CHAPTER RADIATION EXPOSURES

IO AND DOSE LIMITS

The improvement in standard living and new development in medicine and industry add extra
radiation exposures (internal and external) to that which people normally receive due to
natural background radiation. The exposure either is from external radiation sources or from
internal radiation exposure (ingestion or inhalation). Radiation exposure should be limited to
the occupational radiation workers or public in order to control the deterministic effects and
stochastic effects. These dose limitations are suggested by ICRP through its
recommendations and set in a way such that continued exposure at a dose just above the limit
would be unacceptable. Continued exposure just below the dose limit might be tolerated but
would not be welcomed, so the acceptable doses are those somewhat below the limit.

System of Radiation Protection

Basic Principalsof RP System

(for Practices & Sou re es)
1. Justification of Practice ( Benefits & Cost)
2. Optimizationof Protection (ALARA)
3. Individual Dose and Risk Limits ( it's mainly used
to prevent the deteriministic effect of the radiation, and to reduce
its stochastic effect)
• As Low As Reasonably Achievable Practice
(ALARA): underlines all aspects of RP program)
» Education and Training
» Design Consideration
» Operational Radiation Protection Program

10.1 RadiationExposure
10.1.1 Occupational Exposure
Occupational exposure should be limited according to the international recommendation by
ICRP. The work optimization is needed and can be fulfilled by using suitable and adequate
equipment and protective devices. Exposure can be reduced through providing the necessary
training, following protection procedures, using the proper individual monitoring devices,
protective clothing and equipment. The licensees and employers of workers who are engaged
in activities involving normal exposures or potential exposure shaJl be responsible:
(a) For the protection of workers from occupational exposure (either human made or natural
sources which is not excluded from the Standards). and

(b) For compliance with any other relevant requirements of the Standards.

(c) For providing suitable and adequate facilities, equipment and services for protection and
safety, the nature and extent of which are commensurate with the expected magnitude
and likelihood of the occupational exposure;

(d) For the necessary health surveillance and health services.

(e) For providing appropriate protective devices and monitoring equipment and
arrangements made for its proper use;

(f) Providing suitable and adequate human resources and appropriate training in protection
and safety, as well as periodic retraining and updating as required in order to ensure the
necessary level of competence;

(g) To maintain adequate records as required by the Standards;

(h) Provide the necessary conditions to promote a safety culture.

10.1.2 Exposure of the General Public

In order to protect the general public from any extra radiation, the Registrants and licensees
shall apply the requirements of the Standards as specified by the Regulatory Authority to any
public exposure delivered by a practice or source for which they are responsible. The
licensees shall be responsible, with respect to the sources under their responsibility, for the
establishment, implementation and maintenance of:

(a) Protection and safety policies, procedures and organizational arrangements in relation to
public exposure in fulfilment of the requirements of the Standards;
(b) Measures for ensuring:
(i) The optimization of the protection of members of the public whose exposure ts
attributable to such sources; and
(ii) The limitation of the normal exposure of the relevant critical group, which is
attributable to such sources, in order that the total exposure be not higher than the
dose limits for members of the public; in selecting the critical group, account shall
be taken of all those in present and future generations whether in the countries or
places where the sources are located or in any other country or place;
(c) Measures for ensuring the safety of such sources, in order that the likelihood of public
exposures is controlled in accordance with the requirements of the Standards;
(d) Suitable and adequate facilities, equipment and services for the protection of the public,
the nature and extent of which are commensurate with the magnitude and likelihood of
the exposure;

10-2
(e) Appropriate protection and safety training to the personnel having functions relevant to
the protection of the public, as well as periodic retraining and updating as required, in
order to ensure the necessary level of competence;
(f) Appropriate monitoring equipment and surveillance programmes to assess public
exposure to the satisfaction of the Regulatory Authority;
(g) Adequate records of the surveillance and monitoring as required by the Standards;
(h) Emergency plans or procedures, commensurate with the nature and magnitude of the risk
involved, and kept ready to actuate in accordance with the Principal Requirements.

The I icensees shall be responsible for ensuring that the optimization process for measures to
control the discharge of radioactive substances from a source to the environment is subject to
dose constraints established or approved by the Regulatory Authority, taking into account, as
appropriate:

(a) Dose contributions from other sources and practices, including realistically assessed
possible future sources and practices;
(b) Potential changes in any condition that could affect public exposure, such as changes in
the characteristics and operation of the source, changes in exposure pathways, changes in
the habits or distribution of the population, modification of critical groups, or changes in
environmental dispersion conditions;
(c) Current good practice in the operation of similar sources or practices; and
(d) Any uncertainties in the assessment of exposures, especially in potential contributions to
the exposures if the source and the critical group are separated in distance or time.
(e) Licensees shall be responsible for ensuring that the collective dose incurred outside the
country where the practice or source is located is not less than the value prescribed
within it

10.1.3 Medical Exposure

For the medical exposure the licensees shall ensure that:

(a) No patient be administered a diagnostic or therapeutic medical exposure unless the
exposure is prescribed by a medical practitioner;
(b) Medical practitioners be assigned the primary task and obligation of ensuring overall
patient protection and safety in the prescription of, and during the delivery of, medical
exposure;
(c) Medical and paramedical personnel be available as needed, and either be health
professionals or have appropriate training adequately to discharge assigned tasks in the
conduct of the diagnostic or therapeutic procedure that the medical practitioner
prescribes;
(d) For therapeutic uses of radiation (including teletherapy and brachytherapy), the
calibration, dosimetry and quality assurance requirements of the Standards be conducted
by or under the supervision of a qualified expert in radiotherapy physics;

10-3
(e) The exposure of individuals incurred knowingly while voluntarily helping (other than in
their occupation) in the care, support or comfort of patients undergoing medical
diagnosis or treatment be constrained as specified later; and
(f) Training criteria be specified or be subject to approval, as appropriate, by the Regulatory
Authority in consultation with relevant professional bodies.

10.1.4 Chronic Exposure

In case of chronic exposure a generic or site specific remedial action plans for chronic
exposure situations shall be prepared by the Intervening Organization, as appropriate. The
plans shall specify remedial actions and action levels that are justified and optimized, taking
into account:
(a) The individual and collective exposures;
(b) The radiological and non-radiological risks; and
(c) The financial and social costs, the benefits and the financial liability for the remedial
actions.

10.1.5 Emergency Exposure:

Emergency exposure will be discussed in the emergency Chapter# 21

10.2 Radiation Exposure Dose Limits

These regulations include the dose limits and guidance levels that all establishments that use
radioactive materials and radiation sources should stick to.
10.2.1 Dose Limits and Reference Levels

The limit used for radiation protection from ionized radiation is a value for a specific quantity
used for activities or specific conditions and should not be overlooked. On the other hand, the
reference level is value for a specific quantity when reached to it a specific action is carried
out to face the new conditions.
(i) Type of limits in radiation protection

1. Primary limit: is the maximum value for the equivalent dose or the effective dose
that is applied to the individual in case of occupational exposure or a critical group
of members of the public is exposed.

2. Secondary limit: is used if the primary limit is not applicable. An example for this
is the Annual limit of intake (ALI).

3. Derived limit: is connected with the primary limit through specific mathematical
equations, if derived level is followed that leads to follow the primary limit too. An

10-4
 example of this is the Derived Air Concentration (DAC) and Derived Limit for
Surface Contamination.

4. The acceptable limit: is a limit put by a special regularity authority for a specific
quantity. This limit is less than the primary, secondary or derived limit for this
quantity.

5. Working limit: is a limit put by the management of the establishment for a certain
quantity, and it is acceptable for the management to put lesser limit than the limits
put by the special regularity authority but not to exceed this level.

(ii) The reference levels used for radiation protection

I. Recording level: level of dose, exposure or intake specified by the regulatory

authority at or above which values of dose, exposure or intake received by
workers are to be entered in there individual exposure record.

2. Investigation level: the value of a quantity such as equivalent dose, intake, or

contamination per unit area or volume at or above which an investigation should
be conducted.

3. Intervention level: The level of a real dose at which a specific protective action
or remedial action is taken an emergency exposure situation or a chronic
exposure situation.

10.3 Occupational Exposure Dose Limits

There are basically two requirements in setting the dose limits. The first is to keep doses
below the threshold level for deterministic effects and the second is to keep the risk of
stochastic effects at an acceptable level.

10.3.1 Annual Dose Limit for Occupational Exposure for Adults:

The occupational exposure of any worker shall be controlled so that the following limits
should not be exceeded:

(a) an effective dose of 20 mSv per year averaged over five consecutive years;
(100 mSv in 5 years);
(b) an effective dose of an effective dose of 50 mSv in any single year;

(c) an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 150 mSv in a year; and
(d) an equivalent dose to the extremities (hands and feet) or the skin of 500 mSv/year.

Table I 0.1 summarizes radiation dose limits for occupational and members of the public.

10-5
 Table 10.1: Summary of Radiation Dose limits

Parameter Annual Dose Limit mSv/y

Workers public
.

Effective dose· 20a 1

Lens of the eye 150 15
Area ofskinb 500 50
Extremities c 500 50
a: Averaged over defined periods of 5 years
b: averaged over any cm2 of skin regardless of area exposed.
c: forearms and ankles as well as hands and feet.

Occupational Dose limits for Occupational Exposure Limit to Occupational Dose to the
Radiation Workers the Extremities Lens of the Eye

The Oo.$e Limit to

th@ Extremities
may not eX(ffd
SO rem/y=
SOOmSl//y
Whale Body Dose Is nOl t>o e~ 2 rem/y•20 mSv/y
Dose must not exceed 15 rem/y= 150mSv/y

Example 10.1
If a radiation worker received an effective dose of 16000 µSv from a beta source in the first
year and 17 mSv from a gamma source in the second year and 19 mSv from a neutron source
in the third year and 0.048 Sv from intake of a radioactive solution in the fourth year. What is
effective dose he can receive in the fifth year?

Solution
The total effective dose received by the worker in four years in the unit of mSv =

µSv
16000
= + 17 mSv + 19 mSv + 0.048Svx 1000 mSv/Sv=
1000 µSv I mSv

16 mSv + 17mSv + 19mSv+48mSv= lOOmSv

According to the regulation, the effective dose averaged over five consecutive years should
be total maximum to 100 mSv.
Thus the worker can't receive any more effective dose in the fifth year because already he
received the same amount in four years. The worker should work in a non-radiation area in
the fifth year.

10-6
10.3.2. Occupational exposure for age 16-18 years

No person under the age of 18 years shall be allowed to work in a controlled area unless
supervised and then only for the purpose of training. For beginner of 16 to 18 years of age
who are training for employment involving exposure to radiation and for students of age 16
to 18 who are required to use sources in the course of their studies, the occupational exposure
shall be so controlled that the following limits should not be exceeded:
(a) an effective dose of6 mSv in a year;
(b) an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 50 mSv in a year; and
(c) an equivalent dose to the extremities or the skin of 150 mSv in a year.

10.3.3. Occupational exposure for ages under 16 years

No person under the age of 16 years shall be subjected to occupational exposure.

10.3.4. Occupational exposure for women

The occupational exposure of women who are not pregnant is the same as that for men.

10.3.5. The Annual Limit of Intake (ALI) for Occupational Exposure

ALI for occupational exposure of a certain isotope depends on the type of the isotopes and its
toxicity level, it also depends on the age of the person and the way the isotope entered the
body whether by inhalation or ingestion. The ALI for any isotope can be calculated by using
h(g)j,ing· And h(g)jinh the committed effective dose per ingested or inhaled unit intake for
radionuclide j tabulated in reference tables (see as example Table l 0.3 on page l 0. 16)
according to the following formula:
annual limit 20 x 10-1 Sv
ALI=----~ (10.1)
h(g)J h(g)j

where h(g) is the committed effective dose per ingested or inhaled unit intake for radionuclidej

Example 10.2
What is the annual limit of intake for tritiated water if h(g) for tritiated water for age> 17 = l.8x I 0-I I
Sv.Bq-1 (see pagel0.16)

Solution annual limit 20 x 10-1 Sv _1 = 1.l x]09 Bq

ALI=-----
1.8 x 10-11 Sv. Bq

If this is to be calculated in Ci and rrrCi, it will be

l.l x Ja9 Bq = 0.0 297 Ci

1
3. 7 x 1010 Bq. er
0.0 297 Ci x 1000 mCi/Ci = 29.7 mCi

10-7
10.3.6. Occupational exposure for a pregnant woman

For a pregnant woman, the working condition should not exceed the equivalent dose limit to
the surface of the woman's abdomen (lower trunk) of 2 mSv, for the remainder of the
pregnancy and by limiting intakes of radio-nuclides to about 1/20 of annual ALI, through the
rest of her pregnancy. The goal of that is to put a limit on the fetus' dose not exceed 1 mSv by
using the formula in equation 10.3:
H Ii
- + ~- ~ 1 used for radiation workers (10.2)
20 ALI

H Ii
- + ~1 used for pregnant woman (10.3)
2 1/20(ALJ)

where H is the external dose that the woman receives through the rest of her pregnancy
(in mSv).
Ii intake of isotope i by the woman (in Bq).
When the pregnant woman is exposed more than one radioactive isotope the dose limit of
fetus should not exceed I mSv by adding contribution of all isotopes in addition to half of
external dose that the woman received and the following formula should fulfilled:
H
-+
2
z: '
Ii

.'. (ALI),
~ 1 c10.4)

20

Example 10.3
What is the maximum equivalent external dose can a pregnant woman's abdomen receives in
the rest of her pregnancy if she drank tritiated water with a concentration of 4.5x 107 Bq
during her early pregnancy? ALI= 1.1 x 109 Bq (see example I 0.2)
Solution H Ii
-+ ~I
2 1/200-LI)

H+ 4.5xl07 B; ~
2 1/20 (1.lxlO Bq)
H
- + 0.82 ~ I
2

H ~ 0.18
2
H ~ 0.36 mSv
This is the maximum external equivalent dose can the pregnant woman's abdomen receive in
the rest of her pregnancy

10.4 Annual Dose Limits for General Public Exposure:

The recommended average dose to the members of the public shall not exceed the following
limits:

(a) an effective dose of 1 mSv in an year,

(b) in special circumstances, an effective dose of up to 2 mSv in a single year

provided that the average dose over five consecutive years dose not exceed 1 mSv
per year;

(c) an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 15 mSv in an year; and

( d) an equivalent dose to the skin of 50 mSv in a year.

10.5 Medical Exposure Dose Limit

There are no limits for medical exposure but this exposure is subjected to justification.
But there is a guidance level of dose for diagnostic radiography for typical adult patient
reported in IAEA-115 as shown in Table 10.2.

, Table l 0.2: Guidance levels of dose for diagnostic radiography for typical adult patient

Projection Entrance surface dose per

Examination
condition radiograph (mGy)
Lumbar spine AP 10
LAT 30
LSJ 40
Abdomen, intravenous urography and AP 10
cholecystography, Pelvis, Hip joint
Chest PA 0.4
LAT 1.5
Thoracic spine PA 7
LAT 20
Dental Peri apical 7
Ap 5
Skul PA 5
LAT 3

Note: PA: posterior-anterior projection; LAT: lateral projection; LSJ: lumbo-sacral-joint

projection; AP: anterior-posterior projection

10-9
10.6 Dose Limitations for Comforters and Visitors of
Patients

The dose limits set out in this part shall not apply to comforters of patients, i.e., to individuals
knowingly exposed while voluntarily helping (others than in their employment or occupation)
in the care, support and comfort of patients undergoing medical diagnosis or treatment, or to
visitors of such patients.

However, the dose of any such comforter or visitor of patients shall be constrained so that
it is unlikely that his or her dose will exceed 5 mSv during the period of a patient's diagnostic
examination or treatment.

The dose to children and adults visiting patients who have ingested radioactive materials
should be similarly constrained to less than 1 mSv and 5 mSv respectively during the
treatment.

10.7 Verification of Compliance with Dose Limits

The dose limits as specified in IAEA-115 apply to the sum of the relevant doses from
external exposure in the specified period and the relevant committed doses from intakes in
the same period; the period for calculating the committed dose shall normally be 50 years for
intakes by adults and to go 70 years for intakes by children.

For the purpose of demonstrating compliance with dose limits, the sum of the personal dose
equivalent from external exposure to penetrating radiation in the specified period and the
committed equivalent dose or committed effective dose, as appropriate, from intake of
radioactive substances in the same period shall be used.

Compliance with the foregoing requirements for application of the dose limits on effective
dose shall be determined by either of the following methods:

(a) By comparing the total effective dose with the relevant dose limit, where the
total effective dose ET is calculated according to the following formula:

(10.5)

where Hr(d) is the personal dose equivalent from penetrating radiation during
the year; h(g)j, ing and h(g)j .inh are the committed effective dose per ingested or
inhaled unit intake for radio-nuclide j by the group of age g; and l_j,ing and Ij,inh
respectively are the intake via ingestion or inhalation of radio-nuclide j during
the same period; or

10-10
 (b) By satisfying the following conditions:

Hp (d) + I Ij,i,,g + I Ij,i,,t, ~ l

(10.6)
DL . J..}./Ill(,I,
J
. I.,j,111 1,/,
J

where DL is the relevant limit on effective external dose (= 20 mSv/y), and

Ij,ing,L and Ij,inh,L respectively are the annual limit on intake (ALI) via
ingestion or via inhalation of radionuclide j (i.e., the intake by the relevant
route of radio-nuclide that leads to the relevant limit on effective dose); or

(c) By any other approved method.

Example 10.4

If a radiation worker is exposed to intake of 5x104 Bg of iodine-131 (via inhalation) and

3x104 Bg of cesium -137 (via ingestion) in a year, what is the maximum equivalent dose that
he can receive in a year?
(ALI for iodine-131 (via inhalation) = 2x 105 Bq,
ALI for cesium -137 (via ingestion)= 4xl05 Bq)

Solution: (Using equation 10.6)

Hp ( d) " I j.ing " Ij,inh

--+ LJ--+ L..J--sl
DL j I j,ing,L j I j.inh.L

Hp(d) + TC,-137 + Il-13) ::,;;

20mSv ingALI-Cs-137 inhALI-1-131

HP(d) 3x]04 5X104
---+ 5
+ 5
~ 1
20 mSv 4 x IO 2 x 1O
H P(d)
---+0.075 +0.25 ~ 1
20 mSv
H P(d)
~ I - 0 .325
20 mSv

H P(d)
~ o .675 (Multiplying both sides by 20 mSv)
20 mSv
HP (d) ~ 13.5 mSv

The maximum equivalent dose that that radiation worker can receive in a year should be less
than or equal 13.5 mSv.

l 0-11
10.8 Calculation of Total Dose
The dose limits apply to the sum of the relevant doses from external exposure in the specified
period and the relevant committed doses from intakes in the same period, where the period
for calculating the committed dose is normally 50 years for intakes by adults and to age 70
for intakes by children.

Committed dose here mean either committed equivalent dose or committed effective dose
from intakes of radioactive substances as appropriate.

The equivalent dose limits recommended by the ICRP, Table 1 be intended to prevent non-
stochastic effects and Jimit the occurrence of stochastic effects to an acceptable level.

These limits apply irrespective of whether the tissues are exposed singly or together with
other organs. For stochastic effects the limit on risk should be equal whether uniform whole
body irradiation or non-uniform irradiation of several organs occurs. For non-uniform
irradiation, the relationship expressed by the following inequality:

LWTxHrs; HwB,L (10.7)

where Hws,L is the annual whole body limits (20 mSv), HT is the annual equivalent dose
received by tissue (T), wr is the tissue weighing factor (T).

The Annual Limit for Intake (ALI) of radionuclide is a secondary limit designed to meet the
basic limit for occupational exposure. ALI is the maximum value of the annual intake I which
set by satisfying both of the following conditions:

ILWr x H r,.r 5 .:;:; 20 mSv (10.8)

T

And ( (H50,r) s 0.5 mSv (l0.9)

Where I (in Bq) is the annual intake of the specified radionuclide either by ingestion or
inhalation , WT H so.r is called the weighted committed equivalent dose and Hso,T is
committed equivalent dose per unit intake (in Sv Bf1) which is total equivalent dose
averaged through a tissue (T) in the 50 years following the intake of material in the given
year.

Example 10.5
Assume that lung, bone surfaces, red marrow and liver all receive committed equivalent dose
of 0.1, 0.2, 0.05 and 0.15 Sv respectively in a year. Are the basic limits met?

Solution

LWT X Hso.T = (0.12 X O.l)1ung + (0.01 X 0.2) bone surfaces+ (0.12 X 0.05) red marrow+ (0.05 X 0.15) liver
T
= 0.0275 Sv = 27.5 mSv.

which is >20 mSv and thus the dose limit is not met (i.e. the receive committed equivalent
dose is more than the annual limit 20 mSv, while the committed equivalent dose is not
exceeded (H5o,T ~ 0.5 Sv).

10-12
Example 10.6:

Using the tissue weighting factor in Table 9.2, calculate the implied annual limits for each of
the following organs, assuming that each organ is irradiated completely in isolation: the
gonads, the stomach the thyroid and the skin.

Solutions:
For gonads the WT = 0.2 and so the implied annual limit = (20mSv/0.2) = 100 mSv
For stomach the WT = 0.12 and so the implied annual limit= (20mSv/0.12) = 166 mSv
For thyroid the WT = 0.05 and so the implied annual limit= (20mSv/0.05) = 400 mSv
For the skin the WT = 0.01 and so the implied annual limit= (20mSv/0.0l) = 2,000 mSv

Example 10.7

Show that the annual 20 mSv effective dose limits is equivalent to an average rate of 10
µSv/hr, for a 40 working hours per week, for 50 weeks/year.

Solution:
The average effective dose per hour (E•) = Annual effective dose
No. of working hours per year
• 20mSv
·E = = O.OlmSv
40x 50hr
E
.= 10 µ Sv/hr

Example 10.8

How many hours could a worker spend each week in a radwaste storage where the average
effective dose rate is 0.1 mSv/hr, if the annual effective dose limit for the workers is 20 mSv
and assuming a 50 week working year?

Solution:
Annual dose Jim it
Dose limit in a week
No. of working weeks per year

20mSv/50 week = 0.4 mSv/week

E = E" x t ---> then t = El E" = 0.4/0.1 = 4 hour.

10-13
Example 10.9

How many whole-body dose equivalents would be allowed to a worker who has received
40mSv to the gonads, if the average annual effective dose limits not to be exceeded?
Solution:

Wg Hg+ Wwb Hwb ~ 20 mSv

0.2 x 40 + 1 x Rvb s 20 mSv

8 + u., s; 20 mSv

.'. Hwb s 12 mSv

Example 10.10

Calculate the allowable equivalent dose to the thyroid of a worker for a year to non
uniform irradiation of the whole body, the lung and the thyroid. During the year he
receives equivalent doses of l O mSv to the whole body and 50 mSv to the lung.

Solution:

wr(WB) · Hr(WB) + wr(L) · Hr(L) + wr(Th) · Hr(Th) s 20 mSv

1 · 10 mSv + 0.12 · 50 mSv + 0.05 · Hr(Th) s; 20 mSv
10 mSv + 6 mSv + 0.05 Hr(Th) s; 20 mSv
20-16
Hr(Th) mSv = 80 mSv
0.05

Thus, the worker is permitted to receive up to 80 mSv equivalent dose to the thyroid
during that year.

Example 10.11
The measured dose rates in an accelerator hall are the following:
100 µSv/h from fast neutrons
20 µSv/h from slow neurons
40 µSv/h from gamma rays
What is the maximum time per day that a worker can work in the hall?

Solution:

Total dose rate = 100 + 20 + 40 = 160 µSv = 0.16 mSv/h

Daily allowed limit= 20 mSv/y I ( 50 w/y x 5 d/w) = 0.08 mSv/d

. 0.08 mSv/d = 0.5 hid
The max. time/day O. l 6 mSv/h

10-14
10.9 Dose Limits for Emergency Exposures:
• In emergency situation the objective should be to keep doses to intervening personnel
below an effective dose of 1 OOmSv or equivalent doses of 1 Sv to the skin and 300
mSv to the lense of the eye in some situation.

• However, where life saving actions are concerned significantly higher levels of dose
could be justified, although every effort should be made to keep doses below l O times
the maximum single year dose limit (i.e below 500 mSv) in order to avoid
deterministic effect on health.

10.10 ExposureRecords:

Exposure records for each worker should be preserved according to regulation during
the worker's working life and afterwards at least until the worker attains or would
have attained the age of 75 years, and for not less than 30 years, whatever comes
later.

I 0-15
 Table 10.3: Committed effective dose per unit intake via ingestion (Sv/Bq)

P!t1slc,J
11.;!,e g :s I • A.~~ i-7 • Aa~ 7-Cl .. Age l2-l7 • Agt ;;. li tt
f1 for Agt' l-2 ~
Nudid~ l1(g)
!ulf.life (I h(8) 8 :> l 1. b{g) b{!U h(g) h(g)

Hydrol);C!l
Tritiaw:l 12.3 a I .oco ,,.6 X lQ-" s.eoo ..... S Y. !0"11 3.1 x trr" 2.3,: 10·" 1:8 >i 10·11 1.8 i,: 10·11
-.vat~
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lk:ryllium
B<.-7 :n.3.i 0.020 I. 8 ;,,: JO-'° 0.00:'t u x m·"' 7.7 x Jr)'11 :S.3 x 10'" ],5 )( 10"11 2.8 )( 10-11

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Orbo11
C-11 OJ40b 1.000 2."/ X Jo-lO .1.000 i..S x 10·.. 1-' X 10-11 A.l x )0"11 ).0 x 10-1• Z.4 J.: l0"11

C-N 5.73 x 10' .1 1,0'.JO r.s x 10-t U.00 u, x 10-" ~-9 X 11i-"' 8.0 l', (0"10 ~-8 x 10·"' :'.LS X 10-IQ

t'lll<mllt
F-18 1.~h U);)D S.4 .>: 10-1~ 1.000 3.0 X IO''g U x 10·"1 s.i x 10--1• 6.2 x Hr" ·U:,,,: nr"
~(Tl

t,jt·'ll 2.6011 LOO) 1.1 x 104 um J.:I x 10-4 •. .ix HJ"' s.s x ,o__, 3.7 x ,o .. Jj ~ J(r'
N11.-:?A 15.0 t, 1.000 3.6 x 10--' 1.000 2..3 ~ 10"" J.l )( Ill ... 7.7 x_io·l<l sa x JO''" 4.3 ){ lo-4°

·~~b<.....d~

.TABLE n.m. (o,rnit.)

Nuclide
!'h)'l,ic.al
Age g =i. I II
f1 for l<ge l-7.. It.gr. ')..-, * Age 1~12 • Ag~ 12-li • Ai;c. > 17 I.
h&lf.!ife tl h(U g ::> l. ~) hlg) h(gl b(t) 14}

Ma.g~tt1Tl
Mg-28 20,'} 1i 1.CIJ'J 1.1 .x 1-0-1 O..:;oo UxJO_. 1 ·" >< 10""
4..$ ,i, 10-'I z, "} )( 10"' 1.2 I( 10"'

.AJl.lfflinlllffl
Al·U 7.16 x 10' • o.ezo :,1.S x 10_. 0.010 '2..1 )( !().. l.l )< lo--' 7.1 x JO"' 4,3 X 10-'> 3.S )( lO-'I

Sillcou
s,.3J 2..&ll O.o:lO :2..0 I( 10"' 0.010 1.1 )( lO"" ,.Rx 10'"' , . .c x 1040 2.0 x 10-~ 1.6 1': 10-l'l

:!ii-32 .11.so x io'" -O.CJ2J) 1.j x LO .. 0.010 4Jl >t lO_. 2.0 x l~ l..2 X 10-+ 6.9 x 10--«> 5.6 x ur"'
~
:P-32 10d 1.0XI 3.:2x1~ o.,soo uxici"" 9.4 X 10 .. .'5.3 x 10"' ;uxw' 2.-4 x 10"'

}'.]l 25.4d 1.00> 3.0 >< to-" O.llOO UI X lQ-+ 9.1 x 10"'° s..l x 10..io 3.1 >< lO~;(t .:u X 10...i

Sulp,har
s-,15 37.4 d l.000 t.3 x 10-+ uro U.!(10-«1 .11,4 x !<r' 2.7 >< l~ t.s X 10''° 1...3 x 10-*l
f~)
~ S7,4 d U:00 1.3 )( m"' l..000 • ,., )< ,o.. 'J.,7 X 10 .. t.s 1o< 10 .. 9.5 x co·va 1.1 x 10....i
(oi-gw;)

Oiloriiat'.
0-Y. l.000 1.0 x 10 ... l.00() t,.3 X 10..., 3.2 x 10-t 1.9 .)( 10 .. 1..2 ')'( JO ... 9..l x 1o·l<l

10-16