aesthetics
Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent

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(the case study of bonwire kente weaving industry) - Sabutey, G. T., & Adu-Agyem, J
Valid cultural significance, beauty and 32 40.0 40.0 40.0
design quality
sophisticated, prestigious, 14 17.5 17.5 57.5
elegance, quality, famous durability
same likeness of either side, 6 7.5 7.5 65.0
unique, difficult to imitate
uniqueness in style weight, 16 20.0 20.0 85.0
finishing, smooth, flexibility,
attraction / bright colours / quality
all of the above 12 15.0 15.0 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012
Table 8 above revealed set of values, significance, features, characteristics of Kente
works that serve as most important values in concepts of aesthetics and at the same
time serving as competitive edge over rivals. 80 (100%) responded to the questionnaire
where 40.0% said cultural significance, beauty and design qualities, 17.5% said
products are sophisticated, prestigious, elegant, supreme quality, famous and durable,
7.5% indicated that Asante Kente weaves have features of same likeness of either
sides, uniqueness and difficult to imitate, 2% attributed features or characteristics to be
uniqueness in style weight, finishing, smoothness, flexibility, attraction or bright colours
and supreme quality whilst 15% said products have all the above mentioned
characteristics. This means the weavers are dynamic by having several ways to
manipulate the designs to be competitive.
Table 9 Reasons for Innovation/ why weavers engage in innovation
Frequency Percent Valid Cumula.
Percent Percent
Valid Impr't of product performance 26 32.5 32.5 32.5
Attract customers 6 7.5 7.5 40.0
All of the above 48 60.0 60.0 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2008
The researchers discovered from the above table, 9, that, 80 responded to the
questionnaire to discover reasons to improve or innovate their art works out of which
26(32.5%) said that they did so to improve upon the performance of artifacts, 6(7.5%)
said weavers did so to attract customers, 48(60%) constituted the largest who
confirmed that, weavers innovate to improve products performance, attract customers,
fight competitors and increase their profit. None (0%) said that they innovate to fight
competition and enlarge profit margin alone. It can therefore, be deduced that weavers
are very sensitive to activities that will improve their art works and business.
Table 10 Success without Product Innovation
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid Yes 18 22.5 22.5 22.5
No 50 62.5 62.5 85.0
Uncertain 12 15.0 15.0 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
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Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012
From table 10, again, the researchers deduced from the total of 80(100%) respondents,
the essence was to discover development in the absence of innovation, of the total
number, 18(22.5%) were in agreement, 50(62.5%), the greatest proportion was in
opposition, whilst 12(15%) were not certain.
It is always important to improve upon the talents or what you have since it always
brings positive impact. Nevertheless, this fact contradicts with what some of the
respondents (of the customers’ questionnaire) said, that, they would go in for ancient
designs because, tourists preferred the beauty and philosophy associated with those
products, therefore, that sell more due to that segment of the market. The researchers,
however, deduced that, although it is necessary to innovate it is equally essential to
identify and maintain that which can make positive impact. See fig. 6.
Fig. 6 Success without Kente Innovation

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Table 11 Reasons for internationalization
Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid market and profit maximization 44 55.0 55.0 55.0
product and national recognition / 16 20.0 20.0 75.0
identity
international market is most 6 7.5 7.5 82.5
profitable
competition and choked local 12 5.0 5.0 87.5
markets
all of the above 10 12.5 12.5 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012
The researchers discovered from the field that the weavers are really exporting their
works, therefore, want to diagnose the real reasons for this action. Table 11, explores
reasons for internationalization as innovative marketing strategies. A total of 80 (100%)
responded to the questionnaire, where 44 (55%), the largest portion said they did so to
maximize market share and profit, 16 (20%) attributed the reason for product and
national recognition or identity, 6 (7.5%) said international market was most profitable,
while 4(%) said competition and choked local markets led to the discovery of new
strategies and 10(12.5%) attributed the reason to all the above listed reasons.
The researchers therefore, conclude that, as much as the weavers are exploring ways
to improve upon the aesthetic qualities to enhance their works and cultural values, they
are enforcing strategies to improve their economic lives through exports of products.
This does not only benefit them but also promotes tourism while creating awareness of
the rich culture and identity of Ghana abroad.

Table 12 Brand of Kente Product Patronized

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid Adanwomase 15 12.5 12.5 12.5
Bonwire 58 48.3 48.3 60.8
Ntonso 8 6.7 6.7 67.5
Cultural Centre 5 4.2 4.2 71.7
Volta 4 3.3 3.3 75.0
Northern 5 4.2 4.2 79.2
ATL and Others 13 10.8 10.8 90.0
None of the above 12 10.0 10.0 100.0
Total 120 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012

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Fig. 7 Brand of Kente patronized by customers

The researchers ascertained from table 12, that, of the various brands of Kente
products patronized by consumers, Bonwire Kente products were highly patronized
among the rest with a percentage of 48.3%. This is a clear indication that Bonwire
Kente products are highly preferred. Moreover, looking at the distribution of the various
brands, choices of artifacts by clients really centred on Ashanti Region. See table 12.
Table 13 Reasons for preference on brands from BKWI
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cum.
Percent
Valid Reasonable Price 2 1.7 2.6 2.6
Comfort 2 1.7 2.6 5.2
High Quality 35 29.2 45.5 50.6
Attracted by marketing style 2 1.7 2.6 53.2
Designs 5 4.2 6.5 59.7
Colors 2 1.7 2.6 62.3
Significance of cloth 3 2.5 3.9 66.2
All of the above 19 15.8 24.7 90.9
None of the above 3 2.5 3.9 94.8
Only Asante kente is known 3 2.5 3.9 98.7
Other reasons, specify 1 .8 1.3 100.0
Total 77 64.2 100.0
Missi System 43 35.8
ng
Total 120 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012

To determine the reasons for respondents choice of designs from the Asante Kente
weavers, the researcher discovered that, from table 13, of the 77(100%) who responded
to this question, 35(45.5%) attributed reasons to quality, 19(24.7%) attributed the
reason to all the above listed factors illustrated in the table, specifically, Reasonable
Price, Comfort, High Quality, Designs, Colors, Significance of cloth, Only Asante is

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known, Attracted by marketing style and other reasons. Moreover, 2.6%, 2.6%, 2.6%,
6.5%, 2.6%, 3.9%, 3.9%, and 1.3% attributed the reasons to Reasonable Price,
Comfort, High Quality, Attracted by marketing style, Designs, Colors, Significance of
cloth, Only Asante is known, and other reasons respectively. This shows that
consumers really express taste for a particular brand based on major benefits they
derive but not just buy for buying sake. These could be some of the important factors for
the success of the Indigenous Asante Kente weaves.

Table 14 Types of marketing communication tools adopted as Innovated

Marketing Strategies
Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Influencers/word of mouth 26 32.5 32.5 32.5
exhibition/ publicity.
Direct selling/marketing 4 5.0 5.0 37.5
All of the above 50 62.5 62.5 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field data, 2012

The researchers researched into types of Marketing Communication Tools adopted.

From table 14, 80 (100%) responded to the questionnaire.26 (32.5 %) said that the
industry used influencers or word of mouth and exhibition or publicity. 4 (5%) said direct
selling or marketing while 50 (62.5%) said all the above were utilized. This reveals that
integrated marketing communication is one of the innovations the industry is using as a
strategy to gain competitive edge.
Table 15 Kinds of influencers
Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Heads of state 14 17.5 17.5 17.5
Kings 14 17.5 17.5 35.0
Celebrities 4 5.0 5.0 40.0
All of the above 48 60.0 60.0 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field data, 2012
As to the kinds of influencers used, of the 80 (100%) respondents, 14 (17.5%) said
heads of states, 14 (17.5%) said kings, 4 (5%) said celebrities, 48 (60%) said all the
above were used.
Now, 150 questionnaires were administered to customers of Kente Products where 120
were received or useable, assembled and analysed with tables and charts.

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Fig. 8 Views of customer preference on innovated and existing products
Table 16 Reasons for Preference on brands from BKWI
Frequency Percent Valid Cum.
Percent Percent

Valid Reasonable Price 2 1.7 2.6 2.6

Comfort 2 1.7 2.6 5.2
High Quality 35 29.2 45.5 50.6
Attracted by marketing style 2 1.7 2.6 53.2
Designs 5 4.2 6.5 59.7
Colors 2 1.7 2.6 62.3
Significance of cloth 3 2.5 3.9 66.2
All of the above 19 15.8 24.7 90.9
None of the above 3 2.5 3.9 94.8
Only Asante Kente is known 3 2.5 3.9 98.7
Other reasons, specify 1 .8 1.3 100.0
Total 77 64.2 100.0
Missing System 43 35.8
Total 120 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012

To determine the reasons for respondents choice of designs from the Asante Kente
weavers, from table 16, the researchers discovered that, of the 77(100%) who
responded to this question, 35(45.5%) attributed reasons to quality, 19(24.7%)
attributed the reason to all the above listed factors illustrated in the table, specifically,
Reasonable Price, Comfort, High Quality, Designs, Colors, Significance of cloth, Only
Asante is known, Attracted by marketing style and other reasons. Moreover, 2.6%,
2.6%, 2.6%, 6.5%, 2.6%, 3.9%, 3.9%, and 1.3% attributed the reasons to Reasonable
Price, Comfort, High Quality, Attracted by marketing style, Designs, Colors, Significance
of cloth, Only Asante is known, and other reasons respectively. This shows that
consumers really express taste for a particular brand based on major benefits they
derive but not just buy for buying sake. These could be some of the important factors for
the success of the Indigenous Asante Kente weaves. Coetzee and Roux (1998), as
expressed earlier in this research: “African aesthetic standards are different from the

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“accepted” standards of uniqueness and individuality; that African works of art, be they
visual, musical, kinetic, or poetic are created as an answer to a problem and serve
some practical end. This idea was supported by (Okeke, 1982) and Vansina (1974).
Okeke added that “The artist is responsible to society. Hence, Africa artists are held in
high esteem by the society because they supply those design needs as are vital to their
spiritual and physical well-being”. (P. 62)
Table 17 Choice of design
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid Current/Innovative 24 20.0 20.0 20.0
Designs
Ancient Designs 45 37.5 37.5 57.5
All of above 49 40.8 40.8 98.3
None of the above 2 1.7 1.7 100.0
Total 120 100.0 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012
Moreover, from table 17, to discover the choice between ancient and innovated weaves,
the researchers diagnosed through which of the designs customers really patronized.
120 (100%) responded to the questionnaire. Of the 100%, 20% preferred strictly the
Current or Innovative Designs, 37.5% strictly preferred the Ancient type of design, whilst
40.8% would not do without innovative or the ancient design, a combination of both, or
any of them could be suitable. From the researchers’ point of view, it is convincing
enough from the above analysis that, the indigenous Asante Kente weavers, although
may be successful by discarding the Ancient weaves due to modern trends,
advancement may be rapid or stupendous by utilizing both technologies or incorporating
both ideas in their designs, an evidence that most of the respondents (40.8%),
expressed taste for both inventions, thus a jeopardy to them, on their economic lives
without incorporating those good components of the ancients weaves, due to the fact
that Ghanaians really love tradition, this may be one of the competitive advantage to
their profession.
Table 18 Reasons for choice of design (new / ancient)
Frequency Percent Valid Cumulat.
Percent Percent
Valid new is current, beautiful and 16 13.3 16.7 16.7
fashionable
Old preserves cultural 36 30.0 37.5 54.2
significances/durable/ authentic
both are admirable, cultural 20 16.7 20.8 75.0
significance and prestige
both due to variety since new cannot 11 9.2 11.5 86.5
be separated from old
both came from one source 6 5.0 6.2 92.7
new is youthful and fashionable 2 1.7 2.1 94.8
both to make choice for a particular 2 1.7 2.1 96.9
occasion

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new / innovative design, culture is not 3 2.5 3.1 100.0
static
Total 96 80.0 100.0
Missing System 24 20.0
Total 120 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012
The above, table 18, is a true picture of respondents view for a particular choice of
design. A total of 96(100%) responded to this question, out of which 16.7% percent said
the innovative designs were very elegant, fashionable and most modern, 37.5%
expressed that the ancient way of invention makes the designs preserve cultural
significances, durable and authentic. Meanwhile, 20.8% indicated that both designs
were admirable, cultural significance and prestigious whereas 11.5% observed both
designs to be a variety, expressing further that, new cannot be separated from old. This
means, according to them, culture is a blend. A group (6.2) viewed that since both
invention came from one source, both were accepted, but 2.1% would strictly patronize
the innovated weaves because that was very youthful and very fashionable. 2.1% also
indicated that both designs were chosen so as to make a right choice for a particular
occasion but 3.1% said that culture was not static, therefore, the need to update, hence
old designs were meant for the past, rather preferred the innovated, current designs.
This reveals that, the indigenous Asante Kente Weavers have wide characteristics of
customers to satisfy. Also, by observing, researching and tailoring artifacts to satisfy
these customers, they can expand their business.
Table 19 Kente Satisfaction by Clients

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Very satisfied 44 36.7 38.3 38.3
Satisfied 48 40.0 41.7 80.0
Neutral 20 16.7 17.4 97.4
Dissatisfied 1 .8 .9 98.3
Very dissatisfied 2 1.7 1.7 100.0
Total 115 95.8 100.0
Missing System 5 4.2
Total 120 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012

To determine the degree of satisfaction of clients, researchers discovered that out of

table 19, 115(100%) answered this question.44 (38.3%) were very satisfy with Asante
Kente, 41.7% was satisfied, 17.4% was neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, 0.9% was
dissatisfied, whilst 1.7% was very dissatisfied.
Comparing the degree of satisfaction to dissatisfaction, 80% of the clients who
patronized or expressed desire for the Asante Kente products might have minimal
complaints about weaves; while the rest 20% may constitute clients and non-clients who
might have serious problems with brand dissatisfaction or might not even endorse the
products. Since the rate of satisfaction far outweighs dissatisfaction, it appears
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products from Asante Weavers meet expectations of clients and it is a plus for them
because the probability for re-purchase, market share expansion and revenue or profit
maximization is high. Thus, dissatisfied customers might also constitute those who
discovered certain loop-holes with the products and should the weavers have customer
data-base, relationship marketing and post purchase communication in place, could
follow up to dig out all potential complaints.

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Table 20 Product recommendation
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent

Valid Yes 98 81.7 86.0 86.0

No 3 2.5 2.6 88.6
Not sure 13 10.8 11.4 100.0
Total 114 95.0 100.0
Missing System 6 5.0
Total 120 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012

114(100%) responded to the above, table 20, 86% constituted those highly satisfied
customers who would definitely recommend products to others, only 2.6% said no while
11.4% involved those who were not certain. This means that there is a bright future for
their products and business.
Table 21 Repurchase of product
Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Definitely 59 49.2 52.7 52.7
Probably 31 25.8 27.7 80.4
Might or might not 15 12.5 13.4 93.8
Probably not 4 3.3 3.6 97.3
Definitely not 3 2.5 2.7 100.0
Total 112 93.3 100.0
Missing System 8 6.7
Total 120 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012

From table 21, 52.7% out of 100% would surely do repurchase, this may be due to
brand satisfaction and other reasons unknown to the researchers; 27.7% involved those
who were most likely to do repurchase, 13.4% were yet to take decision, 3.6% may
probably not while 2.7% would definitely not do repurchase based on experiences or
reasons known to them.
Table 22 Is Asante Kente most preferred?
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid Strongly Agree 41 34.2 35.3 35.3
Agree 23 19.2 19.8 55.2
Uncertain 27 22.5 23.3 78.4
Disagree 19 15.8 16.4 94.8
Strongly Disagree 6 5.0 5.2 100.0
Total 116 96.7 100.0
Missing System 4 3.3
Total 120 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2012

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The aim of table 22 was to test whether consumers really prefer Asante Kente products
or brand to any other, the table reveals convincingly or satisfactorily that of the
116(100%) , consumers’ preference to Asante Kente is high, due to the recorded
highest figure of 55.2% of respondents in approval as against 21.6.% in refusal and
23.3% who expressed feelings of uncertainty. Comparing these three tables, it is
transparent that the majority prefers Asante Kente cloth.

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Table 23 State your tribe
Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Hausa / Northern / 25 20.8 25.5 25.5
Dagomba
Asante 24 20.0 24.5 50.0
Ga / Adangbe 16 13.3 16.3 66.3
Nzema 1 .8 1.0 67.3
Akan 14 11.7 14.3 81.6
Bono / Brong 2 1.7 2.0 83.7
Voterian / Ewe / Anlo 6 5.0 6.1 89.8
Fante 5 4.2 5.1 94.9
Akuapem 3 2.5 3.1 98.0
Guan 1 .8 1.0 99.0
Denkyira 1 .8 1.0 100.0
Total 98 81.7 100.0
Missing System 22 18.3
Total 120 100.0
Source: Author’s Field Study, 2008

From 23, in order to eliminate or minimize prejudice in the findings, researchers find it
prudent to examine whether a fair distribution of questionnaires have covered various
tribes or ethnic groups in Ghana. It was discovered upon critical examination of the
questionnaires that, taste of respondents towards a particular brand were not influenced
by the ethnic group or tribe one belonged. To prove this fact, from the table, of the total
of 98(100%) who responded to this question, the highest percentage constituted 25.5%
from the Northern Region(Hausa or Dagomba), followed by Asante with 24.5%, Ga
Adangbe(16.3%), Akan(14.3%), Anlo(6.1%), Fante(5.1%)Akuapem(3.1%), Bono(2%)
while Nzema, Denkyira and Guan form 1% each. This reveals that, most tribes from
across the country express interest in Kente products and this could be one of the
factors for development of their products. Findings from this survey also revealed that
most of these ethnic group expressed desire for Asante products or brands. See fig. 9.

Fig. 9 Various customers of Kente based on their ethnicity

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Conclusion
Findings from this research revealed strongly that, carrying innovations on existing
products can enhance aesthetic qualities, thus making products very captivating to
increase sales, hence, profits. Innovation is one of the key factors that make businesses
thrive. If combined with business strategies such as integrated marketing
communications (IMS), e.g., sales promotions, will espouse greater returns on
investment. Practically, the needs and wants of the consumers are satisfied through the
company’s product(s). Innovation according to works cited by various authors in this
research also move with creativity, where new products can boost the taste and
preferences of consumers. For a product to meet these objectives of satisfactions, it
must undergo product innovation to always enhance aesthetic look at regular intervals
because of the dynamic nature of consumer’s needs and wants that change over time.
The idea behind product innovation does not end in the satisfaction of changing taste of
the consumers, it also helps in reducing the cost of producing the goods, and thus,
selling it to the consumer at reduced prices. This aspect of product innovation and
aesthetics help company to have an edge over competing products in terms of cost. It is
true that most product properly produced will enjoy consumers’ patronage.
One point must be noted and that is a good product may fail if the producer fails to
create awareness for the product. It is therefore imperative for producers to emphasize
on appropriate marketing strategy, e.g., to make adequate promotion for new products.
Finally, it is worthy to note that product innovation and aesthetics is not limited to once
in a product’s lifetime. A product can be innovated as many times as possible to
enhance aesthetic values or beauty.

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Businesses should engage in extensive research, to find out the actual needs of the
consumers before going into production. This model illustrates Kotler & Kellers’s
concepts on customized marketing in the 21st century. This will go a long way in
preventing the production of products which are not actually needed because of its
failure to satisfy the needs and wants of the consumers;
In addition, firms or enterprises should carry our research on the changing taste of the
consumers periodically so as to adjust the already existing product, to meet the dynamic
taste of consumers because failure to do so will make the product obsolete;
Since product innovation helps in reducing cost, businesses should engage in it at
regular interval so as to cut down through value analysis strategy which is a segment of
product innovation to enhance aesthetics.
Firms could monitor the activities of competing products. By so doing, the company will
know the innovations made on competing products thereby adjusting its own product so
as to possess such new attributes or supersede competing brands. It is finally
recommended by researchers that, this research will go a long way to enhance the
teaching and learning of schools and colleges in Ghana; as well as enhance the
activities of businesses, especially firms within the same industries if the concepts
unraveled in this research are taken seriously.

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• Bryman, A. and Bell E. (2007). Business Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford
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Strategies for Success. New York: Mc Graw Hill.

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In Art Education. Exerter: A Wheaton and Co. Ltd.

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Ghanaian Indigenous Knowledge System., Center for Indigenous Knowledge for
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(LEAD), Institute of Cultural and Social Studies, University of Leiden.

• Wilson, B. (1971). Aesthetic Experience. In Bloom S. et al., Handbook on

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Level of practice and effectiveness of damp remediation measures in
walls of residential buildings in Ghana

Agyekum, K1., Ayarkwa, J.2, Koranteng, C3. and Adinyira, E4.

1,2,4
Department of Building Technology, KNUST
3
Department of Architecture, KNUST
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]

Abstract
Damage caused by dampness may pose serious risks to the performance of a building
structure. A structured questionnaire survey involving a convenience purposive
sampling of 5,800 residential buildings in the Dry Equatorial, Wet Semi Equatorial,
Tropical Continental and the South Western Equatorial climatic zones was conducted to
assess the level of practice and the level of effectiveness of damp remediation
measures adopted by building occupants, using the weighted average and the
coefficient of variation criteria.The findings showed that construction of aprons at the
base of walls, using damp proof courses and membranes, tiling of wall bases, patching
of wall bases and repainting are all damp remediation measures frequently practiced by
building occupants to address the problem of dampness.The Average Effective Scores
of all the measures showed that they are highly ineffective in addressing the problem of
dampness in residential buildings. However, the rankings of these measures based on
their Effective Index Values showed that using damp proof courses and membranes,
construction of aprons at the base of walls, tiling of wall bases, etc. possess some level
of effectiveness in their application to address the problem of dampness in residential
buildings in Ghana. Despite these findings, there is still the urgent need for concerted
efforts at finding effective remediation measures to address the problem of dampness.

Keywords: Ghana, dampness, damp remediation, measures, residential buildings,

building occupants.

Introduction
The accumulation of dampness in building structures, structural components or on the
surfaces of building materials may lead to physical, biological or chemical deterioration
of the components or the materials (Haverinen-Shaughnessy, 2007). Damages caused
by dampness may also pose serious risks to the performance of building structures
(Oliver, 1997). In epidemiological population studies, dampness damage has been
associated with a number of respiratory diseases such as asthma, etc. (Haverinen-
Shaughnessy, 2007; Bornehag et al., 2001). The health effects associated with
dampness damage seem to be consistent in different climates and geographical regions
(Zock et al., 2002). Studies have shown that the technical causes of damages caused
by dampness are often closely connected to the climate (Haverinen-Shaughnessy,
2007). According to Palomaki and Reijula (2008), despite the notable amount of
research to remedy the problem of dampness, the mechanisms causing the symptoms
and diseases associated with dampness still remain unresolved. Problems with
dampness and mold seem to have existed even in buildings constructed over 2000
years ago. In Leviticus, chapter 14, verses 35–48 (1), the earliest written instructions
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are given for evaluating microbial contamination in housing environments. The following
four aspects are identified in this scripture: inspection (Lev 14:36), remediation (Lev
14:40–42), evaluation: criteria for failure (Lev 14:43–45), evaluation: criteria for
successful remediation (Lev 14:48) (Palomaki and Reijula, 2008). The best way for
people to protect themselves against symptoms and diseases due to dampness and
mold is to avoid such exposure. The best means is to see that damaged structures and
contaminated materials are removed from the building in question (Palomaki and
Reijula, 2008). The prevention and control of moisture problems should be addressed in
early phases of building design and construction, and in the sustained maintenance of
buildings (Haverinen-Shaughnessy, 2007; Burkinshaw and Parrett, 2004). This study
seeks to assess building occupants’ knowledge on the level of practice and the level of
effectiveness of damp remediation measures in residential buildings in Ghana.

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Problem of dampness in buildings

Dampness is one of the subject areas littered with misconceptions and confusions over
terminology and thinking (Halim et al., 2012; Burkinshaw and Parrett, 2004). According
to the Oxford Dictionary, ‘dampness is a condition contained with little water’. Seeley
(1994) also defined dampness as the wetting of structural elements through moisture
rise by capillary action. Dampness can be described as excessive moisture contained
within building materials and components which has the tendency to cause adverse
movements or deterioration and which can result in unacceptable internal environmental
conditions (Halim et al., 2012). Dampness in a building also involves an excess of
moisture that causes cosmetic problems, spoils decorations, deteriorates building
fabrics and creates conditions that have adverse effects to the health of occupants
(Oxley, 2003; Briffet, 1994). It is one of the most serious structural effects and can occur
in the walls of both old and modern types of construction (Hetreed, 2008; Burkinshaw
and Parrett, 2004; Massari and Massari, 1993). Dampness in walls spoils paints and
interior decorations, encourages mold and rots growth, hampers aesthetics, poses a
threat to the health of occupants through providing breeding conditions for mosquitoes,
bacterial and fungal growths, undermines structural integrity of wall elements, reduces
the thermal insulation property of building materials as well as affects the comfort of the
occupants (Trotman et al., 2004; Mbachu, 1999).Dampness in buildings can arise from
a number of different sources and can cause a variety of effects such as wall staining,
mold growth, impairment of air quality and respiratory problems in humans (Ahmed and
Rahman, 2010; Riley and Cotgrave, 2005; Trotman et al., 2004).
Dampness in the elements of a structure can arise from rainwater penetration in exterior
walls, ground water intrusion into basements and crawl spaces, condensation and
indoor moisture sources (Douglas and Noy, 2011; Ahmed and Rahman, 2010; Trotman
et al., 2004; Riley and Cotgrave, 2005).

2.2 Reported cases of dampness in buildings

Damp conditions in a home can occur for a variety of reasons (Ryan, 2002). According
to the Building Research Establishment (BRE), between 80-85% of dampness problems
arise due to condensation or manmade moisture (Ryan, 2002; Allen, 1995). The 1991
house condition survey in the UK found that 10.4 million homes were affected by
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mold growth (Ryan, 2002; Wheeler and Critchley, 1998) and the Northern Ireland House
Condition Survey in 1996 also found that 16% of homes experienced some form of
dampness or mold growth (Ryan, 2002). In Canada, USA and other European
countries, studies have shown that about 20% of buildings had one or more signs of
dampness (WHO, 2009). This estimate agreed with those of a study of 16,190 people in
Denmark, Estonia, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, which gave an overall prevalence of
indoor dampness of 18% (Gunnbjornsdottir et al., 2006). In the study undertaken by
Gunnbjornsdottir et al. (2006), dampness was defined on the basis of self-reported
indicators, such as water leakage or damage, bubbles or discoloration of floor
coverings, and visible mold growth indoors on walls, floors or ceilings. A study of 4,164
children in rural Taiwan and China showed that 12% of the parents or guardians
considered their dwellings to be damp, 30% reported the presence of visible mold inside
their houses, 43% reported the appearance of standing water, water damage or leaks
and 60% reported at least one of these occurrences (WHO, 2009; Yang et al., 1997). In
Singapore, of 4,759 children studied, the prevalence of dampness in each child’s
bedroom was estimated to be 5% and that of mold was 3% (WHO, 2009; Tham et al.,
2007). In Ghana a study carried out by Coral Ghana (n.d) showed that the problem of
dampness in buildings is on the rise.
2.3 Remediation of dampness in buildings
When investigating a dampness problem, it is most essential for the surveyor to
understand the construction of the building and be certain of the cause before
attempting a remedy (Douglas and Ransom, 2013; Douglas and Noy, 2011; Burkinshaw
and Parrett, 2004). According to Haverinen-Shaughnessy (2007) and Bornehag et al.
(2001), dampness/moisture damage in buildings does not have a homogenous
appearance but each building needs to be examined individually. Some dampness
problems are straightforward and fairly easy to diagnose, whereas others are more
complex and may consist of several damp areas in a more complicated pattern, often at
some distance from the original source of trouble (Douglas and Noy, 2011; Oliver,
1988). It is important to know that moisture can travel a considerable distance before
revealing itself inside the building (Douglas and Noy, 2011). Although there are uniform
phenomena seen in the microbial contamination of the indoor environment and health
effects on the occupants, the original causes of moisture problems and the possibilities
of eliminating them vary (Haverinen-Shaughnessy, 2007; Bornehag et al., 2001). There
are a lot of remedial measures that have been employed to address all sorts of
dampness situations worldwide. Tamas and Tuns (2008) tried to provide a solution to
eliminate capillarity moisture from brick walls using the Comer Method. The findings
from their study showed that this method provided a radical solution to the upward
moisture problems in brick walls. Another method (The Dry Zone Technology) was
employed by Tamas and Tuns (2010) to remove moisture from the capillary walls of
buildings, a problem which appeared due to the lack of a horizontal insulation layer in
those buildings or poor ventilation of interior spaces within such buildings. As part of
larger test programmes regarding rising dampness in Danish masonry construction,
Hansen and Frambol (2006) performed laboratory tests to evaluate the effects of
chemical injection methods in treating rising dampness in masonry walls. The study
showed that such agents had a braking but no stopping effect on rising dampness.
Torres and de Freitas (2007) felt that many of the techniques used to minimize rising
dampness were not effective, particularly, in dealing with walls of considerable
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thickness and heterogeneous materials. Experiments were performed at the Building
Physics Laboratory (LCF) of the Faculty of Engineering of Porto University to validate a
new technology for treating rising dampness in walls of historical buildings, using a wall
base ventilation system. At the end of the experiment, the results showed that
implementing this new treatment technology (wall base ventilation system) reduced the
level of rising dampness but did not eliminate the problem. In a study in Denmark,
Brandt et al. (2012) explored several measures taken to improve basements, i.e. getting
them drier and explored new measures to stop rising dampness in the basements of
structures. These methods as described by Brandt et al. (2012) included
diversion/drainage of surface water away from buildings, sloping of terrain at least 1:40
away from the building and use of capillary braking layer underneath floors to avoid
rising dampness in the floors, etc.In their study, all the tested methods proved usable,
however, not all of them were considered suitable for commercial use either because of
their safety implications or because they were very expensive in use (Brandt et al.,
2012). Brooks (2008) in his study ‘home moisture problems’ outlined some solutions to
home moisture problems and they included: adequate drainage around the house;
repair and redesign of rain water downpipes; checking and replacing all leaking pipes;
ceasing all moisture generation activities in buildings like cooking without lids, drying of
wet clothing indoors, etc. Most of these methods proved to be effective in addressing
some dampness problems like condensation and water penetration, however, where the
problem originated from another source such as rising dampness, other methods were
needed to assist in the remediation action (Burkinshaw and Parrett, 2004). According to
Hutton (2012), the control of moisture movement using either damp-proof or
hydrophobic materials to create a relatively less permeable ‘moisture barrier’ is not
necessarily a cost effective option in controlling dampness problems and may even be
counter-productive (Hutton, 2012). This is because a damp proof barrier is always
vulnerable to local failure and will tend to concentrate moisture and dampness problems
at those points. This is a general characteristic of all impermeable materials, including
those used in tanking systems, which are generally found to fail at some point or after
some time (Hutton, 2012).

3.0 Materials and methods

Between the months of November 2012 and March 2013, a questionnaire survey was
conducted to assess building occupants’ level of practice and effectiveness of some
damp remediation measures in residential buildings in Ghana. A total of 5,800 building
occupants living in 5,800 residential buildings in the four climatic zones of Ghana were
selected for the study. Four main climatic regions are distinguished in Ghana; South-
Western Equatorial (SWE), Dry Equatorial (DE), Wet Semi-Equatorial (WSE) and
Tropical Continental or Savanna (TC) (Abass, 2009).

The South Western Equatorial Climatic zone is the wettest climatic region in Ghana.
The rainfall regime is the double maximum type. Mean annual rainfall is above 1900mm
and on the average, no month has less than 25mm of rain. The highest mean monthly
temperature of about 30ᵒC occurs between March and April and the lowest of about
26ᵒC in August. A typical station for this climatic region is Axim (Abass, 2009).The Dry
Equatorial climatic zone has two rainfall maxima: but the dry seasons are more marked
and the mean annual rainfall is considerably less- between 740 and 890mm. This region
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is the driest in Ghana. Temperatures are almost the same as in the south-west
equatorial climatic region, and average monthly relative humidity is higher in the rainy
seasons than during the rest of the year. A typical station for this climatic region is
Accra. Cape Coast, Sekondi Takoradi and Ho also fall within this climatic region (Abass,
2009).The Wet Semi Equatorial Climatic zone has two rainfall maxima, but the mean
annual rainfall is between 1250 and 2000mm. Some of the wetter areas include the
Akwapim-Togo ranges and the SouthernVoltarian plateau where annual rainfall
sometimes exceeds the second rainy season (from September to October). A typical
station for this climatic region is Kumasi. Other towns include Sunyani and Enchi
(Abass, 2009).The Tropical Continental climate has a single rainy season from May to
October followed by a prolonged dry season. The mean annual rainfall is about 1000 to
1150mm. Mean monthly temperatures vary from 36ᵒC in March to about 27ᵒC in August.
A typical station for this climate is Zuarungu. Among the other towns in this zone are
Navrongo, Bawku, Wa, Tamale, Salaga and Yendi (Abass, 2009).

Houses located in the major towns in the four main climatic zones were considered in
the survey. This resulted in the survey being conducted at eleven locations in ten
administrative regions in Ghana: According to the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS)
(2000), the number of buildings located in each town are as follows: Sekondi-Takoradi
in the Western region (with 24,817 buildings), Axim in the Western region (with 2,694
buildings), Cape Coast in the Central region (with 6,847 buildings), Accra in the Greater
Accra region (with 131,355 buildings), Ho in the Volta Region (with 6,853 buildings),
Koforidua in the Eastern Region (with 7,318 buildings), Kumasi in the Ashanti Region
(with 67,434 buildings), Sunyani in the BrongAhafo Region (with 5,611 buildings),
Tamale in the Northern Region (with 15, 873 buildings), Bolgatanga in the Upper East
Region (with 3,932 buildings) and Wa in the Upper West Region (with 5,539 buildings).
A sample size of 5,800 buildings from the total population of 278,273 buildings in the
selected locations was determined for the entire survey using the
formula Where N = the total population size; e= the standard error of
sampling distribution assumed to be 0.013 and n is the sample size. Proportionate or
quota sampling technique was used to select the sample size for each location as
follows: Sekondi-Takoradi (517 buildings), Axim (56 buildings), Cape Coast (143
buildings), Accra (2738 buildings), Ho (143 buildings), Koforidua (153 buildings),
Kumasi (1,406 buildings) Sunyani (117 buildings), Tamale (330 buildings), Bolgatanga
(82 buildings) and Wa (115 buildings). The convenience purposive sampling approach
was then used to select the residential buildings within each location (representing a
cross section of buildings within the four climatic regions of Ghana). In all, 1% of the
buildings (56 out of 5,800) were selected from the South Western Equatorial, 61%
(3541 out of 5,800) were selected from the Dry Equatorial, 29% (1,689 out of 5,800)
were selected from the Wet Semi Equatorial and 9% (545 out of 5,800) were selected
from the Tropical Continental Climatic Zones respectively.

Seven damp remediation measures which have been extensively studied were collected
from the literature to form the basis of the questionnaire (Brandt et al., 2012; Hutton,
2012; Brooks, 2008; Haverinen-Shaughnessy, 2007). These measures were pre-tested
in a multiple pilot study using interviews and questionnaire involving occupants in 50
selected buildings in Kumasi to evaluate their applicability to the current study. Most of
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the interviewees demonstrated in-depth understanding of the seven damp remediation
measures but suggested additional remediation measures like the construction of
aprons at the base of walls, repainting and patching of wall bases affected by
dampness. These three additional measures were added to the seven measures from
the literature, making a total of 10 damp remediation measures.

A structured questionnaire was prepared to seek the views of building occupants on the
issues under consideration in the study. The questionnaire was divided into three
sections. The first section sought information about the respondents’ profile, the second
part assessed respondents’ knowledge on the level of practice of the ten damp
remediation measures by scoring the measures on the Likert Scale of 1 to 5, (where 1=
rarely practiced and 5=frequently practiced). The third part of the questionnaire sought
the views of the respondents on the level of effectiveness of the practiced damp
remediation measures by scoring on the Likert Scale of 1-5 (where 1= highly ineffective
and 5=highly effective).

The study used the Weighted Average Model (WAM) (Ayarkwa et al., 2011) to assess
the relative levels of practice and the levels of effectiveness of the damp remediation
measures as perceived by the building occupants. The WAM based on the Average
Practice Score (APS) and the Average Effective Score (AES) was calculated as:

;
where APSi is the average practice score of the damp remediation measure i, is the
average effective score of the damp remediation measure i, Xj the damp remediation
score assigned (on a Likert scale of 1 to 5). Nij = the number of respondents who
assigned the score Xj for the measure I and N is the total number of respondents. The
WAM was further used to assess the level of practice of the damp remediation
measure. To rank the level of practice of the damp remediation measures, the study
employed the combined values of the weighted average and standard deviation. The
coefficient of variation, measured as Practiced Index Value (PIV), was calculated using
the model (Ayarkwa et al., 2011):

Where PIVi is the practiced index value of the damp remediation measure i, APSi is the
average practice score of the damp remediation measure i and is the standard
deviation of the average practice score for the measure i.

The WAM was further used to assess the level of effectiveness of the damp remediation
measures. To rank the level of effectiveness of the DRMs, the combined values of the
weighted average and standard deviations were used and the coefficient of variation
measured as the Effective Index Value was calculated using the model:

Where EIVi is the effective index value of the damp remediation measure i, AESi is the
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average effective score of the damp remediation measure i and is the standard
deviation of the average effective score for the measure i.

Although the ASS and AES are weighted average measures and could be used to rank
all the damp remediation measures, they do not consider the degree of variation
between individual responses. Since a smaller variation between individual responses
gives better quality to the weighted average value, when two factors carry the same or
very close weighted values, the factor carrying the smaller variation is given a higher
ranking. Thus, the effective assessment of ranking attributes should consider both the
weighted average and the coefficient of variation measured by the practice and effective
index values.
4.0 Results and discussions

4.1 Respondent profile

The results of the survey (Table 1) show that 59% of the respondents who live in
residential buildings in the four climatic zones were owners and 39% were tenants. A
critical look at Table 1 shows that the proportion of buildings aged 1-4 years were 9%,
5-10 years were 24%, 11-20 years were 26% and greater than 20 years were 41%.
Studies have shown that the age of buildings is very significant to any dampness study
and the older the building, the more susceptible it is to dampness (Halim and Halim,
2010; Ahmed and Rahman, 2010; Trotman et al., 2007; Riley and Cotgrave, 2005).
Since 91% of the buildings surveyed in all the climatic zones were 5years and above,
they were susceptible to dampness attacks, hence, considered reliable for the study.
The results (Table 1) further show that the four major types of buildings surveyed in the
study were detached/separate houses (66%), block flat/apartment (16%), semi
detached houses (13%) and compound houses (5%). According to GSS (2000),
compound houses constitute the largest proportion of building types in all regions in
Ghana (45%) except Volta Region, where separate houses are predominant. For the
other regions, the proportions range from 42% in Western Region to 56% in the Upper
East Region (GSS, 2000). Separate/detached houses are the next major type of
buildings in Ghana constituting 25% of all building types (GSS, 2000). Despite
compound houses being the majority of building types in Ghana, the results from the
study showed that most of the buildings that were surveyed were the detached type of
buildings. This study was purpose oriented and was conducted irrespective of the
findings from the GSS.

Table 1. Respondents’ profile

CHARACTERISTIC OF RESPONDENT FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
Designation of respondent
Owner 3,514 61
Tenant 2,286 39
TOTAL 5,800 100
Age of building
1-4 years 545 9
5-10 years 1,382 24
11-20 years 1,457 26
Greater than 20 years 2,416 41
TOTAL 5,800 100
Type of building
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Detached/separate 3,821 66
Semi detached 740 13
Block flat/Apartment 951 16
Compound house 288 5
TOTAL 5,800 100
Walling material
Concrete 44 1
Earth/mud bricks 342 6
Burnt bricks 305 5
Sandcrete blocks 5,109 88
TOTAL 5,800 100

Table 1 also shows that the major type of material for the construction of walls of the
buildings surveyed were sandcrete blocks which constituted 88% of all walling materials
of building units. The earth/mud bricks constituted 6%, whiles concrete and burnt bricks
constituted 1% and 5% respectively in all cases. This finding confirms that of GSS
(2000), who identified the two main materials for the construction of the outer walls of
buildings in Ghana to be mud brick/earth and cements which together accounted for
89.1% of walling materials of buildings. In this study, earth/mud bricks and sandcrete
blocks accounted for 94% of the walling materials in buildings in the four climatic zones.

4.2 Level of practice of damp remediation measures

Table 2 shows a summary of the Average Practice Scores (APS), Practiced Index
Values (PIVs) and rankings of the levels of practice of the damp remediation measures
among building occupants. A factor is deemed important if it has an APS of 3 or more.

The results show that construction of aprons at the base of walls is the most frequently
practiced damp remediation measure (ranked 1st with an APS of 4.02 and a PIV of
12.18 by the building occupants). Patching of wall bases, using damp proof courses and
damp proof membranes, tiling of wall bases and repainting are ranked 2nd, 3rd, 4th and
5th respectively. Sloping of ground around the base of walls to allow easy run-offs of
water, reduction of moisture generation activities in buildings and repair and redesign of
new rain water down pipes and gutter systems were ranked 7th, 8th and 9th
respectively (all three had their APS below the APS value of 3), indicating lowest level
of practice among building occupants.This finding does not correspond to that identified
in literature (Hutton, 2012; Brandt et al., 2012; Brooks, 2008; Haverinen-Shaughnessy,
2007). Whereas in the UK and other European countries measures such as ‘adequate
drainage around the house’,‘repair and redesign of rain water downpipes’, ‘checking
and replacing all leaking pipes’, etc. are frequently practiced to address the problem of
dampness, building occupants in Ghana prefer the use of measures such as
‘construction of aprons at wall bases’, ‘patching of wall bases’, ‘repainting’ and ‘tiling of
wall bases’ to address dampness problems in their buildings.The use of DPMs and
DPCs were also among the measures practiced by building occupants to address
dampness problems in their buildings. The results further show that the measure ‘repair
and redesign of new rain water down pipes and gutter systems’was the least frequently
practiced by building occupants in Ghana. However, this measure is one of the most
frequently practiced damp remediation measures among building occupants in the UK
and other European countries (Brandt et al., 2012; Brooks, 2008, Haverinen-
Shaughnessy, 2007).
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Table 2 Level of practice of dampness remediation measures among building occupants

Damp Remediation Measure Average Standard Practice Rank of
Practice Score Deviation ( Index Value Practiced
(ASS) (PIV) Index Value
(RPIV)
Patching of wall bases 4.13 0.69 11.97 2nd
Tiling of wall bases 4.08 0.82 9.95 4th
Construction of aprons at wall 4.02 0.66 12.18 1st
bases
Reduction of moisture generation 2.80 1.34 4.18 9th
activities in buildings like cooking
without lids, etc.
Sloping of ground around the base 1.92 0.91 4.22 8th
of walls to allow easy run-offs of
water
Checking and replacing all leaking 1.90 0.84 4.52 7th
pipes
Redesign and projections of roof 1.78 0.78 4.56 6th
structures to reduce the effects of
driving rain and direct sunlight
Repainting 3.01 1.30 4.63 5th
Repair and redesign of new rain 1.62 1.04 3.12 10th
water down pipes and gutter
systems
Using damp proof courses (DPCs) 3.65 0.66 11.06 3rd
and damp proof membranes
(DPMs)

4.3 Level of effectiveness of dampness remediation measures

Table 3 shows a summary of the AES, Effective Index Values (EIVs) and ranking of the
EIVs (REIVs) of the ten damp remediation measures. For a damp remediation measure
to be effective it should have an AES value of 3.0 or more, otherwise, it is considered
ineffective.Table 3 shows that all the measures have AES values of less than 3, and
therefore considered by building occupants as ineffective measures for controlling
dampness in residential buildings. These measures were therefore ranked based on
their Effective Index Values (EIVs).The EIVs made use of the AES and the standard
deviations of the measures, hence, the measure with the highest effective index value
was ranked first followed by the others.

Although none of the ten measures was considered effective per the analysis (thus, all
have AES values less than the mean value of 3), the ranking of the effective index
values show that ‘using damp proof courses and membranes’, ‘construction of aprons at
wall bases’, ‘tiling of wall bases’, ‘patching of wall bases’, and ‘repainting’, have shown
some level of effectiveness in addressing the problem of dampness in buildings.

Table 3 Summary of Average Effective Score, Effective Index Value and Rank of Effective Index Values

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Dampness Remediation Average Standard Effective Rank of
Measure Effective Deviation ( Index Value Effective
Score (AES) (EIV) Index Value
(REIV)
Construction of aprons at wall 1.14 0.35 6.51 2nd
bases
Sloping of ground around the base 1.77 0.74 4.78 7th
of walls to allow easy run-offs of
water
Redesign and projections of roof 1.39 0.75 3.71 9th
structures to reduce the effects of
driving rain and direct sunlight
Repainting 1.38 0.56 4.93 5th
Tiling of wall bases 2.06 0.79 5.22 3rd
Checking and replacing all leaking 1.96 0.87 4.51 8th
pipes
Repair and redesign of new rain 1.61 0.98 3.29 10th
water down pipes and gutter
systems
Patching of wall bases 1.90 0.77 4.94 4th
Using damp proof courses (DPCs) 1.83 0.43 8.51 1st
and damp proof membranes
(DPMs)
Reduction of moisture generation 1.91 0.79 4.84 6th
activities in buildings like cooking
without lids, etc

The results from this study have shown that with the exception of the worldwide notion
of the effectiveness of damp proof courses and damp proof membranes in addressing
dampness problems, other measures, which have also shown some level of
effectiveness in addressing the same problem in residential buildings in Ghana include
the ‘construction of aprons at wall bases’, ‘tiling of wall bases’, patching of wall bases’
and ‘repainting of the affected areas’. Measures such as ‘adequate drainage around the
house’,‘repair and redesign of rain water downpipes’, ‘checking and replacing all leaking
pipes’, etc. which have shown to be effective in addressing various types of dampness
like condensation and water penetration in most European countries (Brandt et al.,
2012; Brooks, 2008; Young, 2007; Haverinen-Shaughnessy, 2007) have been less
effective in Ghana. The reason behind this is that most of these measures are very
effective in treating certain types of dampness like condensation and water penetration
which are common but not very severe in Ghana. In Ghana, rising dampness appears
to be the commonest and the most severe type of dampness and some of these
measures have not been effective in addressing such a problem.

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Figure 1 a, b, c, and d show some of remedial

measures applied by building occupants in addressing dampness in the walls of their
buildings.

From Figure 2 ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ it can be seen how the dampness is still rising after
the application
Figure of some
3 Ranking profile oflevels
of the the remedial
of practicemeasures.
of damp remediation measures

Figure 4 Ranking profile of the levels of effectiveness of damp remediation measures

The results from the ranking profile (Figure. 3) show that the five most frequently
practiced damp remediation measures in Ghana are‘construction of aprons at wall
bases’, ‘patching of wall bases’, use of damp proof courses and membrane’,‘tiling of
wall bases’ and repainting.Though using DPMs and DPCs is the third most practiced
damp remediation measure among building occupants in Ghana (Figure 3), it is the
most effective of all the measures (Figure 4). Figure 4 also show that ‘construction of
aprons at the base of walls’, ‘tiling of wall bases’, patching of wall bases’ and repainting
of affected areas’ have all shown some level of effectiveness in addressing dampness
problems in Ghana.

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5.0 Conclusions

This study sought to assess the level of practice and level of effectiveness of damp
remediation measures adopted by building occupants in Ghana. The results from the
study have shown that ‘construction of aprons at the base of walls’, ‘use of damp proof
courses and membranes’, ‘tiling of wall bases’, ‘patching of wall bases’, and ‘repainting
the affected areas’ are the five out of ten damp remediation measures most frequently
practiced to address the problem of dampness in Ghana. The results have also shown
that all the ten damp remediation measures studied have been ineffective (because
their Average Effective Scores were less than 3) in addressing the problem of
dampness in Ghana. However, when the ten measures were ranked based on their
Effective Index Values, ‘use of DPCs and DPMs’, ‘construction of aprons at wall bases’,

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‘titling of wall bases’ etc. were among the measures which showed some level of
effectiveness in their application to address the problem of dampness in buildings. The
results also showed that with the exception of the DPCs and DPMs already known
worldwide as a remediation measure of dampness, ‘construction of aprons at wall base’,
‘tiling of wall bases’ and ‘patching of wall bases’ are also damp remediation measures
which are frequently practiced by building occupants in Ghana, and which have shown
some level of effectiveness in their applications.These findings will assist in creating the
needed environment for all stakeholders to come together and find a common solution
to address the problem of dampness in residential buildings in Ghana.

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 The visual performance of common spaces and its effect on
occupants’ satisfaction in educational buildings
-B. Simons, B. G. Odame and C. Koranteng

Abstract
The general performance of buildings is known to have effects on the comfort and
satisfaction of building occupants. Two staff common rooms of the College of
Architecture and Planning at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology (K.N.U.S.T), Kumasi, were monitored. The study was based on the general
appearance of the common rooms, perception of the occupants, location of the rooms,
etc. Furthermore, one of the rooms was visually improved with greenery and the views
of the occupants were evaluated. The results illustrate that staff members were
concerned with their working spaces but found the visually improved common room to
be satisfying.

Keywords: satisfaction, educational buildings, performance, occupants

1. Introduction
The more comfortable common spaces in buildings are, the higher the satisfaction
levels of occupants and the frequency of visits, and the more likely attempts to
personalise favourite sitting areas. Personalisation is seen through the unique
arrangement of diverse elements (e.g., plants and photos) by employees. Building
inhabitants over the years develop a sense of how a perfect common space in buildings
(workspaces) should look, and they tend to improve their environment whenever
possible. A comfortable common space has the tendency to increase employees’
satisfaction, interpersonal relationships and productivity.

The presence of efficient building systems and system controls in buildings does not
imply that indoor environment is comfortable. The reason is that building systems have
to be operated by occupants to bring about comfort (Loftness et al., 1995). Comfort on
the other hand is based on subjective feeling and varies among individuals. Various
researchers have reiterated on building systems, system controls and user behaviour.
Nicol (2001) and, Nicol and Roaf (2005) reported on the interaction with building
systems due to thermal perception. Rijal et al. (2008) studied temperature levels (at
28°C) triggering the operation of building systems. The opening of windows, shades,
and light operation with the arrival of occupants and it’s energy implications have been
reported by Herkel et al. (2005), Mahdavi et al. (2007) and Sutter et al. (2006).
3rd International Conference of Design, Development and Research; July 18 – 20, 2013;
Kwame Nkrumah Universuty Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Appiah, E & Opoku-Asare, N. A (Eds)
 The visual performance of common spaces and its effect on occupants’ satisfaction in educational buildings
-B. Simons, B. G. Odame and C. Koranteng

The study of user behaviour and post occupancy evaluation in buildings, specifically
common spaces, shows that the improvement of building design and performance
(satisfaction, preference, thermal comfort, and energy efficiency) of educational
buildings is essential.

In this paper, a study on the performance evaluation of two staff common rooms in two
office buildings in Kumasi over an 11 month period is presented. The thermal conditions
(temperature and relative humidity) prevailing in the staff common rooms were
monitored. Additionally, occupants’ perceptions on the thermal and visual performance
of the spaces were evaluated.

2. Research methodology
In an effort to monitor the prevailing indoor conditions of the staff common rooms, four
data loggers (Ocr, 2008) were mounted to record air temperature and relative humidity
in and around the buildings. Two sensors (one measuring outdoor and one indoor) were
consequently used to record environmental conditions in each space of the building.

Two office buildings at the College of Architecture and Planning in Kumasi, capital of the
Ashanti Region in Ghana, were selected for the studies. These buildings are
representative of the majority of existing low-rise office buildings on the campus of the
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. The applied cooling systems
typically involve split air-conditioning units. A general description of the buildings is
summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: General Description of the Office Buildings

Building code CAPSCR DASCR

Function University building University building

Location KNUST KNUST

Occupancy type Single, double, lecture Single, double, open

halls plan
Office orientation North North

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Thermal controls Air-conditioned Mixed mode*

Lighting controls Manually controlled Manually controlled

Shades Internal, manually External (fixed), internal,

controlled manually controlled

Windows Operable Operable

*Mixed mode: Air-conditioned and naturally ventilated thermal controls

Following the long term study (11 months, from November 2009 to October 2010) of the
patronage and thermal performance of the staff common rooms in the two buildings
(CAPSCR and DASCR), a number of occupants in each building were interviewed.
Furthermore, the general condition of the two staff common rooms were not the same,
the CAPSCR was in a new building with modern infrastructure while the DASCR was in
an older building (see Figs. 1 and 2). In the process, 18 people from CAPSCR and 10
from DASCR participated in the interviews. These numbers was chosen based on the
population size that patronised the staff common rooms and on Nwana (1992) who
suggested that if the population size is small (less than 200), a 40% or more sample
size will be adequate.

Fig.1: Interior view of the CAPSCR

Fig.2: Interior view of the DASCR

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 The visual performance of common spaces and its effect on occupants’ satisfaction in educational buildings
-B. Simons, B. G. Odame and C. Koranteng

The respondents answered a comprehensive questionnaire based on the under listed

areas:

a) Profile of respondent;

b) General perception on prevailing indoor climate;

c) Concern about the general condition of the staff common room.

The occupants’ perceptions and evaluations were based on long term aggregate
opinions on the prevailing indoor conditions.

Moreover, to evaluate the existing thermal conditions, air temperature and relative
humidity values were measured (using data loggers) both inside and outside the
buildings. In all, 4012 data points (temperature and relative humidity values) were
gathered. The accuracy of the respective sensors is given in Table 2.

Table 2: Accuracy of the sensors

Sensor Range Error

o o
Air temperature -20 to 70 C ± 0.4 C
Relative humidity 5 to 95 % ± 3%

Source: OCR (2008)

The statistical analysis of the data was to a large extent (gathering and processing)
done in MS Excel, because of its high compatibility with a number of other applications.
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Other software applications used in the study were Greenline and Hoboware pro.
Greenline was used to launch and download the files from the data loggers. The
downloaded temperature and relative humidity values were screened in Hoboware pro
software, after which the data points were exported to an MS Excel file. In MS Excel,
the text files were imported, screened, and built together in monthly tables. Since the
data recorded was in an interval of minutes, formulae sheets were generated to produce
mean hourly values and the output values were graphed and analysed.

The outcome of the questionnaire based on the subjective opinion of the occupants who
patronised the staff common rooms were tabulated and graphed in MS Excel (mean
and percentage values).

3. Results
The evaluated results are presented here with Figs. 3, 4 and Table 3 showing the
prevailing indoor thermal conditions for a representative period in the month of
September. The neutral temperature in Kumasi in September is 23.2°C to 28.3°C
(Szokolay, 2004 and Koranteng et al., 2010).

Fig.3: Mean temperature values for a representative day in the month of September.

Fig.4: Mean relative humidity values for a representative day in the month of September

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Table 3: Maximum, minimum and mean values of the staff common rooms

Temperature [°C] Relative Humidity [%]

Max Min Mean Max Min Mean

CAPSCR 25.8 24.4 25.2 79.0 72.9 75.3

DASCR 26.6 25.7 26.3 79.2 76.7 78.0
OUTDOOR 28.8 25.6 27.5 78.7 68.5 73.1

Staff members were asked about their perception of the thermal performance of the
common rooms. The main concerns were on location, temperature, humidity and air
quality (see Table 4).

Table 4: Perception of existing indoor and general conditions of the staff common rooms
(CAPSCR and DASCR)

Very Poor Poor Neutral Good Excellent

CAPSCR DASCR CAPSCR DASCR CAPSCR DASCR CAPSCR DASCR CAPSCR DASCR

Location 17 0 28 20 0 0 17 80 39 0
General
condition 0 30 11 40 0 0 33 30 56 0
Temperature 0 0 0 30 0 50 56 20 44 0
Humidity 0 0 6 50 0 20 56 30 39 0
Air quality 0 0 0 60 0 10 50 30 50 0
Ventilation 0 10 0 70 0 10 50 10 50 0

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Odours 0 0 6 40 6 60 44 0 44 0
Lighting
quality 0 0 0 10 0 30 33 60 67 0

Not at all Somewhat Concerned/ Very concerned/

Agreeable agreeable

Feelings towards general

environment 0 60 0 30 61 10 39 0
Concern about environment
6 0 6 10 56 50 33 40

Tables 5 and 6 show the monitored attendance of the staff. Mean values were tabulated
for CAPSCR from November 2009 to October 2010. The values of DASCR show data
on how often staff entered the common room on a sample day.

Table 5: Statistical values showing the patronage levels of CAPSCR

Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Mean Std. Dev

Mean 17.9 12.9 13.0 17.8 18.8 25.3 18.9 15.8 13.7 14.0 15.9 14.3 16.5 3.4
Max 29 31 22 30 28 37 39 26 25 27 25 20 28.3 5.5
Min 10 4 2 9 11 6 9 8 6 5 8 7 7.1 2.6

Table 6: Statistical values showing the patronage levels of DASCR for a representative day (from
8:00 to 17:00)

Time Total Mean Max Min

8:00 - 8:30 9 1.8 3 1

8:30 - 9:00 15 3 7 1
9:00 - 9:30 8 1.6 3 0
9:30 - 10:00 10 2 3 1
10:00 - 10:30 9 1.8 2 1
10:30 - 11:00 12 2.4 3 1
11:00 - 11:30 12 2.4 4 1

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11:30 - 12:00 11 2.2 5 1
12:00 - 12:30 15 3 4 2
12:30 - 13:00 12 2.4 5 1
13:00 - 13:30 16 3.2 5 2
13:30 - 14:00 17 3.4 5 2
14:00 - 14:30 14 2.8 4 1
14:30 - 15:00 14 2.8 5 2
15:00 - 15:30 11 2.2 3 1
15:30 - 16:00 9 1.8 3 1
16:00 - 16:30 9 1.8 3 1
16:30 - 17:00 5 1 2 0

Towards the end of the August 2010, the CAPSCR was revitalised with greenery and
the sitting arrangements were modified to improve on the visual performance and to
break the formal sitting arrangement (see Fig. 1). Figs. 5 and 6 demonstrate the new
order at CAPSCR.

Fig.5: The modified sitting arrangement for smaller groups after the introduction of greenery (see
Fig. 1).

Fig.6: The modified sitting arrangement for larger groups after the introduction of greenery (see
Fig. 1).

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4. Discussion
The results of the study provide important suggestions regarding occupant’s satisfaction
and comfort at common rooms in office buildings, which could serve as a contribution to
the process of refinement and improvement of educational buildings.

In Fig. 3, the mean temperature values for a representative day in the month of
September are plotted. The outdoor temperature rose steadily to a peak of about 29°C
around 14:00, before falling. Indoor temperatures, among other parameters, depend on
the prevailing outdoor conditions. At these temperatures, the body must react in order to
balance itself with the thermal environment. The thermal balance is determined by the
internal heat load and thermal exchange through conduction, convection, radiation and
evaporation to attain comfort (Gut and Ackerknecht, 1993). Comfort attainment is also
related to the operation of building systems (Heerwagen, 2004). Given the neutral
temperature (comfort zone for the month of September in Kumasi) to be 23.2°C to
28.3°C, the staff common rooms could be said to be comfortable since all the indoor
temperature values were below the maximum comfort limit (Szokolay, 2004 and
Koranteng et al., 2009). Moreover, until 12:00, the outdoor temperature was within the
comfort zone, which implies that occupants could rely on natural ventilation to keep the
indoor spaces comfortable. For an energy conscious behaviour, both staff common
rooms (SCR) could increase the set point temperature of the installed air-conditioners.
At CAPSCR, the set point could be increased by 2.5°C during the first half of the day
and then by 2°C after mid day. Observed set point of 18 to 20°C are too low and give an
indication of the high infiltration rate through the louvre blade windows. At DASCR, the
set point could be increased to 1.5 and 1°C in the morning and afternoon hours
respectively.

The relative humidity levels prevailing in the spaces were within the recommendations
for Kumasi (a maximum of 80%, Koranteng et al., 2009). The relatively good
performance of the spaces (buildings) could be related to the sustainable design
principle of orientation and shading. Orientation affects indoor climate through solar
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radiation, heated walls and rooms, and ventilation problems in relation to prevailing wind
direction (Givoni, 1976). Other factors that affect indoor temperature and comfort are
building systems (windows, shades, fans, lights, air-conditioners, etc.) and their
operation by occupants to create preferable indoor conditions (Nicol and Roaf, 2005).

In Table 3, the maximum temperature values computed were all below the
recommended levels of 28.3°C. The outdoor maximum temperature was 0.5°C more
than the recommended maximum value. The relative humidity values had a maximum
of about 77% which is below the 80% level suggested for Kumasi (Koranteng et al.,
2009). The month of September is a comfortable period where most buildings could run
in passive mode if previous attention has been given to good orientation, wind direction
(the use of efficient fans (Hyde, 2000)), shading (Salmon, 1999), and a high window to
wall ratio (Lechner, 2001).

The general perception of the occupants on the existing indoor and general conditions
is demonstrated in Table 4. At CAPSCR, 45% of the interviewees had a poor perception
on the location of the SCR as against 80% who were of the view that the location of
DASCR was at least good. The reason is that the CAPSCR was on the third floor whilst
the DASCR was on the first floor and closer to the College’s car parking area.

The general perception on temperature, humidity, air quality, etc was rated by more
than 89% to be at least good in CAPSCR. Lower values of poor perception (30 to 80%)
were reported for the same parameters in DASCR (see Table 4). The levels of
dissatisfaction with temperature and relative humidity cannot be justified, since the
prevailing values were within the comfort zone recommendations. However, the poor
appearance of the DASCR could have contributed to the negative rating values. The
general environment and the occupants concern with the space was rated 100 and 89%
in CAPSCR. Conversely, 60% of staff members in DASCR were of the view that their
SCR condition was not agreeable at all and 90% were at least concerned about the
situation. However, there was no individual effort to change the condition. This
lackadaisical attitude is mostly observed in public institutions. Mohammadi (2007) and
Mokamelkhah (2007) have reiterated on careless attitudes in office buildings in Vienna,
Austria.

The mean patronage levels are shown in Table 5. Patronage of the CAPSCR declined
from the month of April 2010. Towards the end of August, the CAPSCR was revitalised
with greenery and a new furniture arrangement (see Figs.1, 5 and 6). The change
brought about an increase of about 2% patronage in September which later fell to a little
over the August levels. There seems to be a correlation between a dynamic and
comfortable common space and high patronage. This is an important clue which should
be considered more frequently in staff common rooms of educational buildings. Table 6
illustrates the patronage levels for a reference day in DASCR. High values were
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recorded between 8:30 and 9:00, and in the afternoons. These peaks are related to the
position of the staffs’ pigeon holes in the common room. The lecturers came to the SCR
to check on messages in their inboxes. In the afternoons, the SCR was mostly used to
interact with colleagues.

General comments on improving the DASCR were in the area of air quality, comfort of
furnishings and dimensioning of the common room. Lambeva (2007) found improved
office furniture to be one of the most urgent measures towards general enhancement in
a similar study on an office building in Austria. This shows the importance that
occupants attach to ergonomic furniture due to the nature of their responsibilities in
office buildings.

5. Conclusion
The study of user satisfaction with common spaces in educational buildings was
preceded by the monitoring of environmental parameters and patronage levels of two
staff common rooms at the College of Architecture and Planning, K.N.U.S.T. The data
retrieved and analysed shows the importance of user evaluation towards the refinement
and improvement of common spaces. The outcome showed that even though spaces
might be thermally comfortable, a negative appearance will reduce the satisfaction
levels of the occupants. Furthermore, to keep patronage levels of SCR’s high, there
should be improvements in aesthetics and services. Moreover, thermostat settings
ought to be set high to reduce energy consumption without compromising on comfort.
This calls for an energy conscious behaviour and the use of sustainable design
principles.

6. References
Givoni, B. 1976. Man, Climate and Architecture, Second Edition, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York, USA.
Gut, P. and Ackerknecht, D. 1993. Climate Responsive Building, First Edition, SKAT,
Swiss Centre for Development and Cooperation in Technology and Management,
Switzerland.
Hawkes, D. 1996. The Environmental Tradition – Studies in the Architecture of
Environment, E and FN SPON, London.
Heerwagen, D. 2004. Passive and Active Environmental Controls: Informing the
Schematic Designing of Buildings, First Edition, McGraw Hill, New York, USA.

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Herkel, S., Knapp, U. and Pfafferott, J. 2005. “A Preliminary Model of User Behaviour
Regarding the Manual Control of Windows in Office Buildings”. In I. Beausoleil-Morrison
& M. Bernier (eds.), Ninth International IBPSA Conference, Building Simulation 2005.
Montréal, Canada, 15-18 August.
Hyde, R. 2000. Climate Responsive Design, First Edition, E & FN Spon, United
Kingdom.
Koranteng, C., Mahdavi, A., Orehounig, C. and Pröglhof, C. 2009. “Thermal
Performance of Office Buildings in Ghana” In: Proceedings of the 11th International
IBPSA Conference, on Building Simulation, held in Glasgow, Scotland, 27 - 30 July,
2009.
Lambeva, S.L. 2007. User Interaction with Environmental Control Systems in an
Educational Office Building, Technology University of Vienna, Austria.
Lechner, N. 2001. Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Design Methods for Architects, Second
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, USA.
Loftness, V., Hartkopf, V., Shankavaram, J. and Mahdavi, A. 1995 User-Based Control
Choices in Relation to Thermal Comfort, Air Quality and Energy Conservation in
Buildings, Center for Building Studies, Concordia University, Canada.
Mohammadi, A. 2007. Modeling Occupants’ Control Actions and their Energy
Implications in an Office Building, Technology University of Vienna, Austria.
Mokamelkhah, E.K. 2007 Lighting, Shading and Ventilation Controls: A Study of User
Behaviour in Office Buildings, Technology University of Vienna, Austria.
Mahdavi, A., Mohammadi, A., Kabir, E. and Lambeva, L. 2007. “User Control Actions in
Buildings: Patterns and Impact, Well Being Indoors”, Clima 2007 Conference, 10 - 14
June, Helsinki, Finland, Seppänen O, Säteri J, (Ed.), ISBN: 978-952-99898-2-9, Paper-
No. C03.
Nicol, F.J. 2001. “Characterising Occupant Behaviour in Buildings: Towards a
Stochastic Model of Occupant Use of Windows, Lights, Blinds, Heaters and Fans”,
Seventh International IBPSA Conference, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 13 - 15 August.
Nicol, F. and Roaf, S. 2005. “Post-occupancy Evaluation and Field Studies of Thermal
Comfort”, Building Research and Information, 33 (4): 338 - 349.
Nwana, O.C. 1992. Introduction to Educational Research, Ibadan, Nigeria, Heineman
Educational Books.
Onset Computer Corporation (Ocr) 2008. (available at www.onsetcomp.com),
Accessed: October 20, 2008.
Rijal, H.B., Tuohy, P., Humphreys, M.A., Nicol, J.F., Samuel, A., Raja, I.A. and Clarke,
J. 2008. “Development of Adaptive Algorithms for the Operation of Windows, Fans and
Doors to Predict Thermal Comfort and Energy Use in Pakistani Buildings”, ASHRAE
Transactions, USA.
Salmon, C. 1999. Architectural Design for Tropical Regions, First Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, USA.

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-B. Simons, B. G. Odame and C. Koranteng
Sutter, Y., Dumortier D. and Fontoynont, M. 2006. “The Use of Shading Systems in
VDU Task Offices: A Pilot Study”, Energy and Buildings, 38 (7): 780 - 789.
Szokolay, S., 2004. Introduction to Architectural Science: The Basis of Sustainable
Design, Oxford: Architectural Press, p.20–21,64–70.

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Harnessing the regional developmental potential of mineral resources
booms: Reflections on post-Marikana15 unravelling of South Africa’s
mining regime.

Tapela N.
Department of Town and Regional planning.
Cape Peninsula University of Technology.
Cape Town, South Africa.
[email protected]

ABSTRACT.
The metaphors ‘resource curse’ and its antithesis, the ‘drive for foreign-direct
investment’, have offered contradictory but re-occurring explanations for the many
checkered responses to resource booms by African ‘states’ since the dawn of European
colonialism. Recently, Paul Jourdan argued that Africa’s unique and abundant mineral
resource base could provide an important lever to achieve growth and development
objectives if seminal resources linkages, industries and clusters are harnessed and
realized in-situ. He however cautions that these assets could be squandered under
‘free-entry’ resource regimes, and a continued ‘free-market’, non-interventionist
scenario which is likely to leave Africa with little more than ghost towns (Jourdan, 2011:
39).

The paper puts forward a research agenda for a relook at how African mineral
resources can be harnessed to promote local and regional development as well as
being focussed on Africa’s (re)industrialization. The paper argues that for too long
minerals boom have been a curse for Africa’s development largely because little
strategic thought and political will have been given to both the impacts of the political
economies and ecologies of the mining industry on the continent. That the immense
value chains created in mining and minerals have been captured elsewhere is testimony
to mineral and resource regimes that limited benefits to grandiose ideals of direct
foreign investment, low skilled job creation and against massive social, economic and
ecological disruption.

Key words/concepts: economic diversification, value capture, mineral value chains,

mining regimes.

Introduction.
The colonial scramble for Africa was essentially a scramble for resources, particularly
minerals. The mineral frontier became an important locus that shaped settlement
patterns of colonial urbanization and still underpins the political economy and political
ecology of natural resource utilization in the region. Mining-based settlement formation
is therefore primarily premised on the demand for, and availability of the mineral
resource, the economic viability of their extraction and the vagaries of the mineral price

15 In  August  2012  47  protesting  miners  were  killed  at  Lonmin  Platinum  Mines  in  Marikana,  near  Rustenburg  in  South  Africa.    
3rd International Conference of Design, Development and Research; July 18 – 20, 2013;
Kwame Nkrumah Universuty Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Appiah, E & Opoku-Asare, N. A (Eds)
 Harnessing the regional developmental potential of mineral resources booms: Reflections on post-Marikana1
unravelling of South Africa’s mining regime. – Tapela, N.
fluctuations in the international markets (Tanzier, 1980). In the early colonial period,
mining was initially characterized by the activities of numerous small diggers (van
Onselen, 1982), but it soon became the preserve of large multi-national companies that
now dominate all aspects of mining (from exploration through mine development,
processing and marketing of minerals, to mine closure) in both old and new generation
mining towns (Eggert, 1995). The effect of corporate hegemony has meant that
conventional urban development processes, procedures and institutions often become
undermined by the emergence of ‘company’ or ‘closed’ towns (Sharma, 1983). Mining
has perhaps become the most 'globalized' industry or sector in that mining activity is
controlled by a few corporate giants intricately connected to regionally-based firms
whose influence is singly larger than that of national governments (Lanning, 1979).

With the current resources boom now focused on Africa, there is a resurgence of mining
activity and infrastructure investment leading to the creation of new settlements and
revival of existing (often depressed) regions, and old lessons of ‘boom and burst’
economic cycles that characterize mining towns and regions are often forgotten. The
paper explores the development implications, in terms of both development policy and
practice in planning for economic diversification, sustainable development and
management of single-resource dependent settlements and regions. The paper also
attempts to respond to the ‘silence’, in policy and strategy terms, regarding planning
interventions to rescue mining closures in the spatial imprint of urbanization and
regional development discourse in South Africa despite the significance of mining-led
urbanization in the region.

While attempts have been made at both continental (multilateral) and national levels to
change the negative effects of mining, very little mineral beneficiation, economic
diversification and development of mining regions has occurred; and mining still remains
a controversial economic sector with reoccurring human rights violations and contested
economic empowerment outcomes for mining regions. The recent shooting of 47
protesting miners at Lonmin platinum mines in Marikana in August 2012 indicates that
the social compacts negotiated during South Africa’s transition are beginning to unravel
and crack on the weight of persistent poverty and widening inequality, and the
governance alliances that held them together are intensely contested by an increasingly
impatient population who are yet to see the fruits and promises of democracy’.
Marikana16 therefore signals that the space and luxury of rethinking and designing a
new mining regime has been strategically captured by ‘independent’ miners and mining
communities and that the state and its partners of choice (mining capital), have to re-
negotiate and legitimatize the new contestation space or scramble for Africa’s mineral
resources.

16
See: Marikana: Tragic, but it’s not Sharpeville; The City Press Editorial; August 19, 2012: 20
http://m.news24.com/citypress/Opinions/Editorials/Marikana-Tragic-but-its-not-Sharpeville-20120818;

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 Harnessing the regional developmental potential of mineral resources booms: Reflections on post-Marikana1
unravelling of South Africa’s mining regime. – Tapela, N.

The paper argues that the pioneering role of mining was and continues to be an
important driver shaping the spatial footprints of urbanization in the sub-region. It uses
Fine and Rustomjee’s (1996) concept of the ‘a minerals-energy complex’ to argue that
the South African industrialization project facilitated the development of a particular
settlement structure nested around the location of mineral extraction. This development
subsequently forged close spatial linkages to energy sources and industrial location and
supply, and was mediated by a transport network that consolidated a unique spatial
structure of industrialization. From this historical casing, it is further suggested that since
mining will continue to influence the South African political and spatial economy, there is
a need to develop a more robust understanding of both the dynamics of resource-based
economies and communities, as well as development planning frameworks that
proactively respond to these challenges. A review of the nature of mineral resources-
driven political economy and ecology and the mining regime that support them is made
based on the Southern African experiences. The persistence of the migrant labour
system in South Africa, the shifting nature of poverty in mining regions and the efficacy
of current development policy and value capture mechanisms and instruments are
analysed as a basis for the exploring the main features of the emerging mineral regime
and its efficacy to harness the regional developmental potential of mineral resources
booms.

Mining and urban development in South Africa: a conceptual frame.

The discovery of diamonds in Kimberly in 1867, and later gold in the Witwatersrand in
the 1880s saw the beginnings of a new industrial urbanism linked to mineral extraction,
and subsequent development of deep social and economic transformations that
restructured the regional spatial configuration of settlement through physical
displacement of resident communities, introduction of a wage economy and massive
importation of migrant labour within the sub-region. In the fifty years following the
Kimberly and Witwatersrand mining scrambles, there were subsequent parallel
discoveries and scrambles for minerals elsewhere in the region including the goldfields
and coalfields of Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), the copper-fields of Northern
Rhodesia (Zambia) and the Katanga (DRC); among others.

According to Taaffe, Morrill and Gould (1963) the nature and patterns of rail expansion
linking coastal towns to hinterland resource frontiers, for instance, attests to the outward
extraction-basis of African space economies in facilitating resource extraction and
export of unprocessed or un-beneficiated minerals for imperial markets. The
development of mining thus precipitated instant urbanisation of this region involving
rapid development of infrastructure (including railways) often linked to the
Witwatersrand as it became the epicenter for the growth of supply and coordination of
mining equipment, capital, marketing and other logistical supports (Solomon, 1999).

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 Harnessing the regional developmental potential of mineral resources booms: Reflections on post-Marikana1
unravelling of South Africa’s mining regime. – Tapela, N.
While Johannesburg had an early start in its economic diversification17, most mining
regions became trapped in a dependency on mineral extraction, often with little
processing and beneficiation – a reoccurring theme of the vulnerability of economies
and communities in mining regions.

The intensity of the transformation of these space economies has resulted in a more
comprehensive incorporation of the sub-region’s political economy into the global
capitalist system (Tapela 2012). Central to this rapid incorporation was the pivotal role
of the availability of exploitable natural resources, particularly minerals essential for the
imperial industrialisation in the metropoles. In a similar fashion to the expansion of
mining and industrial capital into imperial dominions like Canada, Australia (Tanzier,
1980), in South Africa this also became possible because of the presence of significant
white settler populations, a colonial security infrastructure and cheap ‘native labour’
(van Onselen, 1976, 1982a). The conduct of mining has since been the preserve of
large multi-national conglomerates that now dominate all aspects of mining in both old
and new generation mining towns (Eggert, 1995).

Academic approaches to the study of mining and other resource-based towns are
varied and fail to distinguish mining-based urbanization as a particular form of
settlement-forming process which results in little or partial integration of the settlement
with its region milieu. In the African context these approaches fall into the general theme
of the role of small towns (Baker, 1990; Simon, 1992) where, on the onre hand, small
towns are seen as centers for the extraction of surplus in the peripheral areas of
capitalist production; and on the other, conceived as centers with a great potential to
promote development in the peripheral areas they are normally located (Rondinelli,
1988).

Other theoretical frameworks have influenced thinking of single-resource towns. While

dependency theorists argue that natural resources impede development by creating
unhealthy dependence – ‘the resource curse thesis’; those of the comparative
advantage persuasion suggest that natural resource development is an important
catalyst that can expedite development. The so-called 'staple theory' has therefore
developed the theory of export-led growth based on a staple product and provides a
framework for analyzing the role of natural resource development on regional
development (Gunton, 2003). Staple products are defined as being based on natural
resource extraction and requiring little in the way of processing prior to export to
industrial countries where they are used in the production of manufactured products. In
the case of mining-led staple development, economic development impulses are
occasioned by direct investment of the staple and by 'spread effects' of staple
development (Spooner, 1981).
17  Johannesburg was not only able to attract the first up- and down-stream industries to service the nascent national and regional
mining sector, but also consolidated its position in the urban hierarchies as the initial centres for the colonial urbanisation project,
and importantly being the epicentre of the so-called ‘minerals-energy-complex’ that drove SA’s industrialization – see Tapela
(2008:5)
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 Harnessing the regional developmental potential of mineral resources booms: Reflections on post-Marikana1
unravelling of South Africa’s mining regime. – Tapela, N.

More structural approaches conceive mining towns as part of the single-resource or

industry or company town phenomena (Bradbury, 1979). This approach provides
greater potential for the understanding of the dynamics of mining-responsive
urbanization beyond mere expositions of the social and economic problems of these
towns and their communities. This approach has been used extensively in the study of
mining and forestry based small urban communities in Canada (Halseth, 1999) and
Australia to the extent that impending the winding-down and eventual closure of mining
operations of the Canadian mining town of Schefferville were predicted well in advance
(Bradbury, 1979 ; Bradbury & St. Martin, 1983, Neil and Tykkylainen, 1992).

Adapting this conceptual model to the development and planning scenarios of mining
towns in Southern Africa, Tapela (2002, 2008) anticipates two polar trajectories or
outcomes of mining or resource-led settlement development. On the one extreme is the
‘ghost-town syndrome’ characterized by decline, divestment, abandonment and
associated panic/reactive planning responses to these processes and conditions. At the
other extreme is a limited number of mining towns that were able to sufficiently diversify
their economic bases to ride the boom and burst economic cycles of mining towns to
attain some kind of sustainable urban and regional development. It is in this context that
Johannesburg was able to emerge as a regional centre of mining, mining finances,
equipment supply and industrial development in the sub-region after the First World
War. Similarly, through the analysis of the historical production and financial reports of
mines, Schoeman (2008) was able to deduce functional evolution status and patterns of
mining towns and regions; where the process of functional change is directly related to
the phasing in and phasing out of mining activities in towns and regions. Schoeman’s
(2008) investigated the infrastructure and planning implications of the possible end of
mining activities in the Westonaria District and later the process of change in mining
towns in the Witwatersrand (Gauteng) focused on the process of functional change in
gold mining areas. He uses the concept and processes of functional change in
understanding the differing emergent settlement patterns, spatial structure and
infrastructural needs in mining towns and regions.

Fig1: Generic Model of scenarios in the development trajectories for mining towns.

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TIME  
Self-­‐sustained  Settlement   Regional  Economic  Decline,  Settlement  
Development   abandonment  &  Infrastructure  
(Successful  Economic  diversification)   direliction  (ghost  town  syndrome)  

Mine  Closure  with   Mine  Closure  and  Winding  down  

Diversification and Winding
down

Maturity  Phase  
 
 
SUSTAINED  ECONOMIC  
NARROW    
DIVERSIFICATION  OF  
Transition   ECONOMIC  BASE  AND  
SETTLEMENT/REGION  
SINGLE  -­‐RESOURCE  
SCENARIO  
SETTLEMENT/REGION  
SCENARIO  
Construction  Phase  

Mineral  Exploration  
Inception  of  investment  into  
settlement  formation  processes  

Source: Tapela, 2008

Recently, Paul Jourdan (2011) argues that Africa’s unique/abundant mineral resource
base could provide an important lever to achieve growth and development objectives if
seminal resources linkages industries and clusters are harnessed and realized in-situ.
He further cautions that:
Alternatively, these assets could be squandered under ‘free-entry’ resource regimes and a continued
‘free-market’, non-interventionist scenario which is likely to leave Africa with little more than ghost
towns such as Kabwe, Stilfontein, Yekapa and Welkom. (p. 39).

He develops a scenario-analysis of evolution of four-phases of resource linkages and

industry clusters and proposes new possibilities for new mineral resource licensing
regimes; a resource based African industrialization strategy that optimizes resource
linkages for a sustainable mineral led development and urbanization.

Together, these development trajectories or scenarios of mining towns and regions

sketched above provide a framework for describing and analyzing the growth and
development dynamics of both old and new mining towns and region; but more
specifically for predicting and creating a planning framework for mining-led urbanization.
Within these development scenarios, three broad waves of mining-driven urbanization
specific to the Southern African context can be identified (Tapela, 2008). The first-
generation mining towns were associated with pioneering industrialization (Kimberly
Johannesburg, Witbank, Messina, etc). The second-generation mining towns coincided
with formal apartheid and associated with ‘new towns’ experimentation (Sasolburg,
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Phalaborwa, Secunda, Carltonville, Richards Bay, Welkom etc); in the post-second
world war era. The current phase of mining-led urbanization is associated with the new
resources boom, the resurgence of mineral prices, particularly gold and platinum
ushering new mining initiatives, particularly in the platinum boom regions, where new
mining towns are emerging.

Today South Africa’s mineral-energy-financial complex still remains the driving force of
its economy. Mining companies represent 8 of the Top 20 companies on the
Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) accounting for a significant R1 815 billion or 46%
of top 20 market capitalization or 29.3% of total JSE capitalization consisting of 405
companies in 2010. At this time, the minerals and energy elements represented 37.9%
of the South African economy and 14% represented the finance sector.

Table 1: Top Twenty Companies on Johannesburg Stock Exchange, November 2010.

Name of Company Market Percentage of total

Capitalisation JSE Market
(Rands Billions)+ Capitalisation
1 *BHP Billiton 559 9.7
2 British American Tobacco 523 9.1
3 *Anglo American 416 7.2
4 SAB Miller 373 6.5
5 MTN Group 228 4.0
Total % Market Capitalisation ‘Top 5’ 2099 36.4
6 *Sasol 202 3.5
7 Campagnie Fin Riche 202 3.5
8 *Anglo Platinum 174 3.0
9 Standard Bank Group 162 2.8
10 Naspers 144 2.5
Total % Market Capitalisation ‘Top 10’ 2983 51.7
11 *Kumba Iron Ore 128 2.2
12 *Impala Platinum 128 2.2
13 *Anglo Gold Ashanti 125 2.2
14 First Rand 113 2.0
15 Vodacom 99 1.7
16 Absa 93 1.6
17 *Goldfields 83 1.4
18 Old Mutual 76 1.3
19 NedBank 64 1.1
20 Sanlam 55 1.0
Total % Market Capitalisation ‘Top 20’ 3947 68.4
Others (385) 1825 31.6
Total 5572 100.0
+ 1 billion = 1000 million
* denotes mining companies
Source: Southall, 2013: p. 30.

Therefore the contention that the minerals- energy-finance complex still continues as
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the driver of the South African economy is sustained in the fact that it represents 52.3
percentage of the productive sector, given that the construction, service and retail
sectors support this industrialization driver as backward, forward and lateral linkages to
the economy in time and space (Southall, 2013: p. 30).

Harnessing the regional developmental potential of mineral booms.

In the last half century of African decolonization no significant structural shift from an
extraction economy has emerged and the history of mining is an example of the limited
in-situ value-add that happens to African mineral resources. Firstly there has been a
tendency to focus on the employment increments that mining generates and adds to
African economies in addition of minerals’ overall contribution to the economy in terms
of gross domestic/geographical products. Secondly there has been the contribution of
mining to regions that would no habitually been ‘opened–up’ to infrastructural
investment and ‘development’, again often measured in employment potential. These
frontier regions often fell outside core development nodes or spines favoured for
development or enclaves least able to attract investment so that the massive instant
urbanization that mining triggered are often embraced outside strategic spatial
development visions.

Lastly, attempts at diversification away from mining have tended to be half-hearted and
reactive at best, and/or generally ineffective under the weight of global mining capital’s
drive and priorities to extract quick profit and foster linkages with manufacturing
subsidiaries elsewhere. In this volatile contestation with much stronger global markets,
African states have often been grateful for the foreign direct investment brought by
mining companies they were able to entice. The track record of African states in
leveraging their mineral resources to harnessing the regional developmental potential of
mineral resources booms has been largely minimal and mining has thus tended to
become a resource curse that created initial enclaves of growth that become vehicles
for regional economic, social and environmental deterioration, abandonment and
dereliction (Tapela 2012b).

The persistence of the migrant labour system and the shifting spatial patterns of
poverty in mining regions Southern Africa.
A significant consequence in which mining shaped the political economy of South Africa
was the embedding a system of forced and oscillating migrant labour system that
manipulated movement of people to core locations defined by the perceived and real
availability of exploitable natural and thereby creating extensive captive hinterlands at
the heart of its industrial heartland - the Witwatersrand. Indeed, Wilson (2001) argues
convincingly that the defining feature of the 14-country membership of the Southern
African Development Community (SADC) is that, in the exception of Mauritius,
Seychelles and perhaps the DRC, all countries in the SADC at one time or another
provided labour for the South African gold mines. There is no doubt that it was
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primarily the mining industry that provided the impetus for colonial industrial
urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa (Fine and Rustomjee, 1996; Wilson, 2001)

Secondly, since the First World War, the conduct of mining has since been the preserve
of large multi-national conglomerates which now dominate all aspects of mining - from
exploration, mine development, processing to the and marketing of minerals - in both
old and new generation mining towns (Eggert, 1995). It is in this context that
Johannesburg emerged as a regional centre of mining, mining finances, equipment
supply and industrial development in the sub-region after the First World War. Thus in
South Africa, the pivotal historical role of the migrant labour system in spatial
organization of the colonial political economy anchored on mining, commercial
agriculture and manufacturing has also been acknowledged by Fred Cooper who (1983)
argued that:
While the reproduction of labour power necessarily takes place near the mine or
factory [or farm], the social costs of those not actually on the job is absorbed by the
surviving per-capitalist forms of production in rural Africa. The countryside is the
locus of reproduction for capitalist production in the city... If work space
reproduction was minimal, migratory space was elaborate, designed and policed by
organisations like the Rhodesian Native Labour Association or the Bantu
Administration in South Africa, (198:11)

In his classic song Hugh Masekela’s (1985) Stimela (Coal Train) captures the centrality
of the mine labour migrancy system and its social impact on the SADC region as
follows:
There is a train that comes from
Mozambique, Angola, Zimbabwe,
Malawi, Botswana, Namibia, Lesotho and Swaziland,
And the whole hinterland of South Africa.
This train carries only the young men and old men,
Who are conscripted to come to work on contract,
In the gold mines of Johannesburg
And surrounding metropoli.

Deep, deep, deep down in the belly of the earth;

Where they are digging and drilling for that mighty evasive stone;
Or when they dish that mish-mesh-mash food;
Into their iron plates and with their iron shovels;
And when they hear that cho-cho train
Screaming up from the far horizon
They always curse that coal train
That brought them to Johannesburg - STIMELA!

(Hugh Masekela, 1985: Coal Train – Stimela; Side 2/Track 2)

Although the source regions for migrant labour system have drastically shifted after
democratization with a replacement of the large ‘international’ contingent (Malawi,
Mozambique, Lesotho, Botswana) with ‘national’ source regions (mainly from the
Eastern Cape, Kwazulu Natal and Limpopo, where large former ‘homelands’ still
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remain labour reserves) migrant labour still underpins the wheels of the mining
economy (Government of South Africa, 2007). The drastic (and still reoccurring) labour
retrenchments and job shedding/losses in gold-mining towns since the late 1980s
following upheavals in the price of gold illustrates the vulnerability of communities living
in gold mining towns and those households dependent on incomes from the gold
industry. The mining industry in South Africa has shed nearly half its labour force
between 1980 and 2000 with the gold industry accounting for largest number of job
losses (Wilson, 2001). In the same period, copper mining has shed 69.4% of its labour
force due to mine closures. The decline in coal mining, iron and steel production in the
late 1980 and 1990s in the fortunes of Kwazulu-Natal coalfields in South Africa resulted
in 84% coal mining jobs being shed. The most severely hit gold mining region is the
Free State gold fields which used to account for 35% of South Africa's gold production
(12% of global total) in the 1960s but by the year 2000, had lost 100 000 of its original
150 000 jobs (Binns and Nel, 2002:257).

In South Africa, the commercial mining of platinum began in the 1920s, and remained
small, marginal and even occasionally in fallow in the first 40 years of its existence. It
was not until the 1960s that the fortunes of platinum dramatically improved as more
favourable world market conditions combined with broader changes in the minerals-
energy-complex (MEC) began to lay the boom foundations of the modern industry.
Since then, the South African platinum industry has grown phenomenally since the mid
1990s to become the single largest component of the national mining sector in
employment and sales-value terms, virtually overtaking gold, as Gavin Capps notes:
Between 1994 and 2009, platinum output grew by a staggering 67%, while production in the
historically premier gold industry continued its long-term decline at a virtually identical rate of 63%
during the same period. By 2010, over 24,000 more workers were employed in platinum mining than
in gold, and platinum sales were generating higher returns than any other local mineral commodity.
With global platinum demand predicted to keep rising and a domestic resource base estimated to be
capable of meeting it for decades to come, industry commentators are now suggesting that the
position of the South African platinum subsector is analogous to that of gold at its peak half a century
ago (Capps, 2012b: 64).

South African platinum mining industry would be eventually conssolidate around the
generic mineral rights regime of the apartheid state, and be determined by the specific
types of minerals ownership that had emerged in the Bophuthatswana and Lebowa
Bantustans, where the major platinum reserves of the Bushveld Igneous Complex (BIC)
were geopolitically located (Capps, 2012b: 66).

The crisis in mining regions today manifests not only in their diminished employment
capacity but also in increasing poverty in mining regions where local communities are
outcompeted by ‘outsiders’ with more experience for ever limited jobs on the one hand;
and the greater face of poverty in mining regions reflected in extreme living conditions
or both miners and unemployed local communities. It is instructive that the most
funerals of 84 ‘illegal’ miners who tragically died in the disused gold mines Welkom in

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2008 and the 44 miners killed at Marikana in August 2012 were buried in Lesotho and
the Transkei (Eastern Cape) – some of the main source regions of migrants in
contemporary South Africa (Tapela, 2012b). Firstly there has been a tendency to focus
on the employment increments that mining generates and adds to African economies in
addition of minerals’ overall contribution to the economy in terms of gross
domestic/geographical products.

Thus the multi-facetted regional poverty-enhancing legacy of the migrant labour system
and a traditional poverty alleviation policy that focuses on the twin objectives of the
employment-creation potential of the mining sector and the uncritical faith in its
contribution to foreign-direct investment still bedevils South Africa’s efforts at harnessing
the full potential of its mineral resources as a lever for regional development. Secondly
the persistence of the migrant labour system also means that forms and consequences
of social, economic and ecological dereliction are fluid across spaces (mine location and
labour source regions) and therefore that the continuity and reinforcing intersection of
development planning and labour policy remain intact and under-researched in their
implications for current regional development policy and practice. In other words,
colonial and apartheid development patterns and mining regimes still consider labour as
the easier cost item to play with rather than more strategic interventions into the
structural and realms of global markets that drive the mining industry (Basson and
Varon, 1977; Morris, Kaplisnky and Kaplan, 2013)

EMERGING MINERAL REGIME AND EFFICACY OF DEVELOPMENT POLICY AND INSTRUMENTS.

In their book Africa Undermined, Greg Lanning and Marti Mueller (1979) present a
classic description and analysis of how historically mining corporations underdeveloped
Africa and intervened to make state structures in ‘independent states’ its servants. This
legacy remains today with African mining and resource regimes and legislation that
support them still predominantly facilitates what Paul Jourdan (2011:66) refers to as
‘first-come-first-served’ concessions that detract from the maximising ‘price discovery’
and developmental objectives of resource extraction and value-addition. In South Africa
a major breakthrough was made in decoupling mineral rights from land and property
rights and vesting the former to the state; thus giving the state more strategic control of
its mineral resources.

However, attempts to create an institutional and planning-administrative mechanism for

more focused and targeted of investment into communities in mining regions - through
the embedding the necessity for licensing of mining companies to produce and fund
Social and Labour Plans - has largely failed. While this was negotiated through the
Mining Charter as translated into the Petroleum and Mineral Resources Act and
associated Royalties Bill, the implementation of this instrument has not been very
successful (Bench Marks Foundation, 2008, 2012; Capps, 2012a). One problem was that
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although this requirement for Social and Labour Plans and their funding was locked into
the mandatory 5-year Municipal Integrated Development Plan (IDP), IDP formulation,
monitoring and implementation has been generally weak and its content focusing on
immediate service backlogs than on strategic interventions on economic diversification
away from mining. The resultant institutional capacity constraints, mismatch of priorities
and conflicts between state departmental mandates (Department of Mineral Resources
that issues Licenses and local Municipalities that implement the IDP) has meant that
innovative potential for instruments for capturing value from mineral resources and
directing them to local developmental needs has been lost. Contestations over relative
powers and responsibilities of Municipalities and the Department of Minerals and
Energy over issue of licensing and therefore assessment of Social and Labour Plans by
the Municipality are common frustrations and a recent court judgement may resolve
some of these tensions18.

A more fundamental shortcoming in the reconfiguration of value capturing instruments

and mechanisms from mineral resources is the understanding and correct estimation of
mineral resources to be able to determine that the value capture is not only appropriate
but realistic. As Paul Jourdan (2011) observes:
African resource regimes (particularly mineral regime) need to be overhauled to allow for the
competitive Concessioning of the region’s resource endowments (land, minerals, water, fisheries and
state rights) to maximize price discovery and developmental objectives. Similarly, the developmental
impacts of existing (‘first-come-first-served’ concessions) need to be maximized through appropriate
legislation and /or contract renegotiation. In this regards investment in systematic geosurvey is
fundamental to identification of mineral assets (p: 66).

According to Jourdan (2011:42), African mineral regimes are still essentially based on
the principles of free mining or ‘free entry’ as defined by including:
• a right of free access to lands in which minerals are in public ownership;
• a right to take possession and acquire title by one’s own act of staking a mining
claim;
• a right to proceed to develop and mine minerals discovered.
He therefore contents that the wholesale handing out of Africa’s mineral assets over
the last 2 decades has cost several million jobs, including those that could have been
catalysed in other sectors. Critically, he argues that
“in general, mineral investors will tend to have a much better idea of the value of states mineral
assets than the state itself, and competitive auctioning (concessions)would be an effective method of
achieving fair value and developmental goals” (ibid, p: 44).

At the centre of this argument is capacity and (political) willingness the

(developmental) state to reconstruct itself, its capacity and institutions that are able
‘deepen’ the resource sector through up-, down- and side-stream (infrastructure)

18  On 12 April 2012, the Constitutional Court handed down judgment in the matter of Maccsand (Pty) Ltd v City of Cape Town &
others, the court held that mining rights holders were not exempt from the requirement to obtain rezoning of the land in respect of
which they held a permit or right (as required by the Land Use Planning Ordinance 15 of 1985, LUPO).  
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unravelling of South Africa’s mining regime. – Tapela, N.
industry linkages that can form core industrialization nuclei for African Regional
Economic Communities’ economies able to diversify increasing human resource and
technology development and skills formation through lateral migration of these
resource-dependent industrial clusters into resource-independent industrial activities
(ibid: p53)

In a recent article entitled ‘How history haunts us’ (The Sunday Times: 29 April, 2012),
the Deputy Minister of Transport, Jeremy Cronin19 showed contradictory policy intents
and institutional misalignment of state enterprises in forging a coherent strategic and
developmental value capture regime:
We have only recently discovered significant anomalies in our port levies regime. Port charges at our
Saldanha iron ore export terminal are 47% below the global average for similar terminals. Our coal
export terminal port charges are 37% below the global average. By contrast, our port charges on a full
container for export (basically on locally manufactured goods) are about 415% more than the global
average, and cargo dues 935% more! Bear in mind that iron ore mining creates on average about 500
jobs, coal mining about 1000 jobs, and manufacturing about 3700 jobs for every R1-billion of
production - and you begin to get an inkling of one of the myriad ways a particular history has
distorted our economy.

Emerging research agenda: development planning resource regions.

The history of a largely colonial settler capitalism and the relative ‘recency’ of
decolonization of Southern Africa has meant that the space economies of the region
have been more wholly incorporated (mining being the more globalized) into the
international system of late capitalism (Tapela, 2012a; Mkandawire, 1985). This has
constrained the abilities and resilience of these ‘settler economies’ to absorb and ride-
over the shocks and impacts of globalization have often been weakened and
undermined (Wekwete and Rambanapasi, 1994; Tapela, 2008). At the coalface and
within mining communities in mining regions there has been rising contestation
around the benefits of mining to communities where mining occurs. It has been
suggested that the so-called rise in community service delivery protests sometimes
have epicenters located in or near mining towns and regions (Tapela, 2008).

The Marikana confrontation and its aftermath signals that the space and luxury of
rethinking, renegotiation and capacitating a new mining regime has been strategically
captured by ‘independent’ miners and the teeming unemployed living in mining
communities and elsewhere. The state and its partners (or captors?) of choice –
COSATU-affiliated labour unions and/or mining houses - have to re-negotiate and re-
legitimatize the new contestation space in the new scramble for South Africa’s mineral
resources. This schism in the erstwhile social compact and bargaining regime that has
been in place since democratisation will live long after the power battles in 2012 ANC
centenary conference in Manaung and determine the changing power dynamics within
the ‘ruling’ alliance partners. At stake seems the contestation of the monopoly of mining

19  Jeremy Cronin, 29 April, 2012. How history haunts us... http://www.timeslive.co.za/local/2012/04/29/how-history-haunts-us  

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conglomerates and comprador Broad-based Black Economic Empoweremet (BBEE)
arrangements over access to mining to the extent that the rise of independent unions
and so-called ‘illegal’ miners or ‘zama-zamas’ may perhaps be one manifestation of
such contestation. As Pillay (2012) observes:
The Marikana tragedy exposed the interlocking common interest of the power elite and the
disciplinary power of capital in the form of the minerals-energy-financial complex. The key actors
were, firstly, the British mining conglomerate, Lonmin (its owners and top management); secondly, a
politically connected business man who sits on the board; thirdly the ANC government (in particular
the ministers of Minerals and Energy, and Police…); fourthly the National Union of Mineworkers
(NUM); an finally the Lonmin rock-drillers, supported in part by the break-away association of
Mineworkers and Construction Union (AMCU). In the background, initially unforeseen, were the loan
sharks to whom many mineworkers were indebted, in order to make ends meet as they tried to
support their families back home, and eke out a pitiful existence in the squatter settlements near the
mine (Pillay, 2013: P2-3).

Could it therefore not be argued that emerging community and mineworker unrest and
upsurge of ‘illegal’ or informal mining activity represent a ‘logical’ response by the
powerless to the dominance or continued ‘capture’ of mining wealth by the more
powerful mining capital? Or could Hallowes and Munnik’s (2008) contention that ‘Mines
do not only leave physical waste, they also lay waste to the institutions of their hosts’ be
easily be extended to a view that local communities in mining towns and regions get
equally transformed into ‘mining waste’ that get passed on the state(s) as hosts to, or
inheritors of, the social-political, economic and ecological ‘dumps’ that mining towns
and regions become; to deal with in-situ or as mining communities scatter within the
wider hinterland where their labour is sought? The boom and burst economic cycles,
and the processes abandonment and dereliction that emerge in these mining areas thus
attracts all manner of opportunistic dumping thus cementing their status of social,
economic and ecological wastelands - and perhaps the relevance of a ‘resource curse’
imaginary.

Attempts to create an institutional and planning-administrative mechanism for more

focused and targeted of investment into communities in mining regions through social
and labour plans as negotiated through the Mining Charter as translated into the
Petroleum and Mineral Resources Act and associated Royalties Bill has not been
very successful (Bench Marks Foundation, 2012; Capps, 2012a). Recently the role of
mining unions is increasingly undermined by inter-trade-union rivalries as class
character and professionalism emerge fuelling further worker-cum-community
protests and violence (de Lange: August 2, 201220). The metaphors ‘resource curse’
and its antithesis, the need for foreign-direct investment driven by resource booms
and bursts have been a reoccurring feature of many African economies since the
dawn of European colonialism. While attempts have been made at both continental

20
Jan de Lange, 15 Aug 2012. NUM no innocent victim in Lonmi Violence
http://www.miningmx.com/opinion/columnists/jan-de-lange/NUM-no-innocent-victim-in-Lonmin-violence.htm
 
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(multilateral) and national levels to alleviate the negative effects of mining, very little
mineral beneficiation, economic diversification and development of mining regions;
mining still remains a controversial economic sector with reoccurring human rights
violations and contested economic empowerment outcomes/issues for mining
regions.

Perhaps a more cynical view of mining-led settlement formation is that like all
production firms, mining companies are very large firms (MNCs) that build very large
factories (mining towns) to extract products within often volatile production horizons.
Mining communities are therefore communities only to the extent to how these volatile
extraction horizons last or are predictable. The fact that these towns are built on leased
land (mining lease areas) means that the quality and sustainability of these built-
environments (and the communities they create) are very false and temporary, and that
unless the State positions itself proactively and strategically in setting up these
settlements, the expectation of sustainable human settlements resulting from mining
settlement formation is perhaps as unrealistic as ‘the permanence of a rainbow’.
Abandonment and dereliction, rather than being end-states of the mining town
developmental trajectory thus becomes an in-built mechanism that periodically implodes
in the life of mining towns if proactive planning partnerships are not built between mining
firms, the state and local communities. That the fate of mining-driven settlement
formation does not feature explicitly in past and current national planning documents
like the National Spatial Development Perspective (NSDP), the Growth Path nor
National Development Plan (NDP) is indicative of how the development potential of an
industry that has shaped the industrialization (the so-called Mining-energy-finance
complex) and spatial imprint of urbanization of the region has not been sufficiently and
strategically captured.

Conclusion: Marikana and South Africa’s post-apartheid mining regime

Marikana incident shook the core of South Africa’s mining economy revealing the
economic and social issues and highlighted how the many features of the apartheid
system are been reinforced, reproduced and even intensified. With the world’s richest
mineral reserves valued at US$2.5 trillion (the platinum group metals constitutes
US$2.3 trillion of this bulk value). The platinum sector is dominated by three big
producers: Anglo American Platinum (80% owned by Anglo American), Impala Platinum
and Lonmin; and is located in the Bushveld Igneous Complex geological formation
spreading across Gauteng, the North West and Limpopo); the events have drawn
attention to the scale of South Africa’s mineral wealth and the industry’s dependence on
cheap, black, and often migrant labour.

Against this backdrop Ashman and Fine (2013) draw four systemic factors underpinning
events at Marikana and their implications for the current South African mineral regime:
• The first is the nature of South Africa’s extractive economy, highlighted by the
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unravelling of South Africa’s mining regime. – Tapela, N.
notion of the Minerals-Energy Complex (MEC) which is being reproduced and
transformed the MEC’s influence across the post-apartheid economy. The platinum
industry exhibits the central features of South Africa’s political economy –
monopolistic industry structures, tight corporate control and the co-option of
emerging black capitalist interests. The evolution of platinum extraction also reflects
the continuing emphasis of post-apartheid economy on exporting minerals over local
beneficiation, the diversification of the economy, and greater employment
generation.
• The second factor behind Marikana is the structure of the century-old migrant labour
system, which has not changed despite various reforms implemented over the past
two decades. Currently, the majority of mineworkers in Marikana are migrant
labourers from the Eastern Cape, Lesotho and Mozambique and live in dire
conditions and with minimal rights. The migrant labour system, established by the
mining houses at the end of the 19th century, entailed the devastation of the ‘labour
sending’ areas – regions economically dependent on mineworkers’ remittances –
with the Eastern Cape remaining the critical ‘labour sending’ area as well as one of
the poorest regions in the country. One of the worst features of the apartheid migrant
labour system was the state of the compounds in which mineworkers lived and
which functioned as a key means of labour control. This policy of control has been
abandoned by the mining companies, but not by the building of decent company
houses. Instead, companies have introduced family accommodation schemes for
those who live near to the mines in the form of a subsidy for a bond to purchase a
house, while migrant workers are offered a cash allowance to ‘live out’.
• The third issue exposed by the Marikana incident is the lack of adequate and
coordinated planning for the development of such a large and important part of
South Africa. Haphazard and unplanned development of the built environment has
been rampant. Marikana illustrates the appalling living conditions in the mines. This
indicates that the social and labour plans executed under the Mineral and Petroleum
Resources Development Act have been ineffective – a symptom of the government’s
failure to enforce its own policies.
• The fourth issue here is the growing level of debt, and the ways in which finance is
reinforcing social inequality. The growth of the micro-lending sector has been
phenomenal in recent years, despite legislation aimed at protecting the poor and,
communities are becoming increasingly indebted as a result of unsecured loans
advanced by cash-loan shops with miners being charged more than ten times their
outstanding loan amount in legal fees. Ashman Fine (2013) cite an interesting example:
There are at least 13 microlenders in Marikana, but they are not all small-scale. One of the biggest
players is Ubank, which boasts 500,000 customers (60% of whom work in the mining industry), and
is owned jointly by the National Union of Mineworkers and the South African Chamber of Mines.

It is important to note that the relationship between the state and capital in South
Africa’s neo-liberal development paradigm still has the MEC at the core of the
development strategy and to the extent that policy and legislation in the mining
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 Harnessing the regional developmental potential of mineral resources booms: Reflections on post-Marikana1
unravelling of South Africa’s mining regime. – Tapela, N.
sector has decoupled mining rights from land ownership and vested them in the state,
the balance of forces in utilization of benefits from mining is still biased/skewed to
mining companies than to resident communities and regions. The power of mining
companies is still as dominant as the pre-1994 era as was confirmed by the Truth &
Reconciliation Commission (as cited in Hamann, 2008: 190) that “…(T)he blueprint for
“grand apartheid” was provided by the mines and was not an Afrikaner State innovation.
Jeremy Cronin (2012) further develops this point regarding the nature of resilience of
the MEC and its wiring:
The industrial revolution in South Africa did not emerge organically out of local small-scale, artisanal
manufacturing. It arrived out-of-the-box in a highly developed, oligopolistic form as massive joint-stock
companies focused on extraction of mineral wealth for external benefit, linked into finance capital and
supported by the world's largest military force of the day. What once propelled spectacular growth has
shaped and distorted South Africa's economy and our broader social, political and spatial realities
ever since. South Africa's economy is still excessively dependent on the export of un-beneficiated
minerals. The dominance of the mineral-energy-finance complex is hard-wired into our society.

As a new resources boom re-emerges, Africa has become the locus of a new global
natural resources rush with new capital coming from both the east and west (and
increasingly from within the continent, especially South Africa) in a wave of the
globalization of an aggressive late capitalism that defines a new phase in the scramble
for Africa’s resources. What is critical is the capacity to design of more intelligent
systems for engaging capital that ensures the ability to capture more value of resources
besides the traditional employment multipliers, luring foreign direct investment and
economic diversification beyond mining. Understanding mineral value chains, the nature
of industrial linkage clusters and mineral economic rents and cycles will inform the kind
of mineral and mining regimes that can respond to this challenge and opportunity.

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 A study on residential electric and magnetic fields; the case of a
house at Fumesua, Ashanti region, Ghana

E. Quansah, C. Koranteng, and R. Assassie-Oppong

Department of Architecture, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Private Mail Bag, Kumasi, Ghana
Corresponding Email: rcbpd.ghana @yahoo.com

Abstract
The quest to develop and have a comfortable life results in high exposure to
electromagnetic energies. However, very little attention is given to the effects of high
electromagnetic fields (EMF) on the environment and mankind. Numerous studies have
associated long-term exposure of high EMF to childhood leukaemia and other serious
illnesses such as Alzheimer and brain cancer. On the other hand, associations between
high EMF and illnesses have not been very strong. Conversely, current studies have
found associations between exposure to EMF and for instance, Alzheimer disease to be
very likely. The aim of the study is to assess EMF values in a residential building. The
field measurement approach using an EMF tester and comparing the measurements to
the recommended range (3 - 4 milligaus) revealed interesting clues. Walls containing
fuse boxes resulted in high EMF values (195% more than the recommended range).
Various equipment and gadgets (fan switches, laptops, microwave, extension boards,
etc.) in daily use were found to have 125% to 1925% more EMF when in operation. The
study concludes by urging architects and services engineers to champion the course of
an improved and healthy built environment.

Keywords: Electromagnetic Field, Health, Architecture, Building Ecology

1. Introduction
Humans have evolved within a specific range and characteristics of electromagnetic
energies. The energies originate from the sun and the earth. All living organisms have
adapted themselves to this very unique radiation climate prevalent on planet earth.
However, the prevailing natural balance is being threatened now, because over the last
100 years, humans have been very busy adding their own versions of electromagnetic
energies without giving due considerations to the biological implications (Institute of Bau
Biologie and Ecology (IBE, 2012)).

National and international guideline-setting organizations specify limits for occupational

and public exposure to electric fields, magnetic fields, and contact current (current that

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Quansah, E., Koranteng, C., & Assassie-Oppong, R
flows through the body when it is in simultaneous contact with two conductive surfaces
carrying different voltages) (Kavet et al., 2008). Exposure limits are also set for radio
frequency electromagnetic fields (they deposit thermal energy in the bodies of exposed
persons) from sources such as radio and television broadcast towers, and mobile
telecommunications antennas (Findlay and Dimbylow, 2008). Furthermore, Bracken et
al. (2009) studies on utility workers found that the highest exposure to electromagnetic
fields (EMF) occurred when working near electrical equipment.

As humans keep on being exposed to electromagnetic fields through development,

there is the need to monitor possible health effects and ensure that guidelines are
strictly followed. The objective of the study is to document and contribute to the creation
of a database of electromagnetic field levels in and around residential buildings in
Ghana. The paper looks at spot measured electromagnetic field levels and compares
the measurements to recommended exposure limits.

Research work by Thuroczy et al. (2008) on apartment buildings with built-in electricity
transformer stations at the basement or ground level in Hungary showed that spaces
located above transformer rooms had a higher power-frequency (50 hertz [Hz]). Ilonen
et al. (2008) study in Finland came to a similar conclusion as Thuroczy et al. (2008).
Both studies concluded that spaces located near transformer rooms reliably predict
magnetic field exposures. A survey of 2214 homes in Taiwan by Li CY et al. (2007) with
children showed that exposure levels were above the norm of 3 – 4 milligaus (0.3 – 0.4
microtesla). The authors also concluded that Taiwanese children have a higher
exposure to EMF than children in Europe and North America. Foliart et al. (2006) study
on magnetic field exposure and long-term survival among children with leukaemia
yielded alarming results. The authors purported that children whose homes had high
measured magnetic fields (above 0.3 microtesla), experienced more complications
during the follow-up period after diagnosis, but this finding was not statistically
significant. These children also experienced poorer survival; this finding was statistically
significant. The authors further cautioned on the small sample size and that further
confirmation may be needed by other researchers.

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Currently, some studies (Mezei et al., 2008a and Ilonen et al., 2008) have associated
electromagnetic fields with for example brain cancer, leukaemia, and Alzheimer. They
have not yet proved causality to electromagnetic fields. For instance, Mezei et al.
(2008a) study on childhood brain cancer found an association with exposure levels
above 3 - 4 milligaus. Their results were not statistically significant but could not exclude
moderate risk increase at higher exposure levels. Ilonen et al. (2008) could also not
establish a causal relationship in their study but noted that the association they found
could be a variable (confounding variable) present along with magnetic fields or from
inadvertent error in the selection of study participants. Moreover, the selection of
participants has been a subject of debate in epidemiological studies as noted by Li CY
et al. (2007) that most studies are undertaken in the developed world where exposure to
high EMF may not be as drastic as in developing countries. Inconsistent associations
between occupational exposure to EMF and negative health effects have been reported
by Kheifets et al. (2008), Mezei et al. (2008a), Li CY et al. (2007), and Kavet et al.
(2004).

A recent study published by an independent expert group on electromagnetic fields

(stralsakerhetsmyndigheten (SSM, 2010)) alleged that there were no associations
between EMF and Alzheimer disease in the 1980’s and early 1990’s, but now, an
association has been reported in current studies.
The outlined discussions connote the changing knowledge and health implications of
electromagnetic fields on humans. As the world waits for results on long-term studies
with improved methodology on exposure to EMF’s, there is the need for humans to live
cautiously as our quest for development increases.

2. Approach
The investigation of prevailing electromagnetic fields in a residential building at
Fumesua in the Ashanti Region of Ghana adopted the field measurements approach.
The method has been propagated by Mezei et al. (2008a) as the best in studying and
interpreting exposure limits. The EMF limit (3 - 4 milligaus or 0.3 - 0.4 microtesla)
proposed by national and international bodies such as the World Health Organization

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has been the comparative basis of research work (Kheifets et al. (2008), Mezei et al.
(2008b), Li CY et al. (2007), Foliart et al. (2006), and Kavet et al. (2004). Findlay and
Dimbylow (2008) study showed that guideline basic restrictions provide adequate
protection.

The conveniently chosen residential building has a number of characteristics making it

important for the study. The main features of interest are the high voltage lines (11,000
volts) running on the boundary line (fence wall) and about 6m – 8m above ground.
Additionally, 240 volts power lines (5m off ground) run opposite the high voltage lines on
one side of the street. The building occupants use the street in accessing their facility.
An unprotected step-down transformer is situated at the corner of the rectangular plot
(5m off the fence wall) and multiple electric poles take off from here (see Fig. 1). This
unplanned situation is a common sight in Ghana where utility providers cannot pull
alongside with developments at peri-urban sites.

Fig.1: Image of the studied building showing the high-tension power lines and the unprotected
transformer.

To measure the EMF levels around and in the residential building, a grid of 2m x 2m
was laid over the building plan including the surroundings. Situations where a grid
passed through a wall were solved by shifting the grid and readings were taken 5cm off
the wall. The spot-measured average magnetic fields taken 1m off the ground were
computed and compared to the standard of 3 – 4 milligaus. Subsequently,
measurements around installed gadgets were recorded. The measurements took place

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under two conditions. The first was during a blackout (no power from the Electricity
Company of Ghana (ECG)) and the second was when the power was installed. The
conditions made it possible to analyse the differences in EMF levels. The accuracy of
the EMF tester is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Accuracy of the EMF tester (PCE-EMF 823)

Range Accuracy
[microtesla – milligaus] [%]
20 – 200 +/- 4
200 – 2000 +/- 5
2000 – 20 000 +/- 10
Source: PCE (2013)

At the end of the field measurements, the building occupants were interviewed on
health complaints.

3. Results
The results of the measurements of spaces and equipment are presented below.

Table 2: Measured EMF levels of spaces

Space Condition 1* Condition 2**
EMF [mg] EMF [mg]
Bedrooms 0.3 - 0.4 0.3 - 0.5
Living area 0.3 - 0.35 0.3 - 0.5
Dining area 0.4 - 0.5 0.4 - 0.5
Circulation spaces 0.3 - 0.35 0.3 - 0.35
Washrooms 0.3 - 0.4 0.3 - 0.4
Outdoor space (around the house) 0.3 - 0.5 0.3 - 0.6
Terrace 0.3 - 0.4 0.5 - 0.6
Area under the High Voltage lines 0.3 - 0.4 0.7 - 0.8
* Blackout (no electrical power from ECG)
** Power restored

The space around the installed transformer recorded 0.3 - 0.4 milligaus (mg) during
condition 1 whereas high values were measured when the power was restored. Table 3
illustrates the measured values at different distances from the Transformer.

Table 3: Measured EMF levels at various distances from the Transformer

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Distance [m] EMF [mg]
0.05 17-60
1 4-5
2 3-3.3
3 1.6-1.8

Moreover, the electrical cables hanging around the electric poles recorded 14mg
(measured at 5cm off the cables).
The EMF levels of installed systems and gadgets in operation were measured. Table 4
demonstrates the recorded values of the various installations (measurements taken at
5cm around the installations).

Table 4: Measured EMF levels of installations and equipment

Item EMF [mg] Percentage above
the norm (3-4mg)
Iron 23 575
Radio set 50 1250
Light switch 5 125
Water heater switch 13-63 1575
Fan switch (single) 10 250
Fan switch (double) 30 750
Standing fan 57 1425
Fridge (frontage) 6 150
Fridge (back) 55 1375
Micro wave 11 275
Television (frontage) 25 625
Television (back) 50 1250
Table top freezer 7-15 375
Music player (system) 17-40 1000
Laptop (keypad area) 4.3-5.6 140
Laptop (power button and 28-78 1950
battery area)
Laptop adaptor 5 125
Extension boards 10-60 1500

Furthermore, electrical wiring leading to sockets in the studied building was found to
have EMF values of 4 - 5 milligaus. High values were recorded on walls containing

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wiring to and from the main switch and fuse boxes (3.5 - 78 milligaus). The meter
recorded a value of 50 - 108 milligaus (5cm off the meter to about 0.5cm, (close
proximity)).

The interview of the occupants on adverse health complaints revealed no serious

illness. Occasional headache and malaria related illnesses were voiced out.

4. Discussion
The measured EMF levels of the spaces inside and around the building revealed low
values in both conditions (no power and when power was restored). A maximum value
of 0.8mg is depicted in Table 2. The value is far less than the recommended range of 3
- 4mg (Kheifets et al., 2008; Mezei et al., 2008b; Li CY et al., 2007; Foliart et al., 2006;
and Kavet et al., 2004). The position of the high voltage power lines and various spaces
of the building positioned 5m away from the threat seems to provide adequate
protection. Protection for the building occupants is further enhanced through the
deciduous trees positioned between the high voltage power lines and the building. The
result proves that when guidelines are followed, building occupants can be guaranteed
adequate protection as depicted by Findlay and Dimbylow (2008).
Alarming results have been demonstrated in Table 3. High values were recorded (4-
60mg) in close proximity to the transformer. The unprotected nature of the transformer
is a threat to children who get as close as 1 meter to it. On one occasion, children were
seen trying to close the transformer door which had been left opened. The danger
(leukaemia) and effects of high EMF values to children have been demonstrated in
numerous epidemiological studies (Thuroczy et al. 2008; Schuez et al., 2007; and Li CY
et al., 2007). There is the need for the electricity company of Ghana to protect all
transformers, as such a measure would avoid children being exposed to high EMF.
The highest value recorded was 60mg at 5cm off the casing of the transformer. The
level shows that workers who may need to perform maintenance services get exposed
(highest exposure) each time they interact with transformers (Bracken et al., 2009).
Research on occupational EMF exposure has not been able to proof a very strong
association between brain cancer, leukaemia and subtypes of leukaemia (Kheifets et
al., 2008). It is however known that continuous exposure to high EMF levels could result

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in serious illness. A small risk increase (10-13%) has been reported by Kheifets et al.
(2008).

Table 4 illustrated measured EMF levels of equipment in operation mode at the

residential building. All the recorded values are beyond the recommended range of 3 - 4
mg. Values as high as 60mg have been recorded. For instance, the radio set, water
heater switch, standing fan, fridge (back), television (back) and the power button area of
laptops were found to be 1250% to 1950% higher than the accepted norm (3 - 4 mg).
The high levels when operating installed systems and gadgets in buildings, imply that
each time an electrical appliance is operated, a health price is possibly paid which could
lead to serious illness. Savitz et al. (2002) study looked at physical activity and EMF
exposure in pregnancy. The main result was that women with high activity levels were
more likely to encounter high peak EMF (household appliances, office equipment,
electric power lines, etc.) which could lead to miscarriage (Savitz et al., 2002). Children
are known to be susceptible to leukaemia and that is why epidemiological studies have
had their attention to date (Mezei et al., 2008). Electrical wiring and the position of fuse
boxes ought to be considered in the design of buildings by architects and services
engineers. Walls harbouring electrical cables constantly have high EMF values. It is
prudent to conduct surveys of houses before occupants move into their buildings. Areas
of threat could be shielded with wardrobes, which calls for expert advice in dealing with
building ecology and interior design.

There was no alarm regarding the results of the interview with the occupants on
prevailing adverse health effects. The building occupants were advised to be cautious
when handling electrical gadgets and to be mindful of children operating and playing
close to installed equipment. The occupants were advised to change the swing direction
of a door leading to one of the bedrooms. The access to the bedroom was alongside a
partition wall which houses the fuse box of the dwelling.

Generally, most published research work on exposure to EMF and negative health
effects has not been conclusive as reported by Kheifets et al. (2008), Mezei et al.
(2008a), Li CY et al. (2007), and Kavet et al. (2004). It is to note that current studies

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have found an association between EMF and Alzheimer disease (SSM, 2010). One
ought to be cautious when dealing with electromagnetic fields.

5. Conclusion
The study presented had the aim of assessing EMF levels in residential buildings. The
method used was a field survey where measurements were recorded and compared
with an accepted range of EMF. The results showed that the occupants in the studied
building are safe. Nevertheless, exposure to high EMF (5 - 78mg) could be experienced
when operating electrical gadgets. The walls containing the fuse box were found to
have a high EMF value, double the recommended range of 3 - 4mg. Building designers
and services engineers are to champion the course leading to healthy environments.
More detailed studies on EMF levels in buildings have to be of interest to researchers.

6. References
Bracken, T. D., Kavet, R., Patterson, R. M., Fordyce, T. A. 2009. An Integrated Job
Exposure Matrix for Electrical Exposures of Utility Workers, Journal of Occupational and
Environmental Hygiene, Vol. 6(8): 499-509.

Findlay, R. P. and Dimbylow, P. J. 2008. Calculated SAR Distributions in a Human

Voxel Phantom due to the Reflection of Electromagnetic Fields from a Ground Plane
between 65 MHz and 2 GHz, Physics in Medicine and Biology, Vol. 53: 2277–89.

Foliart, D. E., Pollock, B. H., Mezei, G., Iriye, R., Silva, J. M., and Ebi, K. L. 2006.
Magnetic Field Exposure and Long-Term Survival among Children with Leukaemia,
British Journal of Cancer, 94: 161-4.

IBE 2012. Electromagnetic Radiation – IBE 204.3, International Institute for Bau-biologie
and Ecology, www.buildingbiology.net, Accessed: January 15, 2013.

Ilonen, K., Markkanen, A., Mezei, G., and Juutilainen, J. 2008. Indoor Transformer
Stations as Predictors of Residential ELF Magnetic Field Exposure,
Bioelectromagnetics, 29: 213–228.

Kavet, R., Bailey, W. H., Bracken, T. D., and Patterson, R. M. 2008. Recent Advances
in Research Relevant to Electric and Magnetic Field Exposure Guidelines,
Bioelectromagnetics, 29(7): 499–526.

Kavet, R., Zaffanella, L. E., Pearson, R. L., and Dallapiazza, J. 2004. Association of
Residential Magnetic Fields with Contact Voltage, Bioelectromagnetics, 25: 530–536.

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Kwame Nkrumah Universuty Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
 A study on residential electric and magnetic fields; the case of a house at Fumesua, Ashanti region, Ghana -
Quansah, E., Koranteng, C., & Assassie-Oppong, R
Kheifets, L., Monroe, J., Vergara, X., Mezei, G., and Afifi, A. 2008. Occupational
Electromagnetic Fields and Leukemia and Brain Cancer: An Update to Two Meta-
Analyses, Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 50: 677–688.

Li CY, E., Mezei, G., Sung, F. C., Silva, M., Chen, P. C., and Lee, P. C. 2007. Survey of
Residential Extremely-Low-Frequency Magnetic Field Exposure among Children in
Taiwan, Environment International, 33: 233–248.

Mezei, G., Spinelli, J. J., Wong, P., Borugian, M., and McBride, M. L. 2008a.
Assessment of Selection Bias in the Canadian Case-Control Study of Residential
Magnetic Field Exposure and Childhood Leukemia, American Journal of Epidemiology
167(12): 1504–1510.

Mezei, G., Gadallah, M., Kheifets, L. 2008b. Residential Magnetic Field Exposure and
Childhood Brain Cancer: A Meta-Analysis, Epidemiology, 19: 424–430.

PCE 2013. EMF Tester, PCE-EMF 823, PCE Group, www.warensortiment.de

Savitz, D. A., Herring, A. H., Mezei, G., Evenson, K. R., Terry, J. W. Jr., and Kavet, R.
2002. Physical Activity and Magnetic Field Exposure in Pregnancy, Epidemiology, 17:
222–235.

Schuez, J., Svendsen, A. L., Linet, M. S., McBride, M. L., Roman, E., Feychting, M.
2007. Night-time Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields and Childhood Leukemia: An
Extended Pooled Analysis, American Journal of Epidemiology, 166: 263–269.

SSB, 2010. Recent Research on EMF and Health Risk, Seventh Annual Report from
Stral Sakerhets Myndigheten (SSM): Independent Expert Group on Electromagnetic
Fields, Report number: 44, ISSN: 2000-0456, www.stralsakerhetsmyndigheten.se,
Accessed February 18, 2013.

Thuroczy, G., Jánossy, G., Nagy, N., Bakos, J., Szabó, J., and Mezei, G. 2008.
Exposure to 50 Hz Magnetic Field in Apartment Buildings with Built-In Transformer
Stations in Hungary, Radiation Protection Dosimetry, Advance Online Publication, doi:
10.1093/rpd/ncn199, Accessed: March 18, 2013.

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Contested Spaces In Mining-Driven Urbanisation: beyond Gold Boom
In the Planning and Development Of Tarkwa In Ghana.

Gyogluu S. and Tapela N.

Department of Town and Regional planning.
Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Cape Town, South Africa.
Emails: [email protected] / [email protected] and [email protected]

Abstract
The mining of mineral resources and subsequent urbanisation inevitably often results in
contestation around land (mineralised and non-mineralised) and presents challenges to
management of land as a resource among competing demands as a critical issue in the
planning for mining-driven urbanization. This paper argues that Ghana’s land tenure
and management is an underlying trigger for contestation and this is explored within the
context of Tarkwa in the Western Region of Ghana. Tarkwa, one of the premier gold
mining regions in Ghana literally owes its past and present growth to the discovery and
mining of gold. While the impacts (social, economic and environmental) have resulted
from gold mining, the paper argues that the most pervasive impact revolve around, or
are rooted on contestations over land (spaces), access to it and competing uses. A
three pronged approach is adopted in analyzing issues of mining-led urbanisation and
contestation around land in Tarkwa. First, the growth of Tarkwa in the context of mining
driven urbanisation is explored as well as contestation around land that has surfaced as
a result of mining. Secondly the issues of competing use for land/space from the major
role players as a result of mining and mining-led urbanisation are put forth. Thirdly, this
contestation is examined with regard to implications for town planning and development.
This paper employed results of field work by the author in Tarkwa 2012 combined with
relevant literature.
Keywords: Urbanisation, Mining, Tarkwa, Contestation, Planning

Introduction.
“The route a country takes to urbanisation will have a big impact on economic growth,
social equity and environmental sustainability.” Gordon McGranahan, 2012.

When it comes to growth and opportunities for development of towns and cities in the
21st century, urbanisation and globalisation are the vogue terms. The fluidity of
populations suggests people are always on the move for better opportunities in terms of
livelihoods and employment and hence the rise of an urban consuming class in an
economically unified world which offers increased opportunities for connection,
borderless sharing of ideas, access to capital and financial markets; through the
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processes of globalisation (Friedman, 2006). Increasingly, Asia and Africa are acting as
the twin linchpins for these two propelling factors (urbanisation and population
growth/consumption) and the projected figures in terms of urbanisation are staggering.
Asia by 2050, will host 63 percent of the global urban population, or 3.3 billion people;
Africa will have an urban population of 1.2 billion, or nearly a quarter of the word’s urban
population (UN-HABITAT, 2008). Much of the growth (about two thirds) that Africa will
be experiencing is to be absorbed in its secondary and tertiary cities (settlements with
less than 500, 000 inhabitants) rather than in large cities (UN-HABITAT, 2008).
Commensurate with such urbanisation trends is urban consumption. For example, the
combined consuming spending of Africa was estimated at US$ 860billion in 2008
(McKinsey Global Institute, 2010:1-6). It is further projected that 1.1billion Africans will
be of working age by 2040; compared to 128 million people in African countries that will
have discretionary income by 2020 (ibid:1-6).

The profound question is the reasons and the implications of these trends about
globalisation, urbanisation and increased urban consumption and how these will affect
mining resource regions like Tarkwa? Firstly, mining acts as a driver for urbanisation
and thus mining regions are seen as offering opportunities for people to make a
livelihood or better their lot. Globalisation and the rise of China and India have sparked
relatively new waves of demands in natural resources resulting in increased foreign
direct investment and probably greater than before, a surge in mining-led urbanisation.
On Africa, George Fang, Standard Bank’s Head of Mining and metals suggests that:

“The race for Africa’s mineral resources continues to gather momentum. Continued
growth in consumption resources is being driven by growth in China and the rest of
Asia. Chinese companies are increasingly acquiring assets, as are Indian companies,
prompting other global miners into a race to secure mineral assets of their own. This
movement for resources can be to the benefit of the African continent” (Standard Bank:-
online, n.d).

It is not surprising therefore that natural resources alone accounted for 24 percent of
Africa’s GDP from 2000 through to 2008 (McKinsey Global Institute, 2010:1-6).
Secondly, the existence of potentially exploitable natural resources acts as a magnet
that not only attracts people, governments and multinational companies, but, depending

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on the scale of resource wealth, conflict is heightened in resource regions. In mining

frontier regions and countries therefore, the big picture does not lie in how urbanisation
and globalisation are driving consumption booms in natural resources but beyond these
booms where several mining resource frontier regions are transformed in terms of their
landscape ranging from settlement development, economies to livelihoods.

It is against the backdrop of the latter statement, that contestation is looked at within
the gold mining town of Tarkwa where by far the most prominent adverse outcome of
mining and mining related urbanisation is contestation around land accessibility and
use. This is because there is competing use for this resource from all role players
ranging from Multinational Mining Companies to the District Assembly; from business
enterprises to the “common man on the streets”. The research problem from which this
paper proceeds is that, contestation around land (mineralised and non-mineralised) in
Tarkwa can largely be attributed to intense competition for land from different role
players and the mismanagement of land as a resource. The paper also presents the
perspectives of major role players and how contestation around land as a resource is
affecting development of Tarkwa, especially from a planning and development
perspective, and what kind of approach should be adopted moving forward.

Methodology
The paper is largely derived from the research thesis (forthcoming, 2013) of the authors
which focused on Tarkwa as an urban area. The research employed both qualitative
and quantitative data collection methods. Qualitative data involved 22 interviews and a
focused group discussion of relevant institutions and role players of planning and mining
like the Town and Country and Planning Department; Lands Commission; Tarkwa-
Nsuaem Municipal Assembly; Goldfields-Ghana; AngloGold Ashanti-Iduapriem; Wassa
Association of Communities affected by Mining etc. Purposive data sampling method
was employed for conducting interviews. Quantitative data was largely from
questionnaires administered to heads of households in Tarkwa and owners of
community business enterprises. A total of 154 and 150 questionnaires were
administered to heads of households and business enterprise owners respectively. Both
sets of questionnaires were administered using a combination of cluster sampling,

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simple random sampling and convenience sampling methods. The data collection was
done between December 2011 and March 2012. Additionally, the authors made use of
relevant literature.

Mining-led Urbanisation and the Character of Mining Regions.

Urbanisation may be driven by several factors including natural resources, technology,
manufacturing, tourism etc. and this may be in response to better livelihoods and
employment, better services or for leisure depending on the characteristics of the region
in question. Mining-led urbanisation within the context of this paper will be explained as
an increase in population and changes in the physical extent of mining regions due to
the attractive pull of the extraction of mineral resources and related activities which
results in changes in lifestyles and economy.
There are two main characteristics that set mining regions apart from other regions and
thus this affects the trajectory of their urbanisation and development process. Firstly, the
growth and development of the mining region is tied to the activity of mining which has a
“life cycle”. The process includes the discovery, development, expansion, maturity,
production, decline and exhaustion of mineral resources (Spooner, 1981:6). Secondly
mining is characterized by “boom and burst” economic cycles that underlie the
resources and commodities industry. The ‘boom’ cycle is associated with periods of
steady growth at the initial stages of mine development where there are massive
investments in infrastructure; while the ‘burst’ cycle relates to the contraction in mining
and could result in environmental pollution, high cost of living and land use conflicts.
Mining-led urbanisation thus has in-built volatilities that differ from other forms of
urbanisation and therefore the need to explore it in terms of how this is made manifest
in contestation around land and livelihoods.

A Driver of Development or a Devil in Detail: From Boom to Contestation in

Tarkwa’s Development Trajectory?
Gold! - it is sometimes difficult to fathom the fuss over a shiny piece of metal whether it
has just been discovered, still in its unexploited state hidden several meters beneath the
surface of the earth or has already been mined. Perhaps the reasons lie not only in the

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annals of history where this rare mineral precipitated civilisations in Africa (Ghana
included) and several parts of the world through trade and was a source of power and
wealth for ancient kings and their kingdoms (Hilson,2003: 13-16). In modern times, gold
is craved for not only for its industrial and decorative purposes, but more importantly as
a safe and lucrative form of investment where it is used as a hedge against risks that
might cause rapid inflation (Weavind, 2013:kutschinksky,2011). But looking beyond the
glitter lies issues of contestation which arise from the inherent nature of gold as an
exhaustible resource and thus result in rent-seeking behavior by multinationals and
governments (Humphrey et al, 2007:4-5) and subsequent knock-on effect relating to
land and livelihoods in mining regions like Tarkwa.

4.1 Gold Boom, Mining-led Urbanisation and Tarkwa’s growth

Gold is Ghana’s most important mineral, and before independence from the British in
1957, Ghana was called the Gold Coast giving credence to the wealth of gold the
country has. Tarkwa is located in the Western region of Ghana as depicted by figure 1.

Figure 1. Tarkwa in a Locational Context. Source: Author Construct, 2013

Tarkwa is one of the oldest mining regions in Ghana and owes its past and present
development to the discovery and mining of gold. Ghana has had three gold rushes
known as the “jungle booms” which have had an impact on the development trajectory

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of Tarkwa as a mining town. The first boom, according to Jackson (1992) (as cited by
Hilson, 2002) occurred between 1892-1901 which saw massive investment by the
British colonial government in gold mining properties and establishment of about 400
new companies in Ghana. The second boom occurred after the First World War during
which gold production increased to 336,065 ounces by 1933-1934 after a decline in
production of 167,115 ounces in 1928–1929 (Hilson, 2002:22). This would be disrupted
by the Second World War and the preference of Ghanaians to work in small scale
mines (Akabzaa & Darmani: 2001).The third boom started in the mid 1980’s in a bid to
deal with decline associated with large state ownership of mines in the 1970’s. Figure 2
shows gold production along with other major minerals in Ghana from 1980-2007, with
gold production indicated in blue.

Figure 2 Mineral Production in Ghana from 1980-2007.

Source: Akabzaa & Ayamdoo, 2009

Tarkwa lies within the Tarkwaian and Birimian belts of Ghana (figure 3 below) which are
known for their gold deposits and which precipitated and supported civilisations before

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and during the Trans Saharan trade. Tarkwa is also drained by the Ankobra and Bonsa
river basins which are noted for alluvial gold mining by indigenous people both in the
past and at present (Hilson 2002). Dickson (1969:250), in his account of the growth of
mining towns notes that by the last two decades of the nineteenth century before formal
colonial mining had commenced, Tarkwa had been described as a “considerable town”
whose development was associated with alluvial gold mining by the indigenous people.
However its development into a full blown town was largely due to colonial influences.

Figure 3. The Tarkwaian and Birimian Belts of Ghana

Colonial influences in mining largely started within the Tarkwa and Prestea regions and
subsequently led to heavy investments in those areas, during the period of the first gold
rush (1892-1901). Gold mining often attracted migrants from other parts of the country
also making prominent Tarkwa’s accessibility in terms of trade routes (Dickson,
1969:251). Tarkwa’s gold deposits were central to the idea of the development of rail as
a form of transportation in Ghana (ibid, 1969: 229). The development of rail to Tarkwa
around 1901 was an added advantage to Tarkwa which already had become a nodal
town thus increased its urbanisation and growth (ibid, 1969: 252). Gold mining was also

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central to the ethnically diverse nature of Tarkwa between 1892 and 1901 which widely
consisted of Wassa, Fanti, Apollonian and Ashanti tribes who earned their livelihoods in
mines as carriers and traders in liquor (Dickson, 1969:251). An indirect factor which also
accounted for the growth of Tarkwa around 1882 was the development of rule of civil
law which sought to give protection to life and property and the commissioner in charge
had to pay special attention to the mining industry (Dickson, 1969: 251). This resulted in
Tarkwa acting as a safe haven for people from other parts of the country especially
renegades from the coast. (ibid, 1969: 251).
Mining from the pre-colonial to the first jungle boom continued and has played an
integral part in the continuous urbanisation and development of Tarkwa. Dickson
(1969:270) notes the 1931 population densities of Tarkwa were far higher compared to
farming areas like Wassaw-Aowin. He observes that:
“In the gold mining district of Tarkwa, the population was 36 per square mile, over four
times as much as the overall population density for Wassaw-Aowin. The percentage
increase of population in Tarkwa district was 37, the third largest in Western Region.”

In the 21st century, gold mining continues to be the driver of Tarkwa’s continued growth
in addition to its nodal function. Out of the 16 large scale mining companies in Ghana,
the Tarkwa region alone hosts about eight, in addition to over 100 registered and small
scale gold and diamond miners (Akabzaa & Darmani, 2001:32). For the purposes of this
paper however, AngloGold-Ashanti, Iduapriem and Goldfields–Ghana Tarkwa are
considered. Tarkwa is the most urbanized town in the Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipal
Assembly and its population has increased from 14,702 in 1970 to 22,107 in 1984 and
to 30,631 in 2000 (GSS,2002). The Ghana Statistical service notes that the mining
towns of Tarkwa, Obuasi and Prestea were the highest net receivers of migrant
population aside from cities of Accra and Kumasi. It has therefore assumed the capital
status of the Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipal Assembly and also performing the highest
number (32) of functions the Municipality (TNMA, Development plan, 2013).

4.2 Land Tenure Practices, Management and Mining Rights: A trigger for
Contestation in Tarkwa?

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Contestation is usually about competition, the power associated with it and the
imbalances that emerge resulting in one or more role players being aggrieved. In
Tarkwa, this power revolves around the access to use of land (mineralized and non-
mineralized). Land is a resource in great in demand in Tarkwa, whether by households
and businesses or by large or small scale mining companies to mine gold. However it is
by far the most mismanaged in terms of access and use due to a murky land tenure
system and disjointed land institutions which allow the for contestation over access to
land by the major role players mentioned above.

Tarkwa like other parts of Ghana has different types of land ownership namely state
lands, vested lands and customary lands with customary lands accounting for about 70
percent of land ownership in Ghana (Larbi et al, 2004). The customary land comprise of
skin and stool lands with the latter accounting for about 80 percent of lands in Tarkwa.
Land ownership in Tarkwa therefore is chiefly the domain of chiefs who hold stool lands
in trust for the people. Acquisition of customary lands is relatively very easy, quick and
an informal transaction between the land owner (chief, in the case of Tarkwa) and the
one buying the land. The formal process for land acquisition is however fraught with so
many problems and in Tarkwa this relates to a deeds system of land registration which
is not foolproof, a highly illiterate and uneducated population on land acquisition
processes and too many institutions involved in the process of land acquisition and
processing for which there is not much flow of information and coordination among
them.

When it comes to mining rights however, it is skewed towards state participation (with
large scale mining companies largely having mining rights) without due process and
considerations to most customary land ownership and practices, a phenomenon which
is an imprint of post-colonial mining regimes (Nyame & Blocher, 2010:47-53). For
example, the power of eminent domain which allows the state to compulsorily acquire
private property with compensation for public use (Larbi: 2008) and the 1992
constitution of Ghana which clearly states

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“Every mineral in its natural state in, under or upon any land in Ghana, rivers, streams,
water courses throughout Ghana, the exclusive economic zone and any area covered
by the territorial sea or continental shelf is the property of the Republic of Ghana and
shall be vested in the President on behalf of, and in trust for the people of Ghana”
(Government of Ghana, 1992 Constitution of Ghana, Chapter 012).

The vesting of absolute rights to all natural resources by the constitution on the state
and exercise of the right of eminent domain is not without its own problems and that is
often a recipe for conflict and tension between state and communities in the use of
lands, mineralised or not. The lands commissioner, Mr. Aboagye Larbi (2012) observes.
“The people have encroached on state lands. Most people are able to acquire state
lands from the chiefs. The chiefs are saying government didn’t pay compensation. So
those areas they are claiming are state lands, they have been guarding them. But you
know they are chiefs, so you have to respect them. What do you do?. ”

Land ownership therefore does not mean access to mining rights and this has had its
own attendant problems as Nyame and Blocher (2010:48) succinctly put it…
“The result is the perpetuation of parallel systems- the formal state, descended from the
original post-colonial land appropriations: and the customary land tenure system which
for many miners and land owners remain the most accessible and familiar mechanism
of land tenure”.

These results in some chiefs selling parcels of land out to small scale miners or
developers only to be found out later that it is part of a concession of a mining company,
state land and/or the same parcel of land has been sold out to different developers due
to increased demand. This can therefore result in tensions and conflict depending on
the players involved. The Lands Commission speaking on an ongoing contention had
this to say
“There is one existing now, at Tamso area. The mining people are saying that a
particular area belongs to them and this guy who also has registered documents over
there. And because the mining people have money, they are trying to buy their way to
the land. I don’t know what is happening there now. I refused to be part of it because
there is little I can do” (sic) (Aboagye Larbi, 2012).

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Understanding the Contention: Perspectives of Major Role Players

3.3.1 Large Scale Mining Companies

Surface mining by two big mining companies, AngloGold Ashanti (Iduapriem) and
Goldfields Ghana-Tarkwa, is the largest consumer of land in the Tarkwa region.
Goldfields for example was commissioned to start operation of an open pit surface
operations as far back as 1997. A study by Schueler, Kuemmerle and Schroder (2011)
on land cover changes between 1986 and 2002 in Tarkwa revealed that, only small
percentages (0.2) of mining pits were found in the Tarkwa concession area in 1986.
Farmlands however gave way to surface pits on a total of 2,097 hectares (representing
18.4 percent of concession). The remainder of the unmined areas represents farmlands
(22.3 percent or 2445 hectares). Even though the mining takes place in adjoining rural
areas with compensation for loss of farms, the knock-on-effect is felt in closer urban
areas like Tarkwa where people come to seek for housing and employment
opportunities. The search for highly contested spaces for location or setting up of
business has resulted in congestion in the central part of Tarkwa and a host of street
trading due to lack or inability to afford space for location. A highly frustrated head of
household had this to say about their inability to farm:
“This area we don’t have farmlands. Unless Nsuta but that place too is owned by the
manganese mine. The other place is Samanhu but the people also do farming on their
lands which they own. Even Goldfields brought us oil palm seedlings but where are the
farms?” (Ninkpeeyel, Field survey, 2012).

The sad aspect about large scale mining and the amount of lands that are still under
concessions is that land related institutions like the Lands Commission, Town and
Country Planning Department and Municipal Assembly by their own admission do not
know the extent of mining concessions; either for lack of information or the
unwillingness of large scale mining companies and Minerals Commission to make such
information available to them. The uncertainty by the lands commissioner was telling as
he remarked in an interview:
“Even where we are now, it is a concession. If we are not lucky one day and the mining
stretches here, then, we have to relocate”.

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Such is the magnitude of impact that large scale mining has on land use that it tends to
have other unintended ripple effects.

3.3.2 Small Scale mining (legal and Illegal)

It is generally agreed that small scale mining is poverty driven and this poverty can
partly be traced to landlessness suffered by many due to large scale mining. For small
scale mining, competition is directly related to large scale mining which has huge
concessions that often exclude many who are willing to get into small scale mining with
either small concessions or landlessness, ultimately driving them into illegal mining.
Several authors (Nyame & Blocher, 2008, Hilson & Potter, 2003, Offei-Aboagye, et al
2004) agree that this poverty relating to land can be attributed to land tenure and
ownership, licensing regimes; all of which are further propelling the proliferation of illegal
mining. Speaking to some small scale miners at Borborbor in Tarkwa , it was evident
that the miners felt more than a sense of entitlement and even sentimentality to
mineralised land and see mining as the principal source of improving their standard of
living. One of the miners, speaking in Pidgin English pithily put it this way:

“Tarkwa here nu, it is our major work, gold business. Like you go to Volta region, they
will deal with fishing and all those things. Tarkwa here they deal with gold. Apart from
gold there is no other tycoon business. Our tycoon business is gold (sic)21” (Interview
with Kofi, 2012).

This sense of attachment to gold mining is one of the driving reasons why some people
will do anything to gain access to a mineralised piece of land, in spite of the law or
unintentionally through ignorance. For instance, the Minister of Lands and natural
resources at a meeting with the Ghana Chamber of Mines in March 2013 noted that,
some large mining concession owners often connive with small scale miners who they
allow to work on their concessions or some companies awarded with prospecting and
reconnaissance licenses do not work on mineralised lands awarded to them thereby
leaving those lands prey for illegal miners (myjoyonline 2013- online). It can also explain

21  He
meant gold mining was the major business in Tarkwa and one that was capable of
making one rich. Every region in Ghana he says have an activity peculiar to them which
they undertake to bring money. He reckons in Tarkwa, it is the business of gold.
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why illegal mining is on the increase and seemingly an intractable dilemma for
government. On the one hand it offers an honest means of livelihood for people and on
the other it presents an avenue for conflict between stakeholders with mining rights to a
concession and those who do not. This is another area of contestation/conflicts over
land, again stemming from two tenure systems dialectically opposed to each other
where large scale mining companies have mining rights and many scale miners who
have an inclination to land through both cultural and religious ties.

3.3.3 Households
Tarkwa has an attractive pull on people because of the perceived opportunities in
employment from mining and related businesses. Hence the main reason Tarkwa’s
population more than doubled from 14,702 in 1970 to 22,107 in 1984 and to 30,631 in
2000 (GSS,2002). A case study involving a survey of 154 urban households in Tarkwa
showed that 75.3 percent of the respondents stayed or lived somewhere hitherto to
coming to Tarkwa and 24.7 percent having lived only in Tarkwa (Gyogluu, 2012). Of the
116 respondents (75.3 percent) who moved to Tarkwa from other parts of Ghana, 53.45
percent moved because of job search and employment related opportunities, 26.72
percent because of family related reasons, 6.90 percent were transferred and 12.93
percent were resettled(ibid:2013). The result of such influx in population creates
demand for housing and therefore sparks the demand for land by developers who want
to build to make money or by households who look to settle in Tarkwa. Coupled with the
rapid population growth is the continuous displacement of rural populations adjoining
the Tarkwa region due to increased surface mining activities. According to Akabzaa and
Darmani (2001) resettlement in the District between 1990 and 1980 resulted in the
displacement of about 14 communities numbering over 30 000 people. Some of these
people also flock to Tarkwa to seek for opportunities and improved livelihoods, in the
process compounding the pressure on existing housing and increasing demand for
land. This places huge limitations on a household’s ability to access land either through
affordability or availability. Some households therefore resort to acquiring land that is
cheap and not conducive for building or through middlemen at very high prices. Others
in resettled areas like New Atuabo extend their houses not only for themselves but also

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rent out to people to get extra money. Field interviews revealed this and is illustrated in
Boxes 1 and 2 below

Box 1: Lack of Accessibility and affordability can result in Unsuitable spaces

A respondent at Nkamponase who already has one house and is building another close
to galamsey operations and a stream only less than 100 meters away.
“Where are you going to get the land”, he remarked. This is the only land available to us
and which the chiefs will sell to us because other lands available we cannot afford.
Having a place to sleep at night is the most important thing. The rest you can always
think about at night”

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Source: Author Field Survey, 2012

Box 2 Lack of Accessibility can increase transaction cost for land and Building;
hence alternate means for housing are used.

Another respondent who is lives at New Atuabo had this to say concerning his
household and demand by land in Tarkwa.
“In this household for example, we have three men and right now I have three kids and
the resettlement house originally given me cannot accommodate my family thus the
need for extension. Even with that I am trying to build my own house. This place land
(for building) is not a problem, if only you have 3000 Ghana cedis22. There is a Dagarti23
saying that “when a child is within funeral grounds, the child will get funeral food to eat”.
You can be here for 15 years and not get access to land or the lands you will get can be
very far away from the main town. But I have helped people.

22
Cedi to Dollar rate as at February 1st 2012 was 1 Ghana cedis:
0.59688((www.exchange-rates.org)
23
Dagartis are a tribe from the upper west region of Ghana. By that saying he was
implying that if you are connected to the right people in Tarkwa, one’s access to land
will be relatively easier.
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Source: Author Field Survey, 2012

For business enterprises, the prime concern is a location which determines the range of
customers that can be served and accessibility to these locations. About 7 percent of
the 150 community businesses in a case study survey perceive a lack of space or
access to land as a challenge of operating a business enterprise in Tarkwa. A latter
consequence of this lack of space or land is overcrowding of roads in the central
business area of Tarkwa as some people resort to on-street trading as a way of dealing
with the non-availability of space. This is summarised in figure 4 amongst challenging
factors to operating a business enterprise in Tarkwa.

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Figure 4 Perceived Challenges to Operating Business in Tarkwa

Source: Author field survey, 2012

4.0 Implications for Planning and Development

The biggest impact that contestations around land have had on planning in Tarkwa is
the preparation and implementation of planning schemes as well as development
projects. Owing to the large extent to which large scale mining activities have consumed
land and the size of boundaries of their concessions which the institutions of land
(especially the Town and Country Planning Department) do not know, urban planning,
plans are either not prepared or prepared with hesitation. In cases where preparation of
urban plans are in place, development management only takes place outside of mining
concessions or else projects come to an abrupt end subject to negotiations with mining
companies for the release of land. The Assembly did acknowledge that negotiating for
release of land is a long and difficult process because of more prospecting. Citing an
example of a hiatus of projects and implementation of schemes the Town Planning
Department remarked:
…“[O]ur own industrial estate that we are trying to set up, other projects that the
Assembly has discussed and want to implement becomes a challenge because there is
no land available for such projects” (Sarpong, 2012).

Another contributory impact contestation over land is that it has magnified the problems
of haphazard development due to the dual process of land acquisition and processing,
and the intensification and congestion of on-street businesses activities and due to lack
of trading spaces. Increased urbanisation in the context of complex formal and informal
systems of land acquisition has resulted in chiefs selling out tracts of land to developers
in total disregard for town planning regulations and institutions. This has resulted in
settlements springing up overnight without knowledge of the development planning and
management departments. The Town Planning Department observes this in relation to
their inability to deal with haphazard and unauthorized development as follows:
“Because of mining activity there is money in the system and people over night put
mansions and you wouldn’t know because of enforcement and monitoring aspect is
weak. By the time you get there a new settlement has been created” (Interview with
Town Planning Department Tarkwa, January, 2012).

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The central Business Area of Tarkwa is and streets are congested partly a
consequence of the inability of the planning department to deal with the space needs of
businesses in the precinct. This has resulted in contestations of traffic, parking and
inadequate on-street activities and trading, which in turn contributes to littering, flooding
of open gutters and waste management problems.

5.0 Concluding Remarks

Planning in Tarkwa can summed up as an afterthought and at best often literally
“chases development”. Intensification of mining-led urbanisation processes and an
inability to manage land in mining regions has rendered plan-making and
implementation a redundant activity and practice. That is why existing programmes like
the Land Administration Project and the preparation of a spatial development framework
for the western region is a step in the right direction. However, it is the synchronization
of laws and institutions of land, mining, planning within the context of a mining region
that need attention, since more often than not programmes and projects are
undertaken, and reforms developed thereof may end up conflicting over another.

Thus the approach to dealing with land and related development issues should be one
of well thought out urban development plans whose implementation engenders the
spatial, economic and social wellbeing of the region and its citizenry. The reason most
people will rather resort to an informal customary process is because it is simpler and
not so elitist for the average school leaver or illiterate. As much as education of the
general public is important, it is also imperative that relevant institutions simplify
processes of access to and use of land.

Since land forms the spatial content for managing the exploitation of gold, and the rapid
urban-forming and contest-generating processes that accompany it, it is critical that
both strategic and operational processes, laws and institutions be strengthened, aligned
and made more effective in managing the extremely volatile cycles associated with the
emerging mineral resources boom in Ghana. For mining to benefit local and regional
economy and society, a more strategic and directive approach to managing land and its

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resources is critical, especially the institutions with the political will and capacity to
manage power imbalances among primary stakeholders in a mining economy to benefit.

REFERENCES
• Aboagye –Larbi. (2012). Interview with the Author on 23 February 2012, Tarkwa
• Akabzaa & Darmani (2001) Impact of Mining Sector Investment in Ghana: A Study
of the Tarkwa Mining Region. Draft Report prepared for SAPRI.
• Akabzaa T. & Ayamdoo (2009). Towards a Fair and Equitable Taxation For
sustainable Development Financing In Africa: A Study on Trends And Nature of
Taxation In Ghana’s Extractive Sector. A Draft Report for the Integrated Social
Development Centre (ISODEC)
• Ballans K. (2012). Interview with Author on 1st March 2012
• Baidoo E.(2012) Interview with the Author in January,2012
• Dickson K.B. (1969). A historical Geography of Ghana. London. Cambridge
University Press.
• Egyir.(2012). Interview with Author on 25 February 2012
• Government of Ghana. 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana, chapter 021(6).
Accra. Ghana Publishing Company Limited Assembly Press.
• GSS (Ghana Statistical Service, 2002). 2000 Population and Housing Census –
Special Report on Urban Localities. Accra
• Gyogluu S. (2013). “Planning and Development of Mining Regions: An exploration of
Mining and Urban Development frameworks and frameworks. [Forthcoming] Masters
Thesis for submission to the Department of Town and Regional Planning. Cape
Peninsula University of Technology. Cape Town, South Africa.
• Hilson, G. (2002) Harvesting mineral riches: 1000 years of gold mining in Ghana,
Resources Policy 28, 13–26
• Hilson, G & M. B Sadia. 2009. Are alternative livelihood projects alleviating poverty
in mining communities? Experiences from Ghana. Journal of Development Studies
Vol. 45 issue 2, 172-196.
• Hilson, G., Potter, C. (2003).Why is illegal gold mining so ubiquitous throughout rural
Ghana?African Development Review15(2),237–270.
• Humphreys, M., Sachs, J.D. and Stiglitz, J.E. (2007), ‘‘Introduction: what is the
problem with natural resource wealth?’’, in Humphreys, M., Sachs, J.D. and Stiglitz,
J.E. (Eds), Escaping the Resource Curse, Columbia University Press, New York,
NY, pp. 1-20.
• Kofi. (2012). Interview with Author on 15th February,2012
• Kutchinsky A. (2011). “Why Is Gold So Important? Significance of This Precious
Metal http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Aaron_Kutchinsky 12/03/2013)

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• Larbi, W.O., 2008. Compulsory Land Acquisition and Compensation in Ghana:

Searching for Alternative Policies and Strategies. FIG/FAO/CNG International
Seminar on State and Public Sector Land Management, Verona, Italy.
• Larbi, W.O., Antwi, A., Olomolaiye, P., (2004). Compulsory land acquisition in
Ghana: policy and praxis. Land Use Policy 1 (2), 115–127.
• McGranahan, G. (2013) BRICS urbanisation provides lessons for economic growth
and social equity. http://www.iied.org/(Accessed 5/03/2013)
• McKinsey Global Institute (2010) Lions on the Move: The Progress and Potential of
African Economies. http www.mckinsey.com/mgi(Acessed 15/08/2012)
• http://business.myjoyonline.com Published On: March 25, 2013, 21:19 GMT. Kofi
Adu-Domfeh
• Ninkpeeyel C. (2012). Interview with the Author on 26 February 2012, Tarkwa
• Nyame F. .k and Blocher (2010) Influence of land tenure practices on artisanal
mining activity in Ghana. Resources Policy. Pp47-53
• Ofei-Aboagye E. Thompson N.M, Alhassan S. Akabzaa T. Ayamdoo C (2004).
Factors involved in increasing the Contribution of ASM to Poverty Reduction
Targets: A Synthesis Report prepared for the Centre for Development Studies,
University of Wales, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP Wales, UK
• Sarpong F. 2012. Interview with the Author on 26 January 2012, Tarkwa
• Schueler V., Kuemmerle T. Schroder H (2011). Impacts of Surface Gold Mining on
Land Use Systems in Western Ghana. Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
www.kva.se/en(Acessed 19/10/2012)
• Spooner D. (1981).Theory and Practice of Geography: Mining and Regional
Development. New York, Oxford University Press. pp 2-39
• Standard Bank (n.d.) ‘China is now a clear leader in the race for Africa's resources
and can be expected to continue developing these interests for the mutual benefit of
both Africa as well as China's surging economy’. Accessed via
http://corporateandinvestment.standardbank.co.za/sa/news_centre/news_centre.jsp
?action=search&mediaid=447 (8/04/2011)
• Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipal. 4th Medium Term Development Plan 2010-2013. Draft
Report.
• UN-Habitat (2008). The state of African cities 2008: A framework for addressing
urban challenges in Africa. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements
Programme.

• Weavind, T. 2013.Weighing Gold’s Worth. Sunday Times Money & Careers. 7 April
2013

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 Structural patterns of Asante Kente: an indigenous resource for
design education in textiles

W. Badoe1 and N. A. Opoku-Asare2

1
Department of Industrial Art
2
Department of Art Education
Faculty of Art,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana.

STRUCTURAL PATTERNS OF ASANTE KENTE: AN INDIGENOUS RESOURCE

FOR DESIGN EDUCATION IN TEXTILES

W. Badoe1 and N. A. Opoku-Asare2

1
Department of Industrial Art
2
Department of Art Education
Faculty of Art,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana.

ABSTRACT
Asante Kente designs consist of dots, lines, shapes, textures and colours that are
carefully crafted to form a variety of geometric shapes and intricate patterns that exhibit
balance, rhythm, variety, proportion and repetition. Kente is woven on narrow traditional
looms with brightly coloured silk or cotton yarns in long strips that are then stitched
lengthways to form a large cloth which is differentiated by gender-specific sizes of cloth
for men and women. Kente weaving is strictly done by men. This heritage of indigenous
weaving is transmitted from one generation to another through apprenticeship under
master weavers, and learned through direct observation and constant practice. Unlike
formal education in textiles which includes drafting as an integral component of the
design process, Kente designs are conceptualized and determined by the weaver.
Kente designs evolve on the loom depending on the weaver’s intention, level of
creativity, and function of the product. This paper reports on an experimental and
descriptive approach to isolating and drafting selected Kente motifs to serve as a
sustainable instructional resource to facilitate visualization, conceptualization and
learning of weave structure, to effectively demonstrate the drafting process, and
promote understanding of tie-up arrangements which are deemed ‘difficult to teach’ and
‘difficult to learn’ topics within the higher education textiles curriculum. Infusing
indigenous culture into school textiles programme provides opportunity to preserve and
transmit national identity while also promoting quality education in textiles.

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 Structural patterns of asante kente: an indigenous resource for design education in textiles - Badoe, W &
Opoku-Asare, N. A.

KEYWORDS: Kente design; weave structure; drafting; tie-up; textiles education.

INTRODUCTION
The art of cloth weaving is a dominant occupation across West Africa; it is traditionally

common from Senegal in the west to Cameroon in the east, and south of the Sahara to

the coast. Weaving is done by men in long, narrow strips of fabric on narrow double-

heddle looms that mostly have two or four heddles (Duncan, 2002; Insert, 1992 as cited

in Ross, 1998). Weaving is the oldest craft known in Ghana (Hesse, 1990). Indigenous

cloth weaving is mainly practised in Ashanti, Northern and Volta Regions of Ghana. The

traditional fabrics associated with the respective regions are Kente, Fugu and Kete.

Before modern weaving was introduced to the Gold Coast, the material used for

clothing was obtained from the bark of the Kyenkyen tree. Long, narrow pieces of the

Kyenkyen bark softened in water, beaten over the trunk of a fallen tree with wooden

mallets into somehow flexible material that was used as a covering (Rattray, 1927).

When costly silk woven pieces came into the Gold Coast, the Asantes unraveled the

yarns and wove them into extravagant Kente cloths of all the varieties of colour and

pattern (Baah, 2000).

Kente and Kete are somewhat similar in structure because the weaving process

employs handpicking which makes it easy to introduce shapes and images in the weave

structure. The two fabrics are basically warp-faced strips, with sections of weft-floats.

The length of these sections is often carefully planned so that when the strips are sewn

together, the "blocks" of weft floats line up, often in a checkerboard pattern (Clarke,

2002). Significantly, images in Kete are more representational and evolve from the

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weaving process whereas symbols in Kente are basically geometric shapes. The two

strip-woven fabrics may look very similar but there are significant technical differences,

especially in the yarns used, creation of weft designs, the weaving process and the

finish. Unlike Asante and Ewe weaves which are design or motif oriented, the Northern

Ghana weaves are basically woven in plain-weave structure as warp stripes mostly in

blue, black and white in variant shades; some weavers incorporate other colours such

as green, yellow and red (Amesimeku, 2009; Asinyo and Frimpong, 2013).

Asante Kente
Kente is a ceremonial cloth that is hand-woven on a horizontal treadle loom. Kente

comes in narrow strips that are sewn together into larger pieces of cloth. It comes in a

variety of colours and designs. The word Kente is derived from Kenten, the Akan word

for basket (Kwekudee, 2012). According to oral tradition, Kente was developed in the

17th Century A.D. by the Asante people. Kente has its roots in weaving in Africa, dating

back to about 3000 B.C. The origin of Kente is explained with legends and oral historical

accounts. One legend has it that a man named Ota Kraban and his friend Kwaku

Ameyaw, natives of Bonwire near Kumasi, learned the art of weaving by observing a

spider weaving its web. Taking a cue from the spider, they managed to weave a strip of

raffia, and later improved upon their skill to weave a fabric. Their discovery was reported

to Nana Bobie, chief of Bonwire who in turn informed the Asantehene (King of Asante)

at that time. The Asantehene adopted the outcome as the royal cloth and encouraged

its development to become the cloth of prestige reserved for special occasions. Asante

Kente is identified by its dazzling, multi-coloured patterns of bright colours, geometric

shapes and bold designs (Kwaku Ofori-Ansa, 2009).

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Kente weaving
Adler (1995) describes Kente weaving as a textile production technique whereby very

small looms are used to produce long and narrow lengths of cloth, which may then be

joined edge to edge to create square or rectangular covers. The technique offers

endless possibilities for variations of scale and composition. The teaching and learning

of Kente weaving is by apprenticeship and direct observation under skillful master

weavers. This method of teaching and learning require high levels of imagination with

consistent practice by the individual. This differentiates it from the formal educational

set-up where different instructional strategies (Mishra, 2013) are adopted to facilitate

learning in the classroom or studio. Kente weaving is but one of several indigenous

Ghanaian arts governed by strict gender guidelines (Ross and Adu-Agyem, 2004).

Weaving is an all-male business but women mostly do the distribution and marketing.

Kente is woven according to size – the cloth for males is larger and longer than the

female cloth, which is woven as a set of three shorter pieces. The size of cloth is

determined by the number and length of woven strips that are sewn together

lengthways to meet conventional requirements in Asante culture where men drape the

cloth around their shoulders in toga style (Baah, 2000) and women wear their cloth in

two or three pieces.

Teaching and learning of Kente weaving is by apprenticeship and direct observation

under skillful master weavers. This method of informal education requires high levels of

imagination with consistent practice just as students have to do. The classroom

challenge was to identify structural patterns in Asante Kente designs for use as an

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instructional resource to help students understand the complexities of design, draft and

tie-up within course IAT 152 Introduction to Weaving Techniques taught to 1st year

undergraduate textiles students at KNUST.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was Design-based or Development research that involved actual teaching and

learning processes in textile designing and weaving with 148 first year Industrial Arts

students using Kente designs so that they would plot the designs on point paper. The

aim was to guide these 148 First year Industrial Art students who had different Art

specialization backgrounds to study the Kente designs, go through the design, draft and

tie-up processes, and translate this into a woven Kente strip on the broadloom at the

end of the semester.

Silk, rayon and cotton yarns are the basic materials used to produce Asante Kente

cloth; silk yarns are the most prestigious. Comparatively, silk and rayon yarns have high

degrees of lustre but cotton yarns have a relatively low degree of lustre and thus least

preferred. The quality of yarns used in weaving a particular cloth reflects the prestige

associated with the cloth hence in the past, Kente cloths woven with silk yarns were

reserved for royalty and the wealthy (Ofori-Ansa, 2009). Yarns used for weaving Kente

come in a variety of forms and qualities.

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The Kente loom

The indigenous Asante Kente loom is called Nsadua. It is a narrow, box-like wooden

structure in which the weaver sits to weave the Kente fabric. Figure 2 shows a labeled

drawing of the Asante Kente loom and its many parts.

Parts of the loom

The numbers correspond to the respective parts of this composite piece of indigenous

equipment that has been used for Kente weaving for centuries. The indigenous names

of the various parts are also provided. These are as follows:

§ 1, 2, 3, 4 - Corner or Upright Posts

§ 5, 6, 7, 8 - Cross beams (5 and 6 are Ntoho; 7 and 8 are Asatwedee)

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§ 9 - Warp Protector or Back Beam (Ponko or Ponkodua)

§ 10, 11 - Top cross beams

§ 12 - Flat wooden boards

§ 13 - Heddle frames (Asa) which consists of Asatia (front heddles) for plain weaves and Asanan

(back heddles) for design weaves

§ 14 - Beater or reed (Kyereye)

§ 15 - Pulley (Awidie) containing the spool or heddle roller (Awidieba)

§ 16 - Pulley bar (Nyansoo or Nyinasoo)

§ 17 - Cloth beam or roller (Ayaasedua)

§ 18 - Ratchet pawl (Tuamuda)

§ 19 - Treadle or foot pedal (Ntiamuu)

§ 20 - Winding stick (Boboduaa or Kyimdua)

§ 21 - Warp (Tenentoma or Ntenee)

Kente patterns
The distinctive characteristics of the Kente cloth are the geometric shapes of different

sizes in brilliant colours of maroon, gold, green, dark blue and black (Ross, 1998; Avins

and Quick, 1998). The most commonly seen designs in Asante Kente are produced by

combining two distinct decorative techniques: 1) the introduction of supplementary weft

float into the ground weaves. The addition of extra weft threads to the weave structure,

which do not form part of the basic structure of the cloth, float across sections of the

ground weave, appear on one face of the cloth over six or eight warps and then across

through the warp to the back, floating and then returning again to the face. Rows of the

weft floats are thus arranged to form designs such as triangles, wedges and hour glass

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shapes. The second technique involves creating solid blocks of coloured threads across

the cloth strip to entirely conceal the warp (Clarke, 2002).

The structure of the Asante Kente strip cloth centres on the creation of weft floats and

geometric shapes to achieve an overall design. Asante Kente patterns can be grouped

into four - Ahwepan, Topreko, Faprenu and Asasia (Cole and Ross, 1977). Ahwepan

(literally hard hit) is a plain-weave with or without simple weft stripes; Topreko (thrown

or passed once) typically features the characteristic ‘single weave’ Kente pattern

composed of two blocks of weft-faced Babadua, a block of weft-faced Adwini created

with double or triple weft threads going over and under, and alternate groups of six warp

threads. This is followed by a group thread. Faprenu (picked twice) is created by two or

three hand-picked supplementary weft threads wound on a single bobbin with the

threads passed back and forth before the ground thread is inserted to create blocks of

Adwini so densely packed that the warp threads are not seen through the weft. This

‘double weave’ uses twice as many weft threads as the ground thread. Asasia is the

rarest and most prestigious of the Kente patterns. It is a distinctive twill pattern in a

diagonal alignment of weft floats. This intricate weft pattern is woven exclusively for

Asantehene.

Construction of the Kente cloth

Plate 4 shows a typical example of Asante Kente cloth constructed by sewing several

basic strips of cloth measuring approximately 10.2cm wide lengthways to arrive at a

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design that depicts three distinct sections: an open-end border design (i) followed by the

main cloth design in the middle (iii) and a close-end border design (ii).

i
ii

iii

Plate 1: Typical Kente cloth

The male Kente cloth

A woven strip of the male cloth measures approximately four yards long (4 x 144

inches) and comprises an arrangement of three motifs repeated five times for the open

border design (Plate 2).

Plate 2: A strip of a male Kente cloth

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The female Kente cloth

Kente strip for a female cloth has a dimension of 4 x 72 inches; approximately two yards

long or half the size of the male cloth. Typically, each strip has a main cloth design

sandwiched between an open border design and a close-end border design. It

comprises three motifs repeated five times for the open border design followed by two

motifs that are repeated 11 times for the main cloth design. The strip is completed with

a close-end border design made up of three motifs repeated five times, adding up to a

total of five different motifs that are arranged 21 times (Plate 3).

Plate 3: A strip for female Kente cloth

The female Kente cloth is constructed from 24 strips: eight make up the Kaba or blouse;

another eight are sewn together to provide cloth that is worn wrapped around the waist

and held down with a strip of cloth or sewn into a skirt with a opening on the lower side

called Slit; the third set of eight strips are sewn together to form the Akataso or cover

cloth.

Arrangement of Asante Kente strip

The male and female Asante Kente cloth may bear similar features in terms of the

motifs, arrangement and colours but they have distinct characteristics. The dimension of

a strip for the male cloth is 4 x 144 inches, roughly four yards in length. Each strip has

an open border design followed by a main cloth design and a close-end border design.

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The cloth is composed from three motifs that are repeated five times for the open border

design as illustrated in Plate 4.

Plate 4: Open border design of Asante Kente cloth

The motifs that are arranged in the open border and close-end border designs are

shown in Plates 5 to 7 respectively. This is followed by two motifs that are repeated 29

times for the main cloth design shown in Plate 9.

Plate 5: Akyem Plate 6: Atwedeε Plate 7: Babadua

Plate 8: Main cloth design

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Plates 9 and 10 show the two motifs - Nkyimkyim and Mpuakron - that are alternated to

form the main cloth design.

Plate 9: Nkyimkyim Plate 10: Mpuankron

The strip is completed with a close-end border design made up of three motifs repeated

five times. This adds up to a total of five different motifs that are arranged in 39 ways. In

the course of weaving Kente strips, the weaver arranges the motifs alternatively in each

strip so that when they are sewn together, the motifs would appear in an alternate

pattern as seen in Plate 11.

Plate 11: Main cloth design created from sewn strips

Design draft and tie-up arrangement

Unlike Kente weaving, the school art curriculum includes teaching students to plan their

designs on graph sheet to illustrate the envisaged pattern as part of preparations to

guide the interpretation of the design on the loom. The foundation for ideation in the

textiles programme is taken care of with Basic Design, a course which provides critical

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studies of selected natural and man-made objects, sketching of the form, basic shapes,

texture and other characteristics before merging these into motifs. The learning

experiences culminate in definite design ideas, motifs and patterns which may be

translated into a printed, dyed or woven fabric for example. Attaining the required

competence with printing and dyeing presents fewer challenges; scaling this up for

woven fabrics where the students have to develop a graphical representation of their

designs and the tie-up arrangement for loom work is what many beginning textiles

students face the most difficulties.

Draft in weaving refers to graphical representation of the ends on the various shafts.

Draft is derived from design by following this basic principle: “place all ends that lift alike

in a design on the same shaft and all ends that lift differently on different shafts”.

Heddling order is numerical information that guides a weaver to pass the ends through

the heald’s eyes. Heddling involves passing the warp ends through the eyes of the

healds (Asatia and Asanan). Asatia is used for plain weaves - a simple structure of one

warp up and one weft done (one up - one down) pattern, while Asanan is used in

creating designs. In heddling, the weaver either sits on the floor or on a bench. Heddling

order is derived from a draft.

Kente designs have one common 1-2-1, 4-3-4 heddling order where the numbers

represent the various shafts used. Figure 3 shows a Kente draft pattern with the

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corresponding heddling order, where each row represents a shaft that is numbered from

the bottom to the top.

X X X X Shaft 4
Shaft 3
X X
Shaft 2
X X
Shaft 1
X X X X
Fig. 1: Kente draft
pattern

Figure 1 means the first end (x) is passed through the first heald on Shaft 1; the next

end is passed through the first heald on Shaft 2; the next end is passed through the

heald on Shaft 1, the next end is passed through the heald on Shaft 4, the next end is

passed through the heald on Shaft 3, and finally the next end is passed through the

heald on Shaft 4 to complete one repeat. This order is repeated till all the ends are

passed through the heald’s eyes.

TIE-UP
Tie-up is the connection of the shafts to the treadles. The traditional narrow loom has

two pairs of shaft: Asatia and Asanan as in Plates 12.

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Plate 12: shows two pairs of shaft

Tie-up refers to the way the shafts are connected to the treadles. In Kente weaving, four

shafts are used; a pair of Asatia and a pair of Asanan which are connected to two

treadles that the weaver holds between the toes (Plate 13).

Plate 13: connection of treadles to the shafts

There are also four treadles called Ntiamu. The Asatia are connected to Treadles 1 and

2. These are depressed with the weaver’s feet; the Asanan are connected to Treadles 3

and 4 that are suspended and controlled by hand. Before actual weaving commences,

the treadles are attached to the shafts to enable a shed to be created when a treadle is

depressed. Figure 4 is a graphical representation of the tie-up arrangement. Treadle 1

is tied to Shafts 1 and 3 as indicated by the areas marked “X”; Treadle 2 is tied to Shafts

2 and 4 as indicated by the areas marked “X”; Treadle 3 is tied to Shafts 1 and 2 as

indicated by the areas marked “X” whiles Treadle 4 is tied to Shafts 3 and 4 as indicated

by the areas marked “X”.

Treadle 1 Treadle 2 Treadle 3 Treadle4

X X Shaft 4

X X
Shaft 3

Shaft 2
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X X

X X

Asatia (Plain weave) Asanan (Design weave)

Fig. 2: Graphical representation of tie-up process

The experiment
To facilitate accurate visualization and conceptualization of drafting, selected Kente

patterns were adopted as instructional medium. Drafting or plotting the intended design

on graph paper seems to pose difficulties among textiles students. The structure of the

variety of Kente weaves offer a distinctive tool for teaching about the elements and

principles of design; learning about drafting as a design process involves identifying the

respective motifs, their names and the philosophical significance. Attempts were made

to explore the types of motifs that connect to make up particular designs and their

character.

The approach involved isolating the individual motifs, visually breaking one down and

plotting them into graphic format to serve as instructional resources to enable textiles

students to visualize the structure of motifs that make up the selected Kente designs.

This approach both demonstrates the structure of the individual motifs and also how

they are combined to form the identifiable border and main cloth designs. Appreciation

of this process makes it easy for the students to understand the process of drafting

patterns. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the drafts of basic Kente designs - Nwatoa, Akyem,

Mpuankron, Atwedie, Nkyinkyim, and Babadua among other Kente motifs.

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Nkyemfre Fathia kotwere Agyeman

Nwatoa Akyem
Babadua

Atwedie Mpuankron

Fig. 3: Graphical representation of some Kente motifs

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Apremuo Nkyimkyim

Atweremansa
Mpuanum
Damedame

Ntabon Donowa

Fig. 4: Graphical representation of some Kente motifs

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CONCLUSION
Preserving the Asante traditional cultural heritage of Kente weaving by integrating it into the

school textiles programme and also merging this tradition with broadloom weaving approaches

can encourage capacity building through design education. It is culturally appropriate that the

heritage of indigenous creativity that is clearly evident in Kente be explored and also studied in

detail to promote interest in its study as an instructional resource beyond its functional limitation.

Active collaboration between higher education and indigenous artists could sustain and promote

its incorporation in art education in Ghana.

The uniqueness of Asante Kente as a cultural heritage lies in the generational protection it has

enjoyed over centuries. The original designs, names and philosophical content have been

preserved and new designs are being evolving. Sustainability of Kente has defied modern

technological advancements in the textiles industry to the extent that this hand-woven fabric

cannot be produced in commercial quantities.

Kente weaving is also being influenced by tourism so bookmarkers, banners, tapestry

and similar products can be found on the market. The study of Kente weaving as a

school art has also broken the strict traditional gender rules that bar women from Kente

weaving because both male and female students have to satisfy the same course

requirements. This has not eroded the authenticity of the Kente cloth which is the

preserve of the master weavers of Bonwire, Adanwomase and other communities in

Ashanti Region. As this paper shows, Kente as an indigenous artefact is a sustainable

means of satisfying objectives specified for the principles and practice of designing,

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drafting and tie-up within the textiles syllabi for secondary and higher education art

education institutions. The fact that Kente can be plotted offers great opportunity for

simplifying and demystifying textile designing, drafting of designs on point paper, and

tie-up arrangements which are classified as ‘difficult to teach’ and ‘difficult to learn’

aspects of the textiles curriculum. Kente is a rare instructional resource that adds

quality to the teaching and learning of the elements and principles of design, colour

symbolism, philosophy of design and weaving on the loom in particular and should be

adopted by art educators in Ghanaian schools, colleges and universities.

The experiment culminated in all the students been able to do the following:

• They selected their own Kente designs, plotted them on point paper,

• They then translated the designs onto the broadloom by way of the draft with a heddling

order of 1-2-1, 4-3-4. This enabled them to pass all the ends into the heald’s eye,

• The final stage was the tie-up; they connected the shafts to the treadles according to

the mechanism of Asatia (plain weave) and Asanan (design weave) and the result was

that,

• Each of them by the end of the semester were able to weave a Kente strip.

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REFERENCES
Kwekedee (2012). Trip down memory lane. Retrieved from http://kwekudee-

tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.co.uk/2012/12/kente-cloth-ghanas-ashanti-cultural.html

on December 3, 2012.

Ofori-Ansah, K. (2009). History of Ashanti Kente Cloth-- More than a Piece of Fabric.

Retrieved from http://kente.midwesttradegroup.com/history.html on April 8, 2013.

Badoe W. (2005). Analytical study of the structural patterns of Asante Kente. MA thesis.

KNUST. Ghana.

Ministry of education (2010). Curriculum Research and Development Division (CRDD)

Mishra R. C. (2013). General principles of teaching styles. Retrieved from

http://books.google.com.gh/books April 23, 2013.

Otuo Acheampong (2012). Personal communication. Bonwire, Ghana.

Asinyo, B.K.A. and Frimpong, C. (2013). Comparative Study of History, Equipment,

Materials, Techniques and Marketing Approach of Traditional Weaving in Ghana

www.iiste.org Vol.7.

Avins, I. & Quick D. B. (1998) Wrapped in Pride. USA, California: Regents of the

University of California. p 9.

Clarke, D. (2002). The Art of African Textiles. London. PRC Publishing Ltd. pp. 64-76.

Cole, H. M. and Ross D. H. (1977). The Arts of Ghana. Regents of the University of

California.

Picton, J. (1986). The Art of African Textiles: Technology, Tradition and Lurex. London:

Lund Humphries Publishers p 12

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Opoku-Asare, N. A.

Obuba, W. (2004). The Ewe Kete and Asante Kente

Amesimeku, M. (2009). The Ewe Kete

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 Materiality and rendition: the art of mixed media in ceramics design

Adjei, Kofi1 and Asante E. A.

1. Department of Industrial Art, CASS, KNUST.
2. Department of General Arts Studies, CASS, KNUST
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The art of mixed media has been practiced by almost all cultures for various
reasons. The research looks at how mixed media can be used to improve on the
limitations of clay properties in the designing and construction of art works. Clay
is an important material with properties such as plasticity, hardness
refractoriness and resistance to chemical reactions. However, this versatile
material has some limitations that bother on structural, aesthetics and technical
considerations that need to be compensated for by other non-ceramic materials
that have higher capacity to achieving the result of the design project. This
project therefore explores how the above challenges can be overcome through
designing and rendering with non-ceramic materials that could produce effects
and textures which are difficult to achieve with clay. The study employed quasi
experimental research method for the execution of the design concepts and
discussion of the results. The results of the study showed that mixed media is an
effective means of achieving design effects that are almost impossible with clay.
Mixed media produced holistic designs that synthesised ceramics and non-
ceramic materials for aesthetic and functional purposes.
Keywords: Mixed media, materials, design, aesthetics, material synthesis

1.0 Introduction
The effect of materials on design parameters has been an important subject of debate
for a very long time. It is obvious that every material has its own strength and weakness
(Burton 2006). Clay, metal, wood, asbestos, plastics, fibres, leather etcetera have all
served some crucial roles in the designing industry. Clay is an important raw material
(Aramide, 2012, Nsiah et al 2011) that functions in diverse ways to meet the aesthetic,
utilitarian and mechanical needs of mankind (Risatti, 2007). Clay is plastic when wet
and forms rigidity when dried and becomes permanently hard when fired to red hot and
impervious to acids and liquids when glazed. These properties of clay make it a very
important industrial material for both the aesthetic and utilitarian industry. However, this
versatile material has its own limitations such as lack of tensile strength, fragility,
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forming technique and structural weakness. These properties of the clay make it
imperative that some other materials with higher capacity to complement the associated
flaws and limitations are employed when designing ceramics in order to achieve
efficiency and higher aesthetic values.

This paper looks at designing taking into consideration mixed media as the alternative
solution to the problems associated with clay. The main objective is to proof the
practicability of enhancing the properties of clay using mix media with emphasis on the
concepts rather than the processes. The major question driving this study is ‘how can
designing with mix media help to improve the limitations associated with clay’? The term
mixed media applies to all forms of art that employs more than a single material in its
design composition. It includes interdisciplinary subjects that combine two or more of
the traditional art disciplines. It is the use of different artistic media such as painting and
collage combined, or ceramics combined with wood in a single composition of work. It
designates all those works of art or design that break away from the traditional use of
materials; combining two and three dimensional approaches in the execution of a single
composition of a work. The concept of mixed media is as old as art itself. Humans
through their ingenuity have explored their environment by employing the technology of
materials, methods and techniques and have developed wonderful designs that
challenge the design status quo. For instance, African wooden masks and sculptures
are made up of array of mixed media works that have been used to serve their day to
day needs. Such works have been used to meet the socio-cultural, religious, political,
and psychological needs of the African. Notable examples are the wooden sculptures
that are decorated with materials such as fabric, metal, beads, fibre, leather, paint,
cowries, bells and others as seen in (fig 1).

Fig. 1 The Singer Mask

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Source: (African Art Journal Vol. XXXVIII Number 4)

Wooden statues or masks often carried the adornment of other materials such as shells,

fibres, horns, teeth, claws, bits of glass or mirror. Such appendages were in most cases

required for the use of an object. The mixed media were requirements for some of the

performing costumes (fig 2).

Fig. 2 Masquerade showing appendages to the mask

The African masks and sculptures that were produced south of the Sahara have

positively influenced the European art and design of the 20th and the 21st Centuries with

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the usage of mixed media and their philosophical dispositions. The great masters of the

Cubism Movement; Picasso, Manet, and others were all philosophically and

contextually re-orientated from what was called the conventional rules by the West, to a

more conceptualised approach to the world of art and design (Taggart, 2012, Castro, J.,

Garcia, M., Massot, M., Rodriguez, M., Moros, P., Alvarez, J, Mulroy, J. (n. d), ), (fig 3).

This brought about artistic and design emancipation from what was seen as emotional

and creative imprisonment of the 20th Century Western Culture. The effect of this

influence was the development of Cubism and the Dadaism movements in Western art

and design (Rewald, 2000).

Fig 3 Picasso’s work with African masks

Adjei, (2007: 8-11) asserts that mixed media has also been employed in ceramics in

many cultures across time and evidence of it can be found among some cultures in the

Republic of Benin and some other African countries. Below are some pots decorated

with sheet of copper, cane and other materials (Figure 4 &5). He argues that in Ghana

one will find some pieces of ceramics that have been decorated with yarns, raffia, cane

or beads and these may either serve a decorative or functional purpose.

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Fig 4: Pot finished with copper, Fig 5: Pot finished with woven cane

Source: African Ceramic

He further contend that these wares may be associated with utilitarian, ceremonial,

magical or ritual use, a concept he maintain has been the driving force in early ceramic

production through out the world.

1.1 Mixed Media in Contemporary Art and Design

The 20th and 21st Centuries have seen a remarkable display of creative expressions in

design using mixed media. Artists and designers articulate their philosophies through

the use of mixed media due to the freedom of expression with materials and methods.

According to Feder, Armstrong, Graven and Haskell (1976) there was the emergence of

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revolution and re-invention in the American design and sculpture tradition in the first

three decades of the 20th century (1900-1930).

The period saw the beginning of artists and designers employing mixed media to

communicate their ideas and philosophies to their clients. Duchamp, Morton,

Schamberg and Ray were some of these artists/designers who explored mixed media to

a greater height in the American art history. Cornell (1987) also made a lot of strides in

the 1940s and 50s by deviating from the conventional use of sculptural materials by

including boxes, fabric, wood, bottles, cork, glass and other materials in his composition

(Dittola, 2012, Hartigan, 2007 Hawkins , 2009), (fig 6&7).

Fig.6:Exhibitions/ American Fig.7:Andy Ducett’s Carbinet of curiosity

Artist: Joseph Cornel.

Dona (1969) and Tucker (1974) agree that Picasso experimented with assortment of

materials; including cardboard, tin, bronze, sand and other materials that were usually

not familiar to the artists and designers of his days, making him one of the pioneers of

mixed media art in European sculptural tradition. However, according to Graven

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(1994:596) mixed media was advocated by the early Dadaists, in one way to debunk

what he calls the high art and, in another, to bring art and real life together.

Some contemporary African artists have also made good strides in this development

even though it may not be new in African traditional art. Magnin (1996) wrote that

Amadou Makhtar Mbaye, a Senegalese mixed media artist used cans of shaving cream

or insecticides, glass bottles, strings, cut-out pieces of pockets, horns, fruits and so forth

in the construction of what he called “theatre in boxes”. His mixed media compositions

bring to fore the philosophical, historical, visual and religious meaning of his work.

Whether one may call it installation, collage, assemblage or mixed media, the profound

stories of putting more than one material in a single work of art/design could be read

from the sculptures of El Anatsui who combines wood, raffia, palm fronds, fabric and

metal in his work which has acclaimed high international recognition in contemporary

sculpture. According to Picton, John and Houghton, Gerard (1998), his work combines

the culture of Ghana, his native country and Nigeria where he lives and work. The

artist’s work is multicultural. It articulates ideas based on the experience and exposure

gained from his background as a Ghanaian and his discovery of other cultural systems

and values in Nigeria through research he conducted when teaching in a university in

Nigeria.

Contemporary application of mixed media in the design works by students of the

Ceramics Section of the Industrial Art Department of the Kwame Nkrumah University of

Science and Technology, Kumasi show works made from assorted materials ranging

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from metals through to bamboo. The dynamism with which the artists’ have composed

these multiple materials into simple but communicative manner is very inspiring (fig

11&12)

1.2 The Future of Mixed Media in Art and Design

The present interest expressed by both artists/designers and collectors are enough

prove to the sustainability of the art of mixed media. Mixed media promises a great

future because the scope of expression and the availability of materials are unlimited.

Its importance cannot be over-emphasized. It provides the artist/designer with unlimited

ideas and materials from both the natural and the artificial environments. According to

Dona (1969) mixed media provides artists/designers with amazing range of materials

and ideas that can easily be expressed by both young and older artists/designer. Mixed

media allows the artist/designer to take fresh look at the most ordinary items and

separate them from their everyday environment and uses.

The concept of mixed media employs everyday materials including textile, scrap metals,

and cut-outs that assume new character and importance. Mixed media provides

stimulating ideas and techniques that explore the principles of design composition.

When the artist/designer removes things that are familiar from their traditional

environments and places them in new surroundings, the unexpected ironic combination

opens the eyes of the viewer to excitement and beauty in all forms, (fig 8&9).

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Fig 8: The Mantle Piece, Remnant

Fig. 9: Archetype (Come Together Series) by Remnants

According to Lyons, J. (2005) Ron Rybak strongly asserts that mixed media is gaining a

new audience and that interior designers, new collectors and long-time buyers of

traditional and classical art are being drawn to mixed media works for their intense use

of multi-dimensional materials: paint, textiles, metals, paper, clay, wood and many other

found objects. Mixed media has become popular than it has been in the past. It

promises a brighter future for the art and design industry.

Dean (2006) curator for the one part clay exhibition asserts that mixed media is a

product of our current state in a post-modern society where categorization is not the

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premise in developing an idea in the visual arts. Instead the combination of many

sources is the essential tool in creating work that addresses our global society of the

21st century.

1.3 Contemporary Mixed Media in Ceramics

In the 20th century art/design had a dramatic development and this did not only affect

sculpture and painting but ceramics as well (Levin, 2011). At this time ceramic

designers began to explore the addition of other materials to clay objects. This

phenomenon even though existed some years ago took a new turn during this period.

Unlike the earlier periods, this time round this kind of attachments were more regarded

for their aesthetics than religious or social values.

This technique involves the use of different materials that were hitherto non-ceramic.

Traditionally they may not be compatible but it is gaining popularity in recent times as a

result of persistent desire of the ceramic artists and designers to explore other means of

forming and finishing their wares (fig 10).

Evidently, various forms of mixed media in ceramics were displayed during the

Contemporary Serbian Ceramic Art exhibitions at the beginning of the 21st Century.

According to Vukati (2007) most of the award recipients were artist of the mixed media

fraternity who displayed exceptional degree of visual, stylistic, technical and

technological ingenuity in the contemporary discourse. The combination of photography

and ceramics in installation and several other unusual combinations of mixed media

could be found among the award winning pieces. Due to the versatility of the subject of

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mixed media there is an endless opportunity for the artists and designers who wish to

explore their materials and technique to the maximum (Monson, 2013).

Fig.10 A Pair of G-Pots with Some Cherubs and Two Branches, 2004, terra-cotta

ceramic, fake gold and silver jewellery, chain, natural and green rabbit fur, lustre,

enamel, gouache and plywood, 60 x 38 x 20 inches.

Fig. 11: The xylophone

Fig. 12: Bees on Nectar

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Third year student’s work- photo by author

Furthermore, in a forum organised in response to the closure of the ceramics

department at the Victoria College of Art, Australia, a participant made a profound and

revealing statement about mixed media. He said there was more room in the future for

an experimental ceramics that make new connections with different disciplines;

ceramics and music, ceramics and photography, ceramics and architecture and other

similar combinations. Ceramics also offers the opportunity to other art disciplines to

express themselves in the three-dimensional form.

According to Peterson (1996:259) there is a growing urge to conceptualize clay or to

use it with other materials that are contrary to ceramics in order to extend its crucial

limitations: lack of tensile strength, fragility, shrinkage and warping factors, weight,

difficulties of making and firing. The technique of mixed media in ceramics rather

employs the unique qualities of permanence, flexibility, inherent strength and the

unusual textures and surface-effect it gives to the artist and designers. The potential for

mixed media in clay is endless.

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To buttress on the above, Speight, Charlotte and Toki, (2000) said that mixed media in

ceramics has the potential of widening the scope of opportunities for today’s clay artist

or designer who uses variety of materials. There is a growing attention from both

ceramic artists and art patrons about mixed media in ceramic art. The future of mixed

media in ceramics is great and artists who are looking for a new vocabulary to express

themselves through materials and techniques will find it as an opportunity.

It is based on the above discussions that the current researchers have set out to

explore the used of other materials as synthesis to clay in the production of some

expressive designs and forms in ceramics.

Research Methods
In conducting this study, the researchers employed the qualitative research method.

Specifically, the quasi experimental approach was adopted for collecting and exploring

the potentials of other media which could be used together with clay to achieve the

objectives of this research. Both natural and artificial materials were purposively

sampled for the experimentation, however, in the end wood, metal, glass, jute and

brushes successfully synthesised with the clay component by various joining

techniques.

Research outcome
Designing of these pieces considered the viability of materials and construction

mechanism.

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Fig. 13 Expression

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In the first outcome titled “Expression” (fig. 13) the projections that are traditionally

avoided when designing with clay due to the material’s flaws were achieved by the

fusion of the plant component which is tolerant to breakages when put under external

shock. The flexibility of the plant material and its natural form makes it a good substitute

for the design over other materials. The colour and composition of the plant material,

the clay component and the wooden base suggest mastery and well thought of synergy

and unity of thought by the artist.

“Expression” evokes a premeditated design concept that surmounts all challenges of

material rendition and aesthetic complications. The work from hindsight shows actual

texture of roughness and smoothness from the different material base. It brings

vegetation to the natural environment with a different effect. The plant part is a

composite part of the design and diffuses the concept of a vase. The harmony of the

colour, proportion and balance created by the three composite materials suggests

completeness.

The composition of ‘’Expression’’ exemplifies the Dadaist and Surrealist approach to

defining their world. That is the use of found objects to express ideas as if the artist is

tapping from the unconscious world. (Lazzari,1997). The use of the plants re-echoes

freedom in material expression. The texture created by the insects in the wood and the

way it’s been transformed from its natural state into the new environment shows a

salvage of object from destruction. The outer layer of the wood evokes a sense of

weakness and vulnerability of the human nature having the fragile and transient

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physical body that is subject to decay as against the inner core which shows resilience,

hardness and permanence. It tells the story of human’s physical temporariness and

spiritual perpetuity.

Fig. 14 Butterfly

The second design outcome captioned “Butterfly”’ (fig 14) also re-echoes the

possibilities and essence of material amalgamation in ceramic design. The synthesis of

the clay, glass, metal and the fibre is a clear manifestation of a contemporary design

dialogue that challenges the boundaries of traditional ceramic expression and

discussion. The debate of all part clay and of material purity has again been revisited by

the work which finds nothing amiss with multiple material synthesis. The spirit of mixed

media is well expressed by the ‘butterfly’ design.

“Butterfly” congregates the two types of ceramics that are physically and chemically

distinct; namely the crystalline and non-crystalline ceramics in the form of the clay and

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glass respectively. The transparency of the glass harmonises and balances with the

illusion created by the hole in the metal plates. The plates representing the wings

reminiscence a four wing butterfly in space. The space in the wings evokes a sense of

freedom in-flight. The strong brown colour of the wing harmonises with the glossy brown

effect of the ceramic component which represents the body of the butterfly.

The narrow base of the pot reconstructs the lunch of a rocket, space shuttle or missile.

The checked patterns created by the ropes idealised the designs that are found on

insects. The projections of the rope at the base of the work also create a sense of

freedom and evoke an image of the explosion of thermal energy that accompanies

missile or rocket lunch. The wings created from the fan blades exemplifies the re-

evocation of the Cubist and Dadaist used of found objects. It enacts a transformation of

objects from one state to the other without a change in its original concept.

Fig.15 Victory over mortality

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‘’Victory over Mortality’’ (fig.15) is the third design outcome with mix media. It is a

conceptual portrait of the man Joe Nkrumah, a conservator and restorer of cultural

antiquity and an art enthusiast. The figure reinterprets and enacts the life of a man who

spent all his life in the service of humankind. The raised arms symbolises celebration of

victory. The crescent head with the sun rays signifies wisdom, knowledge and influence,

a semiology that is very popular with the Christian believe and other cultural doctrines.

The black colour of the arm and head identify a man who commands power. The rope,

traditionally used for tying domesticated animals from going astray, represents

preservation. The composition of it with the brushes signifies his contribution to the

preservation of art and culture. The posse enacts a youth in a princely gorgeous long

coat, a biblical tradition that is also practised in some parts of Africa (Genesis 37: 21-

23).

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The opened space in the figure evokes Joe Nkrumah’s regard for transparency and

fairness. Even though the man died at old age the artist envisioned him in a conceptual

spectacle as a youth because he still remains fresh and energetic in the minds of

cultural anthropologist, artist, preservers, conservators, restorers and all who knows

about his contribution to the world. The work finally sets the tone for justifying mixed

media in ceramic design. The metallic parts together with the ceramic, rope, brushes

and bulb components articulate the harmony that could be achieved when designing

with ceramics mixed media. The colour, texture, form, materials and composition

communicates response from the dilemmas of materials’ properties and rendition in

design brief. The work interrogates the frontiers of ceramic expression.

Conclusion
It has become clear from the primary and secondary data that the structural, aesthetics

and technical challenges in clay can be compensated for by other non-ceramic

materials such as metals, plant, wood, glass, fibre and jute that have higher capacity to

achieving the result of the design projects as demonstrated in the design outcomes in

this study.

It is therefore recommended for artists, designers and ceramics practitioners to explore

further into this area of artistic and creative expression in order to expand the working

parameters of the design industry.

References
• Adjei, K. (2007) Mixed Media in Ceramics, A thesis submitted to the School of
Graduate Studies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi
• Aramide F. O. (2012) Effect of Firing Temperature on Mechanical Properties of Fired
Masonry Bricks Produced from Ipetumodu Clay, Leonardo Journal of Sciences

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• Burton, A. (2006) Bricks and Bamboo, Newcastle University.

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(n. d) African American History Through the Art: African Art and Cubism
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PROJECT, New York. deanproject.com/documents/mdean_essay.pdf Retrieved
26/02/2013
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Sculpture, Godine, R. David Publisher in Association with Whitney Museum of Art.
NY
• Graven, W. (1994) American Art History and Culture, McGraw Hill Companies pp596
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Museum (PEM)
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joseph-cornell.original.pdf
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Century Ceramics, The American Ceramic Society 600 N. Cleveland Ave., Suite 210
Westerville, OH 43082
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Distinct and Important Sources of Business, Magazine article from Art
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buyers-represent-three

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present, Utah State University, Utah
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Vol.13 No1
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• Picton, John and Houghton, G.(1998) El Anatsui- Sculpted History of Africa, Saffron
Books, an Imprint of Eastern Art Publishing., pp33, 34
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• http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cube/hd_cube.htm (October 2004) Retrieved
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t.pdf
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pp77
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 Public impression of artworks: a case study of KNUST

Nortey, S
Department of Industrial Art
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
[email protected]

Bodjawah, E. K
Department of Painting and Sculpture
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, GHANA
[email protected]

Osei, S
Department of Industrial Art
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Impressions of the public on artworks and its connection to artistic developments were
examined in this study. The prime aim was to understand the various factors that
influence people’s impression of artworks. Using 1559 respondents of artist and non
artist, analysis revealed that non artist were 28.9% highly impressed about artworks as
compared to artist. The educational background of a person had a significant influence
(p< 0.012) on one’s impression of artworks. Again, the perceived role of art in society
(social, economic, and therapeutic) was significant in influencing one’s impressions
about artworks. The study revealed among others that these impressions of the public
are based on issues such as poor conservation and restoration of artworks; producing
works that do not fit into space. Impressions of the public on artworks displayed on the
campus of KNUST bring into fruition a formative feedback to artists as review and excite
interesting discourse and research in the field of art. Hence, artist should admit that
impressions are one of the key ingredients to artistic development and can assist
unravel complexities in design.
Keywords: Art Impressions, artwork, KNUST, artistic development

INTRODUCTION
As artist, developing our skills in some cases rest manifestly on the views of the public

we produce the works for. Artworks are displayed in an environment and therefore it is

imperative that we get feedbacks for artistic reviews. A preponderance of literature

points to a fact that artworks are produced by artist for several purposes such as
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aesthetics codes, religious and the likes (Aune, 2005; Olson, 2003, Susi, 2002; Tarr,

2001).

Impressions about art works explores meanings and therefore involves re-seeing

(Bresler, 2006). The contemplative awareness that occurs when engaging in a work of

art is facilitated by the intellectual and emotional investment in the experience, which, in

turn, shapes the viewers subjectivity (2006:56). According to Lahlry (1991), impression

is the process by which we interpret sensory data. Halpern (1989) discussed that a vast

ray of knowledge influences impression in that what you see depends on where you

concentrate on. Similarly, people form impression according to what artists present to

them. These impressions according to Severin et al (2001) are influenced by different

psychological factors such as past experience, cultural expectations, motivations,

moods, needs and attitudes. Feldman (1999) calls it a process of sorting out,

interpretation, analysis and integration of stimuli involving our sense organs and brain.

Gradle (2011) stated from personal experience that art speaks in its entirety and

responds directly to the viewer. In this vein, we could all understand that whatever

artwork is produced in any form or shade holds within it a message or a tool which can

facilitate the development of mankind.

Bargh et. al (1996) intimated that a person impression can be a very subjective process

that can be impacted by a number of variables. Factors that can influence the

impressions you form of a particular phenomenon for this matter artwork include the

characteristics of the work you are observing, the producer, the context of the work and

your own personal characteristics. McLeod (2007) quotes Gibson: sensation is

perception: what you see is what you get. There is no need for processing

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(interpretation) as the information we receive about size, shape and distance etc. is

sufficiently detailed for us to interact directly with the environment.

Studies conducted in the developed world, especially in the United States; show that the

general public generally perceives art as a beneficial force in human affairs. At the

same time, those surveys show that public knowledge of the details of artistic

knowledge is extremely low. The issue is a separate line of research suggesting that

public impressions of art are highly contextual, with people making judgments about the

relative trust to be placed in traditional artistic expertise (which often is generated by

government institutions) and in local knowledge based in the local context.

The topic of this study is to know the impression of the KNUST community about

artworks and its connection to artistic developments. Also to understand the various

factors influencing their impression of artworks. The study is anchored on the premises

that can these impressions of the public serve as a formative feedback to the artist who

produced them?

THE STUDY AREA

The Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) is a public

university that trains students into several fields of profession. Its vision can be stated

as "Advancing knowledge in Science and Technology for sustainable development in

Africa”. In Ghana, it is the first university to have a College of Art that trains artist. Most

practicing artist who had their training in Ghana are products of KNUST. In this vein, the

artworks of all shades and form (sculpture, paintings, ceramics, etc) are vividly

displayed on the campus. KNUST has been carefully chosen for this impression study

on artworks since it boasts of experts who train budding artists, students who are

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aspiring to become artists, and workers who are constantly in touch with the artworks

produced. The following are few of artefacts displayed on the campus of KNUST:

Fig. 1: The statue of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah at the entrance of KNUST

Source: Fieldwork, 2013

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Fig 2: Peace pole K.N.U.S.T Fig 3: A display of cultural festivities (Painting)

Source: Peace pole (fig 2) carved by Kwame Opoku Bonsu.

Display of cultural festivities (fig 3) by Medicus Appiah.

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Fig.4: Display of varieties of forms of sculpture

Source: Fieldwork, 2013

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Fig. 5: Ceramic mural produced by 2006 year group

Source: Fieldwork 2013

Fig. 6: Painting murals on buildings

Source: Fieldwork, 2013

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METHODS

Setting
The Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Ghana, is a

state owned leading university training and awarding degrees in art. It is the first

institution with a faculty of art that trains artists in Ghana. Similar to other universities, it

has a heterogeneous (mixture of ethnic race, religion, status, etc) population. The study

design was a simple questionnaire soliciting the impressions of artworks displayed on

the university campus. Purposively, lecturers, undergraduates, graduate students and

university administrators were chosen for the study. Using the simple random

technique, 1559 respondents were selected for the study.

Questionnaire Validation and Administration

The items on the questionnaire were mostly closed ended ones because statistical

validity was a prime objective. However, there were few open ended questions which

allowed for further explanations. The measurement uses a Likert scale with five levels

ranging from highly impressed to highly unimpressed. The questionnaire had three

sections. Section A dealt with respondents’ demographic data. Section B had questions

that assess the level of public impression on artworks displayed o KNUST and the last

section C was on design development. The questionnaire was reviewed and validated

by three art education experts. Content validity was ensured at the initial phase of

validity and reliability studies of the scale before a pilot study was carried out involving

20 people from each category of the population. The pilot study enabled the alteration of

certain questions such as “who made this art work”, because it was not beneficial to the

study. The respondents were informed of the study and the process of completing the

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anonymous questionnaire successfully was explained to them. The respondents were

allowed to complete the questionnaire without the researchers’ presence.

Statistical Analysis
A database was developed and frequencies and cross-tabulations were established

using Microsoft Excel. Statistical analysis was carried out with the STATA version 11

application software to compute the frequency comparisons to assess statistical

significance of the variables. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the

analysis. The ordered logit model was used to analyse the impression level of the

respondents regarding artworks. Odds ratios were reported with p-values to assess the

statistical significance of the independent variables. The covariates used were age,

gender, status on campus, role of art, academic background and ways to improve.

With the open-ended questions, the respondents were asked to identify ways to

improve the various art works. Options were not provided on the questionnaire in order

to illicit an outpour of various responses. The responses were varied a bit but were not

difficult to categorize because they were reviewed to identify basic similarities. Using

very common words, phrases and themes, the responses were grouped into smaller

number of sub-categories and vividly discussed.

Limitations
The non experimental nature of the study limits our ability to make causal inferences.

The public’ impressions of art works was not exogenous, and therefore their

impressions might be affected by other observed and unobserved variables.

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RESULTS

Sample Characteristics
A total of 1559 respondents were sampled for the study, 938 (60.17%) representing

males and 621 (39.83%) representing females. Of the population, 802 (51.44%) were

undergraduate students, 340 (21.81%) were graduate students, 232 (14.88%) were

lecturers and 185 (11.87%) were administrators. In relation to academic background,

713 (45.73%) were artist and 846 (54.27%) were non-artist.

Impressions about art works displayed on campus

Table 1 presents the results of the ordered logit regression with impressions about

artworks as the dependent variable. The explanatory variables were gender,

educational background, one’s status on campus, the role that artworks play in our

society among others.

The overall test of significance indicated the model was statistically significant. Thus

p<0.05 for LR chi(9) for the model. This implies that at least one of the coefficients is not

statistically equal to zero. Some of the variables were insignificant at 5% error level

(p>0.05) meaning that such variables did not exert significant influence on ones

impression about artworks. For example there was no difference in impression among

females and their male counterparts. Age was not different from this finding. Again,

there was no difference in impression among lecturers and administrators (p>0.05)

though their sign was negative. However, the educational background or field of

specialization played a significant role in influencing ones impression about artworks.

Respondents whose training were in the fields other than art were more likely to be

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interested in artworks (OR = 1.289, P = 0.012) at 5% error level. Thus non artist were

28.9% more likely to feel good (i.e. be in the higher category of impressions) about

artworks as compared to artists. The educational background parameter was significant

(p< 0.012) was below 0.05.

For the undergraduate category, the proportional odds ratio of comparing

undergraduates on campus to other members such as postgraduate students, lecturers,

and administrators on KNUST campus on impressions about artworks when all other

independent variables revealed that their odds of being very interested in artworks

versus the combined interesting, boring, and very boring feelings are 0.625 times lower

in comparison to other members on campus when all other variables are held constant.

Reporting for postgraduates, the odds of being very impressed in artworks are 0.038

times lower in comparison to other members on campus when all other variables are

held constant. In summary, a person’s status on campus significantly influences one’s

feelings or impressions about artworks. This is because the p-values for status on

campus (except lecturers) were below 0.05.

Table 1: Parameter estimate of impressions about art works displayed on campus

Response Variable: Coefficient Stand. Error P-value OR 95% CI (OR)

Feelings about art
-- --
Gender
Male Ref -- -- -- --
Female .1758841 .0989485 0.075 1.1923 .9821105 1.447474

Age .0032198 .0052624 0.541 1.003225 .9929308 1.013626

Status on campus
Administrator Ref -- -- -- --
Undergraduate -.469501 .1501485 0.002 .6253138 .4658986 .8392757
Postgraduate -.3451184 .1666388 0.038 .7081365 .5108269 .981658
Lecturer -.024092 .1803109 0.894 .9761959 .6855767 1.39001

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Ways to Improve it
No Ref -- -- -- --
Yes .341758 .1049933 0.001 1.40742 1.145653 1.728996
Role of Art
Religious Ref -- -- -- --
Social .8587547 .2683792 0.001 2.36022 1.394786 3.9939
Economic .8821761 .2825603 0.002 2.416152 1.631655 4.882974
Therapeutic 1.037675 .2796376 0.000 2.822646 1.631655 4.882974
Academic Background
- Artist Ref
- Non Artist .2542374 .1017615 0.012 1.289478 1.056317 1.574104
* Standard Errors and p-values are for the coefficients

Role of art work and its influence on impression

Results from Table 1 is the proportional odds ratio of comparing social to economic,

religious, and therapeutic roles of artworks and how they influence one’s impressions

about artworks when all other independent variables in the model are held constant. In

this vein the purpose of the art work produced was used in determining the level of

influence that is social (aesthetics and creativity), religious (Christian, Islamic,

traditional), economic and therapeutic. Artworks that play a social role were found to be

2.36 times larger to make a person highly impressed (i.e. being in higher category of

impression) about artworks when all other independent variables are held constant.

Similar to the social role, artworks that play an economic role are 2.41 times larger to

make a person feel good (i.e. being in higher category of impression) about artworks

when all other independent variables are held constant. Interestingly, artworks that play

therapeutic role are 2.82 times larger to make a person feel good (i.e. being in higher

category of impression) about artworks when all other independent variables are held

constant. Again, the perceived role of art in society (social, economic, and therapeutic)

was significant in influencing one’s impressions about artworks. This is because the p-

values for the categories of role of art were below 0.05 as seen from Table 1.

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Impression levels of respondents about art works

Table II presents the characteristics of the respondents on the level of impression about

art works. For non artist, the odds of being highly impressed with artworks versus the

combined impressed, neutral, unimpressed, and highly unimpressed in artworks are

0.718 times lower in comparison to those who were trained in art (artist) when all other

variables are held constant. Educational background played significant role in

determining the level of one’s impression with artworks (p<0.05).

Artworks that play a social role is 2.22 times larger to make a person highly impressed

(i.e. being in higher category of impression) with artworks when all other independent

variables are held constant. Also artworks that play an economic role is 1.80 times

larger to make a person impressed (i.e. being in higher category of impression) about

artworks when all other independent variables are held constant.

Similar to the social role, artworks that play a therapeutic role is 2.90 times larger to

make a person satisfied (i.e. being in higher category of satisfaction) about artworks

when all other independent variables are held constant. Finally, the perceived role of art

in society (social, economic, and therapeutic) was significant in influencing one’s

impression about artworks (p<0. 05) as seen from Table II.

Table II: Parameter estimate for impression level of art works displayed on KNUST
Response Variable: Coefficient Stand. Error* P-value* OR 95% CI (OR)
Impressed

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Gender
Male Ref -- -- -- --
Female .1506254 .0968413 0.120 1.162561 .9615776 1.405553

Age .0066418 .0050868 0.192 1.006664 .9966774 1.01675

Status on campus
Administrator Ref -- -- -- --
Undergraduate .0169809 .1498596 0.910 1.017126 .7582528 1.36438
Postgraduate .2304633 .1694339 0.174 1.259183 .9033717 1.755138
Lecturer .2300996 .1802393 0.202 1.258725 .8841196 1.792053
Ways to Improve it?
No Ref -- -- -- --
Yes .181085 .1018824 0.076 1.198517 .9815711 1.463412
Role of Art
Religious Ref -- -- -- --
Aesthetics .7980387 .2862438 0.005 2.22118 1.267455 3.892557
Economic .5885889 .2990247 0.049 1.801445 1.002514 3.237063
Therapeutic 1.065951 .2977868 0.000 2.903599 1.619795 5.20491
Academic Background
- Artist Ref --- -- -- ---
- Non Artist -.3317098 .0987904 0.001 .7176956 .591357 .8710253

* Standard Errors and p-values are for the coefficients

Artistic suggestions designed to improve art development

Most respondents commented on how and where art works are displayed. Their

responses touched heavily on producing works to fit in space. Most artist (n=702) and

non artist (n=53) intimated that where there is a vast land; monumental works should be

produced in order for the work to fit into the space. For example, at the entrance of the

university is the statue of Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah which technically lacks

visibility. The space is vast and because the sculptural pieces are comparatively

smaller, the art works are not all that visible (see figure 1).

Another suggestion that received a number of endorsements from the respondents was

the issue of artist who produced the work or the owner of the work imbibing the culture

of maintenance of art works. A majority of respondents from all the categories (n=1132)

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offered that the art producers must endeavour to revisit their works in order to maintain

the purpose for which it was made. A few art faculty members (n=12) recommended the

need for art critics to review works produced by artist. The respondents were of the view

that most works displayed on campus especially paintings, sculptural pieces, ceramics

works could have been enhanced for the purpose for which it was made if a

professional critic reviewed the work before its final execution. Interestingly, apart from

a majority of artist (n=534) who intimated that artist must learn to observe better, a

remarkable figure of non-artist (n=164) also opined the same view.

Significantly, respondents intimated for the breaking of monotony in form and media

used in producing of artworks. For example in ceramics, we can build or add on to clay

and producing exciting works. Pots do not necessarily be in the round but other

geometric forms could be used. In sculpture, other media such as old gallons, scraps,

rubber tyres could be used in addition to the stone, wood, clay and painters can

produce their own vistas to produce interesting works.

DISCUSSION
This study points to an undeniable fact that there are different impressions about

different art works based on the purpose for which the art work was made and the

background of the viewer. It is evidently clear that one major finding of the study is that

non-artists have a better impression level of art works displayed although these works

were made by artist. It could be that those without the background may not understand

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the technicalities in producing an art work and only looks at the aesthetic aspect of the

work produced. Impression involves making inferences about what we see and trying to

make a best guess. Prior knowledge and past experience are crucial in impression.

This finding complies with Severin et al (2001) and Gradle (2011). When we look at

something, we develop a perceptual hypothesis, which is based on prior knowledge.

The hypotheses we develop are nearly always correct (McLeod, 2007).

Impression of males was not statistically significant as well as female. This means that

impressions of art works is not gender oriented. Bole male and female form their own

impression and that the gender of a person does not influence one’s impression. Age

was also not statistically significant. The lack of culture of maintenance of art works

displayed on KNUST was among the key findings of the study. Any work of art that is

not kept properly or restored will obviously lose its touch and usefulness. This finding

points to a fact that as artists, lovers or owners of art, we must attempt to conserve

our artefacts.

Art works of any media must enjoy a prolonged lifetime of aesthetic and functional

benefit to society the public, clients who commission artworks should also be interested

in the preservation of works. Authorities in the university should sustain preservation

and restoration costs. It is a commonplace that when art works suffer various degrees

of deterioration and defacement resulting from neglect and manhandling the

impression of people will be unsatisfactory which will also serve as a de-motivator to

aspiring artists. The study finds expression in Annum (2012) who calls for preservation

and retouching of works by artist who produced them. The exigent exercise of

restoration requires technical expertise and artistic sensitivity to prolong the life of a

deteriorating work of art whilst ensuring that its original condition (Corbett, 2010).

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The findings of the study again call for an unravelling of design complexities. In order

to achieve this, there is the need for artist to break through conservatism and spur

innovations in form and design. There is the need for an intervention of a generative

kind not toward a specific aesthetics or approach, but a push toward in-depth

exploration, analysis, spontaneous play and association, design development and

revision (Nortey, et al, 2013). This calls for creative thinking and exploration,

imagination and understanding of design processes.

The study has also shown that viewers both artist and non artist impressions about art

works are influenced by the characteristics of the particular work being observed and a

number of other variables. Bargh et. al (1996) intimated that a person impression can

be a very subjective process and be based on factors such as the producer of the work,

the context of the work and the viewer’s own personal characteristics. This means that

both artist and non-artist strongly support the idea of being observant. It is also

palpable that there is the need for keen observations by artist. This idea of observation

calls for a detailed study of every creative activity and interactiveness in public and

private spaces. Because it is through this detail cross observations by both the artist

and the viewer that exciting artistic outcome is achieved. An art work should not only be

successful in telling us what to think but they should be stunningly successful in telling

us what to think about (McCombs, 2005). When the artist and the viewer have

contributed successfully to the production of an artefact, quality is assured and

becomes a precursor to better impression (Spreng and Mackoy, (1996).

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CONCLUSIONS
The impression about art on KNUST campus is generally good. This study has

indicated that those who are not trained in the art fraternity seems to have a more

positive impression about art works displayed on KNUST campus. Although there was

no difference in terms of impression among lecturers and administrators (p>0.05),

people whose training were in the fields other than art were more likely to be impressed

in artworks (OR = 1.289, P = 0.012). There was no statistical difference between male

and female impressions of art works. Age was also not a factor in influencing ones

impression simply because at one point in one’s age, he/she could interpret what he/

she sees. Personal experiences, socio-cultural and politics play vital roles in viewers’

impression of a work of art. Given the same challenge individual would prefer one work

to another for various reasons. Impressions about artworks have been analysed, what is

left for the artist is to transform these impressions in developing exciting designs. Thus

these impressions should serve as a formative feedback to the artist as review and

excite interesting discourse and research in the field of art. Hence, artist must admit that

impressions are one of the key ingredients to artistic development and can assist

unravel complexities in design.

REFERENCES
• Annum, G. Y. (2012). Mural painting retouching challenges: A Ghanaian
professional painter’s experience, Journal of Science and Technology, 32(3), 81-92.
• Aune, A. (2005). Building with colours and shapes: The modernist aesthetic for
young children, Art Education, 58:1, 25-32.
• Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct
effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 71, 230-244.
• Bresler, L. (2006). Toward Connectedness: Aesthetically based research, Studies in
Art Education, 48:1, 52-69.

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 Public impression of artworks: a case study of KNUST - Nortey, S., Bodjawah, E. K., & Osei, S

• Corbett,P.(2010).Restorationofoldmasters.http://www.oldmasters.net/journal/restorati
on-of-old-masters/ (accessed on May 9, 2013)
• Feldman, R. S. (1999), Understanding Psychology, 5th edition, U.S.A: McGraw Hill.
• Gradle, S. A. (2011), ‘A university course in mindful viewing: Understanding art and
self through contemplative experience’, International Journal of Education through
Art, 7:2, 137-151.
• Halpern, D. F. (1989).The disappearance of cognitive gender differences: what you
see depends on where you look. American Psychologist, 44, 1156-1158.
• Lahlry, S. (1991).A blue print for perception training.Journal for training and
development, 45:8, 21-25.

• McCombs, M. E. (2005). A look at agenda setting: Past, present and

future,JournalismStudies, 6: 543- 557.

• McLeod, S. A. (2007). Visual

Perception.http://www.simplypsychology.org/perception-theories.html accessed on
April 11, 2013.

• Nortey, S., Okai, E.F., & Bodjawah, E.K (2013). Breaking Monotony: A reflective
study of teaching decorative pot making, Teaching Artist Journal, 11(2), 69-80
• Olson, J.L. (2003) Lowenfield lecture: Children as the centre of art education, Art
Education, 56:4, 33-42.
• Schmitt, C. (2011). Mural Restoration and Conservation.Retrieved from
http://www.conradschmitt.com/services/details on May 9, 2013.
• Severin J, Tankard, W. Jr., James, W. (2001). Communication theories: origins,
methods and uses in mass media,5th edition, U.S.A: Longman.
• Spreng, R. A., & Mackoy, R. D. (1996). ‘An Empirical Examination of a Model of
Perceived Service Quality and Satisfaction’, Journal of Retailing, 72(02), 52-64.
• Susi, F. D. (2002). Behaviour management: Principles and guidelines for art
education, Art Education, 55:1, 40-45.
• Tarr, P. (2001). Aesthetic codes in early childhood classrooms. What art education
can learn from Reggio Emilia, Art Education, 54:3, 33-39.

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 Assessing the effectiveness of political party identity symbols and
colours on the decision making by electorates to vote

E. K. Enninful1 and P. Osei-Poku2

1
Department of Graphics, Takoradi Polytechnic, Takoradi
[email protected]
2
Department of General Art Studies, KNUST, Kumasi
[email protected]

ABTRACT:
Political parties were formed to participate in national elections and to promote
democracy. Electorates are supposed to vote for their preferred candidates
during elections. It is a truism that there are many factors that influence
electorates to vote for their respective parties which include the identification of
the party symbols and colours. This important issue of knowledge of symbols,
their philosophy and their political roles, among others is a problem in Ghana’s
democratic dispensation. These may have accounted for the large numbers of
electorates who err in their decision to vote effectively. The research was
conducted among four political parties in Ghana which were selected based on
the fact that the parties have representatives in the 5th parliament (i.e. current
parliament) of the 4th Republic of Ghana. Primary data were gathered via
questionnaires sent to the respective respondents. The respondents were party
members, party sympathizers and party executives selected from their strong
holds (Volta, Western, Ashanti and Northern regions). The researchers employed
qualitative and quantitative analyses in the form of descriptive statistics such as,
frequencies and percentages, supported with relevant tables and figures. One
revelation from the study was that majority were attracted to their respective
parties because of their flag bearers. However, flag bearers’ photographs on the
ballot papers may not be clear so electorates resort to the parties’ symbols to
vote. Also, high illiteracy accounts for the high incidence of rejected ballots.

Keywords: Symbols, colours, electorates, political parties, paraphernalia, philosophy

and assess.

INTRODUCTION
According to Appadorai (2004), a political party is an organized group of citizens who
hold similar political opinions and who work to get to the control of government in order
that the policies in which they are interested may be carried into effect. In many parts of
the world, political parties use symbols and colours primarily for identification, especially

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for voter recognition during elections and expression of philosophy of the respective
parties.

Ghanaian electorates have affiliated themselves with one political party or the other
based on numerous factors. One of the factors is the use of registered party symbols
and colours. Symbols and colours are also supposed to identify political parties for their
members to vote during elections. Besides, electorates should have knowledge of their
party identity symbols and colours.

However, knowledge of the identification of party symbols, their usage on

paraphernalia, their philosophy, effects of the philosophy on electorates’ political
lifestyle and the ability of electorates to effectively use such knowledge to vote for their
preferred parties have been a problem in Ghana’s democratic dispensation. Perhaps,
the effects of the outlined problem might have accounted for the large numbers of
electorates who erred in their decision to vote as revealed by Gyampo (2009), that the
number of rejected ballots recorded in the first round of the 2008 presidential race in
Ghana was as many as 205,438. Considering the foregoing discourse, this paper
becomes very vital and essential.

Objectives
The research objectives were to investigate the electorates’ knowledge of:
• how they were attracted to their respective political parties.
• how the symbols and colours guided respondents to vote for their political parties.
• how often the paraphernalia with the party symbols and colours were used.
• the effects of philosophy of respondents’ party symbols and colours on their political
lifestyle.
• the importance of party’s philosophical symbols and colours and how they help
respondents to vote for the party.

Hypothesis

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Electorates are not adequately educated on their party identity symbols and colours in
terms of identification, their importance, philosophy, the effects on their political lifestyle
and the use of required knowledge for voting.

Symbols
Any mark, shape or sign that represents a set of words, quality, or an idea is defined as
a symbol. Amenuke et al., (1989 p.32), explains “symbols play major roles in every
aspect of our lives - traditionally, socially, religiously, politically and economically.”
Symbols serve as a means by which political parties are identified as organizations and
that political parties continue to be the surest way of communicating visually and
aesthetically to the Ghanaian electorates. Thus, their importance cannot be
underestimated in the political landscape of Ghana.

For the purpose of identification, recognition, relationship and connection, a symbol is

assigned a name. These qualities make a symbol significant. Its location helps one to
discover the origin while the similarity and differences in relation to other symbols are
also evident.

Gyekye (1996:127) refers to symbolism as being, “a potent medium of artistic

production, expression or appreciation, meanings and ideas were given expression
through symbolic art.” In practice, symbols should be made to possess the above
characteristics. Making of symbols is purely an artwork whether produced by an artist or
non-artist. It involves creativity in transforming emotions and concepts into art forms, so
that all the qualities we see and perceive in terms of beauty can be made manifest. Any
artwork for that matter a symbol must be aesthetically appealing, meaningful and have a
reason for being created.

Symbols are found on almost all the paraphernalia that the political parties use in their
political activities. Paraphernalia, as noted by Merriam-Webster (2003), refers to
apparatus, equipment, or furnishing used in or necessary for activity as in political

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parties in Ghana. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2003) defines

paraphernalia as a lot of small things that belong to someone, or are needed for a
particular activity. In the view of the researchers, paraphernalia can be described as a
number of objects that are connected or coupled with a particular activity. An object
painted or decorated such as the human body, drinking cups, hats, clothes, footwear
etc. have symbols on them. These symbols and colours are seen in many forms of
paraphernalia used by political parties. They include flags, stickers, flyers, t-shirts,
clothes, cups, hats, foot wears, posters, head gears, banners, billboards, bangles,
brochures, flags and human bodies.

Colours
According to Locke (2006), colour “communicates” and is the quickest path to emotions.
No one can doubt the marked psychological and physical effects colour can have on
people. The great importance of colour lies in the fact that it can influence all the
different aspects of man, physical, emotional, mental and spiritual. Colours have
meaning for people and they can be used to help express the character of man. Rath
(1981) shared similar opinion on colours by arguing that: “Colour creates a pleasant (or
sometimes shocking) first impression and has the psychological advantage of fixing
visual impressions in memory and stimulating interest.

Furthermore, Colours create moods, draw attention, place emphasis, and intensify
memorability and can be used as a cue, to either associate with or symbolise something
else (Moriarty, 1991). Moriarty further states that colours are easy to remember and if
you can create an indelible association between a colour and a symbol, then you will be
assisting the retention process. In politics, the first objective of the colour is to command
the eye of the electorate to identify one party from the other. On the other hand, colour
associations are useful for mnemonics when voter illiteracy is significant (Locke 2006).

Selected Political Parties

Since 1992, there have been six successful political party elections in Ghana under the
Fourth Republic. They included 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008 and 2012 general elections (EC

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2008). Ever since, there have been an increasing number of political parties in Ghana.
This is as a result of the democratic dispensation the country is enjoying. In order to
facilitate data gathering to address issues in this paper, four political parties were
selected based on the representatives of the parties under the 5th parliament of the
Fourth Republic. These are National Democratic Congress (NDC), New Patriotic Party
(NPP), Convention Peoples’ Party (CPP) and Peoples’ Convention Party (PNC)

Description of symbols and colours of the selected political parties

NDC Symbol and Colours
The umbrella with an eagle's head on top is the symbol used by the NDC in all their
political activities in Ghana (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Symbol of NDC

Source: (http://www.NationalDemocraticCongress.com)

The eagle’s beak is yellow and the head is white. A side view with an eye of the eagle is
shown towards any observer. The umbrella is divided into sections with four different
colours. They are black, red, white, and green. There are curved ends for the stripes of
colours and these point downwards as one colour shares its edge with the other
towards the lower part of the umbrella. The umbrella has a green handle. The eagle’s
head signifies protection which is the nerve of social democracy
(http://www.NationalDemocraticCongress.com). All the four colours unite to form the
umbrella which is supposed to signify unity within the party: the ideals of the party. The
variety of colours also enhances the aesthetics of the symbol.

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NPP Symbol and Colours

The NPP uses an elephant as symbol for the party. This is in a circle within a
rectangular shape (Fig. 2). The NPP has three colours: red, white and blue.

Fig. 2 Symbol and Colours of NPP

Source: http://www.newpatrioticparty.org/
The NPP elephant with a raised foreleg signifies the need to stamp out the menace of
military interventions and defend democracy and the rule of law at all times
(http://www.newpatrioticparty.org/). The elephant also symbolizes stability and reliability.
It suggests greatness, wit, longevity, happiness, royalty, good luck and ambition. The
philosophy of the choice of elephant is to signify that the party is strong, great and
mighty as the elephant possesses such qualities among mammals in the animal
kingdom.

CPP Symbol and Colours

Red cockerel on a white background is the symbol used by the CPP (Fig.3)
(http://conventionpeoplesparty.org/). The design is in the form of a silhouette and
therefore looks solid without details. There are no tonal variations so far as the red
colour is concerned. A green colour for the text CPP in uppercase has been isolated
from the cockerel and placed at the bottom of the symbol. The positioning of the green
colour in the text below the red cockerel has added a touch of beauty to the CPP
identification mark. The white space around the cockerel which serves as the
background of the symbol makes the identification mark of the party stand out clearly.

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Fig.3 Symbol and Colours of CPP

Source: http://conventionpeoplesparty.org/
PNC Symbol and Colours
A green coconut tree on a white circular background within a red square shape is the
symbol used by the PNC in all their political activities in Ghana (Fig.4). The PNC’s
symbol depicts simple but interesting orderly arrangement. The circle within a square
harmonizes the design. The symbol of the coconut in their logo symbolizes stability,
fertility and growth of the party (http://pncghana.org/).

Fig. 4 Symbol and Colour of PNC

Source: (http://pncghana.org/).
Politically, the significance of symbols to electorates cannot be ignored. Considering the
various political parties in the country, each one of them is founded on an ideology and
philosophy which need to be understood to guide the voter.

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High illiteracy rate in Ghana

Another area of concern is the issue of high illiteracy rate in Ghana. According to the
Ghana’s Statistical Services Department (2001), the population census conducted puts
the illiteracy rate of the adult population at 49.90%. Also, it states that the uses of
symbols become very important in this situation where nearly half of the adult
population who qualify to vote can neither read nor write. The combination of symbols
and colours of the political parties becomes an easy way of identifying one party from
the other and also helping these groups of electorates to cast their ballot for their
respective candidates. However, the incidence of high numbers of rejected ballot
papers is alarming, although symbols and colours are mainly printed on the papers for
illiterates to take advantage of. This is confirmed by Gyampo who says that the data
from the 2000 Population and Housing Census in Ghana was used to compare the rates
of rejected ballots in areas or regions identified as having high illiteracy rates by the
census report. This is because to a large extent, there is a correlation between illiteracy
and the high incidence of rejected ballots.

METHODOLOGY
The study employed qualitative analysis which took the form of interpreting specialized
views and content analysis of semi-structured interviews and documents from the
archives of the parties. Quantitative analysis on the other hand took the form of
descriptive statistics such as correlations, frequencies and percentages, supported with
relevant tables and figures

The study adopted a cross sectional approach that sought to find out impact of the party
symbols and colours on the decision making of voters during an election. According to
the statistics from the Electoral Commission of Ghana as at 2012 general election there
were 27 registered political parties. The research covered only 4 of the registered
parties due to their representations at the 5th parliament of the 4th Republic of Ghana.
The selected political parties were stratified based on their strong holds in the country.
The classification considered the number of strong holds the parties had and the sizes

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of constituencies within the strong holds. Four regions (namely Ashanti, Volta, Northern
and Western) were randomly selected from the strong holds (Fig. 5). A constituency
each was selected from the 4 strong holds of the parties in the regions.

Seven polling electoral areas within each of the 4 constituencies were targeted making
a total of 28 polling areas. A sample population of 199 party executives, 462 card
bearing party members and 323 party sympathizers constitute the study respondents
from the 4 constituencies. Table 1 shows the classification of the respective
respondents.
Table 1: Respondents of the Study.

Name
of
Party Strong holds Executives Party Members Supporters

NDC Volta 65 133 106

NPP Ashanti 62 229 75
CPP Western 26 53 106
PNC Northern 46 47 36
Total 199 462 323

A total of 1320 copies from team mailed questionnaire were sent to the 28 different
polling electoral areas for data collection from the respondents. Out of this number,
1,086 copies (82.3%) were retrieved. Valid responses from the retrieved copies were
984 (90.6%).

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Fig. 5: Map of Ghana showing the selected political parties’ strong holds.
Source: Field Data, 2011

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Factors that attracted respondents to join their parties
In all the four political parties, majority of the respondents [NDC 220 (74.5%), NPP-
268(72.6%), CPP - 158(86.7%) and PNC- 92(78.1%)] were attracted to their respective
parties because of their flag bearers or leaders (Fig.6).
Others were fascinated by the philosophy of their party and they constitute 50(16.4%)
from NDC, 74(20.0%) from NPP, 48(14.3%) from CPP and 36(28.2%) from PNC.
Interestingly, as low as 26(8.8%) and 25(7.2%) respondents for the NDC and NPP
respectively were attracted to their parties because of their parties’ symbols and
colours. None of the respondents from both the CPP and PNC claimed to have joined
their parties based on party symbols and colours.
Comparatively, the extent of attraction of electorates to their respective parties’ flag
bearers far outweighs philosophy and party symbols with their colours. Indeed, symbols
and colours were the least attracted variables for electorates to join their parties.

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Following this revelation, if flag bearers’ photographs are clearly and boldly printed on
ballot papers, identification of their corresponding symbols should be automatic.
100
90
80
70
60
Flag bearer
50
40
Philosophy
30
20
Symbols
10
Colours
0
NDC NPP CPP PNC
Name of Party
Fig. 6: Respondents’ attraction to a Party

Party symbols and colours guide respondents to vote for their political parties
Majority of the respondents from NDC, NPP and PNC were of the view that symbols
and colours guided them to vote for their political parties. This view is evident from the
data in Table 2 as 156 (52.0%) from NDC, 169(44.0%) from NPP and 92(71.8%) from
PNC indicate this view. Respondents said that sometimes their flag bearers’
photographs on the ballot papers were not clear so they resorted to their parties’
symbols and colours to vote.
Table 2: Party Symbols and Colours guide Respondents to vote for them

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RESPONSES
Name Did the symbols and colours of your party guide you to
of vote for your party during the election?
Party Missing
Yes % No % %
System
NDC 156 52.0 105 35.2 38 12.8
NPP 169 44.0 149 40.5 57 15.5
CPP 105 57.1 52 28.6 26 14.3
PNC 92 71.8 36 28.2 0 0

Nonetheless, there were some respondents who responded negatively. To those

respondents, they considered clear images of their flag bearers’ photographs in their
constituencies.
On the whole, respondents asserted that symbols assisted or guided them in identifying
their flag bearer on the ballot papers. Since the 1992 general elections, symbols of
participated political parties are placed on the right hand side of the flag bearer’s
photograph to assist electorates cast their votes for their preferred candidates.

Perception of Philosophy of Party Symbols and Colours on Respondents’

Lifestyles
It shows in Table 3 that 104 (34.8%) from NDC; 140 (38.1%) from NPP and 26 (14.3%)
from PNC consented that the philosophy of party symbols and colours have changes in
their economic and political lifestyle. The changes are that (i) party symbols and colours
help them to increase electoral fortunes and treasures through sales of party
paraphernalia; (ii) party symbols and colours make them proud and unique among other
opposing political parties; (iii) party symbols and colours make them feel superior to
other party members within their communities. These reasons invariably give them the
urge to vote for the respective parties.

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However, greater part of the respondents from NDC’s 144 (48.0%) NPP’s 171 (46.4%),
CPP’s 105 (57.1%) and PNC 86 (67.7%) disagree that their Party Symbol and Colours
have any influence on their lifestyle in their communities. They attributed their views to
the fact that the philosophy of their parties’ symbols and colours do not solve their
individual life’s problems. They believe the changes should occur and reflect in the
socio-economic and development of electorates or the masses in the country. They
added that the changes do not reflect in their families’ welfare and other pressing needs
in life.

Table 3: Perception of Philosophy of Party Symbols and Colours on Respondents’ Lifestyle

RESPONSES
Name
Does the philosophy of your party’s symbols and
of
colours have any changes in your political lifestyle?
Party
Missin
Yes % No % g %
System
NDC 104 34.8 144 48.0 51 17. 2
NPP 140 38.1 171 46.4 57 15.5
CPP 26 14.3 105 57.1 52 28.6
PNC 41 32.3 86 67.7 0 0

Usage of Party Paraphernalia by Respondents during general elections.

From Table 4 there were mixed reactions from respondents. Thirty eighty (12.8%) from
NDC and 52 (14.3%) from NPP respectively admitted the usage of the paraphernalia
with the party Symbols and Colours at least once a week. This is an indication that the
passion with supporters attached to the symbols and colours is regular. It demonstrates
that their zeal goes down after general elections. However, if their party is in
government some cohorts still make use of the party’s paraphernalia as often as
possible. In the case of CPP and PNC there were no responses to this item since they

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are the third and fourth parties respectively to reckon with in Ghana. It shows clearly
that small parties do not use party paraphernalia with party symbols and colours as
much as the big ones.
More so, 26 (8.8%) from NDC, 48 (13.1) from NPP, 26 (14.3%) from CPP and
36 (28.2%) from PNC conceded the usage of their parties’ paraphernalia once a month.
This could mean that these members use it to attend general meetings of their
respective parties.
Also there were few respondents from NDC 13 (4.4%) and 26 (7.1%) from NPP
respectively who admitted making strong show of their parties’ paraphernalia at least
twice in six months. There were no responses from members in both CPP and PNC. It
is an indication that respondents from both parties do not necessary show off their party
paraphernalia regardless of the strong passion they have for their parties respectively.
Nevertheless, there were a lot of members who did not respond to this item and fell to
the missing group.
Table 4: Usage of Party Paraphernalia with party symbol and colours by Respondents on regular
basis
RESPONSES
How often are the paraphernalia with the party symbols and
colours used?

Name Once a % Once a % Twice % Missing %

of Week month in six System
Party month
s
NDC 38 12.8 26 8.8 13 4.4 222 74.0

NPP 52 14.3 48 13.1 26 7.1 242 65.5

CPP 0 0 26 14.3 0 0 158 85.7

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PNC 0 0 36 28.2 0 0 92 71.8

Respondents’ Perception of the Importance of Philosophy of Party’s Symbols and

Colours
From Table 5, majority of the respondents from the NDC, NPP and PNC gave an
impression that they do not have any idea about their party’s philosophy. Minority of the
respondents however understood the importance of their party’s philosophy as
portrayed in the designs. Those who understood might be the party executives or
knowledgeable elders within the party. For CPP there was a tie in the responses for
YES and NO to this item.

Table 5: Respondents’ reactions to Importance of Philosophy of Party’s

Symbols and Colours

RESPONSES
Name Does the importance of party’s philosophical symbols
of and colours help you to vote for it?
Party Missing
Yes % No % %
System
NDC 79 26.4 182 60.8 38 12.8
NPP 66 17.9 242 83.3 61 16.7
CPP 79 42.9 79 42.9 26 14.3
PNC 28 22.2 100 77.8 0 0

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CONCLUSION
Flag bearers of political parties play a vital role in attracting electorates to join a party.
This concept can assist electorates to identify their respective identity symbols during
voting.
The study concludes that symbols and colours enhance political party activities in
Ghana before, during and after general elections. Party symbols and colours play
important role to win votes for political parties. There is no doubt that the abundance of
designs in the form of photographs, symbols and colours on paraphernalia and their
inherent philosophy are factors perceived by respondents to influence their votes.
Improved display of party symbols and colours at rallies could be a major landmark for
the design industry to guide voters to take informed decisions to vote. This is an
innovative area that should be developed by the advertising agencies for national
development.
Political parties are to embrace themselves to make their followers aware of the
significance of philosophy of party symbols and colours for democratic dispensation.
Political parties should endeavour to weave around the significance of party symbols to
their members which will enable them to improve their electoral fates in general
elections in Ghana.
Party executives should educate members to enable them know and comprehend their
party symbols and colours especially in the areas of high illiteracy. Since the canker of
high illiteracy accounts for the high incidence of inadequate knowledge for electorates to
exercise their democratic right to vote and sometimes leading to rejected ballots, this
should be a great source of worry and concern.
The electoral process can be enhanced through the effective use of clear and bold
identity party symbols and colours on the ballot papers to complement the photographs
of candidates.

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• Appadorai A. (2004) The Substance of Politics, London: Oxford University Press

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• New Patriotic Party (2010) {Online} Available from: http://www.newpatrioticparty.org/

{Accessed on 2nd July, 2010}
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• Glossary of Terms
• CPP- Convention People’s Party
• NDC-National Democratic Congress
• NPP-New Patriotic Party
• PNC-People’s National Convention

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