Chapter 3: Homework

3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14, 3.15,
3.16, 3.25, 3.26
 3.3 Simple RTD. An RTD can be built relatively easily. Consider a copper RTD made of magnet wire (copper wire
insulated with a polymer). The wire is 0.1 mm thick and the nominal resistance required is 120 Ω at 20 oC. Neglect the
thickness of the insulating polymer.
(a) How long must the wire be?
(b) Assuming we wish to wind the copper wire into a single spiral winding 6 mm in diameter so that it can be enclosed in a
stainless steel tube, what is the minimum length of the RTD?
(c) Calculate the range of resistance of the RTD for use between -45 oC and 120 oC.

Answer 𝐿 𝐿
(a) 𝑅= =
d = 0.1 mm 𝜎𝑆 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑2ൗ
4
T0 = 20 C 𝜎𝑅𝜋𝑑 2 5.8 × 107 × 120 × 3.14 × 0.12 × 10−6
R0 = 120 Ω 𝐿= = = 54.6 𝑚
4 4
 = 5.8 × 107 S/m
(b)
a) L = ?
b) Chiều dài cuộn Circumference : d = 3.14 × 6 mm = 18.84 mm
54.6×103
c) R(-45 oC) Number of turns = total length / circumference = = 2998 (𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠)
18.84
R (120 oC) Wire thickness is 0.1 mm
Therefore, minimum length of the RTD: 2998 × 0.1 mm = 299.8 mm  30 cm
(c)

T0 = 20 oC: R0 = 120 Ω
Copper TCR α = 0.0039 /oC

T = -45 oC:
R (-45) = 120 (1 + 0.0039[-45 -20]) = 89.58 Ω

T = 120 oC:
R (120) = 120 (1 + 0.0039[120-20]) = 166.8 Ω
 3.4 Self-heat in RTDs and errors in sensing. A platinum wire RTD enclosed in a ceramic body is designed to operate
between -200 C and +600 C. Its nominal resistance at 0 C is 100 Ω and its TCR is 0.00385/C. The sensor has a self-heat
of 0.07 C/mW. The sensor is fed from a constant voltage source of 6 V through a fixed 100 Ω resistor and the voltage
across the sensor is measured directly. Calculate the error in temperature sensed in the range from 0 C to 100 C. Plot the
error as a function of temperature.
What is the maximum error and at what temperature does it occur? Explain.

Answer

T0 = 0 C T0 = 0 oC: R0 = 100 Ω
R0 = 100 Ω
TCR α = 0.00385 /oC T = 100 oC: R(100) = 100(1+0.00385[100-0]) = 138.5 Ω
Self heating (tự đốt nóng) 0.07 oC/mW
Source (điện áp nguồn) 6V
Maximum error in the range from 0 C
𝑉2 62
to 100 C T0 = 0 oC: 𝑃 = 𝑅0 𝐼2 = 𝑅0 = 100 × = 0.09 (𝑊)
𝑅0 +100 2 100+100 2

T0 = 100 oC:
𝑉 2 62
𝑃 = 𝑅(100)𝐼2 = 𝑅(100) 2
= 138.5 × 2
= 0.087 (𝑊)
𝑅 100 + 100 138.5 + 100
Error T0 = 0 oC: 90 mW × 0.07 oC/mW = 6.3 oC

Error T0 = 100 oC: 87 mW × 0.07 oC/mW = 6.09 oC

 3.5 Temperature sensing in a light bulb. Incandescent light bulbs use a tungsten wire as the light-radiating filament by
heating it to a temperature at which it is bright enough to produce light. The temperature of the wire can be estimated
directly from the power rating and the resistance of the wire when it is cold. Given a 120 V, 100 W light bulb with a
resistance of 22 Ω at room temperature (20 C):
(a) Calculate the temperature of the filament when the light bulb is lit.
(b) What are the possible sources of error in this type of indirect sensing? Explain.

2
(a) 𝑉
Answer 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 =
𝑅
T0 = 20 C
R0 = 22 Ω
Resistance of the light bulb
120V, 100W 𝑉 2 1202
TCR α = 0.0056 /oC 𝑅= = = 144Ω
a) T = ? 𝑃 100
b) Các nguyên nhân gây sai số

144 = 22(1 + 0.0056[T – 20]) = 22 + 0.1232[T - 20]

144−22
𝑇= + 20 = 1010(oC)
0.1232
(b) Possible sources of the error:
- The TCR is not constant with the temperature
- The power is not converted to light 100%
Oxygen point T= -182.962 oC, điện trở R = 9 Ω
Triple point of water T= 0.01 oC, điện trở R = 38 Ω
Steam point T= 100 oC, điện trở R = 52 Ω
Zinc point T= 420 oC, điện trở R = 98 Ω
Silver point T= 961.93 oC, điện trở R = 69.8 Ω
TCR α = 0.0004 /oC
Find the a, b, c of the Calendar-Van Dusen equations using
a) The oxygen, steam, and zinc points
b) The oxygen, zinc, and silver points
c) R(-150C) and R(800C)
Compare with the linear approximation
Callendar–Van Dusen equation

▪ T > 0: (3.6)

▪ T < 0: (3.7)
With the coefficients a, b, and c could be determined from experiment
a) Calibration points:

Liquid oxygen T= -182.962 oC, R = 9 Ω:

9 = 38[1 + 𝑎 −182.962 + 𝑏 −182.962 2 + 𝑐 −182.96 − 100 −182.962 3 ]
Steam point T= 100 oC, R = 52 Ω:
52 = 38[1 + 𝑎 100 + 𝑏 100 2]
Zinc point T= 420 oC, R = 98 Ω:
98 = 38[1 + 𝑎 420 + 𝑏 420 2]
 We could obtain the equations

9 = 38[1 + 𝑎 −182.962 + 𝑏 −182.962 2 + 𝑐 −182.96 − 100 −182.962 3 ]

52 = 38[1 + 𝑎 100 + 𝑏 100 2]

98 = 38[1 + 𝑎 420 + 𝑏 420 2]

Solve those we can obtain

a = 3.66 10-3
b = 2.34 10-7
c = - 5.8 10-11
b) Similarly
T = -182.962 oC, R = 9 Ω
T= 420 oC, R = 98 Ω
T= 961.93 oC, R = 69.8 Ω

Apply these data data points to the Callendar–Van Dusen equations

▪ T > 0: (3.6)

▪ T < 0: (3.7)

9 = 38[1 + 𝑎 −182.962 + 𝑏 −182.962 2 + 𝑐 −182.96 − 100 −182.962 3 ]

98 = 38[1 + 𝑎 420 + 𝑏 420 2] a=
69.8 = 38[1 + 𝑎 961.3 + 𝑏 961.3 2] b=
c=
 c) Resistance at –150 oC và 800 oC by linear approximation and polyniminals.

𝑅 −150 = 38 1 + −150 a + −150 b + −150 − 100 −150 3c = 15.46 (Ω)

𝑅 −150 = 38 1 + 0.004 −150 = 15.2 (Ω)

Error: 15.46 − 15.2

100% = 1.7%
15.46

𝑅 800 = 38 1 + 800a + 8002b = 155.3 (Ω)

𝑅 800 = 38 1 + 0.004 × 800 = 159.6 (Ω)

159.6 − 155.3
Error 100% = 2.77%
159.6
 3.9 TCR and its dependence on temperature. The temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) is not constant but
depends on the temperature at which it is given or evaluated. Nevertheless, the formula in (3.4) is correct at any
temperature, no matter what the temperature T0 is, as long as α is measured (or given) at T0. Suppose, α is measured
at 0 C and is equal to α = 0.00385/C (for platinum).
(a) Calculate the coefficient α at 50 C.
(b) Generalize the result in (a) as follows: given α0 at T0, what is α1 at T1?

Answer
General equation:

At temperature T1: R(T1) = R0(1+α0[T1-T0]) (1)

At temperature T2: R(T2) = R0(1+α0[T2-T0]) (2)

(2) can also be described as: R(T2) = R(T1)(1+α1[T2-T1]) (3)

Substitute (1) into (3): R(T2) = R0(1+α0[T1-T0])(1+α1[T2-T1]) (4)

(2) and (4) is identical, that means: R0(1+α0[T2-T0]) = R0(1+α0[T1-T0])(1+α1[T2-T1])

Solve this equation:

R0(1+α0[T2-T0]) = R0(1+α0[T1-T0])(1+α1[T2-T1])

R0+ R0 α0[T2-T0] = R0+ R0 α1[T2-T1]) + R0 α0[T1-T0] +R0 α0[T1-T0] α1[T2-T1]

α0[T2-T0] = α1[T2-T1]) + α0[T1-T0] + α0α1 [T1-T0] [T2-T1])

α0[T2-T0] - α0[T1-T0] = α1[T2-T1] + α0α1 [T1-T0] [T2-T1]

α0[T2-T1] = α1[T2-T1] + α0α1 [T1-T0][T2-T1]

α0[T2-T1] = α1[T2-T1](1 + α0[T1-T0])

α0[T2-T1] = α1[T2-T1](1 + α0[T1-T0])

𝛼0
𝛼1 =
1 + 𝛼0 (𝑇1 − 𝑇0 )
 3.10 Semiconducting resistive sensor. A semiconducting resistive sensor is made as a simple rectangular bar 2 mm
0.1 mm in cross section and 4 mm long. The intrinsic carrier concentration at 20 oC is 1.5×1010/cm3 and the mobilities
of electrons and holes are 1,350 cm2/(Vs) and 450 cm2/(Vs), respectively. The TCR for the particular device being used
here is -0.012/oC and is assumed to be unaffected by doping.
(a) If intrinsic material is used, calculate the resistance of the sensor at 75 oC.
(b) Now, the material is heavily doped with an n-type dopant at a concentration of 1015/cm3. Calculate the resistance of
the sensor at 75 oC.
(c) What is the resistance of the sensor at 75 oC if instead it is doped with a p-type dopant at the same concentration as
in (b)?

Answer
(a) 0 = e(nµn+pµp) = 1.6 ×10-19 ×1.5 × 1010 (1350 + 450) = 4.32 × 10-6 (S/cm)
(n = p = 1.5 × 1010 ) Intrinsic semiconductor (bán dẫn thuần)
𝐿 0.4
𝑅= 1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 = 1 − 0.012 75 − 20 = 15.7 (𝑀Ω)
𝜎0 𝑆 0.2 × 0.01 × 4.32 × 10−6

(b) n-type semiconductor (bán dẫn pha tạp loại n): n = 1015 >> p ~ 1010
0 = enµn = 1.6 ×10-19 × 1015 × 1350 = 0.216 (S/cm)
𝐿 0.4
𝑅= 1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 = 1 − 0.012 75 − 20 = 314 (Ω)
𝜎0 𝑆 0.2 × 0.01 × 0.216
(c) p-type semiconductor (bán dẫn pha tạp loại p): p = 1015 >> n ~ 1010

0 = e(nµn+pµp)
= e pµp = 1.6 ×10-19 × 1015 ×450 = 0.072 (S/cm)
𝐿 0.4
𝑅= 1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 = 1 − 0.012 75 − 20 = 944 (Ω)
𝜎0 𝑆 0.2 × 0.01 × 0.072
 3.11 Silicon-resistive sensors and their transfer functions. A silicon-resistive sensor has a nominal resistance of
2,000  at 25 oC. To calculate its transfer function, its resistance is measured at 0 oC and 90 oC and found to be
1,600  and 3,200 , respectively. Assuming the resistance is given by a second-order
Callendar–Van Dusen equation, calculate the coefficients of the equation and
plot the transfer function between 0 C and 100 oC.

Answer
Transfer function of the silicon RTD

R(T) = R(0)[1+a(T – T0) + b(T – T0)2] (1) with R(0) is the temperature at T0 (oC)
R(T) is the temperature at T (oC)
• T0 = 25 oC: R(0) = 2000 Ω

(1) R(T) = 2000[1+a(T-25) + b(T-25)2] (2)

• T1 = 0 oC: R(T1) = 1600 Ω

• T2 = 90 oC: R(T2) = 3200 Ω
R(25) = 2000[1- a25 + b252] = 1600 a = 8 × 10-3
(2)
R(90) = 2000[1+a65 + b652] = 3200 b = 1.89 × 10-5

R(T) = 2000[1+ 8 × 10-3 (T-25) + 1.89 × 10-5 (T-25)2]

R(T) = 2000 + 16 (T-25) + 0.037 (T-25)2

 3.12 Silicon-resistive sensor. An n-type silicon resistive temperature sensor is made as a thin film 2 mm wide, 0.1 mm thick, and
10 mm long. Mobilities of carriers go down with temperature whereas carrier densities are assumed to remain constant in the
range of interest. Electron concentration of the n-type-doped silicon used for the sensor is 1017/cm3 whereas the intrinsic
concentration in silicon is 1.45×1010/cm3. To characterize the sensor, the mobilities of electrons and holes are measured at 25 oC,
100 oC, and 150 oC as follows:

Answer
𝐿
(a)  = enµn 𝑅=
𝜎𝑆
𝐿 1
T1 = 25 oC:  = enµn = 1.6 ×10-19 × 1017 × 1370 = 21.92 (S/cm) 𝑅1 = = = 22.8Ω
𝜎𝑆 21.92 × 0.2 × 0.01
T2 = 100 oC:  = enµn = 1.6 ×10-19 × 1017 × 780 = 12.48 (S/cm) 𝑅2 =
𝐿
=
1
= 40Ω
𝜎𝑆 12.48 × 0.2 × 0.01
T3 = 150 oC:  = enµn = 1.6 ×10-19 × 1017 × 570 = 9.12 (S/cm) 𝐿 1
𝑅3 = = = 54.8Ω
𝜎𝑆 9.12 × 0.2 × 0.01
• T0 = 25 oC: R(0) = 22.8 Ω R(T) = R(0)[1+a(T – T0) + b(T – T0)2]

R(T) = 22.8[1+a(T – 25) + b(T – 25)2]

• T1 = 100 oC: R(0) = 40 Ω R(100) = 22.8[1+a(100 – 25) + b(100 – 25)2]=40

• T2 = 150 oC: R(0) = 54.8 Ω R(150) = 22.8[1+a(150 – 25) + b(150 – 25)2]=54.8

a = 8 × 10-3
b = 1.89 × 10-5