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 ISSN
S 2412-5474
THE STATE OF
THE WORLD’s
BIODIVERSITY
FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

FAO COMMISSION ON GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

ASSESSMENTS • 2019
Required citation:
FAO. 2019. The State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture, J. Bélanger & D. Pilling (eds.).
FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture Assessments. Rome. 572 pp.
(http://www.fao.org/3/CA3129EN/CA3129EN.pdf)
Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.

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ISBN 978-92-5-131270-4
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 4.5.6 Rangelands Irene Hoffmann
4.6 Needs and priorities Dafydd Pilling and Kim-Anh Tempelman
Reviewers: Vera Agostini, Jose Aguilar Manjarrez, Edmundo Barrios, Eric Blanchart,34 Junning Cai, Viridiana Alcántara Cervantes,
John E. Fa,30 Kim Friedman, Simon Funge-Smith, Bonnie Furman, Maurizio Furst, Jarkko Koskela, Regina Laub, Szilvia Lehel, Tom
Moore,19 Anne Mottet, Florence Poulain, Bronwen Powell,42 Nadia Scialabba, Ilaria Sisto, Philip Thornton,43 Madeleine J.H. van
Oppen,44,45 Lauren Weatherdon46 and Xinhua Yuan
PART C – STATE OF MANAGEMENT
Chapter 5. The state of use of biodiversity for food and agriculture
5.2 Overview of management Julie Bélanger and Toby Hodgkin4
practices and approaches
5.3 Ecosystem, landscape and
seascape approaches
5.3.1 Overview Kim-Anh Tempelman
5.3.2 Sustainable forest Jarkko Koskela
management
5.3.3 Ecosystem approach to Marcela Portocarrero-Aya
fisheries and aquaculture
5.3.4 Agroecology Vladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy and Pablo Tittonell28
5.3.5 Landscape and seascape Kim-Anh Tempelman
approaches
5.3.6 Integrated land- and water-use
planning
5.3.7 Needs and priorities
5.4 Restoration practices Blaise Bodin2 and Marcela Portocarrero-Aya
5.5 Diversification in
production systems
5.5.1 Integrated crop–livestock Dario Lucantoni and Anne Mottet, with contributions from Dafydd Pilling
systems
5.5.2 Home gardens David Colozza
5.5.3 Agroforestry Jonathan P. Cornelius,35,56 Jules Bayala,35 Trent Blare,35 Delia Catacutan,35 Ann Degrande,35
Roeland Kindt,35 Beria Leimona,35 Sarah-Lan Mathez-Stiefel,35,57 Andrew Miccolis,35
Devashree Naik,35 Javed Rizvi,35 James M. Roshetko35 and Leigh Ann Winowiecki35
5.5.4 Diversification practices in Kim-Anh Tempelman, with contributions from Lionel Dabbadie, Simon Funge-Smith,
aquaculture Alessandro Lovatelli, Dafydd Pilling and Michael Ruggeri
5.5.5 Needs and priorities Toby Hodgkin4
5.6 Management practices and
production approaches
5.6.1 Organic agriculture Vladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy, with contributions from Nadia Scialabba and Helga Willer47
5.6.2 Low external input agriculture Vladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy, with contributions from Dafydd Pilling and Pablo Tittonell28
5.6.3 Management practices to Alberto Orgiazzi41 and Miriam Widmer
preserve and enhance soil
biodiversity
5.6.4 Conservation agriculture Vladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy, with contributions from Amir Kassam17
5.6.5 Integrated plant nutrient Hugo Fernandez Mena and Debra Turner
management
5.6.6 Integrated pest management Vladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy, with contributions from William Settle
5.6.7 Pollination management Hien Ngo39 and Kim-Anh Tempelman
5.6.8 Forest-management practices Jarkko Koskela, with contributions from Jonas Cedergren
5.6.9 Needs and priorities Toby Hodgkin4
5.7 The use of micro-organisms Dafydd Pilling, drawing on Alexandracki et al. (2013) and Chatzipavlidis et al. (2013),
for food processing and with contributions from Nelson Lima48
agro-industrial processes

xxiv
 8.5 Research Cordula Hinkes, with contributions from Nigel Dudley3
8.6 Valuation Cordula Hinkes, with contributions from Nigel Dudley,3 Lucy Garrett and Dafydd Pilling
8.7 Incentives Lucy Garrett, Bernardete Neves and Daniela Ottaviani
8.8 Policy and legal frameworks
8.8.1 Frameworks at international level Dan Leskien
8.8.2 Frameworks at national level Dafydd Pilling, drawing on FAO (2010a, 2014a, 2015a, forthcoming), with contributions
from Devin Bartley, Paul Boettcher, Bonnie Furman, Simon Funge-Smith, Shawn
McGuire, Arshiya Noorani and Hugo Wilson
8.8.3 Climate change policy and Donagh Hennessy
programmes
8.8.4 Frameworks supporting the Miriam Widmer
maintenance of traditional
knowledge
8.8.5 Access and benefit-sharing Dan Leskien
Reviewers: Edmundo Barrios, Paul Boettcher, Junning Cai, Stefano Diulgheroff, Simon Funge-Smith, Bonnie Furman, Maurizio
Furst, Kathryn Garforth,2 Amber Himes-Cornell, Rebeca Koloffon, Regina Laub, Szilvia Lehel, Dan Leskien, Dalia Mattioni, Shawn
McGuire, Beate Scherf and Ilaria Sisto

PART E – CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 9. The way forward
Entire chapter Julie Bélanger, Dafydd Pilling and Kim-Anh Tempelman

Reviewers: Vera Agostini, Edmundo Barrios, Bonnie Furman, Jarkko Koskela, Graham Mair and Beate Scherf
1
National Research Council, Canada. 27
National Plant Genetic Resources Centre, Eswatini.
2
Convention on Biological Diversity. 28
Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria,
3
Equilibrium Research, United Kingdom. Argentina.
4
Platform for Agrobiodiversity Research. 29
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
5
Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Zusammenarbeit, Germany.
United Kingdom. 30
Center for International Forestry Research.
6
University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia. 31
Society for Social and Economic Research, India.
7
NordGen Farm Animals. 32
University of East Anglia, United Kingdom.
8
Länderinstitut für Bienenkunde Hohen Neuendorf, 33
World Wildlife Fund, Singapore.
Germany. 34
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France.
9
Bioversity International. 35
World Agroforestry Centre.
10
Wageningen University, the Netherlands. 36
Scotland’s Rural College, United Kingdom.
11
BirdLife International. 37
CGIAR Consortium.
12
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, United Kingdom. 38
International Union for Conservation of Nature.
13
Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio 39
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on
Ambiente, Spain. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.
14
Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, General 40
Koppert Biological Systems.
Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies, Turkey. 41
European Commission’s Joint Research Centre.
15
Ministry of Environment and Food of Denmark, 42
Pennsylvania State University, United States
The Danish Agricultural Agency, Denmark. of America.
16
Malaysia Agriculture Research and Development 43
International Livestock Research Institute.
Institute, Malaysia. 44
Australian Institute of Marine Science, Australia.
17
University of Reading, United Kingdom. 45
University of Melbourne, Australia.
18
Ministère de l’agriculture et de l’alimentation, France. 46
UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre.
19
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 47
IFOAM – Organics International.
United States of America. 48
European Culture Collections’ Organization.
20
Centre de coopération internationale en recherche 49
AgResearch Limited, New Zealand.
agronomique pour le développement, France. 50
New Zealand Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research
21
Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition Project, Brazil. Centre, New Zealand.
22
Plant Genetic Resources Center, Department of 51
Institut national de la recherche agronomique, UR406
Agriculture, Sri Lanka. Abeilles & Environnement, France.
23
Brown Bee Network. 52
Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg and iDiv,
24
Secrétariat Général des Affaires Européennes – Germany.
Comité interministériel de l’agriculture et de 53
Colorado State University, United States of America.
l’Alimentation, France. 54
Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología, Consejo Superior
25
Genetic Resources Research Centre, Kenya Agriculture de Investigaciones Científicas, Spain.
and Livestock Research Organization, Kenya. 55
University of the South Pacific, Fiji.
26
Ministère de l’Agriculture et de la Sécurité alimentaire, 56
James Cook University, Australia.
Burkina Faso. 57
University of Bern, Switzerland.

xxvi
 THE S TAT E O F USE O F BI O DI V ER SI T Y FOR FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE 5

Box 5.10 (Cont.)

Projects and initiatives targeting home gardens – examples from around the world

Tonga Zimbabwe
The Tonga Health Promotion Foundation (TongaHealth) In 2001, the Municipality of Bulawayo, together with World
promotes home gardens as a means of increasing the Vision, established urban allotment gardens to support
consumption of a range of local fruit and vegetables. For vulnerable groups such as people living with HIV/AIDS,
example, villages wishing to access resources such as the elderly, widows and orphans. The main aims were to
seedlings and fencing are provided with grants via the address acute food shortages and nutritional imbalances,
Community Gardening Programme. The aim of this initiative raise awareness on HIV/AIDs, improve well-being and build
is to increase the consumption of healthy foods among people’s capacities. As of 2008, more than 1 500 people had
Tongan families. To ensure sustainability, each household already benefited from the gardens.
is encouraged to plant eight local vegetables and fruits in
Sources: Country reports of Argentina, Finland, Mexico, Nauru, Nepal, Sri
their residential garden for easy access throughout the year. Lanka, Tonga (with additional information from the website of the Tonga
Over 1 800 households have participated in the Community Health Promotion Foundation – https://www.tongahealth.org/about_us)
and Zimbabwe, and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic Agrobiodiversity
Gardening Programme since 2009. Tonga’s 2015 Census Programme and Action Plan II (2015–2025). More information on PROHUERTA
recorded a total of 2 888 home gardens in the country. can be found (in Spanish) at http://prohuerta.inta.gov.ar.

being replaced by more profitable crops. As for adequate dissemination of the data collected.
well as leading to genetic erosion, this trend is Some countries mention priorities related to capac-
reported also to be contributing to the loss of tra- ity development. For example, Panama identifies
ditional knowledge. Nauru, in contrast, reports the need to strengthen the capacity of extension
renewed interest in home gardens but a lack of services to support home gardening. A few prior-
relevant local knowledge and technical skills. ities related to the use of specific components of
Panama mentions that, among other factors, the BFA within home gardens are also noted. The Lao
increasing availability of ready-to-eat products People’s Democratic Republic mentions the poten-
is reducing the use of food from home gardens. tial of diversifying livestock and fish production in
China reports that rural families are increasingly home gardens, but notes that indigenous poultry
being drawn towards economically more attrac- are poorly understood and need to be studied sys-
tive off-farm work, which leaves them little time tematically. Belarus mentions the importance of
to tend to their home gardens, and notes that this developing recommendations on the cultivation
is negatively affecting BFA. of wild plant species used for food, including in
home gardens.
Needs and priorities
The main gap identified in the country reports in 5.5.3 Agroforestry
relation to home gardening is a lack of informa-
tion on the status and trends of home gardens Introduction
and on the contributions they make to the conser- The country-reporting guidelines define agrofor-
vation of BFA and to the resilience of production estry as “a collective name for land-use systems
in the face of challenges associated with (inter where woody perennials … are integrated in the
alia) climate change and socio-economic trends. farming system.” In practice, however, use of the
Reported priorities in this regard include the pro- term varies from country to country, reflecting
vision of funding for thorough assessments of local, national and regional contexts. Moreover,
home-gardening practices and their impacts and since the word rose to prominence in the late

the state O F THE WORL D'S biodiversity FOr FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE 233
 S TAT E O F MA N AGEMEN T

Part C

1970s (Bene, Beall and Côte, 1977), its usage has shrubs, although species-rich systems may be domi-
evolved considerably. Van Noordwijk, Coe and nated by a few species (Bayala et al., 2011b; Kessler,
Sinclair (2016) describe three successive para- 1992; Kindt et al., 2008). Shrubs in parklands may be
digms: the first focused on plot-level interactions coppiced throughout the rainy (cropping) season.
of trees with crops or livestock; the second based Farmers actively manage and protect trees, includ-
on a landscape-level understanding of agrofor- ing by protecting naturally regenerating trees from
estry as a land use with explicit (positive) impacts livestock and during tillage operations (Brandt et
(Leakey, 1996); and the third encompassing the al., 2018; Hanan, 2018; Reij and Garrity, 2016). Tree
combination and interface of all agriculture and density is kept low so that canopy cover is not con-
forestry issues without reference to the institu- tinuous. These practices contribute to agricultural
tional barriers that have traditionally separated productivity and help to conserve plant and animal
them. Van Noordwijk, Coe and Sinclair (2016) biodiversity by offering diverse above-ground and
propose a new definition of agroforestry that below-ground habitat niches.
recognizes all three paradigms and can be par- In the humid tropics of West and Central Africa,
aphrased as “land use that combines aspects prevalent agroforestry practices include the fol-
of agriculture and forestry, including the agri- lowing: home gardens; perennial tree crop-based
cultural use of trees.” Moreover, usage of the systems (cocoa, coffee, oil palm, rubber); slash-and-
term by farmers and development practition- burn agriculture where high-value species provid-
ers is often more specific than usage in scien- ing timber and non-timber forest products are
tific circles. Generalizations about the state of retained; improved fallows (e.g. with red calliandra
agroforestry are thus difficult to make, even at [Calliandra calothyrsus], leucaena [Leucaena leuco-
country level. The following paragraphs provide cephala], gliricidia [Gliricidia sepium], ice-cream
illustrative examples of the types of agroforestry bean [Inga edulis], mangium (Acacia mangium)
practised in various regions of the world. and Acacia auriculiformis, pigeon pea [Cajanus
In East and Southern Africa, agroforestry systems cajan], Vogel’s tephrosia [Tephrosia vogelii], sesba-
include cereal-based systems that feature indig- nia [Sesbania sesban]); boundary planting (mostly
enous and introduced tree species valued for in hilly areas); and small woodlots with Eucalyptus
timber (Grevillea robusta, eucalypts [Eucalyptus spp., red stinkwood (Prunus africana) and grevillea
and Corymbia spp.]), fruits (e.g. mango [Mangifera (Grevillea robusta) (Atangana et al., 2014).
indica] and avocado [Persea americana]), charcoal Mosquera-Losada et al. (2012) identified six
(acacias [Acacia spp.]), fodder (Calliandra spp.) main categories of European agroforestry: silvo-
and soil-fertility enhancement (e.g. winter thorn arable practices; silvopasture; forest farming
[Faidherbia albida]). Systems include many indige- (“forested areas used for production … of natural
nous and exotic tree species that are planted or pro- standing speciality crops for medicinal, ornamental
tected in a variety of niches to supply various eco- or culinary purposes”); riparian buffers; improved
system services (Bein et al., 1996; Kindt et al., 2017). fallow; and multipurpose trees. They noted that
Although many indigenous tree species also feature many practices that had declined during the
in priority lists, farmers are increasingly replacing period of agricultural intensification that fol-
them with exotics (Kehlenbeck et al., 2011). lowed the industrial revolution are now reviving
Traditional “parkland” systems, i.e. mixed crop– as a consequence of policy changes. However, as
tree–shrub–livestock assemblages derived from documented by den Herder et al. (2015), the dom-
savannah ecosystems (Maranz, 2009), are the main inant practices in terms of land area continue to
sources of food, income and environmental services be those traditional practices that were relatively
across the Sahelian zone of West Africa (Bayala et unaffected by agricultural intensification, for
al., 2011a). Their species richness ranges from mono- example the oak-based systems known as dehesa
specificity to more than 100 species of trees and (Spain) and montados (Portugal) and (particularly)

234 the s tat e O F THE WORL D'S bi odi v er si t y FOr FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE
 THE S TAT E O F USE O F BI O DI V ER SI T Y FOR FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE 5

reindeer-husbandry systems in Scandinavia. The Australia, the term “agroforestry” is used broadly,
reindeer-husbandry systems are practised more but with some emphasis on timber production and
widely (41.4 million ha) than all other European agroforestry as “farm forestry” (e.g. Reid, 2017).
systems combined. Prominent agroforestry systems in South Asia
Agroforestry practice in Latin America is thou- include: poplar-based commercial agroforestry
sands of years old (Miller and Nair, 2006). Dominant (especially in India); fruit orchards; home gardens;
current types of agroforestry include the follow- cardamom and alder mixtures (Bhutan, India and
ing: cacao and coffee systems (Somarriba et al., Nepal); tree and shrub fodder production; silvo-
2014); silvopasture (Montagnini, Ibrahim and pastoral systems; coastal shelterbelts (India and Sri
Murgueitio, 2013); tree fallows (improved or Lanka); shifting cultivation (“chena” in Sri Lanka);
otherwise) in swidden agriculture (Cotta, 2017; trees interspersed on farmland; taungya (India,
Smith et al., 1999); home gardens (Padoch and de Sri Lanka); and tea and coffee agroforestry. In
Jong, 1991); and native trees and shrubs in field India, trees outside forests, of which trees grown
boundaries and along contour lines in moun- on farms are a subset, account for 65 percent of
tain areas (Mathez-Stiefel, 2016). Use of both timber production and almost half of fuelwood
natural regeneration – particularly timber and production (Government of India, 2017).
shade species – and planted trees is common. The Southeast Asian farmers use a rich variety of
acronym SAF (an abbreviation of the Portuguese agroforestry practices. These include: high-diversity
and Spanish words for “agroforestry system”) has home gardens; improved fallow (e.g. with natural-
wide currency, and usually refers to multistorey ized leucaena [Leucaena spp.] in the Philippines);
systems of varying complexity. In Brazil, market- commodity-based agroforestry systems (in
oriented systems may consist of intercropping Indonesia these smallholder mixed systems
three or more, mostly perennial, planted crops, for produce 96 percent of the national coffee yield,
example cacao (Theobroma cacao), açai (Euterpe 92 percent of the cacao, 80 percent of the rubber,
oleracea), black pepper (Piper nigrum), cupuaçu 39 percent of the oil palm and 26 percent of the
(Theobroma grandiflorum) or some timber species tea – DGEC, 2012); agroforests such as the damar
or oilseeds (Bolfe and Batistella, 2011), or much agroforests and “jungle rubber” of Sumatra and
more complex high-biodiversity systems in which Kalimantan, taungya and tumpangsari in teak or
natural regeneration is managed, for example pine plantations in Indonesia and Thailand; trees
cabruca49 systems (Sambuichi et al., 2012) and planted at wide spacing in open-field agriculture
successional agroforests (Cezar et al., 2015). (e.g. forest–rice terrace systems in the southern
Agroforestry practice and concepts in Oceania and northern Philippines); SALT (sloping agricul-
vary widely. Agroforestry has traditionally been tural land technologies), for example hedgerow
an important farming system for Pacific Islanders planting, alley cropping and NVS (natural vege-
(Thaman, Elevitch and Kennedy, 2006). On the tative strips) on sloping land in Indonesia, the
smaller, land-scarce Pacific islands, tree fruits Philippines and Viet Nam; and boundary planting
and nuts are important components in intensive around farms and fields (e.g. of fodder trees in
farming systems (Evans, 1999). In rural communities Indonesia and the Philippines). In Indonesia, agro-
in Papua New Guinea, native and exotic tree species forestry has become one of the land-based strat-
such as casuarina (Casuarina oligodon), betel- egies for the national climate change adaptation
nut palm (Areca catechu) and gliricidia (Gliricidia and mitigation, and social-forestry, programmes.
sepium) provide important agroecological services
and products for sale or home consumption (Page Status and trends
et al., 2016; Bourke and Harwood, eds., 2009). In Estimates of the global extent of agroforestry
have differed by orders of magnitude. Reasons for
49
Cocoa trees grown under a thinned natural-forest canopy. this include the many different ways of using trees

the state O F THE WORL D'S biodiversity FOr FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE 235
 S TAT E O F MA N AGEMEN T

Part C

in agriculture, the “invisibility” of agroforestry in some cases the regional values mask important
official statistics and differing understandings of intraregional variation.
what constitutes agroforestry (see above). What Global recognition of the contributions of
is clear is that where tree growth is not limited agroforestry has increased over the past decade,
by environmental factors – usually temperature as have the mainstreaming of agroforestry into
or precipitation (Runyan and D’Odorico, 2016) – development and environmental agendas and
trees are ubiquitous in agricultural landscapes, appreciation of its potential impact on rural live-
the most obvious exceptions being some agro- lihoods, climate-smart agriculture, biodiversity
industrial landscapes. conservation and land restoration. This higher
Under a landscape-level definition of agro- profile also reflects wider acceptance and adop-
forestry, global datasets assembled for other tion of agroecological practices in agriculture.
purposes can be used to estimate the extent of In individual countries and regions, the move
agroforestry. For example, Zomer et al. (2014), towards mainstreaming is related – as both cause
using 1 km2 resolution gridded data layers of and effect – to policy and legal changes. Examples
tree cover and land use, defined agroforestry from several regions are provided in Box 5.11. A
as occurring in pixels that are classified as “agri- number of the country reports mention policies
cultural land” and have a certain level of tree and programmes supporting agroforestry, includ-
cover. They estimated the global land area under ing through education and extension, research
agroforestry (based on three-year averages for and the provision of payments for ecosystem ser-
2008 to 2010) to be 3.1 million km2 if taken to vices. France’s Agroforestry Development Plan is
include agricultural land with ≥30 percent tree described in Box 5.12.
cover, and 9.6 million km 2 if taken to include Increasing levels of awareness and support can
agricultural land with ≥10 percent tree cover.50 be expected to lead to increases in the land area
These are vast areas, roughly equivalent, respec- under agroforestry. Globally, there seems already
tively, to the areas of India and China. Table 5.5 to have been a slight increase (Table 5.5), although
shows regional estimates of the area under agro- unravelling the causes of particular regional trends
forestry, using an intermediate (≥20 percent tree would require more detailed analysis. Increases in
cover) criterion. In absolute area, South America tree cover are not necessarily the result of policy
and Southeast Asia are easily the most significant measures or other high-level support, i.e. they may
“agroforestry regions”, together constituting reflect wider macroeconomic and societal factors
about 45 percent of the global total. In propor- (e.g. Redo et al., 2012).
tional terms, agroforestry is far more preponder- Countries’ responses on the state of and trends
ant in Central America and Southeast Asia than in the adoption of agroforestry practices are
in any other region. It should be noted that in summarized in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2. Across all
systems, reports of increasing trends outnumber
50
Two aspects of the methodology used in this analysis should be
reports of decreasing trends, in most cases by a
noted. First, pixels corresponding to 1 km2 area were used as
the basis for tree cover classification. A given percentage tree substantial margin. Many country reports mention
cover in a given pixel may indicate various things. For example, that agroforestry is a traditional element of local
30 percent tree cover might mean 70 percent treeless and production systems, in many cases noting its
30 percent forested or an intimate mixture of trees and crops in
importance to food security, to the supply of eco-
which tree crowns overlay 30 percent of the area (or anything
in between). Although all pixels are located on land classified system services such as soil protection and carbon
as “agricultural”, it is possible that some pixels that consist of sequestration and to the resilience of farms to
contrasting treeless areas and closed canopy forest areas may both biophysical (e.g. climatic) and economic
not constitute agroforestry as commonly understood. Second,
shocks and trends. Countries generally do not
the estimates will have excluded some areas under agroforestry,
because these occur on land classified as non-agricultural provide detailed information about the causes of
(Zomer et al., 2014). the trends reported. A number, however, mention

236 the s tat e O F THE WORL D'S bi odi v er si t y FOr FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE
 THE S TAT E O F USE O F BI O DI V ER SI T Y FOR FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE 5

Table 5.5
Land area under agroforestry (2008–2010) and trends (2000–2010), by region

Region Area Proportion of total Increase

(million km2) agricultural land (%) (2000–2010) (%)

Central America 0.2 79.0 8.2

East Asia 0.4 22.1 3.4
Europe 0.5 20.4 1.6
North Africa and Western Asia 0.1 5.5 0.3
North America 0.6 26.3 2.2
Northern and Central Asia 0.2 9.7 1.2
Oceania 0.2 23.8 3.4
South America 1.2 31.8 3.5
South Asia 0.1 7.8 0.9
Southeast Asia 1.0 62.9 2.0
Sub-Saharan Africa 0.6 15.0 0.0
World 5.1 23.1 1.8
Notes: Figures refer to agricultural land with ≥20 percent tree cover. Land area estimates are based on three-year averages for
2008 to 2010.
Source: Zomer et al., 2014.

policies that provide support to the development and not necessarily undesirable, it becomes a
of agroforestry via measures such as knowledge problem when limited concepts of agroforestry
transfer and the provision of subsidies. – for example, agroforestry as only multistorey
systems – lead to limited understanding of its rel-
Needs and priorities evance to issues such as poverty, climate change
At the turn of the millennium, regional studies adaptation and mitigation and land degradation.
in Southeast Asia identified the following prior- This underscores the importance of not only clari-
ity areas for support to agroforestry: germplasm fying agroforestry definitions, but also of sharing
quality and availability; marketing and market experiences of different types of agroforestry and
access; supportive policies; tree and system (par- how they can successfully contribute to addressing
ticularly timber and fruit) management; and train- problems and opportunities.
ing and information dissemination (Gunasena and
Roshetko, 2000; Roshetko and Evans, 1999). A Policy
global review by Leakey et al. (2012) found that, Agroforestry often continues to occupy a “no
while significant progress had been made, many man’s land” between forestry and agriculture,
of those topics remained in need of attention. and benefits neither from specific supportive
The following subsections present gaps and needs policies nor from an institutional home. In many
under five broad, partially overlapping, headings: cases, farmers are still not allowed to harvest
concepts; policy; development approaches; ger- trees, or even tree products, on their land. Even
mplasm; and research. where such activities are allowed under current
law, the complexity or cost of fulfilling require-
Concepts of agroforestry ments may be beyond the capacities of resource-
Although diversity of concepts and practices across poor farmers (Foundjem-Tita et al., 2013; Sears
regions and countries is practically inevitable et al., 2018).

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 S TAT E O F MA N AGEMEN T

Part C

Box 5.11
Policy and legislative frameworks promoting agroforestry – examples from around the world

East and Southern Africa 2017.5 This measure aims to formalize hitherto illegal
Policy changes have been key to wider inclusion of trees occupation of state forestland, based on the scaling-up of
on farms in East and Southern Africa. For example, Kenya’s sustainable management (including agroforestry) on about
Agriculture (Farm Forestry) Rules of 20091 – a response to 1.2 million ha of land in the country’s Amazon region.
deforestation, increased demand for agricultural land and In Brazil, the Forest Law of 20126 established the principle
farmers’ desire to plant trees – require at least 10 percent tree that agroforestry serves both social and environmental
cover on all farms. The country’s government has allocated functions in protected areas, allowing farmers to restore
funds to assist farmers to meet this requirement (Jamnadass Permanent Preservation Areas (riparian zones, springs,
et al., 2013). Kenya and other East African countries have hillsides and ridge tops) and conservation set-asides
pledged millions of hectares to the Bonn Challenge2 and (known as Legal Reserves), which are required on all rural
AFR1003 restoration initiatives (e.g. 15 million ha in Ethiopia, lands, through agroforestry (for which a legal definition is
5.1 million ha in Kenya and 2 million ha in Rwanda). provided). In these cases, farmers may include short-cycle
Agroforestry plays a prominent role in these pledges crops, legumes and some exotic species provided they are
(e.g. Ministry of Natural Resources – Rwanda, 2014). intercropped with native trees and maintain basic ecological
functions (Miccolis et al., 2016).
West and Central Africa
Analysis suggests that both rainfall patterns and Southeast Asia
land-management practices are responsible for the Many countries in Southeast Asia have mainstreamed
“re-greening” of the Sahel (Ouedraogo et al., 2014). In the agroforestry into agriculture, watershed management
case of Niger, widespread adoption of farmer-managed and social-forestry programmes. For example, the
natural regeneration (FMNR) (Reij, Tappan and Smale, Government of the Philippines has been implementing
2009a) led the government to relax provisions in the Forest an upland-agroforestry programme since 2000. Viet Nam
Law, allowing farmers the right to harvest trees nurtured or is revising its Forestry Law, introducing provisions that
planted on their own land. This policy change is thought to allow agroforestry to be practised in allocated forestlands,
have contributed to the spread of FMNR to over 5 million ha which will pave the way for agroforestry to become
(Garrity et al., 2010). The trend towards increasing tree cover an official forest land-use type. At the regional level,
is likely to continue, as a result of multiple international the 2016–2025 Vision and Strategic Plan of the Food,
initiatives to upscale on-farm natural regeneration and Agriculture and Forestry Sector of ASEAN (Association of
tree planting, particularly those related to forest landscape Southeast Asian Nations) has a specific action programme
restoration (Minasny et al., 2017; Reij and Garrity, 2016). aimed at agroforestry expansion (Strategic Thrust 4, Action
Programme 5). In 2017, the ASEAN Working Group on
Latin America Social Forestry agreed to the preparation of ASEAN-level
In Peru, the Forest and Wildlife Law of 20114 recognizes guidelines on agroforestry development for Member States
and provides an official definition of agroforestry, and (Finlayson, 2017).
created the Agroforestry Concessions mechanism (Robiglio
and Reyes, 2016), for which guidelines were issued in (Cont.)

1
Agriculture (Farm Forestry) Rules (available at http://www.fao.org/faolex/ 5
Resolución Nº 081-2017-SERFOR – Lineamientos para el otorgamiento de
results/details/en/?details=LEX-FAOC101360). contratos de cesión en uso para sistemas agroforestales. El Peruano, 31 de
2
http://www.bonnchallenge.org/content/challenge marzo de 2017 (available, in Spanish, at http://www.fao.org/faolex/results/
3
http://www.afr100.org details/en/c/LEX-FAOC171777/).
4
Ley Nº 29763 - Ley Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre. El Peruano, 22 de julio de 6
Lei de Proteção da Vegetação Nativa n. 12.727, de 17 de Outubro de 2012
2011 (available, in Spanish, at http://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/en/c/ (available, in Portuguese, at http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2011-
LEX-FAOC104648/). 2014/2012/lei/l12727.htm).

238 the s tat e O F THE WORL D'S bi odi v er si t y FOr FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE
 THE S TAT E O F USE O F BI O DI V ER SI T Y FOR FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE 5

Box 5.11 (Cont.)

Policy and legislative frameworks promoting agroforestry – examples from around the world

South Asia been notable, particularly the relaxation of tree-felling

In 2014, India promulgated its National Agroforestry and transit regulations, deregulation of sawmill opening
Policy, backed with a capital outlay of USD 450 million and inclusion of agroforestry in many central government
for four years (2016/17 to 2019/20) (Chavan et al., 2015). agricultural schemes. Twenty of 29 states have excluded at
The policy has been an effective instrument for promoting least 20 tree species from felling and transit regulations.
agroforestry, has created an institutional “home” for Prior to approval and implementation of the agroforestry
agroforestry (the Ministry of Agriculture) and constitutes policy, felling and transport of the majority of tree species
a negotiation platform for agroforestry in the country were prohibited through regulatory laws that discouraged
(Singh et al., 2016). Its effect on sustainable utilization of farmers from growing trees on farms.
India’s vast stock of trees on farms (1.5 million m3) has

Box 5.12
France’s Agroforestry Development Plan 2015–2020

In 2015, the French Ministry of Agriculture launched • increasing the economic valuation of agroforestry
the Agroecological Project, a policy aimed at rendering production in a sustainable way; and
production systems more effective with respect to • promoting and disseminating agroforestry
their economic, environmental and social dimensions.1 internationally.
Sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity are key The axes comprise 23 actions that are coordinated by
elements of agroecology. One element of this policy the Ministry of Agriculture and implemented with a dozen
initiative is the Agroforestry Development Plan,2 which partners, including the National Institute for Agricultural
consists of five axes: Research (INRA), the Ministry of the Environment, the
• gaining better understanding of the diversity of associations involved in the territories, and the network of
agroforestry systems and their functioning; Chambers of Agriculture.
• improving the legal framework and strengthening The objective of the Agroforestry Development Plan is
financial support; to develop existing agroforestry systems such as hedgerows
• developing extension, training and promotion (about 1 million ha in France, but decreasing), tree
of agroforestry; intercropping (about 5 000 ha), fruit-tree silvopasture and
silvopastoralism.
1
http://agriculture.gouv.fr/le-projet-agro-ecologique-pour-la-france
2
http://agriculture.gouv.fr/un-plan-national-de-developpement-pour-
lagroforesterie Source: Provided by Patricia Larbouret, Christophe Pinard and Pierre Velge.

Approaches to agroforestry development First, rural advisory services, where they exist,
Agroforestry innovations often encounter prob- often struggle to address some forms of agrofor-
lems in scaling up (Coe, Sinclair and Barrios, 2014; estry, which can be knowledge intensive, context
Shiferaw, Okello and Reddy, 2009). A diverse specific and provide benefits in the long term
range of factors may be responsible. For example, rather than the short term. Rural resource centres
Porro (2009) lists 46 causes of failure in adoption (Degrande et al., 2015) – training and demonstra-
of agroforestry systems in the Amazon. Three spe- tion hubs that are managed by grassroots organ-
cific areas stand out. izations and may operate outside the formal

the state O F THE WORL D'S biodiversity FOr FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE 239
 S TAT E O F MA N AGEMEN T

Part C

extension model – are one promising approach. Wilson, 2014; Koffa and Roshetko, 1999; Roshetko,
The exchange of knowledge and experiences Mulawarman and Dianarto, 2008; Walters et al.,
between farmers should also be facilitated and 2005). Expansion of restoration initiatives implies
supported (Martini, Roshetko and Paramita, 2017). significantly higher demand for germplasm
Second, special attention needs to be paid (Broadhurst et al., 2016). For example, if half of
to gender differences in access to agroforestry the area currently pledged to the Bonn Challenge
resources and potential to benefit from them. (140 million ha) (see Section 5.4) were to be
Men and women often play different roles in pro- subject to relatively low-density planting averag-
duction and along value chains, which means that ing 100 trees per ha over a period of ten years, the
they have different knowledge about species and demand for seed would be around 1.4 billon seeds
management practices, and different perceptions per year.51 The quantities of seeds and the institu-
of the value of the potential benefits of agrofor- tional frameworks required would be beyond the
estry practices (Colfer et al., 2016; Kiptot, Franzel current capacities of most, if not all, developing
and Degrande, 2014; Mulyoutami et al., 2015). countries (e.g. Atkinson et al., 2017).
Third, support to agroforestry often tends to In some cases, the market may respond adequately
neglect marketing, business practices and finan- to increased demand. However, profit-seeking
cial incentives such as credit (Blare and Donovan, nursery producers will tend to concentrate on the
2016). This can apply to agroforestry commodities most profitable species, meaning that germplasm-
(e.g. the principal beverage crops) (Donovan, Blare supply systems based purely on the market are
and Poole, 2017), to companion crops grown in unlikely to offer the diversity that tree planters
agroforestry systems (e.g. Sears et al., 2018) and seek (Cornelius and Miccolis, 2018). Lillesø et al.
to farmer-produced timber (Holding-Anyonge (2018) have argued for legislation that favours
and Roshetko, 2003; Perdana, Roshetko and public–private partnerships, with small-scale entre-
Kurniawan, 2012). When markets are considered, preneurs becoming the major producers and dis-
the focus has often been on export markets rather tributors of quality tree-planting materials. Low
than on establishing more stable local and regional income may prevent resource-poor farmers from
demand (Blare and Donovan, 2016). A more inte- purchasing planting stock (Harrison, Gregorio
grated vision is needed, in which promotion of and Herbohn, 2008; Murray and Bannister, 2004;
agroforestry includes efforts to identify markets for Osemeobo, 1987), and distribution of free or subsi-
the mix of crop and tree species cultivated. dized seedlings is an option in such cases. Although
These and many other factors are part of a there is a risk of undermining private nurseries
general failure to adequately consider local (Graudal and Lillesø, 2007), development agencies
contexts (Coe, Sinclair and Barrios, 2014). The that distribute free or low-cost planting material
latter authors propose an “options-by-context”, can avoid this problem if they themselves purchase
co-learning approach in which different agrofor- from private nurseries (Cornelius and Miccolis,
estry interventions (potentially including innova- 2018). In this way, they can strengthen emerging
tion in policy, advisory services, institutions and germplasm-supply systems by acting as intermedi-
value chains, as well as in production systems) are aries between nurseries and farmers that are too
considered in relation to local social, economic, poor or too distant to purchase from them.
biophysical and political contexts.
Research
Germplasm Enumerating the full range of research needs in
The availability of germplasm has long been agroforestry research is beyond the scope of this
considered a constraint to the scaling-up of tree-
planting by smallholders (Caveness and Kurtz, 51
7 million ha per year, 100 seedlings per ha, 2 seeds per
1993; Franzel et al., 2001; Kakuru, Doreen and seedling produced.

240 the s tat e O F THE WORL D'S bi odi v er si t y FOr FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE
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overview. It is important, however, to stress that involve combining aquaculture with other compo-
the agroforestry research agenda must reflect the nents (integrated aquaculture and the specialized
full scope of agroforestry, i.e. from landscape-level case of aquaponics) and the third covers the use
effects (e.g. relationships between trees and water of multiple aquatic species (polyculture) in the
supply, or optimum configurations for biodiver- context of aquaculture itself. The final subsection
sity objectives) to plot-level, and including social- discusses trends in the use of diversification prac-
science research as well as the hitherto more dom- tices in aquaculture and presents findings from
inant biophysical research. the country reports on the levels of (and trends in)
Integration of research into development is the use of polyculture and aquaponics practices.
essential to the scaling up of agroforestry. As
noted above, potential agroforestry interventions Integrated aquaculture
need to be adapted to specific local contexts. This Much of modern aquaculture operates in relative
may require formal planned comparisons nested isolation from other types of food and agricultural
within development activities (Coe et al., 2017). production and with little attention to its impacts
on, or interactions with, surrounding ecosystems
5.5.4 Diversification practices and biodiversity (see Chapter 3 for further discus-
in aquaculture sion of the impacts on BFA). Traditional aquaculture,
in contrast, is not an isolated operation but rather
Introduction an integral component of local farming systems,
Recent decades have seen a general upward and is managed in accordance with farmers’ overall
trend in the share of aquaculture production in strategies for the use of their labour capacity, land
total fish production across all continents (FAO, and other resources (Dabbadie and Mikolasek,
2018a). Aquaculture accounted for 47 percent 2015). Such systems are often referred to as “inte-
of total world fish production in 2016, up from grated aquaculture” (Edwards, Little and Demaine,
42 percent in 2012 and 31 percent in 2004 (FAO, 2002; FAO, IIRR and WorldFish Center, 2001; Nhan
2016k, 2018a). Given that production from et al., 2007; van der Zijpp et al., eds., 2007).
capture fisheries is fairly stable (FAO, 2018a), it is A 2001 review of integrated agriculture–
likely that aquaculture will be the main source of aquaculture (FAO, IIRR and WorldFish Center,
future growth in the fisheries sector. 2001) identified a wide range of systems within
Aquaculture is very diverse in terms of the range this category:
of species, environments and production systems • grass–fish and embankment–fish systems – fish
utilized.52 It also includes a range of diversifica- ponds integrated with vegetable crops and
tion practices. The country-reporting guidelines grass. Grass, plant wastes and vegetable cut-
invited countries to provide information both on tings are fed to grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon
“diversity-based practices” in aquaculture, includ- idella) or other herbivorous fish species;
ing specifically on polyculture and aquaponics, • seasonal ponds and ditches – components
and on “mixed systems”, including integrated of other farming systems that become inun-
aquaculture, i.e. systems in which aquaculture is dated for a period of the year, allowing fish
integrated with crop or livestock production. The stocking and culture;
first three subsections below present an overview • livestock–fish integration systems featuring
of such practices. The first two cover systems that chickens, ducks or pigs – typically involving
the placement of a livestock pen or cage over
FAO estimates that about 598 aquatic species are currently
52
or next to a fish pond so that waste feed and
farmed around the world, including seaweeds, molluscs,
manure drop into the pond, directly feeding
crustaceans, fish and other groups (FAO, 2018a). This number
is increasing very fast, as there were only 472 aquatic species the fish or fertilizing the water to increase
reportedly farmed in 2006 (ibid.). primary productivity;

the state O F THE WORL D'S biodiversity FOr FOO D A N D AGRI CU LT URE 241
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The State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture presents
the first global assessment of biodiversity for food and agriculture worldwide.
Biodiversity for food and agriculture is the diversity of plants, animals and
micro-organisms at genetic, species and ecosystem levels, present in and
around crop, livestock, forest and aquatic production systems. It is essential
to the structure, functions and processes of these systems, to livelihoods and
food security, and to the supply of a wide range of ecosystem services. It has
been managed or influenced by farmers, livestock keepers, forest dwellers,
fish farmers and fisherfolk for hundreds of generations.

Prepared through a participatory, country-driven process, the report draws

on information from 91 country reports to provide a description of the roles
and importance of biodiversity for food and agriculture, the drivers of
change affecting it and its current status and trends. It describes the state of
efforts to promote the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity for
food and agriculture, including through the development of supporting
policies, legal frameworks, institutions and capacities. It concludes with a
discussion of needs and challenges in the future management of biodiversity
for food and agriculture.

The report complements other global assessments prepared under the

auspices of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture,
which have focused on the state of genetic resources within particular sectors
of food and agriculture.

ISBN 978-92-5-131270-4 ISSN 2412-5474

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