CHAPTER III Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer of Leeds,

CONCRETE AND OTHER CEMENTITIOUS England, describe a patented cementitious

MATERIALS product formed by heating a mixture of clay and
mixture of limestone to a temperature
Concrete sufficiently high to drive off carbon dioxide. The
In a construction material, the term portland was used because the appearance
properties of which maybe predetermined by of the mixed concrete resembled natural stones
design, selection of constituent materials, and in the Isle of Portland, Dorset County, England.
quality control. He calcined his raw materials only until the
carbonic acid was removed entirely. David Sayler
The constituent materials are: of Allentown, Pennsylvania, who was granted a
patent in US and credited with the manufacture
 Cement;
of cement in the United States. The first rotary
 Aggregates;
kiln for the manufacture of portland cement was
 Water;
erected in 1886 at Roundout, New York.
 Admixtures

Cement
Cement and Its Type
Is also called as hydraulic cement, is
finely pulverized material that develops its Portland cement was first manufactured
binding property as a result of its reaction with in the United States in the later part of 19 th
water. century, is produced by heating a carefully
controlled mixture of limestone and clay at a very
Hydrated lime [Ca(OH)₂] high temperature, and by grinding the resulting
product into powder. Most of the ingredients for
which is the product of reaction between
the manufacture of cement are found in nature.
quicklime (CaO), and water, is not stable in water
Like;
and is nonhydraulic, but it can slowly carbonate
in air (reaction with CO₂) to form a stable  Limestone;
product, limestone [CaCo₃].  Shale;
 Slate
Is also called as hydraulic cement, is finel
 Clay;
y pulverized material that develops its binding pr
 Chalk;
operty as a result of its reaction with water.
 Marl;
The product that results when quicklime  Silica sand;
is finely crushed, slaked with a minimum amount  Iron ore
of water, and then ground to form a fine
homogeneous powder; Each manufacturing plant may use a
different combination of raw materials, although
Is white in color and has a specific limestone and clay are the most common.
gravity of 2.08;
The primary constituents of raw
Is often added to portland cement materials in the manufacture of cement
mortars in varying proportions to increase their
plasticity and workability.  Lime;
 Silica;
Portland Cement  Alumina
Is used to described a hydraulic cement
produced by pulverizing clinkers consisting
essentially of hydraulic silicates.
Lime
Brief history of the manufacture of portland
is obtained from limestone and chalk.
cement
Silica and Alumina powder (particles less than 75µm in dia.) in ball
mills or a roller press.
are obtained from clays, shales, and
bauxite. The cement is then stored in storage
bins and bagged for shipment. In the United
Additional ingredients; States a bag of cement weighs 94lb (42.6kg) and
 Iron oxide; has a volume of about 1 ft³ when packed. These
 Magnesia; bags should be stored in a dry place on pallets,
 Sulfur trioxide; preferably covered with tarpaulins or similar
 Alkalies; water proof covering.
 Carbon dioxide. About 75% of cement is composed of:

Lime (CaO) and silica (SiO₂), make up 60  Calcium silicates;

and 20% of the ingredients of cement,  Compounds of aluminum (Al₂O₃);
respectively.  Iron (Fe₂O₃); and Gypsum (CaSO₄)

Iron oxide and aluminum oxide – 10% of The four major compounds of cement
the raw materials.
 Tricalcium silicate (C₃S);
Two basic processes in the manufacture of  Dicalcium silicate (C₂S);
portland cement  Tricalcium aluminate (C₃A);
Wet  Tetracalcium aluminum ferrite(C₄AF)

the mix in the form of a slurry containing Table 1

about 30 to 40% water is heated in horizontal
revolving kilns to about 2750ᴼF at which Cement Types and Uses
temperature oxides of calcium and silica are
combine to form clinkers. The rotation of the kiln (Table 1)
plus its shape allow the mix to flow down the kiln The eight types of cements:
and gradually increase in temperature.
1. Type I cement (standard portland cement)
Dry
is a general-purpose cement and the
the mix is fed into the kiln and burned in mostcommonly used portland cement. It is
the dry state. This provides considerable savings employed when special properties of any other
in fuel consumption and water usage but is types are not required. Contain more C3A.
dustier.
2. Type IA cement
In the kiln, water from the raw materials is
driven off and limestone is decomposed into lime is the air-entraining type I cement,
and carbon dioxide. These products then which is obtained by the addition of an
undergo a solid-state chemical reaction in the interground air- entrainment admixture.
burning-zone portion of the kiln which produces
calcium silicate and other compounds. These 3-Type II cement (modified portland cement)
products are greenish black in color, are in the is a general-purpose cement used when
form of pellets, called clinkers. moderate sulfate resistance or moderate heat of
The cement clinkers are hard, irregular hydration is desired. Have better resistance to
ball-shaped particles (about ¼ in. dia.). These are the action of sulfates and is used where sulfate
cooled (to about 150ᴼF) and stored in clinker concentration in groundwater is higher than
silos. normal but is not severe.

When needed, the clinkers are mixed Is used for mass concrete works,
with about 2% gypsum and then ground to a fine highway pavements, foundations, reservoirs
lining, high- rise buildings, piers, and massive to cement will remove the excess calcium
structures. hydroxide from the hydrated cement paste and
provide a more stable environment against
Type IIA cement deterioration.
is the air-entraining type II cement. Air-entraining cement in any type can be
5. Type III cement (high early strength used to obtain air-entrained concrete.
cement)

is for use when high early strength is (Table 2)

desired. Is made use:
Setting and Hydration
when the formwork is to be removed as
early as possible and the structure is to be Setting
brought into service quickly;
When cement is mixed with sufficient
Used in cold weather operation to water, in the beginning the paste losses its
decrease time needed to protect concrete from fluidity and within a few hours noticeable
freezing; stiffening results, this is called the initial set, and
this measured the ability of the paste to
Set and harden rapidly; withstand a certain arbitrary pressure.
The compressive strength in 24 hrs is Further buildup of hydration products is
equal to that of concrete made with type I cement followed by commencement of the hardening
after 3 days; process, responsible for the strength of concrete ,
contains more C3A. which is known as the final set.

6. Type IIIA cement The time from the addition of water to the initial
and final set are known as the initial setting time
is type III cement with an air-entraining and the final setting time.
admixture.
Hydration
7. Type IV cement (low-heat cement)
A chemical reaction between compounds
is for use when low heat of hydration is of cement and water yields products that achieve
desired. Is manufactured by limiting the amounts the binding property after hardening. This
of C3A and C3S to 7 and 35%, respectively. process of reaction is called hydration.
Suitable for very large structures, -concrete
dams. This type of cement is no longer A chemical reaction within a few hours
manufactured in the United States since its use of mixing the cement and water.
has been eliminated. Is the key for the strength development
8. Type V cement (sulfate-resistant cement) of concrete.

is required when sulfate-resistant Portland cement

concrete is needed. Is used where sulfate is a mixture of several compounds, all of
concentration is very high and in seawater. Is which can hydrate with water. But all compounds
commonly chosen for concrete construction in do not hydrate at the same rate, and as a
seawater, for sewage disposal site, and for other consequence, the rate of strength development is
special uses. This type of cement is somewhat a function of time and temperature.
resistant to the destructive action of organic
acids. Aluminate (C₃A)

The sulfate-resistance of concrete can be is the most reactive compound in cement

improved by adding pozzolans such as fly ash & hydrates at a much faster rate than do the
with ordinary cement. The addition of pozzolans silicates. The stiffening characteristics and
setting times are due largely to the hydration Heat of hydration
products involving aluminates. The addition of
gypsum to clinkers is to slow down the hydration Hydration is always accompanied by
of tricalcium aluminate. release of heat, in other words, the hydration
reaction of portland cement compounds are
The silicates exothermic.

play a dominant role in the hardening C₃A liberates the most heat; C₂S liberates the
process, which is responsible for the strength least, causes flash set when mixed with water
development. accompanied by the release of considerable heat.

The tricalcium silicate (C₃S) C₃S releases twice as much heat as does C₂S.

hardens rapidly & is largely responsible Type IV cement has low levels of C₃A & C₃S &
for the early strength development. thus generates less heat of hydration.

Dicalcium silicate (C₂S) In massive structures the heat evolved is

dissipated slowly that the temperature of the
hardens slowly & is responsible for structure shows a marked increase followed by
strength increase beyond 1 week. thermal expansion.
Tricalcium aluminate

also contributes to the early strength Uses of Concrete

development of concrete.
is used in a wide variety of application,
The rate of hydration of any cement depends on: ranging from piles to multistory buildings, and
 Relative proportions of silicates and from railroad ties to dams;
aluminates; Used in foundations, pavements,
 Fineness of cement; walkways, storage tanks, and many other
 Ambient temperature; structures;
 Humidity. Is one of the most economical materials
The calcium silicates (tricalcium & dicalcium), of construction and is very versatile in nature
constitute about 75% of the cement, react with and its application.
water to form two new compounds: Is used in building concrete dams,
aqueducts, pipes, canals, storage tanks, and
calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate foundation.
hydrate. Freshly made concrete is used for; shells,
folded plates, circular pipes, and arches.
The physical properties of the paste and
the mechanical properties of hardened concrete
shell structure
depend primarily on calcium silicate hydrate.
Is a thin-structural element used in a
This product occupies about 50 to 60% of the
building composed of curved sheets of materials
volume of solids in a completely hydrated paste.
dividing the interior space of the structure from
It is estimated that on complete its exterior. The shell elements are typically
hydration, 1 cm³ of cement occupies a volume of curved and assembled into a large structure. It is
2 cm³. (Note: the specific gravity of cement is made of reinforced concrete and serves both as a
3.25). structure and covering. Shell structures are self-
supporting and used to cover a large area of span
Thus, hydration can also be without any supports of beams, columns, and
conceptualized as a process during which the walls.
space previously occupied by cement and water
is being replaced more & more by the products of Important Properties of Concrete
reaction between the two.
 Strength;
  Durability (weather resistance) is the result of settlement of heavier particles and
 Wear resistance; can be looked upon as a form of segregation.
 Impermeability;
 Abrasion resistance; Workability
 Resistance to environmental attacks the ease with which a fresh concrete
mix can be handled from the mixer to the final
Not all of these properties are important for structure.
every applications, but most are.
The three primary characteristics of
For examples, the liquid-retaining workability:
structures such as storage tank or dam
(impermeability, resistance to chemical attacks 1. Consistency
from liquids, & weather resistance); for
2. mobility;
nonstructural applications, such as facades and
sign walls (thermal resistance, light weight, and 3. compactability.
pleasing appearance).
In a measure for some structures, such
Concrete derives its strength and as floor slabs, finishability is also a measure of
properties from those of aggregates , the type workability.
and quality of cement, and the mix proportions.
Consistency
It should be noted that the aggregates
themselves are not transformed in the concrete is a measure of concrete wetness or
mixture, and that the reaction between cement fluidity, which depends on the mix proportions
and water produces compounds that harden with and properties of the ingredients. It is generally
time and bond the individual aggregate particles. measured with a slump test (ASTM C143)

Properties of Concrete The test is also used to measure the

characteristics of workability. The slump or
The aggregates make up about 60 to slump test can only be used to measure changes
75% by volume of concrete and the paste in workability or for relative comparison of
constitutes about 25 to 40%. Of the cement paste, workability between different mixtures.
the volume of cement occupies about 25 to 45%,
and water makes up the balance. The slump test was developed by
Chapman in the United States in 1913. It consists
Fresh concrete also contains air, its of a metal slump cone having a bottom diameter
volume ranging from 2 to 8% of the volume of of 8 in. (200mm) and a top diameter of 4 in.
concrete. (100mm). The height of the cone is 12 in.
(300mm). The cone (whose inside surface is
The strength of the concrete depends on
dampened) is placed on a smooth, flat,
the strength of the aggregate particles and the
nonabsorbent surface and is filled with fresh
strength of the paste.
concrete while it is held firmly in place by
Fresh concrete does not possess any standing on the foot pieces.
strength.
The slumps depends on the ingredients,
Good concrete is concrete that has amount of mixing water, and addition of
acceptable qualities in the mixing stage as well as admixtures. The value of slump also changes with
in the solid state. temperature and time after mixing (owing to the
hydration process and the evaporation of water).
Properties of Fresh Concrete

Bleeding

is the movement and appearance of

water at the surface of freshly placed concrete. It
 to evaporation or through joints and in the sides
of the form. This process of separation of water
from the mix is bleeding.
The measured slump maybe used to
✓ Formation of fine cracks;
Causes:
estimate the change in water content necessary
to maintain uniformity from batch to batch. It ✓Over vibration, over troweling, and lean mixes
may also be used to indicate the changes in the increase the potential of bleeding;
grading or proportioning of aggregates. But ✔Premature finishing.
slump test (or measured slump) should not be
used to judge the quality or strength of concrete. Results:
■ Movement of water and finer particles to the
Another method of measuring top of the form and produces non homogeneous
consistency is Ball Penetration Test (ASTM mix.
C360). ☐ Loss of some entrained air and making the
concrete vulnerable to scaling.
Factors Affecting Consistency and
Workability SCALING - comprises the surface cracks and the
removal of surface layer in concrete produced by
Workability is relatively insensitive to the pressure generated when the water in
changes in cement content, but is heavily concrete pores freezes.
dependent with water content.
Control:
Workability decreases with increase in
- Air-entrainment;
the surface area of aggregates. -Increase in the fineness of cement and/or
Workability also depends on the rate of decrease in the water/cement ratio decreases in
hydration and the rate of loss of water through bleeding.
evaporation.
Beneficial:
-In finishing concrete;
-Helps in bringing soft materials to the surface of
Segregation concrete.

Defined as the tendency for separation

of large and fine particles in a fresh concrete mix. MIXING
Purpose:
Results in a non homogeneous mix that >To ensure that in the fresh concrete, each
affects the strength and durability of hardened particle of aggregate will be coated with the
concrete. cement paste.
The mixing will be carried out by:
Is one of the causes or pores or pockets
-Hand mixing,
and a honey combed surface. -Machine mixing.
mixture that are very wet and deficient
Batching:
in finer particles tend to segregate.
■ The process in mixing which involves
Air-entrainment decreases the tendency weighing out or measuring out all the ingredients
to segregate for a batch of
concrete.

Bleeding & Scaling Most concrete is now conveyed to the job site in
mixer. Concrete is sometimes mixed at the job
A concrete mix that does not possess the
site in a stationary mixer or a paving mixer.
proper consistency is unable to hold the mixing Concrete that is thoroughly mixed in a stationary
water, which is slowly displaced and then rises to mixer, called ready-mixed concrete or ready-
the top of the form. This water is either lost due
mixed, is delivered to the actual construction site In general, concrete should be placed in
either in a truck agitator or a nonagitating truck. horizontal layers of uniform thickness (of 6 to 20
in.), and each layer should be completely
A truck agitator - is a special truck mixer consolidated before placement of the next layer.
operating at agitating speeds and is used to
transport concrete for all uses, such as TOOLS
pavements, buildings, and foundations. 1. Ordinary square-pointed shovels -
2. Wheelbarrow-
A nonagitating truck- is used for short hauls. 3. Tamper -
. Strike board -
A truck mixer or transit mixer - is a special 5. Wood float -
truck used for both mixing and transporting 6. Steel (hand) float or trowel -
concrete to a job site over short and long hauls. 7. Darby & a bullfloat-
8. Groover -
When proper mixing is employed there is no 9. Edger -
difference between hand-mixed concrete and 10. Knee board -
machine-mixed concrete. But when the volume of
concrete is large, hand mixing does not produce a Types of finishes
uniform or homogeneous mixture. 1. Smooth finish –
2. Swirl float or trowel finish -
3. Broom finish
Pumping and Placing 4. Rock salt finish
Concrete is conveyed to the construction 5. Brush hammering
site in wheelbarrow, carts, belt conveyors, 6. Exposed aggregate finish
cranes, or chutes.

Concrete pump CURING

can be used to push the concrete to its The process of maintaining enough
final position. moisture in concrete to maintain the rate of
hydration during its early stages.
Concrete pumping
is the standard method of placement in Unless the concrete is cured properly, it
high-rise construction. will not achieve the desired properties, such as
compressive strength, water tightness, and
Today's pump have the capacity for a durability.
maximum vertical reach (in single lift) of 1400ft
or more and a volume of 170 yd³ per hour. Is a process in which evaporation loss
from newer concrete is minimized or
Concrete should be placed as near as compensated.
possible to its final position.

In slab construction, concrete should Methods of Curing

first be placed around the perimeter at one end The best method for curing is either by
with each batch dumped again previously placed ponding, fog spraying, or sprinkling with or
concrete. without the use of a cover such as burlap, and
plastic sheet.
In wall and beam construction, first
batch should be placed at both ends of the
section, and the concreting should progress
toward the center. 1. Ponding
When placing concrete in tall forms, is accomplished by building earth or
bleeding can be prevented by placing it slowly. sand dikes around the perimeter of the slab to
retain a pond of water within the enclosed area.
The free vertical drop of concrete at any
point during conveying should not exceed 3 ft. 2. Fog spraying or sprinkling
 should be in place to prevent the is used for enclosed cast-in-place
concrete from drying out between applications of structures, in a steam chamber or other
water. enclosures, such as tarpaulins to minimize
moisture and heat loss. The steam is applied at
3. Wet covering least 2 hours after final placement of
such as burlap & cotton mats are use concrete.
extensively for curing concrete. Moist so that a
film of water remains on the surface throughout 2. High-pressure steam curing in autoclave
the curing period. is utilized for small manufactured units.
Concrete cured using the above High temperature in the range 325 to 375°F.
techniques is called moist-cured or water- cured
concrete. Proper curing of concrete will improve
its quality and performance. Apart from being
4. Water curing stronger and more durable, the concrete is also
watering should be done 2-3 times a day. more resistant to traffic wear and less
permeable. In winter months no curing may be
Waterproof paper necessary since the rate of evaporation is very
(or plastic film, impervious sheeting) low in a cold, moist atmosphere.
should be applied as soon as the concrete has
hardened and after the concrete has been Effects of Temperature
thoroughly wetted. The sheeting should lay -Atmospheric conditions - relative humidity and
directly on the concrete surface and overlapping temperature;
edges should be a minimum of 12 in. This -Type of work;
method of curing has the important advantage -Characteristics of concrete;
that periodic additions of water are not required -Expected strength.

5. Liquid curing compounds or liquid The longer the curing period, the greater
membrane is its final strength. Concrete kept moist under
forming compounds (also called seal normal curing conditions will develop about 75%
coats) - are used most often because of their of its final strength in about 28 days. In the
versatility, ease of application, convenience, and majority of construction, concrete is kept
economy. These compounds are relatively continuously moist for a minimum of 7 days after
inexpensive and provide an effective means of casting.
preventing evaporation from flat slabs and
pavements, assuming that they are applied as Properties of Hardened Concrete
soon as the concrete is finished. -Strength;
The curing compounds are generally -Modulus of elasticity;
applied by either brushing, rolling, or spraying. -Durability;
-Creep;
6. Steam curing -Shrinkage;
hydration rate is increased by supplying -Watertightness or impermeability.
steam, generally under pressure.
An increase in the quantity of cement will
Precast concrete sections and concrete increase the compressive strength.
masonry blocks can reach 70% of their normal
28-day strength when subjected to properly
controlled wet steam curing (at about 150°F or
65.5°C) for about 15 hours.
Properties of hardened concrete depend on:
Full 28-day compressive strength can be -Mix proportion;
achieved by steam curing for 24 hours. -Curing conditions;
- Environment.
Two methods of steam curing are employed
for early strength development: 1. Compressive strength - concrete have a comp
1. Curing in live steam at atmospheric ressive strength as high as 12,000 psi (82.7MPa).
pressure
In ordinary construction, a strength range 3000 t The compressive strength thus determin
o 6000 psi 920.7 to 41.4 MPa). ed is found to depend on the size of the specimen,
the shape of the specimen, and the moisture cond
The following affects the compressive strengt ition. The greater the ratio of height to diameter,
h: ■ the lower is the measured compressive strength.
-Amount of cement;
-Amount of water; A 4 in. dia. Cylinder (8 in. in height)) exhi
-Types of ingredients bits approximately 5% higher strength than does
-Mix proportions; a 6 in. dia. Cylinder (12 in. in height).
- Curing;
-Temperature; The moisture content of specimens affec
-Age; ts the compressive strength. Air-dried specimens
(at the time of testing) are shown to possess mor
e compressive strength than that of saturated spe
cimens, on the order of 20 to 25%.
Size and shape of specimen;
-Test conditions.
The strength is also affected by the spee
-Types and size of coarse aggregate.
d of testing-a slower rate will show a lower stren
gth. In the laboratory the rate of loading is adjust
Water/Cement ratio
ed so that failure takes place within 2 to 3 minute
is the important property in the design
s.
of concrete mixture, means that when the cement
content is maintained constant and the amount o
TENSILE STRENGTH
f mixing water is increased the strength decrease
Is important to resist cracking from shri
s.
nkage and temperature changes.
Voids
Direct tensile strength measurement are
increase in water content increases the
difficult and are not usually done. It is common p
voids in concrete, which decreases the durability,
ractice to assess tensile strength using either the
watertightness, and of course the compressive st
flexural or split cylinder test.
rength.

Curing & air entrainment

strength of concrete increases with age
1313
and curing.
Split cylinder test (ASTM C496), the cy
lindrical specimen (placed with its axis horizonta
Compression test
l) is subjected to a line load (uniform) along the l
in the United States, the compressive str
ength of the specimen. Using the load at which th
ength of concrete is determined from compressio
e specimen splits into two, P, the tensile strength
n tests on cylindrical specimens (uniaxial compre
ft
ssion test, ASTM C469). After 24 hours the speci
men are taken out of the molds and moist cured f
or 28 days.

At the end of the curing period they are capped a

nd tested in a moist condition. The failure load di
Where I is the length of the cylinder and d is the
vided by the cross-sectional area is called 28-day
diameter of the cylinder.
cylinder compressive strength (f'.).
Flexural strength
is the most common procedure used to
measure the tensile strength of concrete. In this t
est a beam with span equal to three times its dept
h is subjected to third-point loading (ASTM C78).
Where P is the failure load and d is the di
This results in tensile stresses at the bottom and
ameter of the cylinder.
compressive stresses at the top of the beam. Sinc
e concrete is weaker in tension, the specimen fail
s with a flexural crack near the section of maximu The amount of plastic shrinkage depends on:
m moment. The failure load is used to determine - Type of cement;
the tensile strength, called the modulus of ruptur -Water/cement ratio;
e (MOR), with the help of the bending equation. -Quantity and size of coarse aggregate;
-Consistency of the mix.
Bending stress = Mc/I
Dry shrinkage
Where M is the maximum moment. I the is attributed to the loss of water from
moment of inertia, and the distance from the neu cement gel, and can be large as 1500 x 10-6.
tral axis to the extreme fiber in tension.
is gradual, the rate of shrinkage
For a rectangular sections of width b and decreases with time. About 40 to 80% of 20-year
depth d. the bending stress or modulus of ruptur shrinkage occurs within 3 months. At the end one
e in a third-point loading specimen, is year, the rate of shrinkage drops down to nearly
Modulus of rupture (MOR)=Pl/bd2 one-half the initial value.

where I is the span length & P is the failu Depends on type of cement, amount of
re Load. cement, mix proportions, size & shape of
structure, curing, environmental conditions, and
The modulus of rupture is affected by reinforcements.
the water/cement ratio, the age at test, and the
curing. Can be minimized by keeping the water
per unit volume of concrete as low as possible
SHRINKAGE (or by keeping the aggregate content as high as
Concrete has the greatest volume at the possible).
time of mixing or when it is placed in forms.
Following the setting, the concrete slowly Curing lowers the shrinkage. High-
decreases in volume or shrinks. pressure steam-cured samples are found to
shrink less than normally cured samples.
Shrinkage or volume reduction in concrete
is the result of settlement of solids and CONTRACTION and CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
the loss of water.
Most structures have restraint to
When concrete is still plastic, aggregate shrinkage from reinforcement, soil, foundations,
particles settle down, displacing water and air to or other members which will lead to cracking.
the top. With help from the environment, the
water on the surface gets evaporated. Both of Construction joints
these processes - settlement of solids and shrinkage cracks generally
evaporation of water from the fresh mix - result accommodated in large structures by forming
in shrinkage of wet concrete. This reduction in surface grooves every 10 ft or less.
volume in plastic concrete (before the concrete
sets) is called plastic shrinkage. These joints (also called dummy joints or
control joints) are meant to direct cracks to the
Shrinkage that is due to drying of location of grooves.
hardened concrete is called drying shrinkage.

Plastic shrinkage is more common in

slabs and pavements, as the large surface area
contributes to high evaporation loss. Hot weather
conditions increase the plastic shrinkage due to
excessive evaporation loss.

A large amount of plastic shrinkage will

result in premature cracking (before the surface
hardens) and will affect concrete durability.
 Creep occurs under all types of loading:
compression, tension, or torsion. About 50% of 1
year creep occurs within 3 to 4 weeks after
loading.

Without these joints the concrete will crack. Creep deformation is proportional to the
applied stress level. It is made up of two
Control joints components.
are provided in large structures such as Reversible creep
sidewalks, floor slabs, driveways, and walls. part of creep deformation can be
- in walls, may be spaced every 20ft. recovered.

They can be made by: Irreversible creep

Tooling, forming, scoring, or sawing. part that has become permanent.

Forming CARBONATION
can be accomplished by placing wood Is the term used to explain the reaction
strips or premolded joints material at the joint between concrete and carbon dioxide from the
location which acts to separate the element on air (which is heavier than air and concentrates
two sides of the joint. on the surface) to create calcium carbonates.
The chemical reaction reduces the
In reinforced concrete slab construction, concrete quality and the ability of concrete to
half the horizontal bars (alternatively) should be protect reinforcement from corrosion and results
cut at the joints. in additional shrinkage.

Construction joints
(also called isolation joints, expansion 1.3 1.3
joints, or bonded joints) Dare joints provided to 128
separate a slab from other parts of a structure >Starts at the surface and slowly penetrates the
(such as beams and columns) so as to prevent the concrete. Poor quality concrete suffers
bonding & permit horizontal & vertical carbonation earlier and deeper.
movement. >Causes no serious problem but results in a soft
surface, dusting, and color change.
Are also used at stopping places (when
two successive placements of lifts of concrete DURABILITY
meet) when concreting large areas. Concrete can deteriorate primarily for three
causes:
CREEP -Alkali-aggregate reaction;
The increase in strain or deformation -Freeze-thaw cycle;
with time. -Sulfate attack.
When subjected to an external load,
concrete deforms elastically, but when this All three factors may occur
loading continues, the deformation increases simultaneously in a concrete structure, leading to
with time, which is the creep component of net expansion and development of cracks.
deformation.
The time-dependent increase in strain Freeze-thaw
resulting from stresses. the process by which water that is
Is the component of deformation that stored in voids in concrete expands as a result of
follows the elastic deformation. freezing temperature, consequently the concrete
cracks and deteriorates. Entrained air and a low
Generally, aggregates do not creep, and water/cement ratio will improve the freeze-thaw
creep in concrete can be attributed to the cement resistance of concrete.
paste. However, aggregate particles restrain
creep deformation and result in creep stresses. Sulfate attack
 sulfates in the soil and seawater react detrimental to its performance. To impart
with aluminates in cement to produce ductility to the structure, concrete is very
compounds that has greater volume. commonly used in combination with materials
that possess high tensile or flexural strength.
Causes expansion and cracking in
concrete. Can be minimized by using cement that Plain concrete is rarely used for
is low in tricalcium aluminate. structural purposes.

Mix Design
The objective of the mix design is to Structural concrete
determine the proportions of ingredients to made ductile through coalition with
produce concrete that is durable and of required high-moduli materials.
strength properties at minimum cost.
Common types of structural concrete:
Admixtures 1. Reinforced concrete
Is a material added to plastic concrete is a composite material made by
or mortar, other that water, aggregates, cement, combining concrete and reinforcing steel.
and fiber, to change one or more properties of
fresh or hardened concrete. Today reinforcing steel is manufactured to meet
the requirements of four ASTM standards:
Mineral admixture -A615 (deformed and plain billet steel bars)
natural pozzolanic materials and -A616(rail steel, deformed and plain bars
industrial by-products such as fly ash, and slag. -A617 ( axle steel, plain and deformed bars)
-A706 (low-alloy steel bars)
Factors which depends on the effectiveness of an
admixture:
-Mix proportions; 2. Prestressed and precast concrete
-Type & size of aggregates; Prestressing refers to applying a preload
-Ambient temperature; on a structure or structural element before the
-Type; application of design loads.
-Brand & amount of admixtures;
-Type of cement. Prestressed concrete
is a structural composite material made
It is introduced into the mixture immediately with ordinary concrete and high strength steel
before or after the mixing. ( prestressing steel) subjected to a pretensile
force.
Functions: Is used in various types of construction,
-Increase the plasticity of the mix; such as bridges, parking garages, foundation
-accelerate the strength development; slabs, liquid storage tanks, and high-rise building.
-Reduce the heat of hydration.

2. Fiber-reinforced concrete
Divided into two groups: is concrete containing discontinuous
Chemical admixture discrete fibers. Ordinary concrete contains
number of chemicals available in the numerous microcracks, which are responsible for
market, added in very small quantities to the its low tensile strength. Fiber- reinforced
mixture to develop special properties in fresh or concrete offers a solution to this problem of
hardened concrete. cracking by making concrete tougher and more
durable.
Types of concrete
Ordinary concrete possesses good Steel fibers
compressive strength but exhibits weaker are being used since their development
characteristics when subjected to tension, in the 1960s to increase the toughness, impact
flexure, or shear. In addition, concrete suffers resistance, and flexural strength of concrete.
from shrinkage, creep, and thermal expansion
and contraction, which produce cracks that are Steel-fiber reinforced concrete
 is employed in airport pavements,
bridge decks, industrial floors, hydraulic 3. Grout
structures, and shotcrete application. is a mixture of cement (or cement plus
lime), fine aggregate, pea gravel (or finer coarse
Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) aggregate, 10mm maximum), and water and
is concrete made primarily of hydraulic having consistency for pouring without
cements, aggregates, and discrete reinforcing segregation.
fibers. Fibers suitable for reinforcing concrete
have been produced from steel, glass, and The term grout is derived from the
organic polymers (synthetic fibers). Swedish term groot, which means porridge.

4. Shotcrete
3. Lightweight concrete (also called gunite or pneumatically
a) is concrete with an air- dried unit applied mortar or concrete) refers to mortar or
weight not exceeding 115 pcf. concrete shot into place using compressed air.
The procedure is carried out using one of two
OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS methods;
A number of construction materials, -Dry mix process
including concrete, are manufactured using -Wet mix process
portland cement as a basic ingredient. Plaster
(stucco), grout, and shotcrete are made using 5. Soil cement
cement and various types of aggregates. Cement is also used to stabilize
foundation soil (in pavement, buildings, slopes,
Properties: etc.)
1. Stucco - is a common construction material
used as plaster on wood and masonry walls. This Cement stabilized soil (also called soil
finish material, which is a mixture of cement, stabilization, cement treated aggregates, rammed
sand, and water, serves two functions. earth, and soil cement) is produced by mixing
and compacting a mixture of water, soil, and
portland cement. The mixture is then allowed to
cure for a time period.
-Appearances
- Protection 6. Pervious concrete and cement-bonded
particle board
2. Mortar (or masonry mortar) is made with little or no fine aggregates,
is a mixture of cement, lime, fine is used for pavement to allow rain penetration
aggregate, and water. through the pavement.
7. Cement-bonded particleboard
Two types of masonry mortar: is a panel material manufactured with
-Lime mortar cement, wood fibers, and very little water
-Portland cement-lime mortar
 Compound Chemical Formula Industry Percent Rate of
code Amount reaction
(Abrev.) (range) with water

Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO₂ C₃S 35-65 Medium

Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO₂ C₂S 15-40 Slow

Tricalcium aluminate 3Cao.Al₂O₃ C₃A 0-15 Fast

Tetracalcium 1C₂O.Al₂O₃.Fe₂O₃ C₄AF 6-20 Medium

aluminum ferrite

Standard chemical requirements

Cement types C₃S C₂S C₃A C₄AF+2CA Uses

(max.) (min.) (max.) (max.)

I and IA General use: when special

properties are not
required

II and IIA 8 General use: has moderate

sulfate resistance and heat
of hydration

III and IIIA 15 When high early strength

is required

IV 35 40 - When low heat of

hydration is required

V 5 25 When high sulfate

resistance is required