RSC Advances

REVIEW

Bismuth-based nanoparticles and nanocomposites:

Cite this: RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523
synthesis and applications
Sujit Kumar,aj M. Premkumar,aj Jayant Giri, *bcd S. M. Mozammil Hasnain, e

Rustem Zairov, *fg Jundao Wu f and Zeai Huang hi

In the vast landscape of materials science, bismuth emerges as a compelling element with unique properties
and diverse applications. Its intriguing characteristics and advancements in nanotechnology have propelled
bismuth-based nanoparticles to the forefront of scientific exploration, promising breakthroughs in various
disciplines. This comprehensive review explores diverse methods for synthesizing bismuth-based
nanoparticles and nanocomposites, ranging from conventional approaches such as hydrothermal and
sol–gel to innovative techniques such as microwave-assisted, microemulsion, and green synthesis. The
latter includes unique processes such as laser ablation, chemical vapor deposition methods, combustion
as well as surface-mediated and bacterium-based synthesis. Each method's strengths, weaknesses, and
specifications are critically examined. Further, the review delves into the adaptable applications of
bismuth-based nanoparticles and nanocomposites, emphasizing their antibacterial activity, contribution
Received 3rd August 2024
Accepted 24th October 2024
to photovoltaic studies, potential in supercapacitors, and efficacy in photocatalytic degradations of
various organic dyes. The objective of this review is to present a thorough summary of the synthesis
DOI: 10.1039/d4ra05637j
methodologies and applications of bismuth-based nanoparticles and nanocomposites, offering valuable
rsc.li/rsc-advances insights for researchers and professionals engaged in the burgeoning field of nanoparticles.

phosphides, and halides).1 Bismuth, a metalloid, adopts

1. Introduction a rhombohedral lattice with a two-atom unit cell structure.2
Photocatalysis employs visible-light-responsive catalysts (e.g., Bismuth, initially mistaken for lead and tin, was differentiated
TiO2, ZnO, ZnS, CdS, and BiVO4, and g-C3N4) for eco-friendly by Claude François Geoffroy in 1753 and later utilized in an
pollutant removal and solar-driven energy production, 1860s London Stock Exchange scam falsely promising its
including diverse semi-conductors (metal selenides, conversion into silver.3 Bismuth's relative crustal abundance is
0.008 ppm. It is found in ores such as bismuthinite and bismite
a
as well as in native form, which is non-toxic and non-
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dayananda Sagar College of
carcinogenic.4
Engineering, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. E-mail: [email protected];
[email protected] Bismuth's band structure was determined through multiple
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, experiments, with their limited inuence on expected
Nagpur, India. E-mail: [email protected] outcomes.5 Transformative nanostructures, bridging atomic
c
Division of Research and Development, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, and bulk scales at a high surface-to-volume ratio, drive diverse
India applications through manipulation and integration of novel
d
Department of VLSI Microelectronics, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha
attributes.6 “Nano”, which is Latin and Greek for “dwarf”,
Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Saveetha University, Chennai
602105, TN, India
represents a 10−9 scale, driving transformative nanotechnology
e
Marwadi University Research Center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty with unique materials impacting diverse elds.6 Nanotech-
of Engineering & Technology, Marwadi University, Rajkot, 360003, Gujarat, India. nology involves exploring and advancing substances, structures,
E-mail: [email protected] and apparatuses at the molecular or atomic level, oen centered
f
Aleksander Butlerov Institute of Chemistry, Kazan Federal University, 1/29 on matter around 100 nm in size.7 Nanotechnology produces
Lobachevskogo Str., Kazan 420008, Russian Federation. E-mail: [email protected]
g
novel nanomaterials with distinct properties via atom-level
Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientic Center of
manipulation, which are applicable across electronics, energy,
RAS, Arbuzov str., 8, 420088 Kazan, Russian Federation
h
State Key Laboratory of Oil and Gas Reservoir Geology and Exploitation, Southwest
healthcare, and other elds, and are driven by a high surface-to-
Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China volume ratio and quantum phenomena.8 Nanotechnology
i
School of New Energy and Materials, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu revolutionizes the food industry by enhancing packaging, shelf
610500, China. E-mail: [email protected] life, impurity detection, and additive integration while
j
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Visvesvaraya Technological preserving taste neutrality.9 Nanotechnology in medicine
University, Belagavi, Karnataka, India

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 | 39523
RSC Advances Review

utilizes nanoparticles for disease detection/treatment, gas, and alcohols for cost-effective metal salt reduction.27
including drug/gene therapy, cancer treatment, MRI contrast Stabilizing agents regulate nanoparticle features based on their
agents, tissue regeneration, and pathogen identication.10 organic, inorganic, or biomolecular nature, encompassing
Nanotechnology enables small, fast, high-storage, low-power morphology, aggregation, and properties.28
devices such as smart cards, digital cameras, liquid crystals, The solvothermal method includes dissolving precursor
LEDs, and nano-transistors.11 Nanotechnology improves metals in a solvent inside an enclosed system and exposing
renewable energy utilizing nanomaterials for increased effi- them to elevated temperature and pressure conditions.29
ciency, corrosion resistance, and lowered fuel consumption.12 Hydrothermal single-crystal growth utilizes a pressurized
Nanotechnology employs nanoparticles to detect and eliminate autoclave with hot water and a nutrient to dissolve minerals at
environmental contaminants, enhancing environmental high pressure, enabling crystal growth on the cooler side.30
protection.13 Nanomaterials have proven valuable in treating Hydrothermal synthesis utilizes water as a solvent to create
wastewater, thus effectively addressing carbon-based dyes, nanomaterials, with reaction conditions and starting material
nitrates, cations, heavy metals, natural organic matter, and characteristics inuencing the resulting properties.31 The sol–
viruses.14 Sub-100 nm nanoparticles display diverse benets, gel process combines liquid precursors, hydrolysis, poly-
including improved solar cell absorption, stronger polymer condensation, and gel formation to produce transparent sols,
composites, tunable properties, and versatile industrial which transform into gel networks and yield nanoparticles
applications.14 upon thermal treatment.32 Co-precipitation is a popular tech-
Zinc oxide nanoparticles serve multiple purposes, such as nique for producing metal oxide nanoparticles, with reagent
blocking UV rays, acting as antimicrobial agents, functioning as concentration, pH, and heating inuencing particle character-
sensors, and improving food packaging capabilities.15 Titanium istics.32 Treatment of homogeneous solutions of raw material
dioxide nanoparticles exhibit properties that enable self- chlorides/nitrates in solvents with NaOH/NH4OH base results
cleaning, photocatalysis, cosmetic enhancement, and water in precipitates that, aer salt washing and heating, lead to the
purication uses, exhibiting size-dependent properties among production process of metal oxide NPs.29 The microemulsion
four material types.16 Rare-earth (RE) element-doped inorganic method involves water and oil phases separated by a surfactant
matrix nanocrystals, or nano phosphors, have garnered noto- to create nanoemulsions with controlled droplet sizes through
riety owing to their capacity to create translucent; thin coatings precise oil/surfactant ratio adjustment via room temperature
that are helpful in optoelectronics, security, and labeling.17 It stirring.33 CVD is a versatile technique involving gaseous reac-
was shown that when exposed to visible light, the BFO/TiO2-NTs tants undergoing surface reactions on a substrate, resulting in
composites (formed on a Ti sheet) displayed much higher solid deposits through heterogeneous reactions while elimi-
photo-conversion effectiveness than the TiO2-NTs/Ti electrodes nating by-products via diffusion.34 The melt mixing method
that were not changed.18 utilizes elevated temperature and shear stress to uniformly
Carbon-based nanomaterials, such as nanotubes, fullerenes, disperse metal nanoparticles in a polymer matrix above its Tg,
graphene, and nanobers, are produced using arc discharge, creating thermoplastic polymer-based nanocomposites.35 High-
chemical vapor deposition, and laser ablation.19 Exceptional energy ball milling involves ball collisions in a mill to generate
carbon-based nanomaterials exhibit widespread industrial energy for synthesizing oxide nanoparticles, particularly in
utility owing to their remarkable mechanical, optical, electrical, difficult materials, such as nickel-based superalloys.36 Biosyn-
and thermal properties.20 Inorganic nanomaterials encompass thesis utilizes viruses, bacteria, plant extracts, and fungi for eco-
metal, metal oxide, and semiconductor nanoparticles.21 Devel- friendly nanoparticle preparation, differing from toxic chemical
oping new synthetic pathways using diverse solvents is vital for methods.37 Efficiently produces eco-friendly nanoparticles at
creating unique inorganic nanomaterials with applications scale with precise attributes, minimizing pollution.38 Green
beyond traditional options while considering advantages and chemistry-based nanomaterial synthesis employs safe capping
limitations.22 agents and eco-friendly solvents and eliminates hazardous
Organic nanoparticles, 10 nm to 1 mm in size, comprising reducing agents for sustainable and safe production.39
polymers and lipids, have substantial high-tech application Plant extract-enabled nanoparticle preparation: a single-
value although they are oen overshadowed by inorganic step, rapid, safe, and cost-effective synthesis that utilizes
counterparts, such as gold and quantum dots.23 Organic and diverse plant metabolites as reductants and stabilizers.40 Algae
inorganic nanomaterials undergo noncovalent interactions to and fruit waste can synthesize metal nanoparticles using algal
achieve desired structures, such as micelles, polymers, den- biomolecules as capping agents, yet toxicity concerns arise,
drimers, and liposomal nanoparticles.24 Composite nano- while fruit waste allows for direct metal oxide nanoparticle
materials are intricate multiphase nanoparticles that merge preparation.41 Nanocomposites feature nano-sized particles for
diverse materials for versatile applications.25 Precisely engi- enhanced reinforcement and dispersion within the matrix
neered composite nanomaterials exhibit immense technolog- compared to conventional composites.42
ical potential as sensors, lm modiers, semiconductor–metal Nanocomposites synergize continuous matrices and
junctions, and catalysts, capitalizing on their unique nanoscale discontinuous reinforcements for heightened optical,
properties.26 Synthetic nanoparticle manufacturing employs mechanical, and thermal conductivities.43 Natural nano-
chemical, physical, and biological methods with chemical composites combine polymers with other components in
reduction utilizing agents, such as NaBH4, N2H4, H2 gas, B2H6, structures, such as bones and shells, while synthetic polymer

39524 | RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
Review RSC Advances

nanocomposites exhibit inferior strength and modulus continuously to produce a uniform solution. The mixture was
compared to metal and ceramic counterparts.44 Polymer nano- then placed in a Teon-lined autoclave and heated to 150 °C for
composites optimize mechanical properties through diverse nine hours. During this procedure, the precursors were hydro-
nanoparticles, compositions, exibility, temperature modula- lyzed, and cobalt-doped bismuth oxide nanoparticles were
tion, and eco-friendly strength, making them ideal for car formed by nucleation. Aer hydrothermal treatment, the
parts.45 generated nanoparticles were collected by centrifugation, and
Nanoscale Bi-based photocatalysts show potential for water any leover impurities were repeatedly washed with ethanol
and air toxin removal via visible-light activation, demanding and deionized water. Then, the nanoparticles were dried at 80 °
optimization in electron–hole utilization through morphology, C for a few hours. The generated nanoparticles were examined
heterojunctions, and surface modications; TiO2 is a well- using several techniques, such as UV-visible spectroscopy, FTIR
explored benchmark.46 Bi nanomaterials are photocatalysts spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray diffrac-
due to their appropriate energy band structure, chemical tion. XRD measurements revealed the formation of cobalt-
stability, and eco-friendliness.47 Bi exhibits signicant metallic doped bismuth oxide nanoparticles with a crystalline struc-
properties due to its lower effective mass, higher Fermi surface, ture. SEM and XRD analyses showed that the generated NPs
and semiconductor transition ability.48 Bismuth oxide (Bi2O3), were sphere-shaped and averaged 20–30 nm in size (Fig. 1).57
when combined with TiO2 in composites, exhibits enhanced
visible-light photocatalytic efficiency compared to individual 2.2 Sol–gel approach synthesis of bismuth nanoparticles
use, nding application in various elds.49 Bi2O3 demonstrates
The primary processes in the sol–gel technique are the hydro-
p-type semiconductor characteristics; the valence band edges
lysis of precursors for metal–organic compounds, such as
are positioned around +0.131, while the conduction band edges
alkoxysilane,58 to yield the appropriate oxo hydroxide and then
are at approximately +0.334.50 Bi2O3 demonstrates p-type
condensed to create a network of the metal hydroxide. A thick
semiconductor characteristics, and the locations of the
porous gel is produced by the polymerization of hydroxide,
valence band and conduction band edges are identied at
which may then be dried and heated to form ultrane porous
around +0.131 and +0.334 (relative to the normal hydrogen
oxides in the necessary crystal phase.31 When exposed to visible
electrode), respectively.51 The evaluation encompassed their
light, most bio-based systems have been shown to be highly
effectiveness in visible-light photocatalysis and their potential
photostable in removing dangerous pollutants from wastewater
for reuse.
and water.59 Numerous metal oxide nanoparticles have been
produced using this technique, such as TiO2,60 zinc oxide,61
2. Synthesis of bismuth oxide magnesium oxide,62 CuO,63 ZrO2 and Nb2O5,64 and nano-
nanoparticles composites, such as LiCo2 thin lm,65 Cu decorated ZnO
nanoparticles,66 CuO/Cu2O nano composites,67 Ce-doped
The three chemical methods for making nano-bismuth oxide ZrO2,68 oxides of Hf, Ta, and Nb.69 Mallahi M. et al. published
are the sol–gel approach, hydrothermal technique, and a paper titled “Synthesis and characterization of bismuth oxide
combustion technique.52–54 nanoparticles via sol–gel technique.”70 According to AJER 3.4
(2014): 162–165, the bismuth nitrate and citric acid used to
2.1 Hydrothermal approach for the synthesis of bismuth generate Bi2O3 were of AR grade, and bismuth oxide was
nanoparticles synthesized using the sol–gel technique. A known amount of Bi
(NO3)3$5H2O was combined with citric acid in a 1 : 1 molar ratio
The hydrothermal approach is a viable alternative synthetic
aer being dissolved in a nitric acid solution. A tiny quantity of
method due to the low temperature needed for the process and
PEG600 was used as a surfactant to stop agglomeration. The
the ease of controlling particle size.55 Compared to other growth
solution's pH decreased to 3. Aer two hours of stirring the
techniques, the hydrothermal approach has many benets,
solution above, a sol developed. Aer three hours at 80 °C, the
such as employing less complex equipment, lacking a catalyst
sol solution solidied into a yellowish gel. A temperature of
throughout development, cheaper cost, large-area uniform
120 °C was used to break down this gel. A frothy forerunner was
output, eco-benign, and lower hazard. Because of the low
rst produced when the gel began to grow and ll the beaker.
reaction temperatures needed, this method is appealing for use
Every particle size in this foam is uniform, with relatively small
in microelectronics and plastic electronics. Bismuth oxide and
akes (Fig. 2).
other brilliant chemicals have also been successfully synthe-
sized at the nanoscale using this approach. By manipulating the
reaction's temperature, time, and precursor concentration, the 2.3 Bismuth nanoparticle production using a microwave-
hydrothermal process permits control over the properties of the assisted approach
particles, such as their size and form.56 The hydrothermal Due to its minimal energy and time requirements, this
method for creating cobalt-doped bismuth oxide nanoparticles approach is gaining popularity.71 The primary benet of this
is briey explained here. Initially, the beginning materials for technique is that it may shorten response times from hours to
the synthesis were sodium hydroxide [NaOH], cobalt nitrate minutes while maintaining particle size integrity. Two different
[Co(NO3)2$6H2O], and bismuth nitrate pentahydrate [Bi(NO3)3- routes of bismuth oxide preparation were studied. There are two
$5H2O]. They were dissolved in deionized water and stirred steps in the rst one. The rst stage involved precipitating

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 | 39525
RSC Advances Review

Fig. 1 Hydrothermal synthesis of cobalt-doped bismuth oxide nanoparticles.

bismuth nitrate with a 1 M NH4OH solution to create bismuth bismuth nitrate (2.0 M), and polyethylene glycol (PEG 4000–0.05
hydroxide, aer separating and cleaning the precipitated M) were combined in molar ratios of 0.12, 0.44, and 0.002,
bismuth hydroxide with water to neutralize pH. In the second respectively. Aer mixing the reactants, the suspensions
phase, ammonium hydroxide or nitric acid was used to reduce produced were put in the microwave reactor and treated at
the pH of the bismuth hydroxides to a value between 6 and 12. temperatures ranging from 40 to 60 °C, either with or without
Suspensions were hydrothermally changed at 100–220 °C under stirring. Centrifugation was used for product separation, fol-
a microwave eld. A microwave reactor with a maximum output lowed by water washing to a neutral pH and 110 °C drying
of 1400 W and a frequency of 2.45 GHz was employed for the (Fig. 3).72
tests. The second synthesis method examined the impact of the
chelating agent (polyethylene glycol) on product precipitation. 2.4 Microemulsion method for the synthesis of Bi-NPs
Aer cooling to a temperature below 100 °C, aqueous solutions
Using a microemulsion technique, Fang et al.73 synthesized
of reactants made by dissolving sodium hydroxide (4.0 M),
bismuth oxide. An 8 : 1 weight ratio pre-mixing of surfactants

Fig. 2 Sol–gel method for the synthesis of bismuth oxide nanoparticles.

39526 | RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
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Fig. 3 Synthesis of bismuth oxide nanoparticles using a microwave-assisted approach.

NP5 and NP9 was done. Next, an inverse microemulsion system metal oxides, such as ZnO,84 NiO,85 SnO2,86 ZrO2,87 iron-oxide,88
was created, comprising 60.30 weight percent petroleum ether, Al2O3,89 Au–SnO2 (ref. 90) and Cu/Cu2O.91 Two parameters may
28.20 weight percent mixed surfactant (NP5 + NP9), and 11.50 be manipulated to inuence the size of the nanoparticles: the
weight percent aqueous solution of 0.50 M NaBH4 in 1.00 M composition of the liquid medium and the uence of the
NH3$H2O. Concurrently, another ternary system comprising laser.92,93 A. Ismail et al.94 developed a laser ablation method to
60.30 weight percent petroleum ether, 28.20 weight percent produce bismuth oxide. First, they xed a 99.99 percent pure
mixed surfactant (NP5 + NP9), and 11.50 weight percent bismuth target to the plastic vessel's bottom. Throughout the
aqueous solution of 0.10 M bismuth(III) citrate in 1.00 M pulsed ablation in liquid (PLAL) process, they avoided the
NH3$H2O was also created. Next, while vigorously swirling, the formation of undesired precipitates of the synthesized products
bi-containing system was titrated into the microemulsion using pure water as a liquid accumulation at the electrode and
system at a speed of thirty drops per minute. Aer being sepa- in the solution. UV-vis spectrometers are used to study the
rated by high-speed centrifugation, the resultant nano-bismuth optical characteristics of bismuth oxide nanoparticles. Using
powder was nally recovered by centrifugal recovery, vacuum a diffractometer and Cu Ka radiation, the Bi2O3 NPs' XRD (X-ray
drying, and repeated washing away of the oil and surfactant diffraction) is studied. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is used to
with ethanol. Every procedure listed above was carried out in examine the morphology of the materials. EDX (energy disper-
a glove box in a nitrogen environment. This technique also sive X-ray) is employed to assess the bulk atomic composition of
synthesizes nanocomposites, such as cerium oxide nano- the nanoparticles, while eld emission-SEM is utilized for
particles,74 NiO,75 Fe3O2,76 TiO2,77 ZnO,78 CuO,79 BaAlO2,80 and research on morphology. A few colloidal droplets are deposited
iron-oxide-doped alumina nanoparticles.81 A vital advantage of onto single-crystal silicon for these experiments. The measure-
this method is its capacity to regulate the creation of various ments shown above were taken at room temperature. Some
core–shell structure types with sub-nonmetric precision.82 This drawbacks of laser ablation include the need for capping, the
method's drawback is that the generated nanoparticles propensity for nanoparticle aggregation, and the lack of long-
agglomerate, necessitating multiple washing procedures and term stabilization in solution (Fig. 5).95
further stabilization treatments (Fig. 4).76 2.5.2 Chemical vapor-based methods for the synthesis of
bismuth nanoparticles. Materials are subjected to elevated
temperature and gaseous predecessor substances during
2.5 Vapor state synthesis for the synthesis of bismuth
chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The reactions or breakdowns
nanoparticles
of the precursors create nanomaterials on the substrate
Broadly, there are two types of vapor state synthesis through surface.59 The chemical vapor synthesis (CVS) technique heats
which bismuth oxide nanoparticles are prepared. pure or metal–organic salts to the vapor phase. Then, the metals
2.5.1 Laser ablation method for the synthesis of bismuth are inserted into a hot-wall reactor, interacting with an
nanoparticles. Using this technique, colloidal solutions from oxidizing chemical in a favorable chemical environment.96,97
bulk materials submerged in aqueous or non-aqueous solvents In this approach, the bismuth oxide was synthesized by
are laser-irradiated on submerged targets, producing nano- Kumari, L., Lin, J. H., & Ma, Y. R. (2007) et al.98 An oxidative
particles.83 The method has been used to synthesize ternary

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 | 39527
RSC Advances Review

Fig. 4 Flowchart for the synthesis of bismuth oxide nanoparticles using the microemulsion method.

metal vapor phase deposition process created large-area arrays ow of 180 sccm at a pressure of 1 × 10−3 torr, and the pressure
of 1D Bi2O3 nanostructures. The nanostructure formation required for work was kept at roughly 10 torr during the
occurred in a heated lament vapor depositing chamber by procedure used to create 1D nano-structures. The two copper
employing a molybdenum (Mo) lament that melted the electrodes were placed in series with a voltage regulator to
bismuth metal grains. Two copper electrodes were linked to generate a current that owed across the Mo coil, quickly
a Mo wire with a 99.9% purity in a vacuum chamber. The Mo warming it up and melting the Bi grains when the necessary
lament was rst used to insert the Bi grains into the carbon continuous operating pressure was achieved. Repeated experi-
holder to support the carbon holder. An acetone, ethyl alcohol, ments were used to determine the ideal current required to melt
and de-ionized water ultrasonically cleaned p-type Si (100) wafer and evaporate the Bi. The chamber was rst lled with an
for thirty minutes each. Then, it was positioned atop the carbon oxygen ow of 0.6 ccm for approximately 30 s, and it was
holder approximately three millimeters above the coil for subsequently lled again for 5 seconds each and separated for
sample deposition. The chamber was lled with an argon (Ar) 10 minutes. O2 was not delivered into the chamber for the last

Fig. 5 Schematic of the laser ablation method synthesis of bismuth nanoparticles.

39528 | RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
Review RSC Advances

ten minutes, yet the growth process was still ongoing due to the manufacture of B-doped ZnO,107 europium-doped yttria
internal O2 pressure in the chamber. The synthesis procedure (YO:Eu),108 Li-doped MgO,109 and Ca-doped82 when multi-metal
required a total of thirty minutes. It was determined that the oxides are considered.
substrates were below 350 °C, while the Mo lament was
measured between 800 and 830 °C. A noticeable coating of light-
2.6 Combustion method for the synthesis of bismuth
yellow product was produced on the Si substrate once the
nanoparticles
system had cooled to room temperature. The growth of Bi2O3
nano owers was similar, with the working pressure kept This synthesis involves heating a pure metallic precursor using
constant at 30 torr. A benet of this method is that it is simple to various approaches to evaporate it into a background gas,
regulate the formation of the nanostructures by varying the introducing an oxidizing agent (the second reactant).59 This
working pressure and the evaporation temperature. A eld approach was used to synthesize bismuth oxide nanoparticles
emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM, JEOL JSM- by burning, as described by La J. et al.110 In a typical instance,
6500F) equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy 10 mL of HNO3 (0.04 mol L) was used to dissolve 2.9106 g of Bi
(EDS, Oxford Instrument INCAx-sight 7557) was used to (NO3)3$5H2O and 1.471 g of C6H8O7H2O. Then, 0.04 g of PEG-
examine the surface morphology of the 1D nanostructures. The 20000 was added to the solution. A clean, transparent solu-
microscope was operated at an accelerating voltage of 15 kV. tion was created aer ve minutes of vigorous churning. Aer
Using an accelerating voltage of 200 kV, Transmission Electron two hours of heating at 300 °C, the solution spontaneously
Microscopy pictures and selected-area electron diffraction cooled to ambient temperature. The yellow granules collected
(SAED) patterns were obtained using the JEOL-3010 apparatus were stored for further analysis.
tted with EDS. The nanowire products were scattered over the Nevertheless, as demonstrated in the instance of MgO
carbon-coated copper grids aer being ultrasonically dispersed nanosmoke,111 control over the partial pressure of the oxidizing
in ethanol for TEM investigation. Structural investigation was agent governing nucleation and growth can have some effect on
performed by applying an X-ray diffractometer (Philips X'Pert) particle size during this process. ZnO,112 FeO,113 copper oxide,
with Cu Ka radiation (l = 1.5406 A). To obtain Raman scattering manganese oxide, MgO,114 CdO, and Co3O4 (ref. 115) nano-
spectra, a micro-Raman spectrometer (Jobin Yvon Horiba particles or Ag supported on the MgO surface,116 Co3O4 on CuO
T64000) tted with a liquid nitrogen-cooled CCD detector was nanowire arrays (Co3O4CuO)117 and La0.82Sr0.18MnO3 are exam-
used. The instrument received 532 nm incident photons from ples of nanoparticles. The link between ame chemistry and
a diode-pump solid-state laser at a maximum power of 50 mW. particle generation makes this process complicated and chal-
The photoluminescence of these nanostructures was examined lenging to regulate despite its commercial success (Fig. 6).59
using a 488 nm excitation laser and a scanning near-eld optical
microscope (Alpha SNOM 300 series). These methods are widely 2.7 Surface-mediated synthesis of bismuth nanoparticles
used to create homogeneous and devoid-of-impurities metal
The main techniques in this kind of manufacturing include
oxide nanoparticles and lms; examples include ZnO nanowires
electrochemical,118 electrolysis and sol–gel,119 chemical polymer-
and lms,99 defect-free ZnO nanoparticles,100 magnetite nano-
ization,120 and CVD.121 Many metal oxides are created in this
tubes and nano spheres,101 Cu2O,102 MgO and calcium oxide,103
fashion example, including MoO2 NPs with better electro-
SnO2,104 SrO,105 and CO and Co3O4.106 This method permits the
chemical characteristics,122 a-Fe3O4 and Co3O4,123 Fe2O3,124 SrO125

Fig. 6 Synthesis flowchart of bismuth oxide using the combustion method.

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 | 39529
RSC Advances Review

Fig. 7 Flowchart for the production of bismuth nanoparticles using a green synthesis approach.

and Ag NPs.126 Using MW methods, Sonkusare et al.127 produced membranes, porous alumina, and other nonporous materials,
bismuth oxide by dissolving PVP (0.5 g) and Bi(NO3)3$5H2O (0.4 such as mesoporous zeolites, are the primary templates for these
g) separately in ten milliliters of EG. The reaction mixture was synthesis techniques (Fig. 7).128,129
then spread to create a homogenous solution (HS). Aer that, HS
was moved inside the MW (MS-2049UW/1200 W/2450 MHz) and 2.8 Producing bismuth nanoparticles using a green
exposed to radiation for ten and een minutes, respectively. synthesis approach
Aer that, ve ml of N2H4 was added drop by drop and le for Compared to microorganism-derived Bi2O3 nanoparticles,
another minute or so. Following cooling, the sample was green synthesized nanoparticles are less expensive, easier to
centrifuged to extract the black residue; then, it was cleaned and make, safer to use, and more environmentally friendly.
allowed to dry under Hoover for ve hours at 80 °C. Track-etch Furthermore, because puried water and ethanol are typically

Fig. 8 Flowchart for the producing bismuth nanoparticles using a green synthesis approach.

39530 | RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
Review RSC Advances

used to produce plant extracts, Bi2O3 nanoparticles derived vanadate nanostructures145 using an extract from Callistemon
from microorganisms are more hazardous than green- viminalis (Table 1).
synthesized bismuth oxide nanoparticles.130 Plant extracts
from various tree parts, including the roots, bark, leaves, 3. Application of bismuth-based
owers, fruit extract, and peels, create Bi2O3 nanoparticles.131
Plant extracts have been reported to contain high concentra-
nanoparticles
tions of antioxidants,132–134 which are active substances and aid Due to its stability and appropriate band structure, bismuth oxide
in neutralizing free radicals, reactive oxygen species, and is frequently used in photocatalytic processes. Electrodes, fuel
chelated molecules.135 These compounds include saponins, cells, supercapacitors, and semiconductors are just a few of the
avonoids, phenolic carboxylic acids, and methyl xanthines. many applications of bismuth oxide. The next section discusses its
Thus, it is evident that plant extracts can function as stabilizers few uses in environmental sciences, medicine, and photocatalysis.
and bio-reduction.136 Bismuth nanoparticles were created by
Das P. E. et al.137 via a hydro-alcoholic extract of Moringa oleifera 3.1 Bismuth-based nanoparticles for anti-microbial activity
leaves. M. oleifera leaves contain polyphenols that help convert
Bi3+ into Bi0. Prakash et al. created bismuth nanoparticles aided Bacterial resistance is a critical global issue that has prompted
by Eclipta alba.130 Bismuth nanoparticles have outstanding several investigations in metal-based nanomedicine and anti-
antimicrobial properties and broad potential applications in bacterial nanoparticles (NPs).156,157 Due to their robust antibacte-
public areas (Fig. 8). rial activities at tiny dosages, bismuth-based NPs are currently
regarded as potent antibiotics that can potentially prevent or
lower the emergence of antibiotic resistance.158 Metal-based NPs
exert their antibacterial effect through reactive oxygen species
2.9 Bismuth oxide green synthesis using bacteria generation, metal-based NP cation release, ATP depletion,
Using Delia species, Shakibaie et al.138 developed bismuth- membrane damage and altered respiratory function, protein
based NPs through a 16SrDNA sequence study. The scientists malfunction, and disruption of nutritional absorption. By
reported that as-synthesized BBNs demonstrated radical solid dephosphorylating peptide substrates in tyrosine, sites can
scavenging and lowered power Nazari et al.139 created bismuth interfere with the transmission of signals and alter the tran-
NPs utilizing C8H15NaO8 as a surfactant and Serratia marcescens scriptome and proteome proles of microorganisms, leading to
from the Caspian Sea, while Xu et al.140 created Bi2Se3-layered the deactivation of signals and inhibition of bacterial growth.159
nano sheets composed of several thin nanosheets. Yaqoubi Recent studies160 showed that doping bismuth oxide nano-
et al.141 and Yadav M. et al. created bismuth oxide nanocrystals particles with FA and 5-ALA signicantly reduced the number of
using Mentha pulegium extract from water as an antioxidant.142 KB tumor cells and A549 cells. When BSA protein and W6/32
Jayapriya et al. effectively synthesized nanocomposites based on antibody are added to Bi-germanate NPs, they can also identify
BiOX (X = Br, Cl, or I) utilizing leaf extract from neem and an human acute monocytic leukemia cells.161 Aspergillus niger and
extract from Anisomeles malabarica.143 Focused on the creation Penicillium chrysogenum were two examples of the bacterial strains
of bismuth-based NPs. Xue et al.‘s144 recent work used micro- that BBNs actively responded to, along with S. aureus, P. aerugi-
wave radiation to create bismuth sulde nanorods using gelatin nosa, B. subtilis, and several other species.162 Bi(III)ephedrine thi-
as a template. Furthermore, Mohamed et al. made bismuth ocarbamate complexes demonstrated high effectiveness against

Table 1 Various methods for the green synthesis of bismuth compounds and their applications

S. Size of Nanomaterials Application

no. Method Plant used particles (nm) morphology carried out References

01 Plant mediated synthesis Mentha pulegium 150 Round Anti-bacterial activity 141
02 Plant mediated synthesis Sapindus mukorossi 50 Cubical Dye degradation 146
03 Plant mediated synthesis Gossypium 90 Polygonal X-ray shielding caskets, anti- 147
bacterial activity
04 Plant mediated synthesis Moringa oleifera 40.4 Amorphous Anti-bacterial activity, anti-fungal 137
activity
05 Plant mediated synthesis Beta vulgaris 30.28 Sheet cluster Anti-microbial 148
06 Bacteria mediated Spirulina platensis 45 Irregular Cancer treatment 149
synthesis
07 Plant mediated synthesis Zingiber officinale 35 Spherical Cancer treatment 150
08 Plant mediated synthesis Euphorbia royleana 60 Irregular Bio-diesel production 151
09 Plant mediated synthesis Citrus limon 10 Irregular Catalytic reduction of organic dye 152
10 Plant mediated synthesis Chenopodium album 79.99 Irregular Anti-fungal activity 153
11 Plant mediated synthesis Carrageenan seaweed 80–90 Rhombohedral Dye degradation 154
12 Plant mediated synthesis Artocarpus 200 Spherical Photo catalysis, anti-microbial 155
heterophyllus

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 | 39531
RSC Advances Review

Fig. 9 Bismuth-based nanoparticles as the perfect photothermal and antimicrobial agents to prevent bacterial illnesses.

both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including E. coli, are anticipated to be crucial in facilitating the shi away from
P. aeruginosa, S. Dublin, K. pneumoniae, and E. cloacae, as well as fossil fuels. Signicantly, these entities can produce water and
specic Gram-positive bacteria like S. aureus, E. caseouvialis, and hydrogen as byproducts, exhibiting enhanced environmental
S. sciuri.163 The remarkable antibacterial activity of Bi2O3 safety and more excellent value than carbon-based alternatives. In
nanoparticles against S. aureus should be mentioned.164 Extensive the present context, it is noteworthy to emphasize the remarkable
research has shown that BBNs have potent antibacterial efficiency efficacy exhibited by materials containing bismuth, specically in
in every pathogen investigated, including Salmonella typhimurium, the domain of hydrogen storage, surpassing the performance of
Campylobacter jejuni, Y. enterocolitis, E. coli, E. arginine, M. alternative metallic elements. Bismuth-based materials offer
arginine, B. anthracis, and L. pomona, which may cause diseases in a compelling alternative to lead-containing compounds,
humans and animals.165 According to the most recent publication rendering them a captivating area of investigation in the eld of
by Torrisi et al., bismuth nanoparticles are successful in sustainable energy solutions. Because bismuth has few commer-
eliminating tumor cells in mice.166 Based on the ndings above, it cial uses and is a byproduct of lead, copper, and tin renement,
is apparent that Bayesian Belief Networks (BBNs) can impede the its price has remained low despite its relative abundance in the
expansion of colonies of bacteria and limit the replication of earth's crust. Alkali metal and air batteries have recently
microbes. Moreover, it is worth noting that broad-spectrum employed BiOMS-2 as cathode catalysts167 and in the fabrication
bactericidal nanoparticles (BBNs) demonstrate inhibitory prop- of photovoltaic devices.168,169 A3Bi2X9 is the chemical formula for
erties against a wide range of bacterial species, including both bismuth perovskites, where X is a halogen anion (such as Cl, Br,
Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains. This inhibition is ach- and I) and A is a monovalent cation (such as Cs+ or CH3NH3+).
ieved by interacting BBNs with the peptidoglycan layer in the Because they resemble their highly efficient Pb counterparts,
bacterial cell wall. Signicantly, using BBNs as composites CH3NH3PbI3 and CsPbI3, respectively, the bismuth perovskite
exhibits considerable improvement in their antifungal efficacy. materials (CH3NH3)3Bi2I9 and Cs3Bi2I9 have been explored.
In summary, it has been observed that BBNs can specically Recently, a multiferroic Bi6Fe1.6Co0.2Ni0.2Ti3O18/Bi2FeCrO6 hetero
impede the proliferation of malignant cells. Changes in the junction photo electrode based on Zn2SnO4 has been studied.
permeability of tumor cell membranes and the start of cellular This electrode modies the charge carrier transit and the intrinsic
damage to genomic DNA are believed to be responsible for this electric eld to disengage high-performing multiferroic oxide
result (Fig. 9). photovoltaic systems.170 An experiment was conducted by
manufacturing samarium and cobalt-co-doped bismuth ferrite
nanoparticles to achieve an ideal decrease in band gap energy of
3.2 Bismuth-based nanoparticles for photovoltaic studies 1.40 electron volts, thereby achieving maximum solar cell power
The diminishment of non-renewable resources has emerged as transformation performance.171 Applications for bismuth-based
a substantial factor in exacerbating global warming, the intensi- materials include photodetectors, solar-powered hydrogen
cation of air pollution, and the consequent elevation of sea generation, photocatalytic pollution degradation, renewable
levels. Consequently, the pursuit of feasible alternatives has energy devices, such as batteries and thermal electricity devices,
become of utmost importance. Fuel cells, solar cells, and batteries and bioimaging, such as therapeutic substances. Bismuth-based

39532 | RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
Review RSC Advances

Fig. 10 A schematic for the application of bismuth-based nanoparticles in photovoltaic devices.

materials are essential in many applications, encompassing be used to mimic upcoming battery advancements. The nal
photodetectors, solar-powered hydrogen generation, photo- step in fullling this critical duty is researching substances for
catalytic pollution degradation, renewable energy devices, electrodes with substantial power intensities and electro-
including battery and thermal electricity gadgets, and even ther- chemical durability for long-lasting and affordable imple-
apeutic substances in bioimaging. The anisotropy of the crystal- mentations. The remarkable capacitive efficiency of the Bi2O3/
line structures of these materials poses a notable difficulty, which rGO composite should be emphasized.172 High-specic capaci-
is attributed to the inuence of the distinctive ns2 lone pair of tance and electrochemical solid energy storage are two other
bismuth atoms. Enhancing our comprehension and rening the potential uses for Bi2S3.140 Furthermore, it has been observed
characteristics of materials based on bismuth could provide that Bi2Se3 nanoparticles are frequently used to enhance the
signicant advancements in these many domains (Fig. 10). properties of materials intended for use in lithium-ion
batteries.173 Furthermore, bismuth-based nanoparticles work
in a negative potential window of −1–0 V in aqueous alkaline
3.3 Bismuth-based nanoparticles for supercapacitors
electrolytes depending on the electrolyte. Asymmetric super-
The supercapacitor, which gained popularity years ago in its use capacitors with specic capacities of 443 C g−1 (at two mA cm−2)
as a storage of energy, serves as a workable substitute that may

Fig. 11 Schematic of bismuth-based nanoparticles for supercapacitors.

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 | 39533
RSC Advances Review

within the potential window of −1.1 to 0 V, encompassing long- signicant attention. Consequently, research has been con-
lasting periodic stability, were recently constructed using ducted on an electrode made of carbon paste and augmented
advanced nanostructured nickel-based bismuth oxide as nega- with bismuth ferrite microowers. The results show that it has
tive electrodes.174 Using carbonaceous materials, such as GO a meager 0.81 M detection limit. Moreover, cobalt-modied
and conducting polymers, to create bismuth, nanocomposites copper bismuth oxide with a current density of 0.80 mA cm2
can increase performance because of the enhanced charge was created and used for photoelectrochemical applications. An
transfer introduced by the availability of large surface areas or electrochemical sensor consisting of BBNs with large surfaces
rapid ion transit along the conducting network. The specic and exceptional ability to conduct electricity, carbon nanober,
capacitance and charge storage capacity of nano composites are and the ionic liquid was created180 to detect Pb and Cd at
determined by their shapes, dimensions, and surfaces. In concentrations range of 2–120 g L−1. Consequently, numerous
summary, more investigation into the kinetics of ion mobility studies have shown that bismuth-based nanoparticles are
and mass transfer at the electrode/electrolyte interface is excellent options for gas detection, heavy metal identication,
necessary to understand the reaction kinetics in the bismuth and electrochemical detection (Fig. 12).
electrochemical system fully (Fig. 11).

3.5 Bismuth-based nanoparticles for photocatalytic

3.4 Bismuth-based nanoparticles for sensors degradation of dyes
Both bismuth-based nanoparticles and their composites are Of all the cutting-edge technologies available to address envi-
effective heavy metal and electrochemical sensors.175,176 In ronmental issues, photocatalysis is the most promising.181 A
contemporary electro-analysis, bismuth nanoparticles (BiNPs), possible technique for breaking down resistant organic
Bi2O3 or Bi2S3, and Bismuth alloy NPs alongside more metals, contaminants in water is photo catalysis.182 Photo catalysts are
such as titanium or silver, have all gained signicant impor- highly versatile and offer advantages such as enhanced effi-
tance. In keeping with this area of research, a unique technique ciency, reduced toxicity, economical cost, and favorable chem-
for creating a nanocomposite made of graphene oxide and BBN ical and physical characteristics. The ability of semiconductor
has been designed to more precisely determine cadmium(II) photocatalysis to function under ambient settings without the
and lead(II).177 need for additional energy sources is one of its main advan-
A new 3D honeycomb-shaped n-doped carbon nanosheet tages.183 Semiconductors based on bismuth are a new and
structure with a particular surface area has been developed to exciting family of enhanced photocatalytic materials that have
identify heavy metal ions, such as Pb2+ and Cd2+.178 It is studded recently come to light. Semiconductors based on bismuth
with BBN porous network structures. The production process feature a broadband gap for visible-light sensitivity and a well-
for this framework is low-cost. To detect mercury (Hg II), a 3-D dispersed valence band composed of hybrid Bi 6s and O2 p
hierarchy arrangement of bismuth-based nanoparticles formed orbitals, making them a viable option for other metal oxide
from carbon–graphene nanotube nanocomposites has been semiconductors. Hydrothermal synthesis and in situ precipita-
developed and employed electrocatalytically. In contrast, tion were used to manufacture ZnO/BiOCl nano composites
palladium-doped perovskite bismuth ferrite demonstrated modied with Ag nanoparticles.184 It has been demonstrated
excellent sensitivity and selectivity for NO2-gas sensing capa- that Bi2O3, with a band gap of 2.58–2.85 eV, is a very effective
bilities.179 The development of pesticide sensors has garnered visible-light-driven photocatalyst for water splitting and

Fig. 12 Schematic of bismuth-based nanoparticles for sensor application.

39534 | RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
Review RSC Advances

Table 2 Photocatalytic performance of various bismuth-based compounds against different dyes

Time for
S. Bismuth Crystal morphology Band gap degradation (min)
no compounds of compounds (eV) Dye degraded and % removal References

01 RGO-Bi2O3 Needle-like 2.8 Methylene blue 240 and 98 198

02 Gd:BFO Rhombohedral 2.21 Crystal violet 180 and 84.5 199
03 BiFeO3(BFO) Spherical 2.07 RB5 50 and 99.9 200
04 Bi-TNT Tubular 3.18 Rhodamine-B 180 and 100 201
05 BGFSO/GNP Sheet and granular 2.1 Congo-red (CR) 100 and 74 202
06 BiFe(1−x)NixO3 Agglomerated and irregular 2.02 Acid red-85 40 and 100 203
07 BFO Hexahedral 1.9 Azo 135 and 95 204
08 BFO Rhombohedral 2.17 Methylene blue 90 and 100 205
09 BiFeO3 Spherical 2.00 Methylene blue 120 and 94.4 206
10 Bi2O3 Irregular 2.25 Alizarin red 120 and 99.25 207
11 G-BiOBr Irregular spherical shapes 2.66 Rhodamine-B 70 and 100 208
12 Ce/Nd–Bi2O3 Needle-/rod-like — Acid yellow-coomassie 120 and 85, 82 186
brilliant blue 120 and 84, 88
13 TiO2/Bi2O3 Agglomerated 3.07 and 2.94 Orange II 180 and 94.7, 81.8 209
14 Au–BiVO4 Spherical, triangular, square, — Methylene blue 360 and 95 210
rhombic, pentagonal
15 Bi2WO6 Spherical shape 2.8 Eriochrome black T 180 and 74 211
(EBT)
16 Ag–BiOCl Flower-like — Rhodamine B 100 and 99 212
17 Bi@SiNWs — 1.20 Methylene blue (MB) 120 and 89 213
18 BiFeO3 Agglomerated 2.2 Brilliant blue 450 and 90 214
19 Bi2(CO3)O2 Cubic 3.3 Rhodamine B 480 and 98, 84 215
Bi12SiO20 3.6 5-HMF
20 SnS2/AgBiS2/GO Flower-like, sea urchin-like, two- — Acetaminophen — 216
dimensional
21 Polymer/BiPO4/ Nanoparticles, nanosheets, tubular — Catechol — 217
BiOCl

pollutant breakdown.185,186 The three different organic dyes, Bi2YTaO7,198 and Bi2InTaO7. Based on the literature reviews, it
Acid Yellow (AY-29), Coomassie Brilliant Blue G250 (CBBG-250), can be inferred that bismuth chemistry might play a signicant
and Acid Green 25 (AG-25), were degraded using bismuth oxide role in creating high-performance photocatalysts that reduce
doped with Ce and Nd. The outcome indicates that the doped a- pollution more effectively than most similar commercial goods
Bi2O3 is more effective at photo-catalytic decomposition than (Table 2).
the pure a-Bi2O3 nanoparticle.187 Similarly, as documented Discussing the efficiency and versatility of bismuth oxide
earlier in the literature, BBNs can effectively break down nanoparticles in medical applications is important. With their
phenol, decrease Cr4+ to Cr3+, and break down Rhodamine inherent antibacterial qualities, these nanoparticles show
B.188–194 We were also interested in the PCP degradation and sun versatility in their ability to perform various functions,
irradiation MO degradation, as described for Bi4TaO8I.195 When including therapeutic agents and efficient contrast agents in
BiOBr (made with different solvents) is exposed to UV light, it imaging techniques. Because of their low toxicity and biocom-
degrades phenol more quickly and on a larger surface area.196 patibility, they are excellent choices for targeted drug delivery
Due to the lowest band gap under UV, the hydrogen evolution systems that increase the therapeutic index of various drugs.
rate was higher in 0.2 weight percent Pt distributed on Bi2YVO8 Furthermore, bismuth oxide nanoparticles distinct for optical
than in 0.2 weight percent Pt scattered across Bi2GaVO7,197 and electrical characteristics demonstrate their versatility by

Fig. 13 Schematic of bismuth-based nanoparticles for photocatalytic degradation of dyes.

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv., 2024, 14, 39523–39542 | 39535
RSC Advances Review

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