Unit 1: Introduction to Industrial Robotics :

Unit 2: Manipulator Kinematics:

Definition of a Robot

• "A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specializeddevices
through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks" .
Or a simpler version

• An automatic device that performs functions normally ascribed to humans or a machine in the form of ahuman.

A general-purpose, programmable machine possessing certain anthropomorphic characteristics

Hazardous work environments

Repetitive work cycle Consistency
and accuracy Difficult handling task
for humansMulti shift operations
Reprogrammable, flexible
Interfaced to other computer systems

Need of Industrial Robots

• Repetitive tasks that robots can do 24/7.

• Robots never get sick or need time off.
• Robots can do tasks considered too dangerous for humans.
• Robots can operate equipment to much higher precision than humans.
• May be cheaper over the long term
• May be able to perform tasks that are impossible for humans

Robots are also used for the following tasks:

• Dirty Tasks
• Repetitive tasks
• Dangerous tasks
• Impossible tasks
• Robots assisting the handicapped.

First, they are hardworking and reliable. They can do dangerous work or work that is very boring or tiring
for humans. They can work around the clock without complaining and without needing rest, food or vacations. And
robots can go places that humans cannot, such as the surface of Mars, deep under the ocean or inside the radioactive
parts of a nuclear power plant
Asimov’s Laws of Robotics (1942)

• A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm
• A robot must obey orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with theFirst
Law.
• A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second
Law.
Robot Anatomy

Fig 1.1 Robot Anatomy

Main Components of Industrial Robots

Arm or Manipulator
End effectors

Drive Mechanism
Controller

Custom features: e.g. sensors and transducers

Manipulator consists of joints and links

✓ Joints provide relative motion

✓ Links are rigid members between joints
✓ Various joint types: linear and rotary
✓ Each joint provides a “degree-of-freedom”
✓ Body-and-arm – for positioning of objects in the robot's work volume
✓ Wrist assembly – for orientation of objects
 Translational motion
Linear joint
(type L)
Rotational joint
(type R)

Orthogonal joint (type O) Twisting joint (type T)

Revolving joint (type V)

Rotary motion

Fig 1.2 Robot Joints

Classification of robots based on robots configurationPolar

Coordinate Body-and-Arm Assembly

Consists of a sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the body, which can rotate about both avertical axis
(T joint) and horizontal axis (R joint) Notation TRL:

Fig 1.3 Polar Configuration

Cylindrical Body-and-Arm Assembly

Consists of a vertical column, relative to which an arm assembly is moved up or down. The arm canbe moved
in or out relative to the column Notation TLO:

Fig 1.4 Cylindrical Configuration

Cartesian coordinate Body-and-Arm Assembly

Consists of three sliding joints, two of which are orthogonal other names include rectilinear robotand x-y-z
robot Notation LOO:

Fig 1.5 Cartesian Configuration

Jointed-Arm Robot

Similar in appearance to human arm Rotated base, shoulder joint, elbow joint, wrist joint.Notation TRR:

Fig 1.6 Jointed Arm Configuration

Robot Wrist Configurations

Wrist assembly is attached to end-of-arm End

effectors is attached to wrist assembly
Function of wrist assembly is to orient end effectors
Body-and-arm determines global position of end effectors Two
or three degrees of freedom:
Roll
Pitch
Yaw
Notation :RRT

Fig1. 7 Gripper Configurations

• typically has 3 degrees of freedom

– Roll involves rotating the wrist about the arm axis

– Pitch up-down rotation of the wrist
– Yaw left-right rotation of the wrist
• End effectors is mounted on the wrist

Six Degree of Freedom of a Robot

Three arm and body movement and three wrist movements.

Fig 1.8 Six Degrees of Freedom Robot Manipulator

Work volume of a robot

Spatial region within which the end of the robot’s wrist can be
manipulated Determined by

– Physical configurations
– Size
– Number of axes
– The robot mounted position (overhead gantry, wall-mounted, floor mounted, on tracks)
– Limits of arm and joint configurations
– The addition of an end-effectors can move or offset the entire work volume

Fig 1.9 Robot Work volume

• Space within which a robot can operate.

• Determined by its configuration, size and the limits of itsarms.

Various shapes of work volume of robots
• Polar coordinates – Partial Sphere

• Cylindrical coordinates – Cylindrical

• Cartesian - Rectangular

• Jointed arm - Irregular

Precision of movement

The precision with which the robot can move the end of its wrist

1. Spatial resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability
Spatial resolution
Smallest increment of motion at the wrist end that can be controlled by the robot
Depends on the position control system, feedback measurement, and mechanical accuracy
 Fig 1.10 Spatial Resolution
Smallest increment of motion

Depends on the control system and feedback

Control resolution = range

Control increments

Accuracy

Capability to position the wrist at a target point in the work volume

• One half of the distance between two adjacent resolution points

• Affected by mechanical Inaccuracies

• Manufacturers don’t provide the accuracy (hard to control)
The ability of a robot to go to the specified position without making a
mistake. Closely related to spatial resolution

Fig 1.11 Accuracy

Repeatability

Ability to position back to a point that was previously taught

• Repeatability errors form a random variable.
• Mechanical inaccuracies in arm, wrist components
• Larger robots have less precise repeatability values

Ability to position a wrist back to the previously visited point.

Load Carrying Capacity

• The lifting capability provided by manufacturer doesn’t include the weight of the end effectors
• Usual Range 2.5lb-2000lb
• Condition to be satisfied:
Load Capability > Total Wt. of work piece +Wt. of end effectors + Safety range

Speed of movement

Speed with which the robot can manipulate the end effectors
Acceleration/deceleration times are crucial forcycle time.
•Determined by

Weight of the
object Distance
moved

Precision with which object must be positioned

The amount of distance per unit time at which the robot canmove.
Speed of the end effectors

Determined by the weight of the object

End Effectors

The special tooling for a robot that enables it to perform a specific task
Two types:
Grippers – to grasp and manipulate objects (e.g., parts) during work cycle
Tools – to perform a process, e.g., spot welding, spray painting
Device attached to the robot’s wrist to perform a specific task

Grippers

A two-finger mechanical gripper for grasping rotational parts

Fig 1.12 Robot Mechanical Gripper

Dual grippers
Interchangeable fingers
Sensory feedback
To sense presence of object
To apply a specified force on the object
Multiple fingered gripper (similar to human hand)
 Standard gripper products to reduce the amount of custom design required
– Mechanical Grippers

– Suction cups or vacuum cups

– Magnetized grippers
– Hooks
– Scoops (to carry fluids)
– Spot Welding gun

– Arc Welding tools

– Spray painting gun
– Drilling Spindle
– Grinders, Wire brushes
– Heating torches

Sensors in robotics

Two basic categories of sensors used in industrial robots:

1. Internal - used to control position and velocity of the manipulator joints
2. External - used to coordinate the operation of the robot with other equipment in the work cell

Tactile - touch sensors and force sensors Proximity -

when an object is close to the sensorOptical -
Machine vision
Other sensors - temperature, voltage, etc.
Types of sensors:
Tactile sensors (touch sensors, force sensors, tactile array sensors)

Proximity and range sensors (optical sensors, acoustical sensors, electromagnetic sensors)
Miscellaneous sensors (transducers and sensors which sense variables such temperature,

pressure, fluid flow, thermocouples, voice

sensors) Machine vision systems

Uses of sensors:

Safety monitoring

Interlocks in work cell control Part

inspection for quality control

Determining positions and related information about objects

Desirable features of sensors:
Accuracy
Operation
range Speed of
response
Calibration
Reliability
Cost and ease of operation
World Coordinate System

Origin and axes of robot manipulator are defined relative to the robot base

Fig 1.13 World Coordinate System

Tool Coordinate System

Alignment of the axis system is defined relative to the orientation of the wrist faceplate (to which
the end effector is attached)

Fig 1.14 Tool Coordinate System

Direct and inverse kinematics (Unit 2)

Direct (forward) kinematics is a mapping from joint coordinate space to space of end-effectorspositions. That is
we know the position of all (or some) individual joints and we are looking for the position of the end effectors.
Mathematically: ~q → T (~q) direct kinematics could be immediately used in coordinate measurement systems.
Sensors in the joints will inform us about the relative position of the links, joint coordinates. The goal is to
calculate the position of the reference point of the measuring system.

Inverse kinematics is a mapping from space of end-effectors positions to joint coordinate space. That is we know
the position of the end effectors and we are looking for the coordinates
of all individual joints. Mathematically: T → ~q(T) Inverse kinema cs is needed in robot control, one knows the
required position of the gripper, but for control the joint coordinates are needed.

Forward Kinematics (angles to position)

What you are given: The length of each link

The angle of each joint

What you can find: The position of any point

(i.e. it’s (x, y, z) coordinates

Inverse Kinematics (position to angles)

What you are given: The length of each link

The position of some point on the robot

What you can find: The angles of each joint needed to obtain

that position

Forward Kinematics

Fig 1.15 Forward Kinematics

The Situation:

You have a robotic arm that starts out aligned with the xo-axis. The first link to move by U1 and the
second link to move by U2
1. Geometric Approach
This might be the easiest solution for the simple situation. However, notice that the angles are
measured relative to the direction of the previous link. (The first link is the exception. The angleis
measured relative to its initial position.) For robots with more links and whose arm extendsinto 3
dimensions the geometry gets much more tedious.

2. Algebraic Approach
Involves coordinate transformations.
You are having a three link arm that starts out aligned in the x-axis. Each link has lengths l1,l2, l3,

respectively. You tell the first one to move by U1 , and so on as the diagram suggests.

Find the Homogeneous matrix to get the position of the yellow dot in the X0Y0 frame.

Fig 1.16 Kinematic Manipulator

H = Rz(U1 ) * Tx1(l1) * Rz(U2 ) * Tx2(l2) * Rz(U3 )

i.e. Rotating by U1 will put you in the X1Y1 frame.

Translate in the along the X1 axis by l1. Rotating by

U2 will put you in the X2Y2 frame.and so on until

you are in the X3Y3 frame.

The position of the yellow dot relative to the X3Y3 frame is

(l1, 0). Multiplying H by that position vector will give you

the coordinates of the yellow point relative the the X0Y0
frame.

H = Rz(U1 ) * Tx1(l1) * Rz(U2 ) * Tx2(l2) * Rz(U3 )

* Tx3(l3) This takes you from the X0Y0 frame to the
X4Y4 frame.
The position of the yellow dot relative to the X4Y4 frame is (0, 0).

X 0
Y 0
H
Z 0

1 1
Notice that multiplying by the (0, 0, 0, 1) vector will equal the last column of the H matrix.
Inverse Kinematics of a Two Link Manipulator

(Unit 2)From Position to Angles

Given: l1, l2 , x , y
Find: U1, U2
Redundancy:
A unique solution to this problem does not exist. Notice, that using the “givens” two
solutions are possible.

****************************
Robot Control Systems

Limited sequence control – pick-and-place operations using mechanical stops to set positions

Playback with point-to-point control – records work cycle as a sequence of points, then
plays back the sequence during program execution
Playback with continuous path control – greater memory capacity and/or interpolation
capability to execute paths (in addition to points)

Intelligent control – exhibits behavior that makes it seem intelligent, e.g., responds to
sensor inputs, makes decisions, communicates with humans

Robot Control System

Fig 2.1 Robot Control system

Motion Control

• Path control - how accurately a robot traces a given path (critical for gluing, painting,
welding applications);
• Velocity control - how well the velocity is controlled (critical for gluing, painting
applications)
• Types of control path:
- Point to point control (used in assembly, palletizing, machine loading); -
continuous path control/walkthrough (paint spraying, welding).
- controlled path (paint spraying, welding)
 Limited sequence control – pick-and-place operations using mechanical stops to set
positions
Playback with point-to-point control – records work cycle as a sequence of points,
then plays back the sequence during program execution
Playback with continuous path control – greater memory capacity and/or
interpolation capability to execute paths (in addition to points)
Intelligent control – exhibits behaviour that makes it seem intelligent, e.g., responds
to sensor inputs, makes decisions, communicates with humans

Robot Control System

Fig 2.2 Robot Control System

Robot control consists in studying how to make a robot manipulator perform a task. Control
design may be divided roughly in the following steps:
• Familiarization with the physical system under consideration,
• Modeling.
• Control specifications.
Control specifications Definition of control objectives: • Stability • Regulation •
Trajectory tracking (motion control) • Optimization.
• Stability. Consists in the property of a system by which it goes on working at certain regime
or ‘closely’ to it ’forever’. – Lyapunov stability theory. – Input-output stability theory. In the
case when the output y corresponds to the joint position q and velocity q˙ . • Regulation
“Position control in joint coordinates” •
Trajectory tracking “Tracking control in joint coordinates”

Control Methods

• Non Servo Control

– implemented by setting limits or mechanical stops for each joint and
sequencing the actuation of each joint to accomplish the cycle
– end point robot, limited sequence robot, bang-bang robot
– No control over the motion at the intermediate points, only end points are known
 • Programming accomplished by
– setting desired sequence of moves
– adjusting end stops for each axis accordingly
Servo Control

– Point to point Control

– Continuous Path Control

– Closed Loop control used to monitor position, velocity (other variables) of each
joint
– the sequence of moves is controlled by a “squencer”, which uses feedback
received
from the end stops to index to next step in the program
• Low cost and easy to maintain, reliable
• relatively high speed
• repeatability of up to 0.01 inch
• limited flexibility
• typically hydraulic, pneumatic drives
Point-to-Point Control
• Only the end points are programmed, the path used to connect the end points are
computed by the controller
• user can control velocity, and may permit linear or piece wise linear motion
• Feedback control is used during motion to ascertain that individual joints have
achieved desired location
• Often used hydraulic drives, recent trend towards servomotors
• loads up to 500lb and large reach
• Applications
• pick and place type operations
• palletizing
• machine loading

• In addition to the control over the endpoints, the path taken by the end effectors
can be controlled
• Path is controlled by manipulating the joints throughout the entire motion, via
closed loop control
• Applications:
– spray painting, polishing, grinding, arc welding

Sensors in Robotics

Two basic categories of sensors used in industrial robots:

1. Internal - used to control position and velocity of the manipulator joints
 2. External - used to coordinate the operation of the robot with other equipment in the
work cell Tactile - touch sensors and force sensors
Proximity - when an object is close to the
sensor Optical -
Machine vision
Other sensors - temperature, voltage, etc.

Electric Drive system

Uses electric motors to actuate individual joints
Preferred drive system in today's robots
Electric motor (stepper, servo, less strength, better accuracy and repeatability
Hydraulic Drive system
Uses hydraulic pistons and rotary vane actuators
Noted for their high power and lift capacity
Hydraulic (mechanical, high strength)
Pneumatic Drive system
Typically limited to smaller robots and simple material transfer applications
Pneumatic (quick, less strength)

Hydraulic Drive system

– High strength and high speed
– Large robots, Takes floor space
– Mechanical Simplicity
– Used usually for heavy payloads
Electric Motor (Servo/Stepper) Drive system
– High accuracy and repeatability
– Low cost
– Less floor space
– Easy maintenance
Pneumatic Drive system
– Smaller units, quick assembly
– High cycle rate
– Easy maintenance
Electro hydraulic servo valves
An electro hydraulic servo valve (EHSV) is an electrically operated valve that controls how
hydraulic fluid is ported to an actuator. Servo valves and servo-proportional valves are operated
by transforming a changing analogue or digital input signal into a smooth set of movements in
a hydraulic cylinder. Servo valves can provide precise control of position, velocity, pressure
and force with good post movement damping characteristics.

In its simplest form a servo or a servomechanism is a control system which measures its own
output and forces the output to quickly and accurately follow a command signal, se Figure 1-
1. In this way, the effect of anomalies in the control device itself and in the load can be
minimized as well as the influence of external disturbances. A servomechanism can be
designed to control almost any physical quantities, e.g. motion, force, pressure, temperature,
electrical voltage or current.

Fig 2.3 Basic Servo Mechanics

Capabilities of electro-hydraulic servos When rapid and precise control of sizeable loads is
required an electro-hydraulic servo is often the best approach to the problem. Generally
speaking, the hydraulic servo actuator provides fast response, high force and short stroke
characteristics. The main advantages of hydraulic components are.

• Easy and accurate control of work table position and velocity

• Good stiffness characteristics
• Zero back-lash
• Rapid response to change in speed or direction
• Low rate of wear
There are several significant advantages of hydraulic servo drives over electric motor drives:

♦ Hydraulic drives have substantially higher power to weight ratios resulting

in higher machine frame resonant frequencies for a given power level.
 ♦ Hydraulic actuators are stiffer than electric drives, resulting in higher
loop gain capability, greater accuracy and better frequency response.
♦ Hydraulic servos give smoother performance at low speeds and have a wide
speed range without special control circuits.
♦ Hydraulic systems are to a great extent self-cooling and can be operated
in stall condition indefinitely without damage.
♦ Both hydraulic and electric drives are very reliable provided that
maintenance is followed.
♦ Hydraulic servos are usually less expensive for system above several
horsepower, especially if the hydraulic power supply is shared between
several actuators.

End Effectors Types

1) Standard Grippers (Angular and parallel, Pneumatic, hydraulic, electric, spring
powered, Power-opened and Spring-closed)
2) Vacuum Grippers (Single or multiple, use venturi or vacuum pump)
3) Vacuum Surfaces (Multiple suction ports, to grasp cloth materials, flat surfaces, sheet
material)
4) Electromagnetic Grippers (often used in conjunction with standard grippers)
5) Air-Pressure Grippers (balloon type)
1. Pneumatic fingers
2. Mandrel grippers
3. Pin grippers
6) Special Purpose Grippers (Hooking devices, custom positioners or tools)
7) Welding (MIG /TIG, Plasma Arc, Laser, Spot)
8) Pressure Sprayers (painting, water jet cutting, cleaning)
9) Hot Cutting type (laser, plasma, de-flashers-hot knife)
10) Buffing/Grinding/De-burring type
11) Drilling/Milling type
12) Dispensing type (adhesive, sealant, foam)
Mechanical Grippers

Mechanical grippers are used to pick up, move, place, or hold parts in an automated system.
They can be used in harsh or dangerous

VACUUM GRIPPERS: for non-ferrous components with flat and smooth surfaces, grippers
can be built using standard vacuum cups or pads made of rubber-like materials. Not suitable
for components with curved surfaces or with holes.

Vacuum grippers

Vacuum-grippers become in suction cups, the suctions cups is made of rubber. The suction
cups are connected through tubes with under pressure devices for picking up items and for
releasing items air is pumped out into the suction cups. The under pressure can be created
with the following devices:

The vacuum grippers use suction cups (vacuum cups) as pick up devices. There are different
types of suction cups and the cups are generally made of polyurethane or rubber and can be
used at temperatures between -50 and 200 °C. The suction cup can be categorized into four
different types; universal suction cups, flat suction cups with bars, suction cups with bellow
and depth suction cups as shown in figure 3.

Fig 2.4 Suction Cups

The universal suction cups are used for flat or slightly arched surfaces. Universal suction cups
are one of the cheapest suction cups in the market but there are several disadvantages with this
type of suction cups. When the under pressure is too high, the suction cup decreases a lot which
leads to a greater wear. The flat suction cups with bars are suitable for flat or flexible items that
need assistance when lifted. These types of suction cups provides a small movement under load
and maintains the area that the under pressure is acting on, this reduces the wear of the flat
suction cup with bars, this leads to a faster and safer movement. Suction cups with bellows are
usually used for curved surfaces, for example when separation is needed or when a smaller
item is being gripped and needs a shorter movement. This type of suction cups can be used in
several areas but they allow a lot of movement at gripping and low stability with small under
pressure. The depth suction cup can be used for surfaces that are very irregular and curved or
when an item needs to be lifted over an edge. [5] Items with rough surfaces (surface roughness
≤ 5 µm for some types of suction cups) or items that are made of porous material will have
difficulty with vacuum grippers. An item with holes, slots and gaps on the surfaces is not
recommended to be handled with vacuum grippers. The air in the suction is sucked out with
one of the techniques described earlier, if the material is porous or has holes on its surface; it
will be difficult to suck out the air. In such cases the leakage of air can be reduced if smaller
suction cups are used. Figure 4 shows different types of suction cups.

Magnetic Gripper: used to grip ferrous materials. Magnetic gripper uses a magnetic head
to attract ferrous materials like steel plates. The magnetic head is simply constructed with
a ferromagnetic core and conducting coils. Magnetic grippers are most commonly used in
a robot as end effectors for grasping the ferrous materials. It is another type of handling
the work parts other than the mechanical grippers and vacuum grippers. Types of magnetic
grippers:

The magnetic grippers can be classified into two common types, namely:

Magnetic grippers with

Fig 2.5 Magnetic Gripper

Electromagnets:

Electromagnetic grippers include a controller unit and a DC power for handling the
materials. This type of grippers is easy to control, and very effective in releasing the
part at the end of the operation than the permanent magnets. If the work part gripped is
to be released, the polarity level is minimized by the controller unit before the
electromagnet is turned off. This process will certainly help in removing the magnetism
on the work parts. As a result, a best way of releasing the materials is possible in this
gripper.

Permanent magnets:

The permanent magnets do not require any sort of external power as like the
electromagnets for handling the materials. After this gripper grasps a work part, an
additional device called as stripper push – off pin will be required to separate the work
part from the magnet. This device is incorporated at the sides of the gripper.

The advantage of this permanent magnet gripper is that it can be used in hazardous
applications like explosion-proof apparatus because of no electrical circuit. Moreover,
there is no possibility of spark production as well.

Benefits:

This gripper only requires one surface to

grasp the materials. The grasping of
materials is done very quickly.

It does not require separate designs for handling different size of materials.

It is capable of grasping materials with holes, which is unfeasible in the vacuum grippers.

Drawbacks:

The gripped work part has the chance of slipping out when it is moving quickly.
Sometimes oil in the surface can reduce the strength of the gripper.

The machining chips may stick to the gripper during unloading.

Robot Actuation Systems

Actuators: Electric, Hydraulic and Pneumatic; Transmission: Gears, Timing Belts and
Bearings, Parameters for selection of actuators. Control Hardware and Interfacing:
Embedded systems: Architecture and integration with sensors, actuators, components,
Programming for Robot Applications
 Actuators are essential devices in robotics and widely common, particularly for industrial
applications.

Actuation is the process of conversion of energy to mechanical form. An actuator is a hardware

device that accomplishes this conversion. It converts a controller command signal into a change
in a physical parameter.

Actuators come in various types and sizes, depending on the load associated with factors like
force, torque, speed of operation, precision, accuracy, and power consumption. One of the
prevalent types of actuators is electric motors such as servomotor, stepper motor, and direct
current (DC) motors. A motor allows the robot to control a wheel, a switch, or even an arm.

Robot manufacturers usually use electric actuators since they are fast, efficient, and accurate.
They are easy to control, can achieve high velocities (1000 – 10000 rpm), and have ideal torque
for driving. At the same time, they are very weak or unpleasantly heavy because oftheir
complexity.

Servo motor is a mechanism based on feedback control. It has a high maximum torque/force that
allows high (de)acceleration. It is robust and has a high bandwidth that provides accurate and
fast control.

Key advantages of servo motors are as follows:

• Power supply available everywhere.

• Low cost
• Large variety of products
• High power conversion efficiency
• Easy maintenance
• No pollution in the working environment
The disadvantages are:

• Overheating in static conditions

• Need special protection in flammable environments.
Stepper motors provide rotation in the form of discrete angular displacement. They can
achieve precision angular rotation in both directions and are commonly employed to
accommodate digital control technology. Stepper motors are, in general, heavier than
 servomotors for the same power. The high the voltage of electric motors, the better the power-
to-weight ratio.

Then, we have electromechanical actuators that convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Based on the basic principle of magnetism, they come in DC, AC, and stepper motors.

The third option is hydraulic and pneumatic actuators, which use fluid power and
compressed air, respectively. Fluid power refers to the energy that is transmitted via a fluid under
pressure. When pressure is applied to a confined chamber containing a piston, the piston will exert
a force causing a motion. Pneumatic systems deliver the lowest power-to-weight ratio, while
hydraulic systems have the highest power-to-weight ratio. Pneumatic actuators are mostly used
for the opening and closing of grippers.

Hydraulic systems are very stiff and non-compliant, whereas pneumatic systems are easily
compressed and thus are compliant. Notably, stiff systems have a more rapid response to changing
loads and pressures and are more accurate. Although stiffness causes more responsive and more
accurate systems, it also creates a danger if all things are not always perfect. Hydraulic actuators
are very efficient, yet their cost is high.

Here are the advantages of a hydraulic actuator.

• Easy to control and accurate

• Simpler and easier to maintain

• Constant torque or force regardless of speed changes

• Easy to spot leakages of system
•
Less noise
Disadvantages of the hydraulic actuator.

• Proper maintenance is required

• Expensive
• Leakage of the fluid creates environmental problems
•
Wrong hydraulic fluid for a system can damage the components
Advantages of pneumatic actuators

• Clean, less pollution to the environment

• Inexpensive
• Safe and easy to operate
 Disadvantages of pneumatic actuators

• Loud and noisy

• Lack of precision controls
• Sensitive to vibrations
• The fourth type of actuators is called piezoelectric actuators, which are successfully
implemented in many applications today. They use the piezoelectric effect to create motion.
When electricity flows through a piezoelectric material, it creates a physical deformation
proportional to the applied electric field, known as the indirect piezoelectric effect.

• Piezoelectric actuators are used in loudspeakers, piezoelectric motors, acceleration

sensors, vibration sensors, etc., and can be used to create either rotational or linear motion. These
actuators’ main advantages are their very high dynamics (up to 40 kHz), theoretically unlimited
resolution (in the field of nanometers), high force, low consumption of electrical energy, and
very compact construction.

• Another significant advantage is the possibility of having the actuator, force sensor, and
position sensor contained in a one-piece unit. However, the main problem with implementing
piezoelectric actuators is the small oscillating movements caused by its expansion and
contraction.

Ideal Characteristics of Actuators

• Weight, power-to-weight ratio, operating pressure

• Stiffness against deformation
• Appropriate torque output.
• High torque density or the continuous output torque per mass
• High back drivability that protects the system against damage in environmental
impacts, especially unexpected ones.
• High transparency and smooth energy flows between the actuator and end effector in
both directions.
• High Efficiency.
Robot Programming

According to the consistent performance by the

robots in industries, the robot programming can be divided in
two common types such as:

Lead through
ProgrammingMethod

Textual Robot Languages

Lead through

Programming Method:

During this programming method, the traveling of robots isbased

on the desired movements, and it is stored in the external controller
memory. There are two modes of a control system in this method such
as a run mode and teach mode. The program is taught in the teach mode,
and it is executed in the run mode. The lead through programming
method can be done by two methods namely:

Powered Lead through

Method Manual

Lead throughMethod
a) Powered Lead through Method:

The powered lead through is the common programming method

in the industries. A teach pendant is incorporated in this method for
controlling the motors available in the joints. It is also used to operate the
robot wrist and arm through a sequence of points. The playback ofan
operation is done by recording these points. The control of complex
geometric moves is difficult to perform in the teach pendant. As a result,
this method is good for point to point movements. Some of the key
applications are spot welding, machine loading & unloading, and part
transfer process.

b) Manual Lead through Method:

In this method, the robot’s end effector is moved physically by the

programmer at the desired movements. Sometimes, it may be difficult to
move large r b t arm manually. To get rid of it ateach button is
implemented in the wrist for special programming. The manual
Lead through method is also known as Walk Through method. It is
mainly used to perform continuous path movements. This method is best
for spray painting and arc welding operations.

Textual Robot Languages:

In 1973, WAVE language was developed, nd it is the first textual

robot language as well. It is used to interface the machine vision sys em
with the robot. Then AL language was introduced in 1974 for controlling
multiple robot arms during arm coordination. VAL was invented in 1979,
and it is the common textu l robot language. Later, this language was dated
in 1984, and called as VAL II. The IBM Corportionhas established their
two own languages such as AML and AUTOPASS, which is used for the
assembly operations.

Other important textual robot languages are Manufacturing Control

Language (MCL), RAIL, and Automatic Programmed Tooling (APT)
languages.

Robot Programming Methods

There are three bas c methods for programming industrial robots

but currently over 90% are programmed using the each method.

Teach Method

The logic for the program can be generated either using a menu
based system or simply using a text editor but the main characteristic of
this method is the means by which the robot is taught the positional data.
A teach pendant with controls to drive the robot in a number of different
co-ordinate systems is used to manually drive the robot to the desired
locations.

These locations are then stored with names that can be used within
the robot program. The co-ordinate systems available on a standard
jointed arm robot are :-
Joint Co-ordinates

The robot joints are driven independently in either direction.

Global Co-ordinates

The tool centre point of the robot can be driven along the X, Y or Z axes of
the robots global axis system. Rotations of the tool around these axes can also be
performed
Tool Co-ordinates

Similar to the global co-ordinate system but the axes of this one are attached
to the tool centre point of the robot and therefore move with it.This system
is especially useful when the tool is near to the workpiece.

Work piece Co-ordinates

With many robots it is possible to set up a co-ordinate system at any point

within the working area. These can be especially useful where small adjustments to
the program are required as it is easier to make them along a major axis of the co-
ordinate system than along a general line. The effect of this is similar to moving the
position and orientation of the global co-ordinate system.

This method of programming is very simple to use where simple movements

are required. It does have the disadvantage that the robot can be out of production
for a long time during reprogramming. While this is not a problem where robots do
the sa e task for their entire life, this is becoming less common and some robotic
welding syste s are performing tasks only a few times before being reprogrammed.

Lead Through

This system of programming was initially popular but has now almost
disappeared. It is still however used by many paint spraying robots. The robot
is programmed by being physically moved through the task by an operator.
This is exceedingly difficult where large robots are being used andsometimes
a smaller version of the robot is u ed for this purpose. Any hesitations or
inaccuracies that are introduced into the progr m c nnot be edited out easily
without reprogramming the whole task. The robot con roller simply records
the joint positions at a fixed time interval and then plays this back.

Off-line Programming

Similar to the way in which CAD systems re being used to generate NC

programs for milling machines it is also possible to program robots from CAD
data. The CAD models of the components are used along with mo e s of the robots
being used and the fixturing required. The program structure is built up in much the
same way as for teach programming but intelligent tools are available which allow the
CAD data to be used to generate sequences of location and process information.At
present there are only a few companies using this technology as it is still in its infancy
but its use increasing each year. The benefits of this form of programming are:-

· Reduced down time for programming.

· Programming tools make programming easier.

· Enables concurrent engineering and reduces product lead time.

. Assists cell design and allows process optimisation