American Journal of Life Sciences

2015; 3(3-1): 1-11

Published online January 06, 2015 (http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ajls)
doi: 10.11648/j.ajls.s.2015030301.11
ISSN: 2328-5702 (Print); ISSN: 2328-5737 (Online)

A brief review on PADI encyclopedia of recreational diving

Mostafa Ali Biegi1, *, Elahe Abdoos2
1
Young Researchers and Elite Club, Firoozkooh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Firoozkooh, Iran
2
Department of Industrial Engineering, Eyvanekey Institute of Higher Education (Nonprofit- Nongovernmental), Eyvanekey, Iran

Email address:
[email protected] (M. A. Beigi), [email protected] (E. Abdoos)

To cite this article:

Mostafa Ali Biegi, Elahe Abdoos. A Brief Review on PADI Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving. American Journal of Life Sciences. Special
Issue: Recent Researches in Diving and its Relations with Mathematics. Vol. 3, No. 3-1, 2015, pp. 1-11.
doi: 10.11648/j.ajls.s.2015030301.11

Abstract: Diving is one of the extremely excitement and recreation in the world. Every year, many people are going to trip for
diving, and they are certainly pleasing memories of the trip will be. In the meantime, exiting “safety”, “comforting”, “reliability”
and etc are very important for fun and professionals divers and it’s clear why. In other hand, diving can make good memories,
when do not exist any casualty arising from the lack of regulation. Therefore, it is necessary to study and knowing rules and
general information of diving. In this paper, we a brief review on PADI encyclopedia of recreational diving, which will be
useful for the researchers who are professional and interested in this area, and also useful for person who have fun dive. We
describe advantages of knowing each section throw of that section.

Keywords: Life Science, Diving, PADI Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving, Diving Technology,
Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), Excitement and Recreation

the surface. The user could remain submerged for a long time
1. Introduction but couldn’t accomplish well.
In the history, men were engaged in underwater commerce, Breathing tubes were employed mainly as a tactic in
salvage and military activities and to expand the frontiers of military operations where they permitted an undetected
knowledge through exploration and research. No one knows approach to an enemy border, but by these tubes the divers
when man first discovered he could go under water by holding couldn’t go to deep areas.
his breath, but diving as a profession can be traced back to In an Assyrian frieze ninth century B.C, a diver is shown
more than 5000 years. using inflated animal skins as air tanks. This idea is very old
These early divers efforts were restricted to shallow waters and these men were swimmers using skins for floating. It
(less than 100 feet), with the divers collecting food, sponges, would be impossible to submerge while holding such
coral and pearl that were commercially valuable. One of the instrument.
first records of such diving is found in the writings of the In the late middle ages, a workable diving system was
Greek historians, “Herodotus”. He tells the story of a diver observed. In 1240, Roger Bacon made a reference for
called Scyllis, who was working for the Persian king Xerxes to instruments, which men could walk on sea or river beds
recover sunken treasure in the fifth century B.C. From the without any danger. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
earliest times, divers were active in operations. Their some researchers explained and published a sample of
mission was cutting anchor cables of enemy ships adrift, equipment which emphasized on later successful
boring or hunching holes in the bottoms of enemies ship’s and developments.
building harbor defenses at their harbors then attempting to Between 1500 and 1800, the diving bell was developed,
destroy defense support of enemy. enabling divers to remain underwater for hours.
Other early divers developed salvage industry focused on The diving bell is bell-shaped with the bottom open as a
the major shipping ports of the eastern Mediterranean. strong and wide box. The first diving bells were strong tubes
The most obvious and necessary means in increasing the to sink in a vertical position keeping enough air to permit a
capabilities of a diver underwater was to provide an air supply. diver to breathe for several hours. The principle of the bell is
First they used hollow reeds or tubes extending, their head to easily observed by pushing an inverted glass into water.

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2 Mostafa Ali Biegi and Elahe Abdoos: A Brief Review on PADI Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving

Diving bells are suspended by a cable from the ship and and well-supported learning environment.
have no underwater maneuverability than moving the ship. Educational Materials – Credentialed instructional
The diver can remain in the bell, or by holding his breath can designers use state-of-the-art technology and learning theories
go outside for short period of time. to create PADI materials with you, the student diver, in mind.
The first scientific use of diving bell was made in 1531 and Independent study materials, available in a variety of media –
for several years, primary bells were used regularly. In the online programs, tablet-based apps, manuals, workbooks,
1680s, an adventurer named William Phipps from multimedia discs, etc. – allow you to learn in a way that works
Massachusetts modified the diving bell technique by for you. Instructional support materials allow your PADI
supplying his divers with air from series of heavy, inverted Instructor to further explain important concepts and verify
buckets in order to recover treasure valued at 200,000$. understanding.
Educational Standards – All PADI programs, from
1.1. A Review of Training PADI System (the Professional entry-level through scuba instructor training, fall under strict
Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)) educational standards monitored for worldwide consistency
The Professional Association of Diving Instructors with and quality. PADI takes a proactive approach to quality
more than 40 years of experience was founded in 1966 by two management and randomly surveys PADI Divers to confirm
divers of America navy named John Cronin and Ralph their courses meet PADI’s high standards as well as the divers’
Erickson with the aim of diving training by new methods expectations. No other diver training organization works to
without military operations that was common on that period. maintain this level of professional reliability and integrity.
This institution by new teaching methods and American Continuing Diver Education – The fun and enjoyment of
training system and with the collaboration of many being a confident scuba diver is fueled by continuing to
universities all over the world and using hospitability methods improve your scuba skills. Each PADI course builds on the
of hotels to give services to the tourists, attempted to design a previous one, teaching you skills and techniques when you’re
new method in diving training and the results are the ready to learn them. PADI specialty courses let you explore
increasing development of this recreation among the modern specific dive interests. Professional-level courses let you live
and advanced societies and communities in the world. This the scuba diving lifestyle by becoming a divemaster or scuba
institution acquired 75% of total diving training in all over the instructor.
world. 1.2. Environmental Responsibility
Today, this institution with 5300 diving centers in 180
countries in the world and about 130,000 skillful instructors As a PADI Diver, you join millions of others to form a
plays an important role in global tourism industry by giving growing force that can and does make a difference in the effort
safe and efficient diving activities all over the world and to preserve the underwater world. PADI courses encompass
presented a new standard in ecotourism and above all safety environmental awareness and protection philosophies that
motto and it is also accepted by many people in the world. emphasize the importance of protecting fragile aquatic
ecosystems. The worldwide PADI organization is committed
1.1.1. Why PADI to preserving the aquatic environment for future generations.
PADI Divers carry the most respected and sought after Diving won’t survive without beautiful places to visit, and
scuba diving credentials in the world. No matter where you PADI Divers are encouraged to take action with Project
choose to dive, your PADI certification card will be AWARE and make every dive count for a clean, healthy ocean
recognized and accepted. In fact, on most scuba diving planet.
adventures, you’ll be surrounded by other PADI Divers who
made the same certification choice you did – to train with the 1.3. PADI Today
world’s largest and most respected scuba diving training
organization. In 2003, John Cronin passed away. His friend and PADI
co-founder, Ralph Erickson, passed away three years later.
1.1.2. How is PADI Different They proudly carried PADI’s torch for many years before they
Education - The PADI System of diver education is the confidently put it in the hands of today’s generation of PADI
most instructionally solid system in diving. PADI courses are Professionals, who continue to introduce the world to scuba
designed to make learning enjoyable and worthwhile. Under diving.
the guidance of your professional PADI Instructor, you gain With close to 400 employees in PADI corporate offices
confidence while mastering important safety concepts and around the world, the PADI organization works hard to be the
skills. PADI Instructors are trained and held to diving’s best partner to its members and is committed to:
highest standards, backed up by a solid, proactive quality Safe and responsible diver acquisition and retention.
management system. Quality member acquisition and retention.
Performance-Based Learning – You progress at your own Financial prosperity.
pace as you demonstrate mastery of specific performance Worldwide alignment in message, products, systems and
requirements essential to becoming a scuba diver. You must procedures.
earn your PADI certification, but you do so in an encouraging The PADI Worldwide Executive team, led by Dr. Drew

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 American Journal of Life Sciences 2015; 3(3-1): 1-11 3

Richardson, President and CEO, ensure these promises are Surface signaling devices: Attracts the dive boat’s
met. attention if you surface a distance away.
From above, we uses encyclopedia of recreational diving Recreational Dive Planner dive tables: For dive planning
that PADI published. and backup in case of a computer problem.
In this paper, we a brief review on PADI encyclopedia of
recreational diving, which will be useful for the researchers 2.1. Technical Equipment Defined
who are professional and interested in this area, and also Mask: Compact for minimum resistance in the water.
useful for person who have fun dive. Backup mask: Carried in pocket in case of loss or
The present study is organized as follows: Section 2, damage to primary mask.
contains the diving equipments as basic definitions and Primary regulator: Has two metre/seven foot hose
notations that will be used for all divers. Section 3, includes for sharing gas with a team mate in an emergency.
Physics of Diving. The Physiology of Diving are presented in Secondary regulator: Totally independent breathing
section IV, The paper is concluded in Section V. regulator for use in case of malfunction in primary
regulator. Also used if sharing gas with a team mate via
2. Diving Equipments the primary regulator.
SPG, Submersible Pressure Gauge: shows you how much
In this section, we brief describe of diving equipments, that gas you have left.
it is important for having great diving. Advantages about Twin cylinders: High capacity cylinders that hold high
following texts are clear. pressure compressed air, enriched air or trimix depending
In the early days of diving, the equipment was primitive and upon dive requirements.
there wasn’t much to choose from in what there was. The more Dry suit: Provides insulation for a comfortable dive over
your physique departed from that of an average-sized a long duration.
physically fit young male, the more likely you had difficulty Fins, large size: high power types for propelling
finding something that fit well. Happily, those days are far yourself laden with tec gear.
behind us. Today almost anyone, regardless of size, shape or Z-knife (on gauge strap): Specialized knife for freeing
gender, can find comfortable dive gear that fits. It’s also lighter, yourself in case of entanglement.
more attractive and has higher performance than earlier gear. Shears (in sheath on waistband): Backup cutting tool
The Fully Equipped Recreational Diver as following: with broader application than z-knife.
Mask: Traps air around eyes so you can see. Harness: Shoulder, waist and crotch strap assembly that
Snorkel: Used at surface to allow breathing in waves or holds cylinders on your back, with D-rings mounted on
face in water without using air from the cylinder. the shoulders and at the waist for clipping equipment.
Regulator: Delivers air from cylinder when you inhale. Wing-type BCD: High capacity BCD with backup gas
Alternate air source: An extra regulator for sharing air bladder mounts between harness and cylinder; backup
with another diver in an emergency. required because in tec diving, you may be too heavy to
SPG Submersible Pressure Gauge: shows you how much swim to the surface if your BCD fails.
air you have left. Safety reel and lift bag: Deployed to the surface to mark
Cylinder: Holds high pressure compressed air. your location and provide a decompression reference;
Exposure suit: Provides insulation for a comfortable dive may be a planned dive procedure or an emergency
(different types for different water temperatures). procedure. (Lift bag not visible.)
Fins: Provide a broad surface area for your legs to push Weight system (not shown): Often not needed, but if used,
against, allowing you to swim without using your hands. has a double buckle quick release mechanism that allows
Cutting tool: (not visible) Safety device for freeing dropping the weight in an emergency, but prevents
yourself in case of entanglement. accidentally dropping weights.
BCD – Buoyancy Compensating Device: uses air from Multigas dive computers: Track and display your
your cylinder to adjust your buoyancy so you’re neutral decompression requirements, these allow you to switch
(“weightless”), negative (sink) or positive (float). BCD to different kinds of gas blends to optimize
includes the harness system that holds the cylinder on decompression. Two worn to provide backup in case of a
your back. failure.
Weight system (integrated into BCD): Holds lead Decompression cylinder/stage bottle: Independent
weights to offset buoyancy so you can descend, with a cylinder and regulator carried clipped to your harness on
quick release mechanism for dropping the weight in an the side. Used to extend dive time and/or to carry a gas
emergency. for optimizing decompression. Two commonly used,
Dive computer: Tracks your depth and time underwater, though very complex tec dives may use more.
calculating your remaining allowable time underwater. All carried in thigh pocket Compass: Aids underwater
Compass: Aids underwater navigation. navigation.
Underwater slate: For communicating with another diver Underwater slate: For communicating with another diver
or carrying other information. or carrying other information.

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4 Mostafa Ali Biegi and Elahe Abdoos: A Brief Review on PADI Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving

Surface signaling devices: Attracts the dive boat’s cause undue apprehension among those who feel
attention if you surface a distance away. uncomfortable with mathematics and science. If you’re
Backup dive tables: Used to determine decompression picturing scientists babbling incomprehensible jargon and
requirements in case of a computer problem. impossibly difficult equations, forget it. You don’t need a PhD
to understand the physical properties of the underwater world.
2.2. The Fully Equipped Commercial Diver In continuous, we brief review on some Physics concepts
1. Commercial diving helmet: Fully covers your head and for divers.
provides air/breathing gas from a surface umbilical on 3.1. Matter
demand; includes speakers and microphone for voice
communication Matter is the substance that makes up all material in the
2. Umbilical: Surface supplied gas hose, communications universe. Aside from the results of nuclear reactions (which
wires and reinforcing safety line bundled together to change matter into energy), matter cannot be created or
form a cohesive single line from the surface to the diver. destroyed. It can, however, be changed from one form to
If diving in a hot water suit, the water lines from the another. Types of matter can combine to form other types with
surface are also part of the umbilical. differing properties, and types of matter can break apart to
3. Dive control manifold (not shown): Operated by the dive form new types. It can change from one state to another.
tender, this manifold controls the gas flow to the diver However, the amount of matter never changes in these
and includes the two-way voice communication system. processes, which neither create nor destroy matter.
4. Bailout bottle (on back): Connected into the diver’s
breathing system, the bailout bottle provides an 3.1.1. Types of Matter
emergency gas supply in case of a problem with the All matter can be broken down into distinct forms, called
surface supply. elements. By definition, an element is a substance that cannot
5. Dry suit:Although some commercial diving takes place be decomposed into any simpler substances by chemical
in wet suits, the vast majority takes place in heavy duty process. An element is the most basic form of distinct matter.
dry suits. Very cold water or long dives call for a hot Nuclear processes can change matter into energy, which is
water suit, which provides thermal protection by the principle of atomic energy. You may have heard Albert
surrounding you with heated water from the surface. Einstein’s famous equation:
6. Harness: Provides secure attachment point for the 3.1.2. E = mc2
umbilical and the bailout bottle. In his equation, E stands for energy, m stands for mass
(matter) and c2 stands for the speed of light squared. Since the
3. Physics of Diving speed of light squared is a really big number, Einstein’s
equation shows that a very tiny amount of matter converts into
Few experiences can compare with the thrill of exploring a very large amount of energy. This is the foundational
underwater. Why? Part of it, at least, is that you’re adapted to principle behind nuclear energy – whether in a reactor
life on land. You’re used to the phenomena that surround you. powering an attack submarine or in the sun powering life on
As terrestrial organisms go, you’re pretty big, which means earth.
you can’t fly without the help of a machine, and, generally
speaking, falling hurts. A temperature of 24°C/75°F is warm 3.2. Energy
enough to go all day in shorts and a T-shirt. You can determine
the direction a sound comes from, and a ripe red apple looks Energy is the capacity to do work. That’s a good definition,
red whether it’s 3 metres/10 feet away or 30 metres/100 feet but what, then, is work? Work is the application of a force
away. through a distance.
As a diver, though, you enter a domain with a new set of In the metric system, we measure force in terms of ergs and
rules. Despite your size, you “fly” in three dimensions and you joules. An erg is the amount of work needed to move one gram
don’t fear falling. Without a wet suit, 24°C/75°F chills you one centimetre against the force of gravity (gravitational
quickly. Most noises sound like they’re directly overhead, no acceleration); a joule is 107 ergs. In the imperial system, we
matter where they really are. The colors you see vary with measure energy in terms of foot-pounds. A foot-pound is the
depth and distance. And, there are other physical differences amount of work done by a one-pound force, when the point on
that are not obvious to your senses, but vitally affect your which it acts moves through a distance of one foot. One joule
safety. equals approximately .7375 foot-pounds.
While the physical properties of the underwater world may 3.2.1. Types of Energy
sometimes appear puzzling, they follow the same laws that Energy, like matter, can neither be created nor destroyed,
govern physics in the rest of universe (at least as far as we though it can convert into matter in a nuclear reaction. In
know). Because of this, understanding the properties of water diving, we’re concerned with energy’s transformation into one
and their effects on us only requires understanding some of its five forms:
simple principles of chemistry and physics.
Unfortunately, the terms “chemistry” and “physics” can

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 American Journal of Life Sciences 2015; 3(3-1): 1-11 5

1. Heat liquid. This phenomenon is referred to as having a high heat of

Heat is the motion of molecules and atoms that make up a vaporization. The high heat of vaporization occurs because for
substance. The more motion, the greater the heat energy, water to evaporate, sufficient heat energy must be introduced
and vice versa. All energy eventually turns into heat. The to break the polar bonds between its molecules. Similarly,
process of converting energy from one form to another, water has a high latent heat of fusion. This means that when
such as from electrical energy into light energy in a water freezes, it releases large quantities of heat. When ice
flashlight, always causes some of the energy to dissipate melts, the water absorbs large quantities of heat. Again, all of
as heat. these properties result from water’s polar nature.
2. Light Because of water’s high heat capacity, it plays a crucial role
Light is energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. in moderating the world’s climates. The major oceanic
The best example is the light energy from the sun. An currents carry heat from the warmer equatorial regions toward
example of energy transformation is photosynthesis in the cooler regions closer to the poles. This process makes the
plants, which transforms light energy into stored tropical areas milder and the upper latitudes warmer. An
chemical energy. excellent example of this is Bermuda, which enjoys a
3. Electrical moderately tropical climate thanks to the Gulf Stream, despite
Electrical energy results from the interaction of being at about the same latitude as North Carolina in the US.
negatively charged electrons and positively charged Another example is the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific
protons. A battery is a good example; it stores potential Ocean off Ecuador, South America. Cold, deep water currents
electrical energy until used in an appliance, such as a upwell around the islands, absorbing heat from the
flashlight. atmosphere. This gives the island a very cool climate despite
4. Chemical being close to the equator.
Chemical energy is stored within a substance’s molecular Water’s heat capacity also explains why the temperature
composition. A common example of this is gasoline. variation within a body of water is always less than within a
When it reaches a critical temperature, gasoline reacts similar volume of air, and why temperature changes take
with oxygen in a chemical reaction that releases heat longer in water. You may notice this when diving over the
energy. course of a week or so – the air temperature may heat up or
5. Mechanical Energy cool down one or more times, but the water temperature varies
Mechanical energy results from motion or the possibility relatively little.
of motion – it is the result of an object’s position or Water and Ice. Water and heat interact in another way that
condition. If an object is retained in a position so that, if departs from the “typical” substance. As most other liquids
released, it could do some sort of work, the object is said cool, they become denser and turn into solids. The liquid
to have potential energy. Once in motion, the object is transitions into the solid state as the molecules slow and get
said to have kinetic energy. An example of both types can closer together. The liquid becomes denser as the temperature
be found in a spring. When in its static, tense position, the drops. As it turns into a solid, it becomes denser still, so that
spring has potential energy. Once in motion (either the forming solid sinks and accumulates on the bottom of the
expanding or contracting) the energy is kinetic, that is, liquid. The liquid becomes solid from the bottom up.
released and in motion. Water doesn’t do this, and it’s a good thing for all of us. As
it cools, water becomes more dense like any other liquid, but
3.3. Water only until it reaches 4°C/39°F. At this point, water begins to
3.3.1. Water and Heat solidify into ice, but the polar molecules force the molecules
Heat Capacity into a crystal pattern that takes up more space than it does as a
Water’s polar molecule gives it important properties related liquid. This means that, unlike most substances – which are
to heat, the first of which is that water has one of the highest denser in their solid form than in their liquid form – solid
heat capacities of all naturally occurring substances water (ice) is less dense than liquid water, which is why ice
(ammonia is one of few exceptions). Heat capacity is a floats.
measure of the amount of heat that must be added or removed Besides making ice diving possible, this property is a major
from a substance to make it change temperature a given influence on the world’s climate. Floating ice tends to insulate
amount. Compared to water, for example, air has a very low and retain heat in the water beneath it, slowing the freezing
heat capacity. This is why 24°C/75°F is warm and comfortable process compared to other liquids. If ice sank rather than
in air, but quickly becomes chilly and uncomfortable in water. floated, massive portions of the oceans would be frozen solid.
Air cannot carry heat away from your body as fast as the same In fact, most of the earth’s water might be frozen.
temperature water can. 3.3.2. Water and Light
The high heat capacity comes from the polar bond in water. The human eye sees by collecting light reflected from an
When heating water, a significant amount of heat energy must object, converting this energy into nerve impulses and
first break the bonds before heat can increase the kinetic transmitting them to the brain for interpretation. Since the
energy (temperature) of the water molecules. Because of polar behavior of light changes as it passes through water, water
bonds, water evaporates more slowly than any other common

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6 Mostafa Ali Biegi and Elahe Abdoos: A Brief Review on PADI Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving

affects how far you can see, clarity, colors and apparent the speed of light changes with the density, causing a shift in
distances. the light’s path. The only time the light doesn’t shift when it
goes from one density to another is when it passes into the new
3.3.2.1. Color Absorption medium at an angle directly perpendicular to its surface.
To understand color absorption, it helps to start with the Although refraction differs for each substance light enters, we
nature of light and how your eye perceives it. Light is a form know its characteristics for most substances – particularly air
of electromagnetic energy and therefore travels in waves; the and water.
length of light waves is determined by their energy. In diving, we’re most concerned with the refraction that
Wavelength determines how we classify the type of results when light passes from water through glass into the air
electromagnetic energy (e.g., x-ray, radio, visible light, etc.). in your mask or camera housing. As a result of refraction,
Some wavelengths of electromagnetic energy are not visible, objects underwater are magnified so they appear closer by a
such as ultraviolet light, infrared light, x-ray, microwaves and ratio of about 4:3 for their actual and apparent distances. For
cosmic rays. instance, a fish that’s actually four metres/yards away will
Our eyes see only a narrow segment of the entire appear to be three metres/ yards away. You can say, then, that
electromagnetic spectrum – the wavelength range from about an object appears to be 25 percent closer than it actually is, or
400 nanometres (nm) to about 760nm. Differences within this 33 percent larger than it actually is. New divers sometimes
range we perceive as colors. When white light (white light miss when reaching for something due to this refraction; with
consists of all the perceivable wavelengths) strikes an object, experience, most divers learn to correct unconsciously. The
the object absorbs some wavelengths and reflects others. We magnification effects of refraction may not affect apparent
see the color of something based on the light wavelengths it distance, but apparent size. Whether you perceive the object as
reflects. If an object reflects all wavelengths, we say the object closer or bigger depends on how your mind interprets the
is white. If it reflects no wavelengths (absorbs all visible image – either as the actual size but closer, or at the actual
wavelengths), we say the object is black. distance but bigger. Influences such as distance cues, visibility
Wavelengths relate to the amount of energy in light. Colors and your familiarity with the environment and what you’re
on the red end of the visible spectrum have less energy than looking at will all affect how your brain interprets what it sees.
colors on the blue end. Looking at the full spectrum (visible Generally, an underwater camera sees just like you do with
and invisible), infrared light is very low energy and ultraviolet your mask. This is why you have to focus on the apparent
is very high energy. distance, not the actual distance of your subject (auto focus
Even when it’s very clear, water absorbs light passing systems will do this automatically). The magnification caused
through it, transforming it into heat. However, water doesn’t by refraction reduces the angle the camera sees, causing a
do this uniformly because wavelengths with less energy slight telephoto effect. Most underwater photography calls for
absorb more easily. Therefore, it absorbs colors toward the red shooting with as wide an angle as possible, however, so you
end of the visible spectrum more rapidly than at the blue end. may see camera housing with dome ports. This relates directly
This is why red tends to disappear very quickly as you descend. to refraction, or, more precisely, eliminating it. Recall that a
Usually you don’t see much red below 4 metres/15 feet light ray does not refract when it enters a medium with a
because little light of that wavelength reaches any deeper. This differing density at a perpendicular angle. With a dome port,
doesn’t mean that the color red suddenly blinks out at 4 all the light going into the lens strikes the port at a
metres/15 feet, but that practically speaking, red is gone. perpendicular angle. This eliminates refraction and maintains
Color absorption is a continual process, so there’s less of all the wide angle of view you want underwater. Although you
colors at 2 metres/6 feet than at 1 metre/3 feet. This gradual eliminate refraction, however, a dome port makes the point of
filtering process affects the weaker wavelengths faster. focus artificially close – typically around a metre/three feet
In order following red, water more readily absorbs orange, away – but this isn’t a major issue because you focus (or the
yellow and green. The loss of color is why underwater camera autofocuses) on the apparent distance.
photographers use flash even in very bright conditions. The Another effect of refraction is the constantly changing light
light from the flash doesn’t travel through much water, so it ripples appearing on the bottom. You notice these ripples
restores the absorbed wavelengths for a colorful picture. This easily on flat, sandy bottoms. They’re caused by a lens effect
is necessary for good quality underwater photos, even with of surface waves. As a wave passes overhead, the cresting
modern digital cameras that can partially correct for color portion refracts light and concentrates it as bright areas that
absorption (more about this later). move across the seafloor with the wave.
As divers, we tend to think of color absorption in terms of
depth, but it is actually a function of the total distance light 3.3.2.3. Visual Reversal
travels through water. Although refraction makes things look closer than they are
underwater, turbidity can make them look farther away than
3.3.2.2. Refraction they actually are. This is called visual reversal. Visual reversal
Another property of light that concerns you underwater is results from your visual processing and how your brain
refraction, which is a change direction when light passes from interprets what it sees depending upon water clarity, contrast
a medium of one density to a medium of a differing density – and the amount of light.
like from air to water or vice versa. Refraction occurs because

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 American Journal of Life Sciences 2015; 3(3-1): 1-11 7

3.3.2.4. Reflection Depending on the sound frequency, distance from the source,
When light strikes something, it may bounce off or reflect. intensity and other variables, sometimes you can determine a
Whether light reflects depends primarily on the object’s color. sound’s direction reasonably accurately underwater.
If it’s black or very dark colored, it will reflect relatively little While sound will transmit from one medium to another, it
light. If it’s white or a very light or pale shade, it will reflect a resists transmitting through media of differing densities.
lot. If it’s reflective enough – like a mirror – it’s color or shade When sound travels from air into water or vice versa, for
will appear to be exactly the same as the light striking it example, it loses much of its energy crossing the interface
because it reflects almost all the light. between air and water. This is why you may not hear someone
shouting to you even when you’re less than a metre or yard
3.3.3. Water and Sound under the surface.
Like light, sound is an energy form that travels in waves. The resistance to transmission due to differing densities can
Unlike light, however, sound is a form of mechanical energy apply to a single medium. As you read earlier, water will form
whereas light is electromagnetic energy. This is significant layers due to differing temperature and/or dissolved salts.
because electromagnetic energy can exist apart from matter Sound resists traveling between the layers due to their
and travel through a vacuum. Sound and other mechanical differing densities. A thermocline or halocline can greatly
energy can only exist in and travel through matter. affect sound transmission so that you may readily hear a sound
Sound results when something sets in motion a wave or quite well while in the same water layer, yet find it harder to
pattern of waves in matter. The wave or wave pattern may hear the same sound only a short distance above or below the
transmit into another medium, such as a noise underwater source in a different water layer. How significantly water
transmitting through the bottom of the boat and then into air. density affects sound transmission depends on the degree of
When the waves vibrate air or water in contact with your density change and the sound. However, the differences can be
eardrum, your ear converts some of the energy into nerve enough that military submarines will descend into a deeper,
impulses that you perceive as sound. denser water layer to help avoid detection by sonar.
Sound can travel through any form of matter. Generally The resistance to sound transmission from air into water is
speaking, it travels best in dense media like solids and liquids. one reason why you can’t readily talk to another diver
This is partly because denser material has more tightly packed underwater in most circumstances. Your vocal cords produce
molecules to transmit the sound wave from one to the next. sound in air, but it’s difficult to transmit enough sound energy
However, it’s not really the density but the elasticity of a into the water to overcome the noise of your regulator and
substance that allows it to transmit sound more effectively. bubbles. Electronic underwater communication equipment
Think about sending a wave down a taut rope by snapping it overcomes this problem because it turns your voice into a
compared to doing the same with a taut rubber band. A wave signal that your buddy receives electronically, but in essence
travels along the rubber band faster and farther because of its this is underwater two-way radio, not the human voice carried
elastic quality. Since in nature dense materials usually have through water.
superior elasticity, it’s common to associate good sound If you become trained to dive with closed-circuit
transmission with high density. While this is a usable rule of rebreathers, however, this changes somewhat. The sound of
thumb within the scope of diving purposes, remember that it’s your voice still resists transmission from air into water, but a
not technically or universally accurate. Lead and carbon, for rebreather is very, very quiet. Even without any special
example, are quite dense but don’t transmit sound well equipment, you and a buddy can talk to each other, to some
because they have little elasticity. Similarly, a blanket has extent, if you speak loudly and stay reasonably close.
greater density than air, yet hanging one in a room absorbs
sound rather than transmits it. This is because most fabrics
have poor elasticity. 4. The Physiology of Diving
The speed of sound depends on the matter through which it
travels, influenced by temperature and pressure in many cases. Of all the life forms on earth, we are the only ones with the
Sound cannot travel in a vacuum at all (absence of matter, as means to leave our intended environment for more than a few
mentioned). In air at sea level at 0°C/32°F, sound travels at brief moments. Technology rockets us into space and plunges
about 332 metres/1087 feet per second. In fresh water at us into the depths of the oceans.
15°C/58°F, the speed is approximately 1410 metres/4625 feet We venture into realms our bodies weren’t designed or
per second, while seawater at the same temperature it’s equipped for. Compared with other technological adaptations,
approximately 1550 metres/5084 feet per second. though, diving stands apart. In many endeavors, machines for
The reason you often can’t tell where a sound is coming exploring other environments isolate and protect us. The space
from underwater is that the speed of sound is about four times suit shields you from the vacuum; it does not actually allow
faster than in air. Your brain determines sound direction based you to survive in it. A pilot doesn’t fly, but rather controls a
on the slight difference in intensity and time at which a sound machine that flies.
reaches each of your ears. Underwater, the intensity and time Scuba diving differs: you function within a new
are the same (as far as your brain can tell), which you perceive environment within physiological limits it imposes. Scuba
as being directly overhead. This isn’t always the case, though. equipment does not breathe for you, but allows your
respiratory system to function underwater. Fins don’t move

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8 Mostafa Ali Biegi and Elahe Abdoos: A Brief Review on PADI Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving

you, but adapt your feet so you can move yourself. most pronounced among divers who make long breath-hold
Technology meshes your physiology with the underwater dives, such as when hunting underwater or in competitive free
world. Outwardly, you’re a diver because of your training and diving (we’ll look at how your body responds to breath-hold
equipment. diving shortly). So, while your involuntary response may be to
Inwardly, you’re also a diver because your physiology breathe deeper and faster, with experience and within limits
responds and adapts to the demands of the underwater world. this response may diminish.
This adaptability to a new environment is all the more Your voluntary response – one you make consciously – is to
remarkable considering how intricate and complex your body breathe deeply to maximize your tidal volume. By taking
is: literally billions of cells – each a single unit of life – work advantage of as much volume as possible per breath, you
interdependently to coexist as complex tissues, organs and reduce the proportion of dead air reaching your alveoli. This is
systems, each with a specific purpose, to create a complex, one reason why you’re trained to take slow, full breaths while
single unit greater than the sum of its parts: you. Yet within diving.
this marvelous, unlikely complex structure, your body Another response involves equipment design.
functions according to the same clear, simple principles that Manufacturers design underwater breathing equipment to
govern the rest of nature. What makes your body remarkable minimize the effects of dead-air spaces. As you read in
is how these thousands of basic and simple actions occur Chapter Three, this is one reason why you don’t find many
simultaneously to maintain life. manufacturers making excessively long snorkels anymore –
Diving physiology studies the way your body functions they unnecessarily increase dead-air space. Many fullface
underwater. It’s a look at the responses your body takes to masks and commercial diving helmets have oral/nasal masks
changes caused by the underwater environment, as well as the or pockets that isolate the mouth/nose from the rest of the
problems and their consequences that result when your body mask.
can’t respond or adapt, or does so ineffectively. This is to reduce the effective dead-air space and carbon
dioxide accumulation within the mask. The typical
4.1. Dead -Air Space recreational regulator second stage, however, has such a low
Dead-air space (also known as dead space) is the portion of volume that it adds less deadair space than your average
your tidal volume that plays no direct part in gas exchange. snorkel.
Without equipment, dead-air space consists of your sinuses, 4.2. Gas Density
trachea and bronchi. Equipment, however, adds the additional
volume of the snorkel, regulator or other breathing equipment While diving with breathing equipment, your deep
to your dead-air space. (Note: Although called dead air, this breathing requires an additional voluntary adaptation as a
response pertains to any gas blend you use while diving). consequence of the denser air (or other breathing gas) at depth.
When you inhale, the first gas drawn into your alveoli is the The denser a gas becomes, the less smoothly it flows at a
gas left in your breathing passages from your previous given speed. All else being the same, as the speed increases,
expiration. This gas is high in carbon dioxide and mixes with breathing resistance increases disproportionately. That is, it
the fresh gas you inhale, so that your alveolar gas is always a takes more than twice as much energy to inhale and exhale a
bit higher in carbon dioxide than the fresh gas you’re given volume twice as fast.
breathing. Adding a snorkel, regulator or other breathing This is because when gas flows through smooth passages, it
device increases the amount of dead air you inhale. Another can travel with an uninterrupted, laminar flow. This means it
factor is that being in water reduces your tidal volume about generally moves as a continuous column. Unfortunately,
15 to 20 percent (more so when you’re vertical in the water you’re not breathing through smooth passages, but through
than when you’re horizontal) due to pressure compressing dive equipment, your trachea and bronchi. In these rough
your thorax. passages, the flow becomes turbulent from friction between
With your tidal volume decreased and your dead-air space the gas and the passage sides. This drag causes the gas to move
increased, dead air becomes a larger proportion of each breath, faster in the center of the flow column than at the sides,
raising the carbon dioxide in your alveoli correspondingly. leading to swirls that rotate away from the flow direction,
How much the carbon dioxide increases depends upon your disrupting smooth flow and increasing resistance. The denser
tidal volume and the dead-air space volume, so it can range the gas, the more disruption you have at a given flow rate.
from insignificant to substantial. Within limits, you To a degree, this resistance has a benefit (even at the surface)
compensate for the higher carbon dioxide through both an in that it causes a slight pressure increase in the bronchioles
involuntary and a voluntary response. and alveoli during exhalation. This increase helps keep the air
Increased alveolar carbon dioxide raises carbon dioxide in passages from collapsing after exhalation, although a
your bloodstream, but there’s no substantial decrease in the percentage will still collapse after each breath, whether you’re
oxygen level. Nonetheless, due to elevated carbon dioxide at the surface or underwater. We’ll look at how air-passage
your reflex respiratory center stimulates you to breathe more collapse affects diving under Physiological Responses to
frequently and/or more deeply. Physiologists have found that Pressure Change on Body Air Spaces.
in some divers, the reflex respiratory center learns to tolerate a
slightly higher-than-normal carbon dioxide level. This seems

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 American Journal of Life Sciences 2015; 3(3-1): 1-11 9

4.3. Responses to Breath –Hold Diving (cerebral vasodilatation). Unlike marine mammals, which
have a constant blood pressure during apnea, human blood
While breath-hold diving, your body responds to apnea pressure increases with apnea duration. Changes in circulation
(cessation of breathing) to ensure that you survive and that you patterns also result as natural responses to temperature; some
eventually resume breathing. Physiologists have found that physiologists think that
your body responses differ in some respects when you hold diving reflex circulation patterns may be partially
your breath in water compared to doing so on land, though it’s attributable to normal responses to cold.
still unclear to what degree and why. Besides involuntary responses, you can increase
During apnea, your circulatory system taps oxygen stored breath-hold time through voluntary responses. The first of
in your lungs, muscles and blood to supply tissue oxygen these is to relax and minimize effort. The less you exercise and
needs. With no place to vent, as time goes by carbon dioxide exert yourself, the more slowly you consume oxygen and
builds in the circulatory system, your lungs, muscles and other produce carbon dioxide. A second voluntary response is to
organs. The rising carbon dioxide causes your reflex practice.
respiratory center to stimulate the diaphragm, which you feel Studies suggest that trained freedivers can hold their breath
as the urge to breathe. longer because they become more tolerant to carbon dioxide
The initial urge is weak, but successive urges grow stronger and have improved anaerobic capacity – that is, the body
as your body consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide, improves the processes it uses to provide energy in the
until you must surface for air. How long you can go without absence of oxygen. Your third voluntary response is to start a
breathing depends on several physiological variables and breath-hold dive with less carbon dioxide in your system. You
responses, not all of which physiologists completely do this by intentionally hyperventilating with three or four
understand. deep, rapid breaths prior to holding your breath. By doing this,
The extent of these responses varies significantly from you reduce respiratory carbon dioxide levels below normal,
individual to individual, which is why some divers can hold which in turn drops your circulatory carbon dioxide levels.
their breath much longer than others. Several responses in This means your tissues can produce more carbon dioxide
your body extend how long you can hold your breath in water. than normal before reaching the level that stimulates breathing.
One of these, many physiologists believe, results from the As you’ll see in the next section, however, it’s important that
effect of water pressure. As you descend, water pressure you limit hyperventilation to no more than three or four
compresses the air in your lungs, raising the oxygen partial breaths.
pressure. This elevated PO2 allows your blood to use more of Cause of Gas Narcosis
the remaining oxygen within your lungs than would be Like many aspects of dive physiology, with narcosis we
possible at surface pressures. seem to know more about what happens than why. The exact
An involuntary response found in breathhold diving is a mechanism surrounding narcosis is not fully understood, but
predictable change in your heart rate. When you first take a we do know that almost any gas can cause anesthesia under
deep breath, tachycardia, or speeding up of the heart rate high partial pressures, including inert gases.
occurs, followed bradycardia, or slowing of the heart rate. Physicists describe nitrogen gas as a physiologically inert
Studies have also found arrhythmia (irregular heart beat) gas. This doesn’t mean that nitrogen is completely inert (it’s
during long breath-hold dives by trained free divers. not – it takes part in many chemical reactions), but that
The bradycardia response to apnea has sometimes been nitrogen gas doesn’t have any chemical reactions within your
called the mammalian diving reflex because it is found in body. None of the nitrogen you breathe is used to build protein
diving mammals such as whales, seals and porpoises. The or enzymes (that nitrogen comes from food).
diving reflex in humans is believed to have helped prevent Inert doesn’t mean there’s no effect. For example, when
deaths in near-drowning accidents of youths in water below nitrogen dissolves into your tissues during a dive, if it comes
10°C/50°F. out of solution too quickly upon ascent, it can form bubbles
In such incidents, near-drowning victims have recovered and cause decompression sickness (discussed in detail at the
with resuscitation, even after periods of 20 minutes or more end of this chapter). Dissolved in brain tissue, inert and non
without breathing and without apparent after effects. inert gases, including nitrogen, can act as an anesthetic. You
Physiologists don’t fully understand how or why the diving can compare narcosis while diving with another narcotic gas,
reflex works. They know that it is associated with cold nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide (sometimes called “laughing gas”)
moisture on the face, but in studies cold water does not always is a commonly used surgical anesthetic, particularly in
lead to longer breath-hold times. That cold water on the face dentistry, because it is narcotic at sea level. In high
seems to trigger the response explains why the diving reflex concentrations it causes euphoria, drunkenness and, in a very
has been noted less in warm-water near-drowning accidents. short time, unconsciousness. These effects are
It appears the diving reflex pools blood in the brain and pressure-related. If you double the pressure, you roughly
heart, distributing the limited oxygen supply only to critical double the effect.
areas. This may relate to rising carbon dioxide, which your The narcotic potential of a gas is approximately
body responds to by reducing blood flow to the extremities proportional to its solubility in lipids (fats). Using this
(peripheral vasoconstriction) and increasing it to the brain guideline, helium is only a fifth as narcotic as nitrogen, while

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10 Mostafa Ali Biegi and Elahe Abdoos: A Brief Review on PADI Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving

carbon dioxide is 20 times and oxygen is 1.6 times as narcotic [8] Ballard RD. Epilogue for Titanic. National Geographic, Vol.
as nitrogen. However, human tests show that you can’t 172, October 1987, page 454.
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An intriguing gas with respect to gas narcosis is oxygen. Press, London.
Deep dive tests (91 metres/300 feet) have shown that a blend
[10] Brylske, A., Brief History of Diving, Parts I and II. Dive
of four percent oxygen/96 percent nitrogen is more narcotic
Training Magazine. August & September 1994.
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[15] Cousteau, JY., Dugan, J., World Without Sun. Harper & Row,
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[22] Ellis, RE., The Book of Sharks. Alfred A. Knopf, New York,
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[24] Ellis, RE., Monsters of the Sea. Alfred A. Knopf, New York,
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