DATA COMMUNICATION AND

COMPUTER NETWORKING
ICT 321
BY

ENGR MUZAMMIL ABDULRAHMAN

EEED, PTI
2024
 INTRODUCTION

 The distance over which data moves within a computer may vary from a few thousandths of an inch, as is the case within
a single IC chip, to as much as several feet along the backplane of the main circuit board.
 Over such small distances, digital data may be transmitted as direct, two-level electrical signals over simple copper
conductors.
 Frequently, however, data must be sent beyond the local circuitry that constitutes a computer. In many cases, the
distances involved may be enormous.
 Unfortunately, as the distance between the source of a message and its destination increases, accurate transmission
becomes increasingly difficult.
 This results from the electrical distortion of signals traveling through long conductors, and from noise added to the signal as
it propagates through a transmission medium.
 Although some precautions must be taken for data exchange within a computer, the biggest problems occur when data
is transferred to devices outside the computer's circuitry.
 In this case, distortion and noise can become so severe that information is lost.
 Data Communications concerns the transmission of digital messages to devices external to the message source.
 "External" devices are generally thought of as being independently powered circuitry that exists beyond the chassis of a
computer or other digital message source.
 As a rule, the maximum permissible transmission rate of a message is directly proportional to signal power, and inversely
proportional to channel noise.
 It is the aim of any communications system to provide the highest possible transmission rate at the lowest possible power
and with the least possible noise.
 INTRODUCTION
What is Data Communications
 Data communication is much like regular communication among people, which consist of the
following: Sender, Message, Medium and Receiver.
 It involves the sender which a person who has the idea or message and usually began the
conversation. A message is the information or the idea to be shared/communicated. A medium
which is the channel used to transfer the message and the receiver who is the person the message is
intended to.
 The difference between human communication and data communication is the addition of
protocol.
 Protocol is the directive that are entered by the user or the system admin into the communication
software before any communication can occur between computers on a network such as internet.
 The amount of data that can be communicated or sent at any time over a network is regulated by
the bandwidth which is predetermined by your network provider.
 A bandwidth is a pathway that data uses for one computer to communicate to the other and
determines the volume of information that can be transmitted.
 It is measured in Bit per Second (BPS). The greater the bandwidth the larger the information that can
be transmitted.
 Just like the road way, the more lanes you have the greater the amount of traffic that can be
accommodated.
 Why is there need for Communication?

The need for communication between machines arises due to several reasons:
 1. Real-time data exchange: Data communication technologies enable the near-instantaneous transfer of
data, supporting applications that require timely information, such as real-time monitoring, process control,
and emergency response systems.
 Cost savings: Effective data communication can reduce operational costs by minimizing the need for
physical transportation of data and documents, as well as reducing the potential for errors and delays
associated with manual data processing.
 Improved information sharing: Data communication enables the efficient exchange of information
between devices, networks, and users, facilitating collaboration, decision-making, and knowledge transfer.
 Improved decision-making: Access to timely and accurate data through data communication systems
can enhance the quality of decision-making processes, leading to more informed and strategic choices.
 Enhanced productivity: By automating data transmission and reducing manual information handling, data
communication streamlines workflows and boosts productivity across various industries.
 Scalability and flexibility: Data communication networks can be easily expanded and reconfigured to
accommodate changing data requirements and growing organizational needs.
 Remote monitoring and management: Communication between machines enables remote monitoring
and management. For instance, in remote monitoring of healthcare devices, machines communicate
data to caregivers or medical professionals for real-time analysis and intervention.
This is common in smart home automation, where devices like thermostats, lights, and security systems
communicate to provide a unified control and experience.
 INTRODUCTION
 Before we begin the data communication between computers let us know what is a computer.

 Computer is an electronic device that accepts, processes, stores and output data at high speed
according to programmed instructions.
 Computer is generally divided into three groups
 Computer hardware is the physical component of a computer system. It refers to the
electromechanical parts and devices that make up a computer and can be seen and touch.
Examples are keyboard, monitor, mouse etc.
 Computer Software is the operating system and applications that make the hardware work. It
provides programs that tell the computer what to do. It provides instructions that the CPU will need
to carry out.
 Computer firmware is the combination of hardware and software into a single chip
 DATA VS INFORMATION

 Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to processed data that
enables us to take decisions.
 Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it contains data of all students, when you find the
marks you have scored you have the information that lets you know whether you have passed or
failed.
 The word data refers to any information which is presented in a form that is agreed and accepted
upon by is creators and users.
 What is Data communication?
 Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information.
 In case of computer networks this exchange is done between two devices
over a transmission medium.
 This process involves a communication system which is made up of
hardware and software.
 The hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and the
intermediate devices through which the data passes.
 The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be
communicated, how it is to be communicated and when. It is also called
as a Protocol.
 Characteristics of Data Communication

 The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the following four
fundamental characteristics:
 Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
 Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing any
errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered
data.
 Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay; such a
data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
 Jitter: variation in the delay of packet arrival times in a network. It's a critical factor in real-time
communication applications like video conferencing, voice over IP (VoIP), and online gaming.
Effects of jitter:
 1. Packet loss 2. Delay 3. Distortion 4. Poor audio/video quality
 Elements of Data Communication
 A Data Communication system has five basic elements as shown in the diagram below:

 1. Message: message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver(Audio, text,
number, pictures & vedio).
 2. Sender: the sender is any device that is capable of sending the data message (Computer, Phone,
Camera).
 3. Receiver: the receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data message (Computer,
Phone, workstation, TV etc).
 4. Transmission Medium: it is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver.
 It can be wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
 5. Protocol: It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to communicate data.
• A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
• A Protocol is a necessity in data communications without which the communicating entities are like two persons
trying to talk to each other in a different language without knowledge of the other language.
 DATA REPRESENTATION
 Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce information.
 Some of the forms of data used in communications are as follows:
 1. Text
• Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case, stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent
encoding system : ASCII, Unicode
 2. Numbers
• Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9, stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :ASCII,
Unicode
 3. Images
• In computers images are digitally stored.
• A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a picture or image is a matrix of pixel elements.
• The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon the type of image (black & white or colour) each pixel
would require different number of bits to represent the value of a pixel.
• The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called resolution) and the bit pattern used to indicate the
value of each pixel.
• Example: if an image is purely black and white (two colour) each pixel can be represented by a value either 0 or 1, so
an image made up of 10 x 10 pixel elements would require only 100 bits in memory to be stored.
• On the other hand an image that includes gray may require 2 bits to represent every pixel value (00 - black, 01 – dark
gray, 10- light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10 pixel image would now require 200 bits of memory to be stored.
• Commonly used Image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc.
 DATA REPRESENTATION

 4. Audio
• Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and broadcasted. Example: What
we hear on the radio is a source of data or information.
• Audio data is continuous, not discrete.
 5. Video
• Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie
 MODE OF DATA COMMUNICATION (DATA FLOW)

 The manner in which data is transmitted from one point to another is called data transmission
mode.
 The data can flow between the two devices in the following ways:

 Simplex
 Half Duplex
 Full Duplex
 SIMPLEX

 In Simplex, communication is unidirectional

 Only one of the devices sends the data and the other one only receives the data.
 Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a monitor only receives data.
 Half Duplex

 In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time.
 When one device is sending other can only receive and vice-versa (as shown in figure
above.)
 Example: A walkie-talkie.
 Full duplex

 In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.
 Example: mobile phones
 Challenges in data communication

There can be several challenges in data communication that can affect the transmission and reception
of data between machines. Some common challenges include:
 1.Noise and interference: Data transmission can be affected by external factors, such as
electromagnetic interference, radio frequency interference, or physical degradation of the
communication medium. These factors can introduce noise and distort the signals, leading to errors in
data transmission.
 2. Bandwidth limitations: The available bandwidth in a communication channel may limit the amount
of data that can be transmitted at a given time. Too much data or high network traffic can cause
congestion and slow down data transmission.
 Latency and delay: The time taken for data to travel from the source to the destination can
introduce delays in communication. Latency can be caused by factors such as network congestion,
signal propagation time, or processing time at intermediate devices.
 Challenges in data communication

 4. Data security and privacy: Ensuring the security and privacy of data during transmission is a crucial
challenge in data communication. There is a risk of unauthorized access, interception, or
manipulation of data during transmission, which can compromise the integrity and confidentiality of
the information.
 5. Compatibility and interoperability: Different devices and systems may use different communication
protocols, standards, or formats, making interoperability a challenge. Ensuring compatibility between
devices and enabling seamless communication can require additional effort and resources.
 6. Scalability and network management: As the number of devices and data traffic increases,
managing and scaling the network infrastructure becomes complex. Ensuring reliable and efficient
data communication across large networks requires effective network management strategies.
 Addressing these challenges often involves using appropriate technologies, protocols, and
techniques for data transmission, such as error detection and correction mechanisms, encryption,
data compression, quality of service measures, and network optimization techniques.
 Analogue vs Digital

 Data and signals can exist in either analogue or digital form.

 Analog data and analogue signals are represented as continuous waveform, with examples such as
(naturally occurring) voice and music as well as telephone system’s electronic transmission of a voice
conversation analogue signal.
 One primary shortcomings of analogue data and analogue signals is how difficult it is to separate
noise from the original waveform. Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that
degrades the quality of signals and data.
 Digital data and digital signals are discrete waveforms, rather than continuous waveforms.
 Digital waveform takes on only a finite number of values.
 Figure below shows an example of analog and digital signals where the digital waveform takes on
only two different values.
 Data and Signals

 Data and signals are the TWO most basic building blocks of any network.
 Its important to note that Data and Signals do not mean the same thing.
 Data is entities that convey meaning within a computer or computer system. Common example include:
 A computer file of names and addresses stored on a hard disk drive.
 The bits or individual elements of a movie stored on a DVD.
 The binary 1s and 0s of music stored on compact disk.
 The digits 0 to 9, which might represent some kind of sales figures
 If assuming you want to transfer these data from one point to another, either via physical wire or through
radio waves, the data has to be converted into signal.
 Signals are the electric or electromagnetic impulses used to encode and transmit data.
 Common examples of signals include:
 A transmission of a telephone conversation over telephone line.
 A live television news interview from Europe transmitted over a satellite system.
 A transmission of a term paper over the printer cable between a computer and a printer.
 And that in order for a computer network to transmit data, the data must first be converted into the
appropriate signals.
 Data and Signals

 The one thing data and signals have in common is that both can be in either analogue or digital
form, which gives us four possible data-to-signal conversion combinations:
1. Analog data-to-analogue signal, which involves amplitude and frequency modulation techniques.
2. Analog data-to-digital signal, which involves two digitization techniques.
3. Digital data-to-analogue signal, which involves three modulation techniques.
4. Digital data-to-digital signal, which involves five encoding techniques.
 Each of these four combinations occurs quite frequently in computer networks
 Combinations of Data and Signals

 The four combinations of data and signals

 Bandwidth of Signals

 Bandwidth can be defined as the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by the signal
 It may also be defined as the frequency range over which a signal is transmitted.
 Different types of signals have different bandwidth. Ex. Voice signal, music signal, etc
 Bandwidth of analogue and digital signals are calculated in separate ways;
 Analogue signal bandwidth is measured in terms of its frequency (Hz).
 Digital signal bandwidth is measured in terms of bit rate (bits per second, bps)
 Bandwidth of signal is different from bandwidth of the medium/channel
 Bandwidth of Analogue Signals

 Bandwidth of an analogue signal is expressed in terms of its frequencies.

 It is defined as the range of frequencies that the composite analogue signal carries.
 It is calculated by the difference between the maximum frequency and the minimum frequency.
 Consider the signal shown in the diagram below:

Fig: Bandwidth of a signal in time domain and frequency domain

 The signal shown in the diagram is an composite analogue signal with many component signals.
 It has a minimum frequency of F1 = 30Hz and maximum frequency of F2 = 90Hz.
 Hence the bandwidth is given by F2 – F1 = 90 – 30 = 60Hz
 Bandwidth of Digital Signals

 It is defined as the maximum bit rate of the signal to be transmitted.

 It is measured in bits per second.
 BANDWIDTH OF A CHANNEL

 A channel is the medium through which the signal carrying information will be passed.
 In terms of analogue signal, bandwidth of the channel is the range of frequencies that the channel
can carry.
 In terms of digital signal, bandwidth of the channel is the maximum bit rate supported by the
channel. i.e. the maximum amount of data that the channel can carry per second.
 The bandwidth of the medium should always be greater than the bandwidth of the signal to be
transmitted else the transmitted signal will be either attenuated or distorted or both leading in loss of
information.
 The channel bandwidth determines the type of signal to be transmitted i.e. analogue or digital.
 THE MAXIMUM DATA RATE OF A CHANNEL

 Data rate depends on three factors:

 The bandwidth available
 The level of the signals we use
 The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
 The quality of the channel indicates two types:
1. A Noiseless or Perfect Channel (an ideal channel with no noise)
 The Nyquist Bit rate derived by Henry Nyquist gives the bit rate for a Noiseless Channel.
2. A Noisy Channel (a realistic channel with some noise)
 The Shannon Capacity formulated by Claude Shannon gives the bit rate for a Noisy Channel
 Nyquist Bit Rate

 The Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate for a noiseless channel

Where
 Bitrate is the bitrate of the channel in bits per second
 Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
 L is the number of signal levels.
 Shannon Capacity

 The Shannon Capacity defines the theoretical maximum bit rate for a noisy channel

Where
 Capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second
 Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
 SNR is the Signal to Noise Ratio
 Shannon Capacity for calculating the maximum bit rate for a noisy channel does not consider the
number of levels of the signals being transmitted as done in the Nyquist bit rate.
 Spectrum vs Bandwidth

 The frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), or cycles per second.

 For signal spans from minimum to maximum is called the spectrum while the bandwidth is the
difference between the lowest and highest frequencies of a signal.
 Example, consider an average voice with a frequency range of roughly 300 Hz to 3100 Hz,
 The spectrum would be 300–3100Hz and the bandwidth would be 2800Hz.
 Please note that all signals experience loss (attenuation).
 Attenuation is denoted as a decibel (dB)loss. Decibel losses (and gains) are additive.
 The dB is a relative measure of signal loss or gain and is expressed as dB = 10 log10 (P2 / P1) where P2
and P1 are the ending and beginning power levels, respectively of the signal expressed in watts.
 Example: If a signal starts at a transmitter with 10 watts of power and arrives at a receiver with 5 watts
of power, the signal loss in dB is calculated as follows dB =
 dB=10 log10 (5 / 10)
 dB= 10 log10 (0.5)=10(-0.3)=-3dB
 What is Computer Network?

 A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows

computers to exchange data.
 A computer network can be defined as a collection of nodes. A node can be any device
capable of transmitting or receiving data.
 The communicating nodes have to be connected by communication links.
 The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using
either cable media or wireless media.
 The best-known computer network is the Internet.
 Computer Network

A Computer network should ensure

 Reliability: Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, time it takes to recover from failure,
the network’s robustness.
 If one of the attached system collapse same data can be gathered form another system attached to
the same network.
 Security: Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and virus.
 Network must be secured. The data that is sent should reach its destination safely without any third-party
reading or altering or destroying the data in the midway.
 Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
 Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing any errors.
The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered data.
 Performance: It can be measured in many ways, including transmit time and response time.
 Performance is a measurement of various factors such as the amount of time requires for messages to
travel from one device to another, the time it requires to get a response starting from an inquiry.
 Flexibility: Computer networks are quite flexible all of its topologies and networking strategies supports
addition for extra components and terminals to the network. They are equally fit for large as well as small
organizations.
 Advantages of Computer Network

 Computer networks have highly benefited various fields of educational

sectors, business world and many organizations.
 They can be seen everywhere they connect people all over the world.
 There are some major advantages which computer networks have
provided making the human life more relaxed and easy.
 Some of them are listed below:
 Advantages of Computer Network

 Communication:
 Communication is one of the biggest advantages provided by the computer networks.
 Different computer networking technology has improved the way of communications people from
the same or different organization can communicate in the matter of minutes for collaborating the
work activities.
 In offices and organizations computer networks are serving as the backbone of the daily
communication from top to bottom level of organization.
 Different types of software can be installed which are useful for transmitting messages and emails at
fast speed.
 Data sharing:
 Another wonderful advantage of computer networks is the data sharing.
 All the data such as documents, file, accounts information, reports multimedia etc. can be shared
with the help computer networks.
 Hardware sharing and application sharing is also allowed in many organizations such as banks and
small firms.
 Advantages of Computer Network

 Instant and multiple access:

 Computer networks are multiply processed.
 Many of users can access the same information at the same time.
 Immediate commands such as printing commands can be made with the help of computer
networks.
 Video conferencing:
 Before the arrival of the computer networks there was no concept for the video conferencing.
 LAN and WAN have made it possible for the organizations and business sectors to call the live video
conferencing for important discussions and meetings.
 Internet Service:
 Computer networks provide internet service over the entire network.
 Every single computer attached to the network can experience the high speed internet.
 Fast processing and work load distribution.
 Advantages of Computer Network

 Broadcasting:
 With the help of computer networks news and important messages can be broadcasted just in the
matter of seconds who saves a lot of time and effort of the work. People, can exchange messages
immediately over the network any time 24/7.
 Photographs and large files:
 Computer network can also be used for sending large data file such as high resolution photographs
over the computer network to more than one user at a time.
 Saves Cost:
 Computer networks save a lot of cost for any organizations in different ways.
 Building up links thorough the computer networks immediately transfers files and messages to the other
people which reduced transportation and communication expense.
 Provides broader view:
 For the common man, computer networks are an ideal way to share their individual views to the other
world.
 List of Equipment Used in Data Comm.

 Learning about network types and configuration remains incomplete unless we get to know the
devices which help in communication between computers in any given network.
 There are several equipment used in data communications to facilitate the transmission, reception,
and processing of data.
 Without the communication devices networks cannot be formed so knowing their names and what
are their uses are equally important.
 Some of the prominent ones include:
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

1. Modem.
 1.Modem: A modem (Modulator-Demodulator) is used to transmit digital
data over analogue communication lines, such as telephone lines. It
converts digital data into analogue signals for transmission and converts
received analogue signals back into digital data. It enables data
transmission over the existing telecommunication infrastructure.
 A common type of modem is one that turns the digital data of a computer
into modulated electrical signal for transmission over telephone lines and
demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the
original digital data.
MODEM
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

2. Repeater
 A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it.
 A repeater is a physical layer device and consists of two ports/interfaces.
 Its main use is to either amplify or regenerate signals. Whenever a repeater
receives a signal through one of its ports, it repeats or sends the incoming
signal onto the other port.
 As a signal travels through a media, not only is its strength lost, but additional
line noise gets added to it.
 So, if a repeater blindly repeats the incoming signal onto the other port, then
it may result in the noise too getting amplified.
 To overcome this factor, repeaters are intelligent and they understand the
line coding technique used at the physical layer (OSI Model Layer 1).
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

 In digital transmission, a repeater receives the digital signal, recovers the

pattern of 1s and 0s, and retransmits a new signal.
 The same technique may be used with an analog signal if it is assumed that
the signal carries digital data.
 Since it understands the line coding technique, it is able to decode each
digital symbol coming on the incoming port.
 After decoding the incoming bit, it regenerates a fresh signal using the line
encoding strategy, thereby helping in filtering out unnecessary noise.
 For this reason, repeaters are protocol specific (e.g. Ethernet Repeaters,
Wireless LAN repeaters etc.).
 List of Equipment Used in Data
Communication
 Repeater
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

3. Hubs
 Hubs are commonly used to connect multiple devices in a
LAN.
 A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one
port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the
LAN can see all packets.
 In a hub, a frame is "broadcasted" to every one of its ports.
 It doesn't matter that the frame is only destined for one port.
 The hub has no way of distinguishing which port a frame
should be sent to.
 Passing it along to every port ensures that it will reach its
intended destination.
 This places a lot of traffic on the network and can lead to
poor network response times since all devices on a hub share
the same bandwidth.
A NETWORK HUB
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

 4. Switch
 A switch is a device used to connect multiple devices within a local
area network (LAN). It operates at the data link layer of the OSI model
and forwards data packets based on their destination MAC addresses.
 Unlike less advanced network hubs, a network switch forwards data
only to one or multiple devices that need to receive it, rather than
broadcasting the same data out of each of its ports.
List of Equipment Used in Data Communication
SWITCH
 HUB VS SWITCH

Hub Switch

A hub works at the physical layer of the OSI model. A switch works at the data link layer of the OSI model.

A hub contains a single domain of collision. In switch, several ports include separate collision domains.

It performs frame flooding, which can be broadcast, unicast, or multicast. It mainly performs broadcast, and also performs unicast and multicast when
required.

In the hub, the transmission mode is Half-duplex In switch, the transmission mode is full-duplex.

It uses electrical signal orbits. It uses frame & packet.

In the hub, mostly collisions occur in setup. In full-duplex switch does not occur collisions.

It is a passive device. It is an active device.

A hub is not capable of storing MAC addresses. It uses accessible content memory, which can be accessed by application-
specific integrated chips (ASIC).

It is not an intelligent device. A switch is an intelligent device.

The speed of the hub network is up to 10 Mb per second. The speed of switch is 10/100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, and 10 Gbps.
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

 5. Router
 A router is a networking device that connects multiple networks
together. It receives data packets and determines the most efficient
path for forwarding them to their destination across different networks
and manages network traffic.
 Routers perform the "traffic directing" functions on the Internet.
 A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through
the networks that constitute the internetwork until it reaches its
destination node.
 It is a specialized network device that determines the next network point
to which it can forward a data packet towards the ultimate destination
of the packet.
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

 A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks (as
opposed to a network switch, which connects data lines from one single
network).
 When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the
address information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination.
 Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the
packet to the next network on its journey. This creates an overlay
internetwork.
ROUTER
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

 6.Gateway
 A gateway is a computer or computer program configured to perform the
tasks of a gateway, it is often referred to as a server and it acts as an
intermediary for some other server.
 Unlike a proxy, a gateway receives requests as if it were the original server for
the requested resource; the requesting client may not be aware that it is
communicating with a gateway.
 Gateways are often used as server-side portals through network firewalls and
as protocol translators for access to resources stored on non HTTP systems.
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

 Gateway.
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

 7. Multiplexer/Demultiplexer: multiplexing is a method by which multiple analogue

or digital signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium.
 The aim is to share a scarce resource – a physical transmission medium.
 while a demultiplexer separates the combined stream back into individual signals
at the receiving end. They are commonly used in high-speed data transmission
systems.
 To make efficient use of high-speed telecommunications lines, some form of
multiplexing is used.
 Multiplexing allows several transmission sources to share a larger transmission
capacity.
 The two common forms of multiplexing are Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

 Frequency division multiplexing can be used with analog signals.

 A number of signals are carried simultaneously on the same medium by
allocating to each signal a different frequency band.
 Modulation equipment is needed to move each signal to the required
frequency band, and multiplexing equipment is needed to combine the
modulated signals.
 Synchronous time division multiplexing can be used with digital signals or
analog signals carrying digital data.
 In this form of multiplexing, data from various sources are carried in
repetitive frames.
 Each frame consists of a set of time slots, and each source is assigned one
or more time slots per frame. The effect is to interleave bits of data from the
various sources.
List of Equipment Used in Data Communication
MULTIPLEXER

MX8400
 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
 STATISTICAL TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING.
 SYNCHRONOUS TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING.

 Statistical time division multiplexing provides a generally more efficient

service than synchronous TDM for the support of terminals.
 With statistical TDM, time slots are not preassigned to particular data
sources.
 Rather, user data are buffered and transmitted as rapidly as possible using
available time slots.
 List of Equipment Used in Data Communication

 8. Concentrator
 A device that combines several communications channels into one. It is often used to tie
multiple terminals together into one line.
 It differs from a multiplexer, which also combines several lines into one, because the total
bandwidth of a concentrator's inputs is not equal to its outputs.
 A device that connects a number of links with only one destination is a concentrator.
 The main function of this device is to make a kind of load balancing between two or more
servers connected together, data distribution is done according to the server processing
rate.
 Equipment Used in Data Comm.
 9.Network Interface Card (NIC): A NIC is a hardware component that enables a computer to connect to a network. It
provides the physical interface and allows the computer to transmit and receive data over the network.
 10. Bridge: A bridge is a networking device that connects two LANs together and operates at the data link layer. It
analyses the MAC addresses of incoming data packets and forwards them only to the appropriate network segment.
 11. Wireless Access Point (WAP): A WAP is a device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network. It acts as
a central hub for wireless communication between devices, enabling wireless connectivity within a specific range.
 12. Firewall: A firewall is a security device that monitors and filters network traffic to protect against unauthorized access
and malicious activity. It monitors and filters data packets based on predetermined security rules, protecting the network
from unauthorized access or malicious activity.
 13. Ethernet Cables: Ethernet cables are physical cables used to connect computers, switches, routers, and other
network devices in a wired network. They facilitate the transmission of data over a local area network.
 14. VPN (Virtual Private Network) Concentrator: A VPN concentrator is a device that facilitates secure remote access to
a private network over the public internet. It authenticates and encrypts data transmissions, ensuring confidentiality and
privacy.
 15. Media Converters: Media converters are devices that enable communication between different types of network
media. They convert signals between different transmission mediums such as copper wires, fiber optic cables, or wireless
connections.
These are some of the commonly used equipment in computer communications, each serving a specific purpose in
connecting computers and enabling efficient data exchange.
 Introduction to Computer Network Devices

 To develop LAN network following network communication devices are required which are listed
below:
 Nic Adapters
 Routers
 Hubs
 Switches
 Gateways
 Modems
 Networking cables
 Categories of Network
 Networks are categorized on the basis of their size. The three basic categories of computer
networks are:
 A. Local Area Networks (LAN) is usually limited to a few kilometres of area. It may be privately
owned and could be a network inside an office on one of the floor of a building or a LAN could
be a network consisting of the computers in a entire building.
 B. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is of size between LAN & WAN. It is larger than LAN but
smaller than WAN. It may comprise the entire network in a city like Warri.
 C. Wide Area Network (WAN) is made of all the networks in a (geographically) large area. The
network in the entire state of Delta could be a WAN.
 INTERNET

 Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers across the world with each other and
to the World Wide Web.
 It uses standard Internet Protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect billions of computer users worldwide.
 It is set up by using cables such as optical fibers and other wireless and networking technologies.
 At present, internet is the fastest mean of sending or exchanging information and data between
computers across the world.
 It is believed that the internet was developed by "Defense Advanced Projects Agency" (DARPA)
department of the United States. And, it was first connected in 1969.
 WHY IS THE INTERNET CALLED A NETWORK?
 The internet works with the help of clients and servers.
 A device such as a laptop, which is connected to the internet is called a client, not a server as it is not
directly connected to the internet.
 However, it is indirectly connected to the internet through an Internet Service Provider (ISP) and is
identified by an IP address, which is a string of numbers.
 Just like you have an address for your home that uniquely identifies your home, an IP address acts as
the shipping address of your device. The IP address is provided by your ISP, and you can see
what IP address your ISP has given to your system.
 A server is a large computer that stores websites.
 A server commonly refers to a computer program that receives and responds to requests made over
a network.
 It receives the request for a web document from the client and sends the requested information to the
client computer on the Internet.
 It also has an IP address. A place where a large number of servers are stored is called a data centre.
 WHY IS THE INTERNET CALLED A NETWORK?
 To access the internet, we need a domain name, which represents an IP address number, i.e., each IP
address has been assigned a domain name.
 For example, youtube.com, facebook.com, paypal.com are used to represent the IP addresses.
 Domain names are created as it is difficult for a person to remember a long string of numbers.
 However, internet does not understand the domain name, it understands the IP address, so when you
enter the domain name in the browser search bar, the internet has to get the IP addresses of this
domain name from a huge phone book, which is known as DNS (Domain Name Server).
 For example, if you have a person's name, you can find his phone number in a phone book by
searching his name. The internet uses the DNS server in the same way to find the IP address of the
domain name. DNS servers are managed by ISPs or similar organizations.
 HOW DOES INTERNET WORK?

 When you turn on your computer and type a domain name in the browser search bar, your browser sends a
request to the DNS server to get the corresponding IP address. After getting the IP address, the browser
forwards the request to the respective server.
 Once the server gets the request to provide information about a particular website, the data starts flowing.
 The data is transferred through the optical fiber cables in digital format or in the form of light pulses. As the
servers are placed at distant places, the data may have to travel thousands of miles through optical fiber
cable to reach your computer.
 The optical fiber is connected to a router, which converts the light signals into electrical signals.
 These electrical signals are transmitted to your laptop using an Ethernet cable. Thus, you receive the desired
information through the internet, which is actually a cable that connects you with the server.
 Furthermore, if you are using wireless internet using WIFI or mobile data, the signals from the optical cable are
first sent to a cell tower and from where it reaches to your cell phone in the form of electromagnetic waves.
 The internet is managed by ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) located in the
USA. It manages IP addresses assignment, domain name registration, etc.
 The data transfer is very fast on the internet. The moment you press enter you get the information from a
server located thousands of miles away from you. The reason for this speed is that the data is sent in the
binary form (0, 1), and these zeros and ones are divided into small pieces called packets, which can be sent
at high speed.
HOW DOES INTERNET WORK?
 Advantages of the Internet
 Instant Messaging: You can send messages or communicate to anyone using internet, such as email,
voice chat, video conferencing, etc.
 Get directions: Using GPS technology, you can get directions to almost every place in a city, country, etc.
You can find restaurants, malls, or any other service near your location.
 Online Shopping: It allows you to shop online such as you can be clothes, shoes, book movie tickets,
railway tickets, flight tickets, and more.
 Pay Bills: You can pay your bills online, such as electricity bills, cable TV bills, college fees, etc.
 Online Banking: It allows you to use internet banking in which you can check your balance, receive or
transfer money, get a statement, request cheque-book, etc.
 Online Selling: You can sell your products or services online. It helps you reach more customers and thus
increases your sales and profit.
 Work from Home: In case you need to work from home, you can do it using a system with internet access.
Today, many companies allow their employees to work from home.
 Entertainment: You can listen to online music, watch videos or movies, play online games.
 Cloud computing: It enables you to connect your computers and internet-enabled devices to cloud
services such as cloud storage, cloud computing, etc.
 Career building: You can search for jobs online on different job portals and send you CV through email if
required.
 Etc.
 COMMUNICATION MODEL

The fundamental purpose of a communications system

is the exchange of data between two parties.
Example of communication systems include
communication between a workstation and a server
over a public telephone network.
Another example is the exchange of voice signals
between two telephones over the same network.
A Simplified Communication Model
Basic Terms used in Data communication

 Data: A collection of facts in raw forms that become

information after processing.
 Signals: Electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
 Signaling: Propagation of signals across a
communication medium.
 Transmission: Communication of data achieved by the
processing of signals
Equipment Used in Data Communication

These equipment can be classified into two

1. Data Terminal Equipment (D.T.E)
2. Data Communication Equipment (D.C.E)
 DATA COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT (D.C.E)

 Data Communications Equipment (DCE) refers to computer hardware

devices used to establish, maintain and terminate communication
network sessions between a data source and its destination.
 DCE is connected to the Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and data
transmission circuit (DTC) to convert transmission signals.
 Data Communications Equipment (D.C.E) is used to perform signal
exchange, coding and line clocking tasks as a part of intermediate
equipment or DTE
 DCE generates internal clock signals.
 DATA TERMINAL EQUIPMENT (D.T.E)
 A DTE is the functional unit of a data station that serves as a data source or
a data sink and provides for the data communication control function to
be performed in accordance with the link protocol.
 The data terminal equipment may be a single piece of equipment or an
interconnected subsystem of multiple pieces of equipment that perform all
the required functions necessary to permit users to communicate.
 DTE works with externally provided signals.
 A user interacts with the DTE (e.g. through a human-machine interface), or
the DTE may be the user.
DATA TERMINAL EQUIPMENT (D.T.E)
 DCE and DTE can be connected through a crossable
cable medium like a null modem for Ethernet or typical
RS-232 serial line.
 A PC to PC Ethernet connection can also be called a
DTE to DTE communication. This communication is done
via an Ethernet crossover cable as opposed to a PC to
DCE (hub, switch, or bridge) communication which is
done via an Ethernet straight cable.
 COMPUTER NETWORKING MODEL
 In the study of computer networks it is essential to study the way our networks
work.
 Computer networks are operated by network models; most prominently the OSI
and the TCP/ IP Model.
 These Models help to standardize the communication function of a
telecommunication and computing system.
 THE OSI MODEL
 THE INTERNET MODEL popularly known as the TCP/IP model.
 CONCEPT OF LAYERED TASK

 The main objective of a computer network is to be able to transfer the data from sender to receiver.

 This task can be done by breaking it into small sub tasks, each of which are well defined.

 Each subtask will have its own process or processes to do and will take specific inputs and give specific
outputs to the subtask before or after it.

 In more technical terms we can call these sub tasks as layers

 In general, every task or job can be done by dividing it into subtask or layers.

 Consider the example of sending a letter where the sender is in city A and receiver is in city B.

 The process of sending letter is shown below:

 Concept of Network layer
 The below figure shows
a. Sender, Receiver & Carrier
b. Hierarchy of layers
At the sender site, the activities take place in the following descending order:
a. Higher Layer: The sender writes the letter along with the sender and receivers address and put it in an
envelope and drop it in the mailbox.
b. Middle Layer: The letter is picked up by the post man and delivered to the post office
c. Lower Layer: The letters at the post office are sorted and are ready to be transported through a carrier.
 CONCEPT OF LAYERED TASK

 During transition the letter may be carried by truck, plane or ship or a combination of transport
modes before it reaches the destination post office.
 At the Receiver site, the activities take place in the following ascending order:
a.Lower Layer: The carrier delivers the letter to the destination post office
b.Middle Layer: After sorting, the letter is delivered to the receivers mail box
c. Higher Layer: The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope and reads it.
 Hierarchy of layers: The activities in the entire task are organized into three layers. Each activity at
the sender or receiver side occurs in a particular order at the hierarchy.
 The important and complex activities are organized into the Higher Layer and the simpler ones into
middle and lower layer.
 OSI MODEL
1. Introduction to OSI Model & its layers

 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model was developed by International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
 ISO is the organization, OSI is the model
 It was developed to allow systems with different platforms to communicate with each other. Platform could mean hardware,
software or operating system.
 It is a network model that defines the protocols for network communications.
 It is a hierarchical model that groups its processes into layers. It has 7 layers as follows: (Top to Bottom)
 Application Layer

 Presentation Layer

 Session Layer

 Transport Layer

 Network Layer

 Data Link Layer

 Physical Layer

 Each layer has specific duties to perform and has to co-operate with the layers above and below it.

 The OSI model has 7 layers each with its own dedicated task.
 OSI MODEL

 A message sent from device A to device B has to pass through all layers at A from top to bottom then all
layers at B from bottom to top as shown in the figure below.
 At device A, the message is sent from the top layer i.e Application Layer A then all the layers till it
reaches its physical layer and then it is transmitted through the transmission medium.
 At device B, the message received by the physical layer passes through all its other layers and moves
upwards till it reaches its Application Layer.
 Communication & Interfaces

 For communication to occur, each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it
receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it.
 Each layer in the receiving device removes the information added at the corresponding layer and sends the
obtained data to the layer above it.
 Every Layer has its own dedicated function or services and is different from the function of the other layers.
 On every sending device, each layer calls upon the service offered by the layer below it.
 On every receiving device, each layer calls upon the service offered by the layer above it.
 Between two devices, the layers at corresponding levels communicate with each other i.e layer 2 at receiving
end can communicate and understand data from layer 2 of sending end.
 This is called peer–to– peer communication.
 For this communication to be possible between every two adjacent layers there is an interface.
 An interface defines the service that a layer must provide.
 Every layer has an interface to the layer above and below it as shown in the figure below.
OSI MODEL

THE OSI MODEL

 OSI MODEL

 A
 Encapsulation

 As shown in the figure below the data at layer 7 i.e the Application layer along with the header added at
layer 7 is given to layer 6, the Presentation layer. This layer adds Its header and passed the whole
package to the layer below.
 The corresponding layers at the receiving side removes the corresponding header added at that layer
and sends the remaining data to the above layer.
 The above process is called encapsulation
 PHYSICAL LAYER
 The Physical Layer has the following functions
 it defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It
defines the relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium
example maximum cable length and bit-by-bit or symbol-by-symbol delivery
 It defines the transmission modes.
 It defines the network topology.
 This is where encoding of bits and information take place.
 On the sender side, the physical layer receives the data from Data Link Layer
and encodes it into signals to be transmitted onto the medium.
 On the receiver side, the physical layer receives the signals from the
transmission medium decodes it back into data and sends it to the Data Link
Layer.
 Handles Signaling e.g broadband, base band
 Examples are Ethernet and Bluetooth.
 Physical Layer

 Interface
 The Physical Layer defines the characteristics of interfaces between the devices & transmission medium.
 Representation of bits
 The physical layer is concerned with transmission of signals from one device to another which involves
converting data (1‘s & 0‘s) into signals and vice versa. It is not concerned with the meaning or interpretation of
bits.
 Data rate
 The physical layer defines the data transmission rate i.e. number of bits sent per second. It is the responsibility of the
physical layer to maintain the defined data rate.
 Synchronization of bits
 To interpret correct and accurate data the sender and receiver have to maintain the same bit rate and also have
synchronized clocks.
 Line configuration
 The physical layer defines the nature of the connection .i.e. a point to point link, or a multi point link.
 Physical Topology
 The physical layer defines the type of topology in which the device is connected to the network. In a mesh topology it
uses a multipoint connection and other topologies it uses a point to point connection to send data.
 Transmission mode
 The physical layer defines the direction of data transfer between the sender and receiver. Two devices can
transfer the data in simplex, half duplex or full duplex mode
 Main responsibility of the physical layer
 Transmission of bits from one hop to the next.
THE PHYSICAL LAYER
 TOPICS UNDER THE PHYSICAL LAYER
 Modulation
 Transmission Modes e.g. Simplex, Duplex, Full Duplex
 Signaling e.g. Base band and Broadband
 Signaling Types e.g. Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission.
 Signal Encoding Techniques.
 Data Transfer Modes e.g. Serial, Parallel, USB .
 Transmission Technologies.
 Transmission Medium e.g. Bounded and Unbounded
 Channel Effects on Transmission
 Network Topology
 MODULATION

 Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic

waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal that typically
contains information to be transmitted.
 NEED FOR MODULATION IN DATA COMMUNICATION

 Digital data needs to be modulated to be transmitted over analogue

transmission facilities.
 A higher frequency is needed for effective transmission of analogue
signals.
 Modulation is required for frequency division multiplexing.
 TYPES OF MODULATION

 ANALOGUE SIGNAL MODULATION

 DIGITAL SIGNAL MODULATION
 Analog Signal: The transfer of data in the form of electrical signals or
continuous waves is called analogue signal or analogue data transmission.
 An analogue signal is measured in volts and its frequency is in hertz (Hz).
 Digital Signal: The transfer of data in the form of digit is called digital signal or
digital data transmission. Digital signals consist of binary digits 0 & 1.
 Electrical pulses are used to represent binary digits.
 Data transmission between computers is in the form of digital signals.
 Analogue vs Digital

 Advantages of Analogue Signaling

• Allows multiple transmissions across the cable.
• Suffers less from attenuation.
 Disadvantages of Analogue Signaling
• Suffers from EMI.
• Can only be transmitted in one direction without sophisticated equipment.
 Advantages of Digital Signalling
• Equipment is cheaper and simpler than analogue equipment.
• Signals can be transmitted on a cable bidirectional.
• Digital signals suffer less from EMI.
 Disadvantages Digital Signaling
• Suffers from attenuation
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
Analogue vs Digital
Analogue vs Digital Cont.
 SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES.

 The EM or light waves that transfer data from one device to another in
encoded form is called signal.
 Both analogue and digital information can be encoded as either analog or
digital signals.
 The particular encoding that is chosen depends on the specific requirements
to be met and the media and communications facilities available.
 Digital data=>digital signals: The simplest form of digital encoding of digital
data is to assign one voltage level to binary one and another to binary zero.
 SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES.

 Digital data=>Analogue signal:

 A modem converts digital data to an analog signal so that it can be
transmitted over an analog line.
 The basic techniques are Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency
Shift Keying (FSK), and Phase Shift Keying (PSK).
 All involve altering one or more characteristics of a carrier frequency
to represent binary data.
 SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES.
 F
SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES.
 SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES.

 Analogue data=>Digital signals: Analogue data, such as voice and video,

are often digitized to be able to use digital transmission facilities.
 The simplest technique is Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), which involves
sampling the analog data periodically and quantizing the samples.
 Analog data, analog signals: Analog data are modulated by a carrier
frequency to produce an analog signal in a different frequency band,
which can be utilized on an analog transmission system. The basic
techniques are Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation(FM),
and Phase Modulation (PM).
 SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES.
 Digital signaling is when a data source g(t), which may be either digital or analog,
is encoded into a digital signal x(t).
 The actual form of x(t) depends on the encoding technique and is chosen to
optimize use of the transmission medium. For example, the encoding may be
chosen to conserve bandwidth or to minimize errors.
 The basis for analogue signaling is a continuous constant-frequency signal known
as the carrier signal.
 The frequency of the carrier signal is chosen to be compatible with the
transmission medium being used.
 Modulation is the process of encoding source data onto a carrier signal with
frequency.
 All modulation techniques involve operation on one or more of the three
fundamental domain parameters: amplitude, frequency, and phase.
 The input signal may be analog or digital and is called the modulating signal or
baseband signal.
 The result of modulating the carrier signal is called the modulated signal. The
modulated signal can be referred to as broadband signal
ENCODING AND MODULATING TECHNIQUE
 ANALOGUE SIGNAL MODULATION

 Analogue signal Modulation is the Modulation of Analogue signals.

 There are three major types of Analogue Modulation
1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Frequency Modulation
3. Phase modulation
ILLUSTRATION OF ANALOGUE MODULATION
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

 Amplitude Modulation (AM) is the simplest form of modulation, the

amplitude (signal strength) of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the
waveform being transmitted.
 That waveform may, for instance, correspond to the sounds to be
reproduced by a loudspeaker, or the light intensity of television pixels
 FREQUENCY MODULATION

 Frequency Modulation (FM) is the encoding of information in a carrier wave

by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave.
 PHASE MODULATION

 Phase Modulation (PM) is a modulation pattern that encodes information as

variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave.
 PM is widely used for transmitting radio waves and is an integral part of many
digital transmission coding schemes that underlie a wide range of
technologies like WiFi, GSM and satellite television.
DATA TRANSFER MODES
Data can be transferred in two Modes.
1. SERIAL TRANSMISSION
2. PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
 SERIAL TRANSMISSION

 In serial transmission, bits are sent sequentially on the same channel (wire)
which reduces costs for wire but also slows the speed of transmission.
 Also, for serial transmission, some overhead time is needed since bits must
be assembled and sent as a unit and then disassembled at the receiver.
 TYPES OF SERIAL TRANSMISSION

 In serial transmission it is very essential to know exactly where one character ends
and the next begins.
 The necessary synchronization that helps determine which bit is the first bit of the
incoming character may be synchronous or asynchronous.
 Asynchronous Serial Transmission
 Computer communication that occurs one bit at a time with start and stop bits at
the beginning and the end of each character is called Asynchronous Serial
Transmission.
 In asynchronous transmission data is transmitted character by character as you go
on typing on a keyboard.
 Advantages of Asynchronous Serial Transmission
 This type of transmission is very simple.
 This type of transmission is cheaper.
 Disadvantages of Asynchronous Serial Transmission
 This type of transmission is slow.
 TYPES OF SERIAL TRANSMISSION

 Synchronous Transmission
 In this method a clock signal is used and the sending as well as the receiving
devices are synchronized with this clock signals.
 It doesn't use start and stop bits but the character are sent in character
groups called block.
 In the synchronous mode, the saved data is transmitted block by block.
 Each block can contain many characters.
 Advantages of Synchronous Transmission.
 It is very fast as compared to Asynchronous Series Transmission.
 Disadvantage of Synchronous Transmission
 It uses more expensive and complex equipment.
SYNCHRONOUS AND ASYNCHRONOUS
 PARALLEL TRANSMISSION

 In parallel transmission each bit of character / data has a separate channel (wire)
and all bits of a character are transmitted simultaneously within the same cable, or
radio path, and synchronized to a clock.
 Parallel devices have a wider data bus than serial devices and can therefore
transfer data in words of one or more bytes at a time.
 As a result, there is a speedup in parallel transmission bit rate over serial transmission
bit rate.
 However, this speedup is a tradeoff versus cost since multiple wires cost more than a
single wire, and as a parallel cable gets longer, the synchronization timing between
multiple channels becomes more sensitive to distance.
 The timing for parallel transmission is provided by a constant clocking signal sent
over a separate wire within the parallel cable; thus parallel transmission is
considered synchronous.
 SERIAL VS PARALLEL

 Parallel and serial data transmission are most widely used data transfer
techniques. Parallel transfer have been the preferred way for transfer data.
 In parallel transmission n bits are transferred simultaneously, hence we have to
process each bit separately and line up them in an order at the receiver.
Hence we have to convert parallel to serial form. This is known as overhead in
parallel transmission.
 Signal skewing is another problem with parallel data transmission.
 In the parallel communication, n bits leave at a time, but may not be received
at the receiver at the same time, some may reach late than others.
 To overcome this problem, receiving end has to synchronize with the
transmitter and must wait until all the bits are received.
 The greater the skew the greater the delay, if delay is increased that effects
the speed.
 SERIAL VS PARALLEL

 Another problem associated with parallel transmission is crosstalk.

 When n wires lie parallel to each, the signal in some particular wire may get
attenuated or disturbed due the induction, cross coupling etc. As a result error
grows significantly, hence extra processing is necessary at the receiver.
 Serial communication is full duplex whereas parallel communication is half duplex.
Which means that, in serial communication we can transmit and receive signal
simultaneously, where as in parallel communication we can either transmit or
receive the signal. Hence serial data transfer is superior to parallel data transfer.
 Practically in computers we can achieve 150MBPS data transfer using serial
transmission whereas with parallel we can go up to 133MBPS only.
 The advantage we get using parallel data transfer is reliability. Serial data transfer is
less reliable than parallel data transfer
 USB

 USB, short for Universal Serial Bus, it was designed to standardize the connection of
computer peripherals (including keyboards, pointing devices, digital cameras,
printers, portable media players, disk drives and network adapters) to personal
computers, both to communicate and to supply electric power.
 USB has effectively replaced a variety of earlier interfaces, such as serial and parallel
ports, as well as separate power chargers for portable devices
USB VS SERIAL VS PARALLEL
PHYSICAL LAYER 2
 Transmission Technologies.

 Point To Point
 Broadcast
 Multipoint
 Point To Multipoint
 Transmission Technologies.

 Point-to-point (Telecommunications)
 A point-to-point link is a dedicated link that connects exactly two
communication facilities (e.g., two nodes of a network, an intercom station
at an entryway with a single internal intercom station, a radio path between
two points, etc.).
 Transmission Technologies

 BROADCAST
 Broadcast links connect two or more nodes and support broadcast transmission, where
one node can transmit so that all other nodes can receive the same transmission.
 They take messages from a single sender and transmit to all endpoints on the network. For
example, Ethernet, Radio, Television, etc.
 Transmission Technologies.

 MULTIPOINT
 Also known as a multi drop link, a multipoint link is a link that connects two or more nodes.
Unlike broadcast links, there is no mechanism to efficiently send a single message to all other
nodes without copying and retransmitting the message.
 POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT
 A point-to-multipoint link (or simply a multipoint) is a specific type of multipoint link which
consists of a central connection endpoint (CE) that is connected to multiple peripheral CEs.
 Any transmission of data that originates from the central CE is received by all of the
peripheral CEs while any transmission of data that originates from any of the peripheral CEs is
only received by the central CE.
POINT TO
MULTIPOINT
 TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

 Transmission medium is the means through which we send our data from
one place to another.
 The first layer (physical layer) of Communication Networks OSI Seven layer
model is dedicated to the transmission media
 CHOICE OF A TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
• Capacity: to support the expected network traffic
• Reliability: to meet requirements for availability
• Types of data supported: tailored to the application
• Environmental scope: to provide service over the range of
environments Required
. Transmission rate
. Cost and ease of installation
. Distance
Transmission Medium is divided into two
1. Bounded Transmission Medium
2. Unbounded Transmission Medium
BOUNDED TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE
 UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE
 COAXIAL CABLE
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE
 TWISTED PAIR CABLE
 Twisted pair wire:-
• It is the most commonly used communication media used
in LAN for the transfer of data between various computers.
• They are also used in telephone lines to transfer data signal
& voice they are made up of copper wire plastic.
• The transmission of data takes place at a speed of 9600
bits/second within a distance of 100 meters.

Some important points :

• Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.
• Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
• Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
• Repeater spacing is 2km.

Twisted Pair is of two types :

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
UTP VS STP
 UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP) CABLE

• It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted
Pair Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour
plastic insulator.
• Identification is the reason behind colored plastic insulation.
• UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable.
• Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector.
 UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE

 Advantages
• Installation is easy
• Flexible
• Cheap
• It has high speed capacity,
• 100 meter limit
• Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.
• It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick).
• The wires are twisted together in a helical form to reduce electrical interference from similar
pair.
 Disadvantages
• Bandwidth is low when compared with coaxial cable.
• Provides less protection from interference.
 SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE

• This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated conductors.
• Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing.
• Shielding also eliminates crosstalk.
• It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair.
• It is faster than unshielded and coaxial cable.
• It is more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.
 Advantages
• Easy to install
• Performance is adequate
• Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
• Increases the signalling rate
• Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
• Eliminates crosstalk
 Disadvantages
• Difficult to manufacture
• Heavy
 COAXIAL CABLE
• Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
• Copper is used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one.
• It is surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil.
• Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which
completes the circuit.
• The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost part is the plastic cover
which protects the whole cable.
 TYPES OF COAXIAL CABLE
 Baseband (50Ω) Cable
• This is a 50Ω coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission.
• It is mostly used for LAN’s.
• Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed.
• The major drawback is that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.
 Broadband (75Ω) Cable
• This uses analogue transmission on standard cable television cabling.
• It transmits several simultaneous signal using different frequencies.
• It covers large area when compared with Baseband Coaxial Cable.
 ADVANTAGES OF COAXIAL CABLE
 Advantages :
• Bandwidth is high
• Used in long distance telephone lines.
• Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
• Much higher noise immunity.
• Data transmission without distortion.
• They can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding
when compared to twisted pair cable
DISADVANTAGES OF COAXIAL CABLE
 Disadvantages
 Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
 Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
 If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.
 FIBRE OPTIC CABLE
Optical Fiber:
• The Fiber optic cable transmits light signals rather than electrical
signals.
• They are long, flexible, hair-width strands of ultra-pure glass coated
with plastic also known as a jacket.
• In this technique, fiber has an inner core of glass or plastic that
conducts the data transfer rate in billions bit second.
• They are highly used in cable operators, telephone & broadband
internet companies.
• In order for optical fibers to transmit data over long distances, they
need to be highly reflective.
Fibre Optic CABLE
 FIBRE OPTICS
 Fiber-optic cables carry information between two places using entirely optical
(light-based) technology.
 Suppose you wanted to send information from a computer to another
computer down the street using fiber optics.
 You could hook the host computer up to a laser, which would convert
electrical information from the computer into a series of light pulses.
 Then you'd fire the laser down the fiber-optic cable.
 After traveling down the cable, the light beams would emerge at the other
end.
 The destination computer however would need a photoelectric cell (light-
detecting component) to turn the pulses of light back into electrical
information that the computer could understand.
 How Light travels through the fiber optic cable.

 Light travels down a fiber-optic cable by bouncing repeatedly off the walls.
 Each tiny photon (particle of light) bounces down the pipe.
 Now you might expect a beam of light, traveling in a clear glass pipe, simply to leak out of the
edges.
 But if light hits glass at a really shallow angle (less than 42 degrees), it reflects back in again—as
though the glass were really a mirror.
 This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
 It's one of the things that keeps light inside the pipe.
 The other thing that keeps light in the pipe is the structure of the cable, which is made up of two
separate parts.
 The main part of the cable—in the middle—is called the core and that's the bit the light travels
through. Wrapped around the outside of the core is another layer of glass called the cladding.
 The cladding's job is to keep the light signals inside the core. It can do this because it is made of
a different type of glass to the core.
 Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second).
 FIBRE OPTIC CABLE

 Advantages
 Provides high quality transmission of signals at very high speed. These
are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion
is very less.
 Used for both analog and digital signals.
 Disadvantages :
 It is expensive
 Difficult to install.
 Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
 Do not allow complete routing of light signals.
 TYPES OF FIBRE OPTICS CABLE
 SINGLE MODE:
• The simplest type of optical fiber is called single-mode.
• It has a very thin core about 5-10 microns (millionths of a meter) in diameter.
• In a single-mode fiber, all signals travel straight down the middle without bouncing off the edges.
• Cable TV, Internet, and telephone signals are generally carried by single-mode fibers, wrapped
together into a huge bundle.
• Cables like this can send information over 100 km.
 MULTIMODE
• Each optical fiber in a multi-mode cable is about 10 times bigger than one in a single-mode cable.
• This means light beams can travel through the core by following a variety of different paths .in other
words, in multiple different modes.
• Multi-mode cables can send information only over relatively short distances and are used (among
other things) to link computer networks together.
 TYPES OF FIBRE OPTICS CABLE
 GASTROSCOPE
 Even thicker fibers are used in a medical tool called a gastroscope (a type of endoscope), which
doctors poke down someone's throat for detecting illnesses inside their stomach.
 A gastroscope is a thick fiber-optic cable consisting of many optical fibers.
 At the top end of a gastroscope, there is an eyepiece and a lamp.
 The lamp shines its light down one part of the cable into the patient's stomach.
 When the light reaches the stomach, it reflects off the stomach walls into a lens at the bottom of the
cable.
 Then it travels back up another part of the cable into the doctor's eyepiece.
 Other types of endoscopes work the same way and can be used to inspect different parts of the
body.
 There is also an industrial version of the tool, called a fiberscope, which can be used to examine
things like inaccessible pieces of machinery in airplane engines.
Gastroscopy
UNBOUNDED/UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 Unguided or wireless media sends the data through air (or
water), which is available to anyone who has a device
capable of receiving them.
 Types of unguided/ unbounded media are discussed below :

 Radio Transmission
 Microwave Transmission
 Wireless Transmission
RADIO TRANSMISSION
 Radio waves have frequencies between 10KHz to 1GHz.
 It can broadcast in omnidirectional.
 It is simple to install and has high attenuation.
 These waves are used for multicast communications.

 TYPES OF PROPOGATION
 Radio Transmission utilizes different types of propagation :
 Troposphere : The lowest portion of earth’s atmosphere extending outward
approximately 30 miles from the earth’s surface.
 Clouds, jet planes, wind is found here.
 Ionosphere : The layer of the atmosphere above troposphere, but below
space. Contains electrically charged particles.
Atmospheric layers
 Microwave Transmission
 It travels at high frequency than the radio waves.
 It requires the sender to be inside of the receiver.
 It operates in a system with a low gigahertz range.
 It is mostly used for unicast communication.

 There are 2 types of Microwave Transmission:

• Terrestrial Microwave.
• Satellite Microwave.
 Microwave Transmission

 Advantages of Microwave Transmission

• Used for long distance telephone communication.
• Carries 1000’s of voice channels at the same time
 Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission
• It is Very costly.
• For increasing the distance served by terrestrial microwave, repeaters can be
installed with each antenna .
• The signal received by an antenna can be converted into transmittable form
and relayed to next antenna as shown in below figure.
• It is an example of telephone systems all over the world.
 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
 INFRARED
 BLUETOOTH
 WIFI
 NFC
 INFRARED
 Infrared and millimeter waves:-
 Infrared & millimeter waves are widely used for short-range communication.
 The remote control used on television, VCR, VCD, DVD players, etc. use infrared communication.
 They are relatively directional (Infrared is a "line of sight" technology) and easy to build but do not
pan through solid objects.
 It is invisible to human eyes, but people can feel it as heat.
 INFRARED

 Infrared & millimeter waves are widely used for short-range communication.
 The remote control used on television, VCR, VCD, DVD players, etc. use infrared
communication.
 They are relatively directional (Infrared is a "line of sight" technology) and easy to build but do
not pan through solid objects.
 It is invisible to human eyes, but people can feel it as heat.
 Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light emitting diodes (LEDs) to emit infrared
radiation that is focused by a plastic lens into a narrow beam.
 The beam is modulated, i.e. switched on and off, to encode the data.
 The receiver uses a silicon photodiode to convert the infrared radiation to an electric current.
 It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly
changing infrared radiation from ambient light.
 Infrared is a "line of sight" technology
BLUETOOTH
 Bluetooth is essentially a networking standard that works at two levels:
 It provides agreement at the physical level -- Bluetooth is a
radiofrequency standard.
 It provides agreement at the protocol level, where products have to
agree on when bits are sent, how many will be sent at a time, and how the
parties in a conversation can be sure that the message received is the
same as the message sent.
BLUETOOTH
 Bluetooth networking transmits data via low-power radio waves. It
communicates on a frequency of 2.45 gigahertz (actually between 2.402
GHz and 2.480 GHz, to be exact). This frequency band has been set aside
by international agreement for the use of industrial, scientific and medical
devices.
 One of the ways Bluetooth devices avoid interfering with other systems is by
sending out very weak signals of about 1 milliwatt. By comparison, the most
powerful cell phones can transmit a signal of 3 watts. The low power limits
the range of a Bluetooth device to about 10 meters (32 feet), cutting the
chances of interference between your computer system and your portable
telephone or television.
 Even with the low power, Bluetooth doesn't require line of sight between
communicating devices. The walls in your house won't stop a Bluetooth
signal, making the standard useful for controlling several devices in different
rooms.
BLUETOOTH
 Bluetooth can connect up to eight devices simultaneously. With all of those
devices in the same 10-meter (32-foot) radius, Bluetooth uses a technique
called spread-spectrum frequency hopping that makes it rare for more
than one device to be transmitting on the same frequency at the same
time to prevent interference. Bluetooth systems create a personal-area
network (PAN), or piconet, that may fill a room or may encompass no more
distance than that between the cell phone on a belt-clip and the headset
on your head. Once a piconet is established, the members randomly hop
frequencies in unison so they stay in touch with one another and avoid
other piconets that may be operating in the same room.
 WI-FI
 Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio
waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections. Wi-Fi is
simply a trademarked phrase that means IEEE 802.11x.
 Wi-Fi or WiFi is a local area wireless computer networking technology that allows
electronic devices to connect to the network, mainly using the 2.4 gigahertz (12
cm) UHF and 5 gigahertz (6 cm) SHF ISM radio bands.
 The Wi-Fi Alliance defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network" (WLAN)
product based on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE)
802.11 standards
 WIFI
 Wi-Fi is actually very similar to a radio signal. All sound and data sent over the
air uses waves. Waves can have different frequencies (how close together
they are), amplitudes (how big they are), and phases (how they are aligned
in time). Wi-Fi does the exact same thing as a radio by transmitting at a very
distinct frequency.
 Your laptop or phone “tunes” to the frequency of Wi-Fi in the same way your
FM dial tunes to a radio station—only Wi-Fi can contain much more
information than that old radio signal:
 A Wi-Fi signal transmits data through the air over a distance of 200 to 300 feet
 WIFI
 Wi-Fi is also susceptible to interference. The microwave oven in your kitchen
and a cordless phone are “tuned” to the same frequency as Wi-Fi, so if
they're around, your Wi-Fi connection might suffer. The concrete slabs in a
foundation, and even water can inhibit a Wi-Fi connection. That’s why, if
you're getting a bad signal, you can usually move over to a different table or
move away from that huge cement pillar to increase your throughput a little.
Or move closer to the Wi-Fi router.
 A computer “negotiates” the connection in the same way a deal is closed:
with a handshake. The antenna in the laptop starts reading the signal, figures
out the wavelength, looks for any security encryption (in which case it will
prompt you for a password), and then gives you the green light.
WIFI VS BLUETOOTH
 Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are to some extent complementary in their applications
and usage. Wi-Fi is usually access point-centered, with an asymmetrical
client-server connection (In a symmetric protocol, either side may play the
master or slave role. In an asymmetric protocol, one side is immutably
recognized as the master, with the other as the slave) with all traffic routed
through the access point, while Bluetooth is usually symmetrical, between
two Bluetooth devices. Bluetooth serves well in simple applications where
two devices need to connect with minimal configuration like a button
press, as in headsets and remote controls, while Wi-Fi suits better in
applications where some degree of client configuration is possible and high
speeds are required, especially for network access through an access
node.
 However, Bluetooth access points do exist and ad-hoc connections are
possible with Wi-Fi though not as simply as with Bluetooth. Wi-Fi Direct was
recently developed to add a more Bluetooth-like ad-hoc functionality to
Wi-Fi.
NEAR FIELD COMMUNICATION (NFC)
NEAR FIELD COMMUNICATION (NFC)
 Near Field Communication (NFC) is a set of short-range wireless
technologies, typically requiring a distance of 4cm or less to initiate a
connection. NFC allows you to share small payloads of data between an
NFC tag and an Android-powered device, or between two Android-
powered devices.
 Near field communication (NFC) is a set of communication protocols that
enable two electronic devices, one of which is usually a portable device
such as a smartphone, to establish communication by bringing them within
4 cm (2 in) of each other
NFC ACTIVATION.
HOW NFC WORKS?
 NFC can be between two electronic devices or between an electronic
device and a non electronic device eg a poster in which case the poster is
a passive element.
 When an NFC enabled mobile phone communicates with a NFC tag
poster, here is how it works
 HOW NFC WORKS?
 Activating the app sends a signal to the NFC chip inside the
phone. Electricity flows through the circuitry of the chip,
generating a weak magnetic field. The phone is held up to an
appropriate spot where the NFC tag is. At this point, the weak
magnetic field generated by your phone induces a magnetic
field in the NFC tag within the poster. The magnetic field induces
electricity in the NFC tag, which doesn't have its own power
supply -- it's a passive NFC tag. This creates a radio field. The
radio field generated by the tag interacts with the field
generated by the phone. The NFC chip in the phone detects
and decodes the radio field. The information turns out to be e.g
a link to a video of the band playing live. The app gives you the
option of visiting the link directly if you wish.
 HOW NFC WORKS?
 Some NFC transactions will involve two powered devices. You
may want to exchange some contact information from your
phone with another person's phone. In an exchange, both
devices act as active and passive components -- when active,
a device sends information and when passive, it accepts
information. It takes just a moment for the two phones to send
information to each other. Before you know it, your contact
information is in the other person's phone and vice versa. An
active NFC device can only communicate with one target
device at a time -- you can't broadcast a message to multiple
devices over NFC. The active device will send information to the
target and will only accept a response from that target. Other
NFC devices will ignore the communication.
 NFC
 It's important to remember that NFC just covers the actual transmission
technology. It doesn't determine the content of those transmissions. The
various hardware and apps that incorporate NFC chips will dictate what
information changes digital hands.
 Data exchange between NFC devices and tags is formatted using the
NFC data Exchange format. NDEF is one of the key advancements that
NFC adds to RFID.
 Modes of operation for NFC.

 1. The read/write mode allows an NFC device to read a tag like the
kind you'd find in a poster.
 2. The peer-to-peer mode makes it possible for two NFC-enabled
devices to exchange information. This lets you do things like tap your
phone to another person's phone to exchange contact information.
Finally, there's
 3. The card emulation mode. This is what lets NFC emulate -- or
imitate -- a smart card like the kind you use in public transportation or
ticketing systems.
 APPLICATIONS OF NFC
 1. Public Transport Ticketing,
 2. Mobile payments: For apple pay,
 3. Social Board Game
 4. Mobile payments vending machines
 5. Health insurance cards
 APPLICATIONS OF NFC
 6. Mobile Workforce Management
 7. Event ticketing
 8. Anti counterfeiting
 9. Hotel Keys
 10. Device testing
NFC VS BLUETOOTH
 Distance.
 NFC is limited to a distance of four to ten centimeters
while Bluetooth can reach over thirty feet.
 Power
 NFC technology consumes little power when compared
to standard Bluetooth technology. Only when NFC has
to power a passive, unpowered source such as an NFC
tag does it require more power than a Bluetooth
transmission.
NFC VS BLUETOOTH
 Interference
 The close proximity that devices connected using NFC must be to each
other actually proves useful in crowded locations to prevent interference
caused when other devices are present and trying to communicate.
Bluetooth may have trouble dealing with interference when trying to send
signals between two devices, especially when several other devices are in
close proximity.
 Ease of Use
 Another benefit of NFC technology comes in its ease of use. Bluetooth
requires users to manually set up connections between smartphones and
takes several seconds. NFC connects automatically in a fraction of a
second, so fast it seems instantaneous. Though the users must be close to
one another to use NFC technology, it is faster and easier to set up than a
Bluetooth connection.
OTHER COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
BETWEEN AN ELECTRONIC DEVICE AND A
NON ELECTRONIC DEVICE
 RFID
 UPC BARCODE
RFID
 Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses electromagnetic fields to
automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. The tags contain
electronically stored information. Passive tags collect energy from a nearby
RFID reader's interrogating radio waves. Active tags have a local power
source such as a battery and may operate at hundreds of meters from the
RFID reader. Unlike a barcode, the tag need not be within the line of sight
of the reader, so it may be embedded in the tracked object.
RFID
 An RFID exchange usually involves two players: a target and an initiator.
The initiator, a tag reader or reader/writer device starts the exchange by
generating a radio field and listening for responses from any target in the
field. The target, a tag, responds when it picks up a transmission from an
initiator, it will respond with a unique identifier number (UID).
 RFID has two communication modes
 1. Active mode
 2. Passive mode
RFID
 Passive RFID exchanges involves a reader/writer and a tag that has no
power source on board. The tags get their power from the energy of the
radio field itself. It’s generally a very small amount just enough to send a
signal back to the reader. Active RFID exchanges involve a target that’s an
independently powered device. Because the target is powered, it’s reply
to the reader can travel at a much greater distance.
APPLICATIONS OF RFID
 Access management
 Tracking of goods
 Tracking of persons and animals
 Toll collection and contactless payment
 Machine readable travel documents
 Smartdust (for massively distributed sensor networks)
 Tracking sports memorabilia to verify authenticity
 Airport baggage tracking logistics
 Timing sporting events
 HOW RFID IS USED IN TRACKING EVENTS
 Sports timing system consists of 3 core components:
 Sports Tag
 Sports Antenna Mat or Cable
 Sports Reader
 NFC VS RFID
 1. NFC is capable of two way communication and can therefore be used for
more complex interactions such as card emulation and peer-to-peer (P2P)
sharing. NFC is just an extension to RFID technology

 2. NFC is limited to communication at close proximity, typically 5cm or less.

RFID is capable of accepting and transmitting beyond a few meters while
NFC is restricted to within 4 inches

 3. Only a single NFC tag can be scanned at one time.

 4. RFID has a wide range of uses while NFC is usually used in cases where
security is needed
 Some mobile phones are equipped with NFC
UPC BARCODE
 A barcode is an optical machine-readable representation of data relating
to the object to which it is attached. Originally barcodes systematically
represented data by varying the widths and spacings of parallel lines, and
may be referred to as linear or one-dimensional (1D). Later they evolved
into rectangles, dots, hexagons and other geometric patterns in two
dimensions (2D).
 "UPC" stands for Universal Product Code. UPC bar codes were originally
created to help grocery stores speed up the checkout process and keep
better track of inventory, but the system quickly spread to all other retail
products because it was so successful.
 HOW UPC BARCODES WORK?
 The UPC symbol has two parts:

 The machine-readable bar code

 The human-readable 12-digit UPC number
HOW UPC BARCODES WORK?
 The manufacturer identification number is the first six digits of the
UPC number -- 639382. The next five digits -- 00039 -- are the item
number. A person employed by the manufacturer, called the UPC
coordinator, is responsible for assigning item numbers to products,
making sure the same code is not used on more than one product,
retiring codes as products are removed from the product line, etc.
 In general, every item the manufacturer sells, as well as every size
package and every repackaging of the item, needs a different item
code.
 The last digit of the UPC code is called a check digit. This digit lets
the scanner determine if it scanned the number correctly or not.
HOW UPC BARCODES WORK?
 When the scanner at the checkout line scans a product, the cash register
sends the UPC number to the store's central POS (point of sale) computer to
look up the UPC number. The central computer sends back the actual
price of the item at that moment. This approach allows the store to change
the price whenever it wants,
PHYSICAL LAYER 3
 CHANNEL EFFECTS OF TRANSMISSION
 A major problem in designing a communications facility is transmission
impairment. The most significant impairments are attenuation, attenuation
distortion, delay distortion, and the various types of noise. The various forms of
noise include thermal noise, intermodulation noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise.
For analog signals, transmission impairments introduce random effects that
degrade the quality of the received information and may affect intelligibility. For
digital signals, transmission impairments may cause bit errors at the receiver.
 ATTENUATION
 The strength of a signal falls off with distance over any
transmission medium. For guided media, this reduction in
strength, or attenuation, is generally exponential and thus is
typically expressed as a constant number of decibels per unit
distance. For unguided media, attenuation is a more complex
function of distance and the makeup of the atmosphere.
ATTENUATION
 Attenuation introduces three considerations for the
transmission engineer.
 First, a received signal must have sufficient strength so
that the electronic circuitry in the receiver can detect
the signal.
 Second, the signal must maintain a level sufficiently
higher than noise to be received without error.
 Third, attenuation varies with frequency. The first and
second problems are dealt with by attention to signal
strength and the use of amplifiers or repeaters.
 ATTENUATION
 The third problem is particularly noticeable for analog
signals. Because the attenuation varies as a function of
frequency, the received signal is distorted, reducing
intelligibility. To overcome this problem, techniques are
available for equalizing attenuation across a band of
frequencies. This is commonly done for voice-grade
telephone lines by using loading coils that change the
electrical properties of the line; the result is to smooth out
attenuation effects. Another approach is to use
amplifiers that amplify high frequencies more than lower
frequencies.
EFFECTS OF LIMITED BANDWIDTH
 Bandwidth is the range of frequencies -- the difference
between the highest-frequency signal component and
the lowest-frequency signal component -- an electronic
signal uses on a given transmission medium
 Effective bandwidth -- the highest reliable transmission
rate a path can provide -- is measured with a
bandwidth test. This rate can be determined by
repeatedly measuring the time required for a specific file
to leave its point of origin and successfully download at
its destination. Different applications require different
bandwidths.
DELAY DISTORTION
 Delay distortion occurs because the velocity of propagation of a signal
through a guided medium varies with frequency. For a bandlimited signal,
the velocity tends to be highest near the center frequency and fall off
toward the two edges of the band. Thus various frequency components of
a signal will arrive at the receiver at different times, resulting in phase shifts
between the different frequencies.
 NOISE
 For any data transmission event, the received signal will consist of the
transmitted signal, modified by the various distortions imposed by the
transmission system, plus additional unwanted signals that are inserted
somewhere between transmission and reception. The latter, undesired signals
are referred to as noise.
 Noise may be categorized into four categories
 Thermal Noise
 Intermodulation Noise
 Crosstalk
 Impulse Noise
 THERMAL NOISE
 Thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons. It is present in all
electronic devices and transmission media and is a function of temperature.
Thermal noise is uniformly distributed across the bandwidths typically used in
communications systems and hence is often referred to as white noise.
 INTERMODULATION NOISE
 When signals at different frequencies share the same transmission medium,
the result may be intermodulation noise. The effect of intermodulation noise is
to produce signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of the two
original frequencies or multiples of those frequencies. For example, the mixing
of signals at frequencies and might produce energy at the frequency This
derived signal could interfere with an intended signal at the frequency
Intermodulation noise is produced by nonlinearities in the transmitter,
receiver, and/or intervening transmission medium.
 CROSSTALK
 Crosstalk can occur by electrical coupling between nearby twisted pairs or,
rarely, coax cable lines carrying multiple signals.
IMPULSE NOISE
 Impulse noise is non continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise
spikes of short duration and of relatively high amplitude. It is generated
from a variety of causes, including external electromagnetic
disturbances, such as lightning, and faults and flaws in the
communications system
 CHANNEL CAPACITY
 The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a given
communication path, or channel, under given conditions. Channel
capacity encompasses four concepts
 1. Data rate: The rate, in bits per second (bps), at which data can
be communicated.
 2. Bandwidth: The bandwidth of the transmitted signal as
constrained by the transmitter and the nature of the transmission
medium, expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz
 3. Noise: The average level of noise over the communications path
 4. Error Rate: The rate at which errors occur, where an error is the
reception of a 1 when a 0 was transmitted or the reception of a 0
when a 1 was transmitted
 NYQUIST’S THEOREM
 Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate that can be
carried is 2B. This limitation is due to the effect of intersymbol
interference, such as is produced by delay distortion. The
result is useful in the development of digital-to-analog
encoding schemes
 SHANNON’S THEOREM
 SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
 In analog and digital communications, signal-to-noise ratio,
often written S/N or SNR, is a measure of signal strength
relative to background noise. Typically, this ratio is measured
at a receiver, because it is at this point that an attempt is
made to process the signal and recover the data.
 It can be given as this
 SNRdB = 10 log 10 signal power
noise power
 SHANNON’S THEOREM
 Shannon's Law says that the highest obtainable error-free
data speed, expressed in bits per second (bps), is a
function of the bandwidth and the signal-to-noise ratio.

 C= B log 2 (1 +SNR).
 LIMITATIONS OF THE SHANNON THEOREM
 1. The formula assumes only white noise (thermal noise), it
doesn’t account for impulse noise, attenuation distortion or
delay distortion.
 2. Encoding issues such as coding length and coding
complexity prevents channels from attaining the Shannon’s
capacity.
 DATA LINK LAYER
 On the sender side, the Data Link layer receives the data from Network
Layer and divides the stream of bits into fixed size manageable units called
as Frames and sends it to the physical layer.
 On the receiver side, the data link layer receives the stream of bits from the
physical layer and regroups them into frames and sends them to the
Network layer.
 This process is called Framing.
 It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer.
 It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two
physically connected devices
 It defines the protocol for flow control.
 It is divided into Media Access Control (MAC) layer and Logical Link Control
(LLC).
 Data layer

 Physical Addressing (inside / outside senders network)

 a. The Data link layer appends the physical address in the header of the frame before sending it to physical
layer.
Flow control
a. The data link layer makes sure that the sender sends the data at a speed at which the receiver can receive it else if there is an overflow at the receiver side the data
will be lost.

b. The data link layer imposes flow control mechanism over the sender and receiver to avoid overwhelming of the receiver.
 Error control
a. The data link layer imposes error control mechanism to identify lost or damaged frames, duplicate frames and
then retransmit them.
 Main Responsibility
 i. The main responsibility of the data link layer is hop to hop transmission of frames.
 NETWORK LAYER

 This layer is responsible for creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits,
for transmitting data from node to node.
 The network layer at the sending side accepts data from the transport layer, divides
it into packets, adds addressing information in the header and passes it to the data
link layer.
 At the receiving end the network layer receives the frames sent by data link layer,
converts them back into packets, verifies the physical address (verifies if the
receiver address matches with its own address) and the send the packets to the
transport layer.
 The network layer makes sure that the data is delivered to the receiver despite
multiple intermediate devices.
 Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing,
internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing
 Network Layer
 IV. Logical Addressing
 The network layer uses logical address commonly known as IP address to recognize devices on the network.

 An IP address is a universally unique address which enables the network layer to identify devices outside the sender‘s
network.
 The header appended by the network layer contains the actual sender and receiver IP address.

 At every hop the network layer of the intermediate node check the IP address in the header, if its own IP address does
not match with the IP address of the receiver found in the header, the intermediate node concludes that it is not the final
node but an intermediate node and passes the packet to the data link layer where the data is forwarded to the next node.
 Routing
 VI. The network layer divides data into units called packets of equal size and bears a sequence number for
rearranging on the receiving end.
 Each packet is independent of the other and may travel using different routes to reach the receiver hence may
arrive out of turn at the receiver.

 Hence every intermediate node which encounters a packet tries to compute the best possible path for the packet.
The best possible path may depend on several factors such as congestion, number of hops, etc

 This process of finding the best path is called as Routing. It is done using routing algorithms.

 VI. The Network layer does not perform any flow control or error control
 Main responsibility
The main responsibility of Network Layer is transmission of packets from source to destination
 TRANSPORT LAYER
 A logical address at network layer facilitates the transmission of data from source to destination device. But the source and the
destination both may be having multiple processes communicating with each other.
 Hence it is important to deliver the data not only from the sender to the receiver but from the correct process on the sender to the
correct process on the receiver. The transport layer takes care of process to process delivery of data and makes sure that it is intact
and in order.
 This layer is also responsible for Reliable transmission of data segments between points on a network, including
segmentation, acknowledgement and multiplexing
 At the sending side, the transport layer receives data from the session layer, divides it into units called segments and sends it to the
network layer. At the receiving side, the transport layer receives packets from the network layer, converts and arranges into proper
sequence of segments and sends it to the session layer.
 To ensure process to process delivery the transport layer makes use of port address to identify the data from the sending and
receiving process. A Port Address is the name or label given to a process. It is a16 bit address. Ex. TELNET uses port address 23,
HTTP uses port address 80. Port address is also called as Service Point Address
 The data can be transported in a connection oriented or connectionless manner. If the connection is connection oriented then all
segments are received in order else they are independent of each other and are received out of order and have to be rearranged.
 The Transport layer is responsible for segmentation and reassembly of the message into segments which bear sequence numbers.
This numbering enables the receiving transport layer to rearrange the segments in proper order.
 Flow Control & Error control: the transport layer also carries out flow control and error control functions; but unlike data link layer
these are end to end rather than node to node.
 Main Responsibility
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is process to process delivery of the entire message.
 SESSION LAYER
 This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts.
 It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote
applications.
 The session layer establishes a session between the communicating devices called dialog and
synchronizes their interaction. It is the responsibility of the session layer to establish and
synchronize the dialogs. It is also called the network dialog controller.
 The session layer at the sending side accepts data from the presentation layer adds checkpoints to
it called syn bits and passes the data to the transport layer. At the receiving end the session layer
receives data from the transport layer removes the checkpoints inserted previously and passes the
data to the presentation layer.
 The checkpoints or synchronization points is a way of informing the status of the data transfer. Ex. A
checkpoint after first 500 bits of data will ensure that those 500 bits are not sent again in case of
retransmission at 650th bit.
 Main responsibility of session layer is dialog control and synchronizatoin
 PRESENTATION LAYER

 This layer defines how data in the native format of remote host should be
presented in the native format of host.
 This layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This
layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network.
 This layer is responsible for Translation of data between a networking service
and an application; including character encoding, data compression and
encryption/decryption
 The communicating devices may be having different platforms. The presentation layer performs translation,
encryption and compression of data.
 The presentation layer at sending side receives the data from the application layer adds header which contains
information related to encryption and compression and sends it to the session layer.
 At the receiving side, the presentation layer receives data from the session layer decompresses and decrypts
the data as required and translates it back as per the encoding scheme used at the receiver.
 Presentation Layer

 Translation
 The sending and receiving devices may run on different platforms (hardware, software and operating system).
Hence it is important that they understand the messages that are used for communicating. Hence a translation
service may be required which is provided by the Presentation layers.
 Compression
Compression ensures faster data transfer. The data compressed at sender has to be decompressed at the
receiving end, both performed by the Presentation layer.
 Encryption
It is the process of transforming the original message to change its meaning before sending it. The reverse
process called decryption has to be performed at the receiving end to recover the original message from the
encrypted message.

 Main responsibility
 The main responsibility of the Presentation layer is translation, compression and encryption.
 APPLICATION LAYER

 This layer is responsible for providing interface to the application user. This layer
encompasses protocols which directly interact with the user.
 This layer supports APIs and end-user processes.
 Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication
and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified.
7. Application Layer
I. Theapplication layer enables the user to communicate its data to the receiver by
providing X500 is a directory service used to provide information and access to
distributed objects X400 is services that provides basis for mail storage and forwarding
 FTAM (File transfer, access and management) provides access to files stored on remote
computers and mechanism for transfer and manage them locally.
 Main Responsibility
 Main Responsibility of Application layer is to provide access to network resources.
 THE INTERNET MODEL OR THE TCP/IP MODEL
 This is now the defacto standard for data communication.
 Internet Model is what the internet uses for all its communication.
 TCP= Transmission Control Protocol
 IP= Internet Protocol.
 TCP/IP model is a collection of protocols often called a protocol suite. It offers a rich
variety of protocols from which we can choose from.
 It is also called as the TCP/IP protocol suite. It is a collection of protocols.
 It is a hierarchical model, i.e. There are multiple layers and higher layer protocols
are supported by lower protocols.
 It existed even before the OSI model was developed. Originally had four layers (bottom to
top):
1.Host to Network Layer
2.Internet Layer
3.Transport Layer
4.Application Layer
 The figure for TCP/IP model is as follows:
 TCP/IP MODEL

 The structure TCP/IP model is very similar to the structure of the OSI reference model. The OSI model has
seven layers where the TCP/IP model has four layers.
 The Application layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Application Layer of Session, Presentation &
Application Layer of OSI model.
 The Transport layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Transport Layer of OSI model
 The Network layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Network Layer of OSI model
 The Host to network layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Physical and Datalink Layer of OSI model.
 The diagram showing the comparison of OSI model and TCP/IP model along with the protocols is as shown
below:
 TCP/IP
 Functions of the Layers of TCP/IP model:

A. Host to Network Layer

 This layer is a combination of protocols at the physical and data link layers.
 It supports all standard protocols used at these layers.

B. Network Layer or IP
 Also called as the Internetwork Layer (IP). It holds the IP protocol which is a network layer protocol and is responsible for source to destination transmission of
data.

 The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is an connection-less

 & unreliable protocol.
 It is a best effort delivery service. i.e. there is no error checking in IP, it simply sends the data and relies on its underlying layers to get the data transmitted to the
destination.
 IP transports data by dividing it into packets or datagrams of same size. Each packet is independent of the other and can be transported across different routes and
can arrive out of order at the receiver.
 In other words, since there is no connection set up between the sender and the receiver the packets find the best possible path and reach the destination. Hence, the
word connection-less.

 The packets may get dropped during transmission along various routes. Since IP does not make any guarantee about the delivery of the data its call an unreliable
protocol.
 Even if it is unreliable IP cannot be considered weak and useless; since it provides only the functionality that is required for transmitting data thereby giving maximum
efficiency. Since there is no mechanism of error detection or correction in IP, there will be no delay introduced on a medium where there is no error at all.
 IP is a combination of four protocols:
1. ARP

2. RARP

3. ICMP
4. IGMP
 TCP/IP

 ARP
 It is used to resolve the physical address of a device on a network, where its logical address is known.
 Physical address is the 48 bit address that is imprinted on the NIC or LAN card, Logical address is the
Internet Address or commonly known as IP address that is used to uniquely & universally identify a device.
 RARP
 It is used by a device on the network to find its Internet address when it knows its physical address.
 ICMP
 It is a signaling mechanism used to inform the sender about datagram problems that occur during transit.
 It is used by intermediate devices.
 In case and intermediate device like a gateway encounters any problem like a corrupt datagram it may use
ICMP to send a message to the sender of the datagram.
 IGMP
 It is a mechanism that allows to send the same message to a group of recipients.
THE TCP/IP MODEL
 TCP= Transmission Control Protocol
 IP= Internet Protocol.
 Application Layer
 Transport Layer
 Internet Layer
 Network/Link Layer
 Physical Layer – In recent times, the physical Layer has
been discontinued from inclusion in the TCP/IP model.
TCP/IP VS OSI MODEL
Two Internet hosts
connected via two routers
and the corresponding
layers used at each hop.
TCP/IP MODEL- APPLICATION LAYER

 This contains the logic needed to support the various

user applications. For each different type of application,
such as file transfer. E.g FTP, HTTP, TELNET, SMTP
 The Application Layer is a combination of Session,
Presentation & Application Layers of OSI models and define
high level protocols like File Transfer (FTP), Electronic Mail (SMTP),
Virtual Terminal (TELNET), Domain Name Service (DNS), etc.
 TCP/IP MODEL- TRANSPORT LAYER
 This layer defines how data should flow between hosts. Major protocol at this layer is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
This layer ensures data delivered between hosts is in-order and is responsible for end-to-end delivery.
 C. Transport Layer
 Transport layer protocols are responsible for transmission of data running on a process of one machine to the correct process
running on another machine.
 The transport layer contains three protocols:
1. TCP
2. UDP
3. SCTP

1. TCP – Transmission Control Protocol

I. TCP is a reliable connection-oriented, reliable protocol. i.e. a connection is established between the sender and receiver
before the data can be transmitted.

II. It divides the data it receives from the upper layer into segments and tags a sequence number to each segment which is used
at the receiving end for reordering of data.
UDP
I. UDP is a simple protocol used for process to process transmission.

II. It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not require flow control or error control.
III. It simply adds port address, checksum and length information to the data it receives from the upper layer.
SCTP
I. SCTP is a relatively new protocol added to the transport layer of TCP/IP protocol suite.
II. It combines the features of TCP and UDP.
III. It is used in applications like voice over Internet and has a much broader range of applications
TCP/IP MODEL- INTERNET LAYER
 The internet layer has the responsibility of sending
packets across potentially multiple networks.
Internetworking requires sending data from the source
network to the destination network. This process is called
routing.
 TCP/IP MODEL- NETWORK LAYER

 The network access layer is concerned with the exchange of data

between an end system/node (server, workstation, etc.) and the
network to which it is attached.
 The sending computer must provide the network with the address of the
destination computer, so that the network may route the data to the
appropriate destination.
PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
 THE NEED :When any two devices need to talk to each other, they
have to agree on a number of points before the conversation can
begin. The first point of agreement is physical: Will they talk over
wires, or through some form of wireless signals? If they use wires, how
many are required -- one, two, eight, 25? Once the physical
attributes are decided, several more questions arise: How much
data will be sent at a time? For instance, serial ports send data 1 bit
at a time, while parallel ports send several bits at once.
 How will they speak to each other? All of the parties in an
electronic discussion need to know what the bits mean and
whether the message they receive is the same message that was
sent. This means developing a set of commands and responses
known as a protocol.
PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
 PROTOCOL
 The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on
the network use to communicate. One of the most popular protocols for
LANs is called Ethernet. Another popular LAN protocol for PCs is the IBM
token-ring network
 The key features of a protocol are as follows:
 • Syntax: Concerns the format of the data blocks
 • Semantics: Includes control information for coordination and error
handling
 • Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing
PROTOCOLS AND SERVICES
 INTERNET LAYER PROTOCOLS
 a. IPV4: IPv4 is a connectionless protocol for use on packet-switched networks.
 It operates on a best effort delivery model, in that it does not guarantee delivery, nor does it
assure proper sequencing or avoidance of duplicate delivery.
 These aspects, including data integrity, are addressed by an upper layer transport protocol,
such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
 b. IPV6: Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol
(IP), the communications protocol that provides an identification and location system for
computers on networks and routes traffic across the Internet.
 IPv6 is an Internet Layer protocol for packet-switched internetworking and provides end-to-
end datagram transmission across multiple IP networks, closely adhering to the design
principles developed in the previous version of the protocol, Internet Protocol Version 4
(IPv4).
 Network security was a design requirement of the IPv6 architecture.
 TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS
 a. Transmission control protocol (TCP): TCP is the protocol that major Internet
applications such as the World Wide Web, email, remote administration and file transfer
rely on. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means a connection is established
and maintained until the application programs at each end have finished exchanging
messages.
 It determines how to break application data into packets that networks can deliver, sends
packets to and accepts packets from the network layer, manages flow control, and—
because it is meant to provide error-free data transmission—handles retransmission of
dropped or garbled packets as well as acknowledgement of all packets that arrive.
 In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model, TCP covers parts of
Layer 4, the Transport Layer, and parts of Layer 5, the Session Layer.
 b. User Datagram Protocol:(UDP): UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is an alternative
communications protocol to Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) used primarily for
establishing low-latency (additional data overhead, and delays) and loss tolerating
connections between applications on the Internet.
 UDP provides two services not provided by the IP layer. It provides port numbers to help
distinguish different user requests and, optionally, a checksum capability to verify that the
data arrived intact.
TCP VS UDP
 APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS
 TCP/IP APPLICATIONS.
 1. APPLICATION LAYER
 a. File Transfer protocol (FTP): Standard network protocol used to transfer computer files from one host
to another host over a TCP-based network, such as the Internet. FTP is built on a client-server architecture.
 Authentication is required, two connections are established one for control and the other for data transfer.
 Limitations of the FTP include,
1. Unreliability to know whether file has been received or not
2. Low security as it offers no file encryption in transit
3. Lack of management tools and accessibility by other users
4. Cumbersome set up
5. Lack of audit trail to keep track of who sends what to the server.

 **SSH secure shell- cryptographic internet protocol

 b. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and
what actions Web servers and browsers should take in response to various commands.
 c. Simple Mail Transfer protocol (SMTP): is an Internet standard for electronic mail (email) transmission. It
uses TCP port 25
 CONNECTION AND CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE.

 These are the two services given by the layers to layers above them.
 These services are :
1. Connection Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Services

 CONNECTION ORIENTED SERVICE

 There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of connection oriented service, These
are :
1.Connection is established
2. Information is sent
3. Connection is released
 CONNECTION AND CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE.

 In connection oriented service we have to establish a connection before starting the

communication.
 When connection is established we send the message or the information and then we release the
connection.
 Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service.
 We can send the message in connection oriented service if there is an error at the receivers end.
Example of connection oriented is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) protocol.
 CONNECTION AND CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE.

 CONNECTIONLESS SERVICE

 It is similar to the postal services, as it carries the full address where the message (letter) is to be
carried.
 Each message is routed independently from source to destination.
 The order of message sent can be different from the order received.
 In connectionless the data is transferred in one direction from source to destination without
checking that destination is still there or not or if it prepared to accept the message.
 Authentication is not needed in this. Example of Connectionless service is UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) protocol.
 DIFFERENCES
 1. In connection oriented service authentication is needed while
connectionless service does not need any authentication.
 2. Connection oriented protocol makes a connection and checks
whether message is received or not and sends again if an error occurs
connectionless service protocol does not guarantees a delivery.
 3. Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless
service.
 4. Connection oriented service interface is stream based and
connectionless is message based.
 ADDRESSING IN TCP/IP

 The TCP/IP protocol suited involves 4 different types of addressing:

1. Physical Address
2. Logical Address
3. Port Address
4. Specific Address
 ADDRESSING IN TCP/IP

1. Physical Address
Physical Address is the lowest level of addressing, also known as link address.
It is local to the network to which the device is connected and unique inside it. The physical address is usually included in
the frame and is used at the data link layer.
The physical address is usually included in the frame and is used at the data link layer.
MAC is a type of physical address that is 6 byte (48 bit) in size and is imprinted on the Network Interface Card (NIC) of the
device.
The size of physical address may change depending on the type of network. Ex. An Ethernet network uses a 6 byte MAC
address.
2. Logical Address
 Logical Addresses are used for universal communication.
 Most of the times the data has to pass through different networks; since physical addresses are local to the network there is a
possibility that they may be duplicated across multiples networks also the type of physical address being used may change with the
type of network encountered. For ex: Ethernet to wireless to fiber optic. Hence physical addresses are inadequate for source to
destination delivery of data in an internetwork environment.
 Logical Address is also called as IP Address (Internet Protocol address).
 At the network layer, device i.e. computers and routers are identified universally by their IP Address.
 IP addresses are universally unique.
 Currently there are two versions of IP addresses being used:
 IPv4: 32 bit address, capable of supporting 232 nodes IPv6: 128 bit address, capable of supporting 2128 nodes
 ADDRESSING IN TCP/IP

 3. Port Address
 A logical address facilitates the transmission of data from source to destination device. But the source and the destination both may be having multiple
processes communicating with each other.
 Ex. Users A & B are chatting with each other using Google Talk, Users B & C are exchanging emails using Hotmail. The IP address will enable transmitting
data from A to B, but still the data needs to be delivered to the correct process. The data from A cannot be given to B on yahoo messenger since A & B are
communicating using Google Talk.

IX. Since the responsibility of the IP address is over here there is a need of addressing that helps identify the source and destination processes. In other words,
data needs to be delivered not only on the correct device but also on the correct process on the correct device.
X. A Port Address is the name or label given to a process. It is a 16 bit address.

XI. Ex. TELNET uses port address 23, HTTP uses port address 80

4. Specific Address
i. Port addresses address facilitates the transmission of data from process to process but still there may be a problem with data delivery.

For Ex: Consider users A, B & C chatting with each other using Google Talk. Every user has two windows open, user A has two chat windows for B & C, user B
has two chat windows for A & C and so on for user C

Now a port address will enable delivery of data from user A to the correct process ( in this case Google Talk) on user B but now there are two windows of
Google Talk for user A & C available on B where the data can be delivered.

ii. Again the responsibility of the port address is over here and there is a need of addressing that helps identify the different instances of the same process.

 Such address are user friendly addresses and are called specific addresses.

 iv. Other Examples: Multiple Tabs or windows of a web browser work under the same process that is HTTP but are identified using Uniform Resource Locators
(URL), Email addresses.
 ADDRESSING IN TCP/IP

 5.4 IP PROTOCOL – IPV4

 Packets in the IPv4 format are called datagram. An IP datagram consists of a header part and a text
part (payload). The header has a 20-byte fixed part and a variable length optional part. It is transmitted in
big-endian order: from left to right, with the high- order bit of the Version field going first.
 IPv4 can be explained with the help of following points:
1. IP addresses Address Space
2. Notations used to express IP address Classfull Addressing
3. Subnetting CIDR
4. NAT
5. IPv4 Header Format
 ADDRESSING IN TCP/IP

1. IP addresses
 Every host and router on the Internet has an IP address, which encodes its network number and host number.

 The combination is unique: in principle, no two machines on the Internet have the same IP address.

 An IPv4 address is 32 bits long

 They are used in the Source address and Destination address fields of IP packets.

 An IP address does not refer to a host but it refers to a network interface.

2. Address Space
 An address space is the total number of addresses used by the protocol. If a protocol uses N bits to define an address,
the address space is 2N because each bit can have two different values (0 or 1) and N bits can have 2N values.

 IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296 (more than 4 billion).
3. Notations
 There are two notations to show an IPv4 address:
1. Binary notation
 The IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits.
 ex. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
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 . Dotted decimal notation
 To make the IPv4 address easier to read, Internet addresses are usually written in decimal form with a decimal point
(dot) separating the bytes.

 Each byte (octet) is 8 bits hence each number in dotted-decimal notation is a value ranging from 0 to 255.
 Ex. 129.11.11.239
 5.4.4 Classful addressing
 In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E.

 Netid and Hostid

 In classful addressing, an IP address in class A, B, or C is divided into netid and hostid.

 These parts are of varying lengths, depending on the class of the address as shown above.
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 Information on the Number of networks and host in each class is given below:
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 The IP address 0.0.0.0 is used by hosts when they are being booted.

 All addresses of the form 127.xx.yy.zz are reserved for loopback testing, they are
processed locally and treated as incoming packets.

 5.4.5 Subnetting
 It allows a network to be split into several parts for internal use but still act like a
single network to the outside world.
 To implement subnetting, the router needs a subnet mask that indicates the split
between network + subnet number and host. Ex. 255.255.252.0/22. A‖/22‖ to
indicate that the subnet mask is 22 bits long.
 Consider a class B address with 14 bits for the network number and 16 bits for the
host number where some bits are taken away from the host number to create a
subnet number.
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 If 6 bits from the host Id are taken for subnet then available bits are :

 14 bits for network + 6 bits for subnet + 10 bits for host

 With 6 bits for subnet the number of possible subnets is 26 which is 64.
 With 10 bits for host the number of possible host are 210 which is 1022 (0 & 1 are not available)

6. CIDR
 A class B address is far too large for most organizations and a class C network, with 256 addresses is too small. This leads to granting Class B address to organizations who do not require all
the address in the address space wasting most of it.

 This is resulting in depletion of Address space.

 A solution is CIDR (Classless InterDomain Routing) The basic idea behind CIDR, is to allocate the remaining IP addresses in variable-sized blocks, without regard to the classes.

7. NAT (Network Address Translation)

 The scarcity of network addresses in IPv4 led to the development of IPv6.
 IPv6 uses a 128 bit address, hence it has 2128 addresses in
 its address space which is larger than addresses provided by IPv4.
 Transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is slowly occurring, but will take years to complete, because of legacy hardware and its incompatibility to process IPv6 address.

 NAT (Network Address Translation) was used to speed up the transition process

 The only rule is that no packets containing these addresses may appear on the Internet itself. The three reserved ranges are:

 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255/8 (16,777,216 hosts)

 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255/12 (1,048,576 hosts)

 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255/16 (65,536 hosts)

 Operation:
 Within the Organization, every computer has a unique address of the form 10.x.y.z. However, when a packet leaves the organization, it passes through a NAT box that converts the internal IP source
address, 10.x.y.z, to the organizations true IP address, 198.60.42.12 for example.
END OF LESSON ONE