Manufacturing Processes-II

Code: MEPC204

Topics Covered: Basic working principle,

configuration, specification of machine tools [Drilling,
Shaping, Planning, Milling, Gear Shaper, Gear
Hobbing], Grinding, Super-finishing Process, Powder
Metallurgy

Mechanical Engineering Department,

AJC Bose Polytechnic
Broad classification of Machine Tools
Number of types of machine tools gradually increased till mid 20th century and after
that started decreasing based on Group Technology.
However, machine tools are broadly classified as follows:

 According to direction of major axis :

o horizontal center lathe, horizontal boring machine etc.
o vertical – vertical lathe, vertical axis milling machine etc.
o inclined – special ( e.g. for transfer machines).

 According to purpose of use :

o general purpose – e.g. center lathes, milling machines, drilling machines etc.
o single purpose – e.g. facing lathe, roll turning lathe etc.
o special purpose – for mass production.

 According to degree of automation

o non-automatic – e.g. center lathes, drilling machines etc.
o semi-automatic – capstan lathe, turret lathe, hobbing machine etc.
o automatic – e.g., single spindle automatic lathe, swiss type automatic lathe,
CNC milling machine etc.

 According to size :
o heavy duty – e.g., heavy duty lathes (e.g. ~ 55 kW), boring mills, planning
machine, horizontal boring machine etc.
o medium duty – e.g., lathes – 3.7 ~ 11 kW, column drilling machines,
milling machines etc.
o small duty – e.g., table top lathes, drilling machines, milling machines.
o micro duty – e.g., micro-drilling machine etc.

 According to precision :

o ordinary – e.g., automatic lathes

o high precision – e.g., Swiss type automatic lathes
 According to number of spindles :
o single spindle – center lathes, capstan lathes, milling machines etc.
o multi-spindle – multispindle (2 to 8) lathes, gang drilling machines etc.

 According to blank type :

o bar type (lathes)
o chucking type (lathes)
o housing type

 According to type of automation :

o fixed automation – e.g., single spindle and multispindle lathes
o flexible automation – e.g., CNC milling machine

 According to configuration :
o stand alone type – most of the conventional machine tools.
o machining system (more versatile) – e.g., transfer machine, machining
center, FMS etc.
 Unit 1
 Drilling machine
Following figure shows general configuration of drilling machine, column drill
in particular. The salient parts are
o Column with base: it is the basic structure to hold the other parts
o Drilling head: this box type structure accommodates the power drive
and the speed and feed gear boxes.
o Spindle: holds the drill and transmits rotation and axial translation to the tool
for providing cutting motion and feed motion – both to the drill.

Drilling machines are available in varying size and configuration such as pillar
drill, column drill, radial drill, micro-drill etc. but in working principle all are
more or less same.
Drilling machines are used:
o Mainly for drilling (originating or enlarging cylindrical holes)
o Occasionally for boring, counter boring, counter sinking etc.
o Also for cutting internal threads in parts like nuts using suitable attachment.

Power drive

Feed change lever

Speed change lever

Spindle

Drill Column
Job

Bed

Base
Fig. 1 Schematic view of a drilling machine
  Boring
Boring is a process of producing circular internal profiles on a hole made by drilling or
another process. It uses single point cutting tool called a boring bar. In boring, the boring bar
can be rotated, or the work part can be rotated. Machine tools which rotate the boring bar
against a stationary workpiece are called boring machines (also boring mills). Boring can be
accomplished on a turning machine with a stationary boring bar positioned in the tool post
and rotating workpiece held in the lathe chuck as illustrated in the figure. In this section, we
will consider only boring on boring machines.

Fig. 2 vertical boring operation

o Boring machines
Boring machines can be horizontal or vertical according to the orientation of the axis
or rotation of the machine spindle. In horizontal boring operation, boring bar is mounted in a
tool slide, which position is adjusted relative to the spindle face plate to machine different
diameters. The boring bar must be supported on the other end when boring long and small-
diameter holes. A vertical boring mill is used for large, heavy work parts with diameters up
to 12 m. The typical boring mill can position and feed several cutting tools simultaneously.
The work part is mounted on a rotating worktable.
o Cutting tool for boring
The typical boring bar is shown in the above figure. When boring with a rotating tool, size
is controlled by changing the radial position of the tool slide, which holds the boring bar,
with respect to the spindle axis of rotation. For finishing machining, boring bar is
additionally mounted in an adjustable boring head for more precise control.
o Types of Boring Machines:
(a) Horizontal Boring Machine (HBM):
1. Table type HBM,
2. Planer type HBM,
 3. Floor Type HBM,
4. Multiple Spindle HBM
(b). Vertical Boring Machine (VBM):
1. Single Column VBM,
2. Double Column VBM
(c) Precision boring machine
(d) Jig boring machine

o Components of a Boring Machine

(i) Bed
(ii) Floor Plate
(iii) Base
(iv) Table
(v) Column
(vi) Head Stock
(vii) End Supporting Column
(viii) Cross Rail

Fig. 3 Table type HBM

Fig. 4 Planer type boring machine

Fig. 5Floor type HBM

Fig. 6 Multiple Spindle HBM

 Fig. 7 Double column VBM

o Jig boring machine

It is a precision boring machine used for boring accurate holes at proper center-to-center
distances. A machine produced holes of within the range of 0.025mm.

Fig. 8 Jig boring machine

Specification of Machine Tools
A machine tool may have a large number of various features and characteristics. But
only some specific salient features are used for specifying a machine tool. All the
manufacturers, traders and users must know how machine tools are specified.

o Shaper
 Length, breadth and depth of the bed
 Maximum axial travel of the bed and vertical travel of the bed / tool
 Maximum length of the stroke (of the ram / tool)
 Range of number of strokes per minute
 Range of table feed
 Power of the main drive
 Space occupied by the machine

o Drilling machine (Column type)

 Maximum drill size (diameter) that can be used
 Size and taper of the hole in the spindle
 Range of spindle speeds

 Range of feeds
 Power of the main drive
 Range of the axial travel of the spindle / bed
 Floor space occupied by the machine

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 Unit 2
 Shaper

Following figure shows the general configuration of shaping machine. Its

major parts are:
o Ram: it holds and imparts cutting motion to the tool through reciprocation
o Bed: it holds and imparts feed motions to the job (blank)
o Housing with base: the basic structure and also accommodate the drive
mechanisms

o Power drive with speed and feed change mechanisms.

Shaping machines are generally used for producing flat surfaces, grooving,
splitting etc. Because of poor productivity and process capability these
machine tools are not widely used now-a-days for production.

Clapper
box
Ram

Tool
Housing
J ob
Vice Power
drive

Base

Fig. 1 Schematic view of shaper

 Common types of shaper

Shapers are classified in many ways, i.e. According to the length of the stroke, type of
driving mechanism, direction of travel of the ram, the type of work they do, the types and
design of table etc. The different types of shapers are,

1. Crank shaper
2. Hydraulic shaper
3. Universal shaper
4. Standard shaper
5. Draw-cut shaper
6. Horizontal shaper
7. Vertical shaper
8. Geared Shaper
9. Contour shaper
10. Travelling head shaper

Crank shaper

Crank and slotted link mechanism of a crank type shaper converts the rotation of an electric
motor into reciprocating movement of the ram. Though the lengths of both the forward and
return strokes are equal, the ram travels at a faster speed during return stroke. This quick
return is incorporated in almost all types of shaper.

Hydraulic shaper

The ram of a hydraulic shaper is connected to a piston. Oil at high pressure is pumped to the
cylinder of the hydraulic system. As the oil pushes the piston, the ram reciprocates.
Hydraulic shapers are high power machines and are used for heavy duty work.

Universal shaper

The universal shaper has a special type of table which can be swiveled and positioned at any
angle about a horizontal axis. Apart from the cross and vertical travel, the table of a
universal shaper can be swiveled to any angle to machine inclined surfaces. In the process,
the position of the work in the table need not be changed. These machines are utilized in
precision workshops.
Different parts of a shaper

Base

The base is hollow and is made of cast iron. It provides the necessary support for all the
other parts of the machine. It is rigidly bolted to the floor of the workshop.

Column

It is a box like casting mounted vertically on top of the base. Two accurate guide ways are
machined on the top of the column. The ram reciprocates on these guide ways. The front
face of the column is provided with two vertical guide ways. They act as guide ways for the
cross rail. Cross rail moves vertically along these guide ways. The column encloses the ram
reciprocating mechanism and the mechanism for stroke length adjustment.

Cross rail

It is mounted on the front vertical guide ways of the column. The table may be raised or
lowered by adjusting the cross rail vertically. A horizontal cross feed screw is fitted within
the cross rail.

Table

It is an important part useful in holding the work firmly on it. It is mounted on the saddle
which is located above the cross rail. The top and sides of the table are accurately machined
and have T-slots. Work pieces are held on the table with the help of shaper vise, clamps and
straps.

Ram

Ram supports the tool head on its front. It reciprocates on the accurately machined guide
ways on the top of the column. It is connected to the reciprocating mechanism placed inside
the column. The position of ram reciprocation may be adjusted according to the location of
the work on the table.

Tool head

The tool head is fitted on the face of the ram and holds the tool rigidly. It provides vertical
and angular feed movement of the tool. The swivel tool head can be positioned at any
required angle and the vertical slide can be moved vertically or at any desired angle to
machine vertical or inclined surfaces.
 Shaper operations

A shaper is a machine tool primarily designed to generate a flat surface by a single point
cutting tool. Besides this, it may also be used to perform many other operations. The
different operations, which a shaper can perform, are as follows:

1. Machining horizontal surface

2. Machining vertical surface
3. Machining inclined surface
4. Slot cutting
5. Key ways cutting
6. Machining irregular surface

Fig. 2 Different shaping operations

Some components manufactured by shaper operations

Fig. 3 Some components manufactured by shaper operations i. flat surfaces, ii. Step cutting,
iii. V-groove cutting, iv. and v. Dovetail groove cutting

Work holding devices used for shaping operations

Work pieces can be held and supported on the shaper table directly or by having some
special devices. Depending on the size and shape of the work, it may be supported on the
table by any one of the following methods.

1. Shaper vise 2. Clamps and stop pins 3. T- bolts & step bolts
1. Angle plate 2. V block

Shaper vise

Vise is the most common

and simple work holding
device used in a shaper.
Different types of vises
are used in a shaping
machine according to the
need and they are:

1. Plain vise 2. Swivel vise 3. Universal vise

 Clamps and stop pins

T–bolts are fitted into the T-

slots of the table. The work is
placed on the table. The work
is supported by a rectangular
strip at one end and by a stop
pin at the other side. The screw
is tightened to secure the work
properly on the machine table.

T- bolts and step blocks

The step blocks are used in combination

with T- bolts and clamps to hold the work
directly on the machine table. T-bolts are
fitted in the T- slots of the machine table.
One side of the clamp holds the work and
the other side rests on a step of the step
block. The different steps of the block are
useful in levelling the clamp when
holding works of different heights. A nut
on the top of the clamp holds the work
rigidly.
Angle plate

Angle plate resembles the

English alphabet „L‟. It is
accurately machined to have two
sides at right angles. Slots are
provided on both the sides. One
of the sides is bolted to the
machine table and the work
pieces are held on the other side.
 V – block

V – Block is a metal block having a

„V‟ shaped groove on it. It is used for
holding cylindrical work pieces.
Operations like keyway cutting, slot
cutting and machining flat surfaces
can be performed on the cylindrical
work pieces held on a „V‟ block.

Tools materials used in a shaping operations

The materials of the cutting tool used in a shaping machine are as follows:

1. High Carbon Steel

2. High Speed Steel
3. Carbide tipped tool
4. Stellite tool

Important mechanism for shaping operations

Quick return mechanisms

The ram moves at a comparatively slower speed during the forward cutting stroke. During
the return stroke, the mechanism is so designed to make the tool move at a faster rate to
reduce the idle return time. This mechanism is known as quick return mechanism. As the
ram moves at a faster rate during return stroke, the time taken becomes less. The total
machining time decreases and the rate of production increases.

The following mechanisms are used for quick return of the ram.

1. Crank and slotted link mechanism

2. Hydraulic mechanism
3. Whitworth mechanism
4. Automatic table feed mechanism
 Crank and slotted link mechanism

An electrical motor runs the driving pinion (S) at a uniform speed. This pinion makes the
bull gear (M) to rotate at a uniform speed. Bull gear is a large gear fitted inside the
column. The point „O‟ is the centre of the bull gear. A slotted link having a long slot
along its length is pivoted about the point „K‟. A sliding block „N‟ is fitted inside the slot
and slides along the length of the slotted link. „P‟ is the crank pin and „OP‟ can be
considered as a crank. When the bull gear rotates, the sliding block also rotates in the
crank pin circle. This arrangement provides a rocking movement to the rocker arm. As
the top of the slotted link is connected to the ram, the ram reciprocates horizontally. So,
bull gear rotation is converted into the reciprocating movement of the ram.

Fig. 4Crank and slotted link mechanism

 Hydraulic Shaper Mechanism

In this type of shaper machine mechanism, the ram is moved forwards and backwards by
a piston moving in cylindrical placed under the ram. The machine is consists of a constant
discharge oil pump, a cylinder, a valve chamber and a piston. The Piston-rod is bolted to the
ram body. As shown in the figure.

Arrangement and working

The oil under high pressure is drawn from the reservoir. The oil is passed through the valve
chamber to the right side of the oil cylinder exerting pressure on the piston. This cause the
ram connected to the piston to perform forward stroke. Any oil present on the left side of the
cylinder is discharged to the reservoir through the throttle valve.

Fig. 5 Hydraulic shaper

o At the end of a forward stroke, the shaper dog hit against the reversing lever causing the
valves to alter their positions within the valve chamber.
o Oil under high pressure is now pumped to the left side of the piston causing the ram to
perform return stroke. Oil present on the right side of the piston is now discharged to the
reservoir.
o At the end of the return stroke, another shaper dog hits against the reversing lever altering the
direction of stroke of the piston and the cycle is thus repeated.
o The quick return is affected due to the difference in the stroke volume of the cylinder at both
ends. The left-hand end being smaller due to the presence of the piston rod.
o As the pump is a constant discharge one, within a fixed period, the same amount of oil will be
a pump into the right or to the left-hand side of the cylinder.
o This will mean that the same amount of oil will be packed within a smaller stroke volume
causing the oil pressure to rise automatically and increase the speed during the return stroke.
o The length and position of stroke are adjusted by shifting the position of reversing dogs. The
cutting speed is changed by controlling the throttle valve which controls the flow of oil.
o When the throttle valve is lost the excess oil flow cut through the relief valve to the reservoir
maintaining uniform pressure during the cutting stroke.

Automatic Table Feeding Mechanism of Shaper

The automatic feed mechanism of the table is very simple. This is done by rotating a ratchet
wheel, mounted at the crossfeed screw. This enables a corresponding equal rotation of the
crossfeed screw after each stroke.

Arrangement of parts

It consists of a slotted disc, which carries a T-slot, as shown in the figure. In this slot is
fitted an adjustable pin and to this is attached a connecting rod. The other end of the
connecting rod is attached to the lower end of the rocker arm of the pawl mechanism.

The rocker arm swings about the screw C, and at its upper end carries a spring-loaded
pawl, as shown.

Fig. 6 Pawl-ratchet mechanism

Working principle

o Note, that the lower end of the pawl is beveled on one side.
o This arrangement helps the power feed to operate in either direction, but the same
should be set to operate during the return stroke only. If otherwise, the mechanism will
be subjected to severe stress. In some latest types of shapers, can driven feed
mechanisms are provided which are more efficient and provide a wider range of feed.
o Variation in the feed can be provided by varying the distance R between the disc
centre and the centre of the adjustable pin. Larger the said distance greater will be the
feed and vice versa.
o The amount of feed to be given depends upon the type of finish required on the job.
For rough machining, heavier cuts are employed, and thus, a coarse feed is needed.
Against this, a finer feed is employed in finishing operations.
o The slotted disc at its back carries a spur gear which is driven by the bull gear. As the
disc rotates through this gear the adjustable pin, being eccentric with the disc centre.
o This causes the connecting rod to reciprocate. This, in turn, makes the rocker arm to
swing about the screw C to move the pawl over one or more teeth. Thus transmit an
intermittent motion to the crossfeed screw which moves the table.

Fundamentals of quick return mechanism

As shown in the diagram, „KA‟ indicates the starting point of the forward cutting stroke
and „KB‟ the end of the cutting stroke. The rotation of the crank „OP‟ in clockwise
direction through the angle P1RP2 refers to the forward cutting stroke. The rotation of the
crank in the same direction through the angle P2LP1 refers to the return stroke. As the
angle P2LP1 is smaller than the angle P1RP2, the time taken for the return stroke is less
than that of forward stroke. So, it is evident that the speed at which the ram travels during
return stroke is more. This is known as quick return mechanism.
\

Fig. 7 Quick return mechanisms of the ram

In some machines this ratio can be set as 7/5.

Stroke length calculation and adjustment

The length of the stroke is calculated to be nearly 30mm longer than the work. The
position of stroke is so adjusted that the tool starts to move from a distance of 25mm
before the beginning of the cut and continues to move 5mm after the end of the cut.
Figure shows the adjustment required for the stroke length calculation.

Fig. 8 Stroke length calculation

 Planing machine
The general configuration is schematically shown in Fig.9. This machine tool also
does the same operations like shaping machine but the major differences are:
o In planing the job reciprocates for cutting motion and the tool moves slowly for the
feed motions unlike in shaping machine.
o Planing machines are usually very large in size and used for large jobs and heavy
duty work.

Frame

Tool

Table Job

Power
drive

Base

Fig. 9 Schematic view of a planning machine

Introduction of Planing Machine

Planer is used primarily to produce horizontal, vertical or inclined flat surfaces by a

single point cutting tool. But it is used for machining large and heavy work pieces that
cannot be accommodated on the table of a shaper. In addition to machining large
work, the planer is frequently used to machine multiple small parts held in line on the
platen. Planer is mainly of two kinds namely open housing planer and double housing
planer. Figure below shows an image of a double housing planer.
 Fig. 10 Planner

Common types of planers

Following are the common types of planers:

1. Double housing planer

2. Open side planer
3. Pit planer
4. Edge or plate type planer
5. Divided table planer

Fig. 11 Principle part of a planer

Following are the main parts of the double housing planer machine

Bed and table

The bed is a long heavy base and table made of cast iron. Its top surface is flat and
machined accurately. The flat top surface has slots in which the work piece can be
securely clamped. The work piece needs rigid fixing so that it does not shift out of its
position.

The standard clamping devices used on planer machine are:

Heavy duty vice, T-holders and clamps, angle plate, planer jack, step blocks and stop.
The table movement may be actuated by a variable speed drive through a rack and pinion
arrangement, or a hydraulic system.
Housings

The housings are the rigid and upright column like castings. These are located near the
centre on each side of the base.
Cross rail

The cross rail is a horizontal member supported on the machined ways of the upright
columns. Guide ways are provided on vertical face of each column and that enables up and
vertical movement of the cross rail. The vertical movement of the cross rail allows to
accommodate work piece of different heights. Since the cross rail is supported at both the
ends, this type of planer machine is rigid in construction.

Tool heads

Generally two tool heads are mounted in the horizontal cross rail and one on each of the
vertical housing. Tool heads may be swiveled so that angular cuts can be made.

Driving and feed mechanism

The tool heads may be fed either by hand or by power in crosswise or vertical direction. The
motor drive is usually at one side of the planer near the centre and drive mechanism is
located under the table.
Working principle of planer

Fig. 12 working principle of planning machine

Above figure shows the working principle of a planer. In a planer, the work which is
supported on the table reciprocates past the stationary cutting tool and the feed is imparted
by the lateral movement of the tool. The tool is clamped in the tool holder and work on the
table. Like shaper, the planner is equipped with clapper box to raise the tool in idle stroke.
The different mechanisms used to give reciprocating motion to the table are following:

1. Reversible motor drive

2. Open and cross belt drive
3. Hydraulic drive

Work holding devices

Various devices used for holding work pieces on the planer table are:

1. Planer vise 6. Angle plate

2. Step block 7. Clamps
3. Planer screw jack 8. Parallel strips
4. V –block 9. Holding-down dogs
5. End stops 10. T -bolts, nuts, washers, packing, wedges

Planing machine operations

Operations which can be performed on the Planing machine are,

1. Planing flat horizontal

2. Planing vertical surfaces
3. Planing curved surfaces
4. Planing at an angle and machining dovetails
5. Planing slots and grooves
Difference between Shaper and Planer
Sl.
Shaper Planer
No.
The work is held The tool is stationary and
stationary and the tool the work piece on the table
1
on the ram is moved travels back and forth
back and forth across under the tool
the work

2 Used for shaping much Used for much larger

smaller jobs jobs. Jobs as large as 6 M
wide and twice as long
can be machined
3 It is a light machine It is a heavy duty machine
4 Can employ light cuts Can employ heavier cuts
and finer feed and coarse feed
5 Uses one cutting tool Several tools can cut
at a time simultaneously
Driven using quick- The drive on the planer
6 return link mechanism table is either by gears or
by hydraulic means

7
It is less rigid and less Better rigidity that give
robust more accuracy on
machined surface
 Unit 3
 Milling machine

Introduction

o A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a rotating
multipoint cutter. The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes metal at a very fast
rate with the help of multiple cutting edges.

o One or more number of cutters can be mounted simultaneously on the arbor of milling
machine. This is the reason that a milling machine finds wide application in production
work. Milling machine is used for machining flat surfaces, contoured surfaces, surfaces of
revolution, external and internal threads, and helical surfaces of various cross-sections.

Its major parts are:

o Base
It is a foundation member and it carries the column at its one end. In some machines, the base
is hollow and serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid.

o Column
The column is the main supporting member mounted vertically on the base. It is box shaped,
heavily ribbed inside and houses all the driving mechanism for the spindle and table feed. The
front vertical face of the column is accurately machined and is provided with dovetail guide
way for supporting the knee.
o Knee
The knee is a rigid grey iron casting which slides up and down on the vertical ways of the
column face. An elevating screw mounted on the base is used to adjust the height of the knee
and it also supports the knee.

o Saddle
The saddle is placed on the top of the knee and it slides on guide ways set exactly at 90° to the
column face. The top of the saddle provides guide-ways for the table.

o Table
The table rests on ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally. A lead screw under the table
engages a nut on the saddle to move the table horizontally by hand or power. In universal
machines, the table may also be swiveled horizontally. For this purpose the table is mounted
on a circular base. The top of the table is accurately finished and T -slots are provided for
clamping the work and other fixtures on it.
o Overhanging arm
It is mounted on the top of the column, which extends beyond the column face and serves as a
bearing support for the other end of the arbor.

o Front brace
It is an extra support, which is fitted between the knee and the over-arm to ensure further
rigidity to the arbor and the knee.

o Spindle
It is situated in the upper part of the column and receives power from the motor through belts,
gears and clutches and transmits it to the arbor.

o Arbor
It is like an extension of the machine spindle on which milling cutters are securely mounted
and rotated. The arbors are made with taper shanks for proper alignment with the machine
spindles having taper holes at their nose. The arbor assembly consists of the following
components.
1. Arbor 2. Spindle 3. Spacing collars 4. Bearing bush 5. Cutter
6. Drawbolt 7. Lock nut 8. Key block 9. Set screw

Fig.1 Principal parts of a milling machine

The general configuration of knee type conventional milling machine with horizontal arbour is shown in
the following Figure.

Fig.2 schematic view of a milling machine

Following figure shows a plain milling cutter and the names of its different components.

Fig.3 Plain milling cutter and its components

Common types of milling machines

Milling machine rotates the cutter mounted on the arbor of the machine and at the same time
automatically feed the work in the required direction. The milling machine may be classified in
several forms, but the choice of any particular machine is determined primarily by the size of the
work piece to be undertaken and operations to be performed. According to general design, the
distinctive types of milling machines are:
1. Column and knee type milling machines 5. Machining center machines

a) Horizontal milling machine 6. Special types of milling machines

b) Vertical milling machine a) Rotary table milling machine.

c) Universal milling machine b) Planetary milling machine.

2. Planer milling machine c) Profiling machine.

3. Fixed-bed type milling machine d) Duplicating machine.

a) Simplex milling machine. e) Pantograph milling machine.

b) Duplex milling machine. f) Continuous milling machine.

c) Triplex milling machine g) Drum milling machine

Fig.4 Column and knee type milling Fig.5 Vertical milling machine
Fig.6 Universal milling machine Fig.7 Plain milling machine

Fig.8 Omniversal milling machine Fig.9 Fixed bed type milling machine

Fig.10 Simplex milling machine Fig.11 Duplex milling machine

 Fig.12 Rotary table type milling Fig.13 Pantograph milling

Fig.14 Profile milling Fig.15 Tracer controlled milling

Principles of milling

o In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter having multiple cutting
edges. For cutting operation, the work piece is fed against the rotary cutter. As the work
piece moves against the cutting edges of milling cutter, metal is removed in form chips of
trochoid shape.
o Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the work. The work to be machined
is held in a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw chuck, an index head, between centers, in a
special fixture or bolted to machine table.
o The rotatory speed of the cutting tool and the feed rate of the work piece depend upon the
type of material being machined.
Milling methods

There are two distinct methods of milling classified as follows:

o Up-milling or conventional milling

o Down milling or climb milling.

Up-milling or conventional milling

In the up-milling or conventional milling, the metal is removed in form of small chips by a cutter
rotating against the direction of travel of the work piece. In this type of milling, the chip
thickness is minimum at the start of the cut and maximum at the end of cut. As a result the
cutting force also varies from zero to the maximum value per tooth movement of the milling
cutter. The major disadvantages of up-milling process are the tendency of cutting force to lift the
work from the fixtures and poor surface finish obtained. But being a safer process, it is
commonly used method of milling.

Fig. 16 Up milling process

Down-milling or climb milling

In this method, the metal is removed by a cutter rotating in the same direction of feed of the work
piece. Chip thickness is maximum at the start of the cut and minimum in the end. In this method,
there is less friction involved and consequently less heat is generated on the contact surface of
the cutter and work piece. Climb milling can be used advantageously on many kinds of work to
increase the number of pieces per sharpening and to produce a better finish. With climb milling,
saws cut long thin slots more satisfactorily than with standard milling. Another advantage is that
slightly lower power consumption is obtainable by climb milling, since there is no need to drive
the table against the cutter.
 Fig. 17 Down milling process

Following different operations can be performed on a milling machine:

Plain Milling Operation

This is also called slab milling. This operation produces flat surfaces on the work piece. Feed and
depth of cut are selected, rotating milling cutter is moved from one end of the work piece to other
end to complete the one pairs of plain milling operation.
Face Milling
This operation produces flat surface at the face on the work piece.
This surface is perpendicular to the surface prepared in plain
milling operation. This operation is performed by face milling
cutter mounted on stub arbor of milling machine. Depth of cut is set
according to the need and cross feed is given to the work table.

Side Milling Operation

This operation produces flat and vertical surfaces at the sides of the work piece. In this operation
depth of cut is adjusted by adjusting vertical feed screw of the work piece.

Straddle Milling Operation

This is similar to the side milling operation. Two side
milling cutters are mounted on the same arbor. Distance
between them is so adjusted that both sides of the work
piece can be milled simultaneously. Hence hexagonal
bolt can be produced by this operation by rotating the
work piece only two times.
Angular Milling Operation
Angular milling operation is used to produce angular surface on the work piece. The produced
surface makes an angle with the axis of spindle which is not right angle. Production of „V‟
shaped groove is the example of angular milling operation.

Gang Milling Operation

As the name indicates, this operation produces several surfaces of a work piece simultaneously
using a gang of milling cutters. During this operation, the work piece mounted on the table is fed
against the revolving milling cutters.

Form Milling
This operation produces irregular contours on the work surface.
These irregular contours may be convex, concave, or of any
other shape. This operation is done comparatively at very low
cutter speed than plain milling operation.

Profile Milling
In this operation a template of complex shape or master die is used. A tracer and milling cutter
are synchronized together with respect to their movements. Tracer reads the template or master
die and milling cutter generates the same shape on the work piece. Profile milling is an operation
used to generate shape of a template or die.
End Milling
End milling operation produces flat vertical surfaces, flat
horizontal surfaces and other flat surfaces making an angle from
table surface using milling cutter named as end mill. This
operation is preferably carried out on vertical milling machine.

Saw Milling
Saw milling operation produces narrow slots or grooves into the work piece using saw milling
cutter. This operation is also used to cut the work piece into two equal or unequal pieces which
cut is also known as “parting off”.

Slot Milling Operation

The operation of producing keyways, grooves, slots of varying shapes and sizes is called slot
milling operation. Slot milling operation can use any type of milling cutter like plain milling
cutter, metal slitting saw or side milling cutter. Selection of a cutter depends upon type and size
of slot or groove to be produced.

Gear Cutting Operation

The operation of gear cutting is cutting of equally spaced, identical gear teeth on a gear blank by
handling it on a universal dividing head and then indexing it. The cutter used for this operation is
cylindrical type or end mill type. The cutter selection also depends upon tooth profile and their
spacing.
 Helical Milling Operation
Helical milling produces helical flutes or grooves on the periphery of a cylindrical or conical
work piece. This is performed by swiveling the table to the required helix angle, then rotating
and feeding the work piece against revolving cutting edges of milling cutter. Helical gears and
drills and reamers are made by this operation.

Cam Milling Operation

The operation cam milling is used to produce the cam on milling machine. In this operation cam
blank is mounted at the end of the dividing head spindle and the end mill is held in the vertical
milling attachment.

Fig. cam profile milling Fig. thread milling

Thread Milling Operation
The operation thread milling produces threads using thread milling centres. This operation needs
three simultaneous movements revolving movement of cutter, simultaneous longitudinal
movement of cutter, feed movement to the work piece through table. For each thread, the
revolving cutter is fed longitudinal by a distance equal to pitch of the thread. Depth of cut is
normally adjusted equal to the full depth of threads.
Surfaces generated by milling machine

Types of milling cutters

Milling cutters are made in various forms to perform certain classes of work, and they may be
classified as:

Plain milling cutter

These cutters are cylindrical in shape having teeth on their

circumference. These are used to produce flat surfaces parallel to axis of
rotation. Depending upon the size and applications plain milling cutters
are categorized as light duty, heavy duty and helical plain milling
cutters.
Side milling cutter

Side milling cutters are used to remove metals from the side of work
piece. These cutters have teeth on the periphery and on its sides. These
are further categorized as plain side milling cutters having straight
circumferential teeth. Staggered teeth side milling cutters having
alternate teeth with opposite helix angle providing more chip space.
Half side milling cutters have straight or helical teeth on its
circumference and on its one side only. Circumferential teeth do the
actual cutting of metal while side teeth do the finishing work.

Face milling cutter

A face mill is an end mill optimized for facing cuts, whose teeth are
arranged in periphery. Some face mills are solid in construction, but
many others feature indexable teeth, with the cutter body designed to
hold multiple disposable carbide or ceramic tips or inserts, often
golden in color. When the tips are blunt, they may be removed, rotated
(indexed) and replaced to present a fresh, sharp face to the work piece.
This increases the life of the tip and thus its economical cutting life.
 Angular milling cutter

These cutters have conical surfaces with cutting edges over

them. These are used to machine angles other than 90°. Two
types of angle milling cutters are available single angle
milling cutter and double angle milling cutter.

End milling cutter

End mills are used for cutting slots, small holes and light
milling operations. These cutters have teeth on their end as well
as on periphery. The cutting teeth may be straight or helical.
Depending upon the shape of their shank, these are categorized
as discussed below.

1. Taper Shank Mill

Taper shank mill have tapered shank.

2. Straight Shank Mill

Straight shank mill having straight shank.

3. Shell End Mills

These are normally used for face milling operation.
Cutters of different sizes can be accommodated on a
single common shank.

Fly cutter

Fly cutters are the simplest form of cutters used to make contoured surfaces. These cutters
are the Single-pointed cutting tool with cutting end ground to desired shape. These are
mounted in special adapter or arbor. Used in experimental work instead of a
specially shaped cutter
T-Slot cutter

These are the special form of milling cutters used to produce

„T‟ shaped slots in the work piece. It consists of small side
milling cutter with teeth on both sides and integral shank for
mounting.

Formed cutters
Formed cutters may have different types of profile on their cutting edges which can generate
different types of profile on the work pieces. Depending upon tooth profile and their capabilities,
formed cutters are categorized as given below.

1. Convex Milling Cutters

These cutters have profile outwards at their circumference and used to generate concave
semicircular surface on the work piece.

2. Concave Milling Cutters

These milling cutters have teeth profile curve in words on their circumference. These are
used to generate convex semicircular surfaces.

3. Corner Rounding Milling Cutters

These cutters have teeth curved inwards. These milling cutters are used to form contours
of quarter circle. These are main used in making round corners and round edges of the
work piece.
Metal slitting saw

These cutters are like plain or side milling cutters having very small width. These are used for
parting off operations. It is of two types. If teeth of this saw resembles with plain milling cutter,
it is called plain milling slitting saw. If its teeth match with staggered teeth side milling cutter, it
is called staggered teeth slitting saw.

Specification of Milling Machine

o Milling machine (Knee type and with arbour)
 Type; ordinary or swiveling bed type
 Size of the work table
 Range of travels of the table in X-Y-Z directions
 Arbour size (diameter)
 Power of the main drive
 Range of spindle speed
 Range of table feeds in X-Y-Z directions
 Floor space occupied.
Unit 4

 Gear cutting on Milling Machine

Indexing mechanism
Indexing is the operation of dividing the periphery of a work piece into any number of equal
parts. For example if we want to make a hexagonal bolt. Head of the bolt is given hexagonal
shape. We do indexing to divide circular work piece into six equal parts and then all the six parts
are milled to an identical flat surface. If we want to cut „n‟ number of teeth in a gear blank. The
circumference of gear blank is divided into „n‟ number of equal parts and teeth are made by
milling operation one by one. The main component used in indexing operation is universal
dividing head.

Indexing methods
There are different indexing methods as follows:
1. Direct indexing
2. Simple indexing
3. Compound indexing
4. Differential indexing

Fig. 1 Indexing head and foot stock

[*Details are given in another notes]

 Fig. 2 Construction of indexing head

Fig. 3 Indexing plate II (Brown & Sharpe)

 Gear Manufacturing Process by gear hobbing and gear shaper

VARIOUS GEAR CUTTERS

Gear Machining
The bulk of power transmitting metal gears of machinery are produced by machining process from
cast, forged, or hot rolled blanks.

Roughing processes include milling the tooth shape with formed cutters or Generating the shape
with a rack cutter, a shaping cutter or a hob cutter.

Despite its name, the roughing processes actually produce a smooth and accurate gear tooth.
Only for high precision and quiet running, the secondary finishing operation is justified at
added cost.

GEAR SHAPING

GEAR SHAPING used a cutting tool in the shape of a gear which is reciprocated axially
across the gear blank to cut the teeth while the blank rotates around the shaper tool. It is a true
shape-generation process in that the gear-shaped tool cuts itself into mesh with the gearblank.

The bulk of power transmitting metal gears of machinery are produced by machining process
from cast, forged, or hot rolled blanks. Roughing processes include milling the tooth shape with
formed cutters or generating the shape with a rack cutter, a shaping cutter or a hob cutter.

ROUGHING PROCESSES

FORM MILLING BY DISC CUTTER

The disc cutter shape conforms to the gear tooth space. Each gear needs separate cutter. However,
with 8 to 10 Std. cutters, gears from 12 to 120 teeth can be cut with fair accuracy. Tooth is cut one
by one by plunging the rotating cutter into the blank.
FORM MILLING BY END MILL CUTTER

The end mill cutter shape conforms to tooth spacing. Each tooth is cut at a time and then indexed for next
Tooth space for cutting. A set of 10 cutters will do for 12 to 120 teeth gears. Suited for small volume
production of low precision gears.

To reduce costs, the same cutter is often used for the multiple-sized gears resulting in profile errors for
all but one number of teeth. Form milling method is the least accurate of the roughing methods.

RACK GENERATION
Advantages
In rack cutter the tooth shape is trapezoid and can be made easily. The hardened and sharpened rack
is reciprocated along the axis of the gear blank and fed into it while gear blank is being rotated so as
to generate the involute tooth on the gear blank.

Disadvantages
The rack and gear blank must be periodically repositioned to complete the circumference. This
introduces errors in the tooth geometry making this method less accurate than shapingand hobbing.

The process is limited to small gears since the length of the rack has to be equal to
circumference of the gear at pitch diameter.

In gear shaping, a cutting tool of the shape of a gear reciprocates axially across the gear blank to cut the
teeth while the blank rotates around the shaper tool. It is a true shape-generation process in that the gear-
shaped tool cuts itself into mesh with the gear blank.

GEAR SHAPING
The accuracy is good, but any errors in one tooth of the shaper cutter will be directly Transferred
to the gear. Internal gears can be cut with this method as well.
 Gear Hobbing
i. In gear hobbing process, the gear blank is rolled with a rotating cutter called hob.
ii. Gear hobbing is done by using a multipoint cutting tool called gear hob.
iii. A number of straight flutes all around its periphery parallel to its axis.
iv. These flutes are shaped by giving proper angles so that these work as cutting edges.
v. In gear hobbing operation, the hob is rotated at a suitable rpm and simultaneously fed to
the gear blank.
vi. The gear blank is also kept as revolving.
vii. Rpm of both, gear blank and gear hob are so synchronized that for each revolution of gear
hob the gear blank rotates by a distance equal to one pitch distance of the gear to be cut.
viii. Motion of both gear blank and hob are maintained continuously and steady.
ix. A gear hob and the process of gear hobbing are shown in following Figures. The hob teeth
behave like screw threads, having a definite helix angle.

Fig. 1 Gear hob

Fig. 2 Gear hobbing

x. During operation the hob is tilted to helix angle so that its cutting edges remain square with the
gear blank.
xi. Gear hobbing is used for making a wide variety of gears like spur gear, helical, hearing-bone,
splines and gear sprockets, etc.
 Three important parameters are to be controlled in the process of gear hobbing:
i. Indexing movement,
ii. Feed rate and
iii. Angle between the axis of gear blank and gear hobbing tool (gear hob).

A schematic diagram of the setup of a gear hobbing machine is illustrated in following Figure.

Fig. 3 Gear hobbing process

 Procedure:
i. The aims of hob are set at an inclination equal to the helix angle of the hob with the vertical
axis of the blank.
ii. If a helical gear is to be cut, the hob axis is set at an inclination equal to the sum of the helix
angle of the hob and the helix angle of the helical gear.
iii. Proper gear arrangement is used to maintain rpm ratio of gear blank and hob.
iv. The operation of gear hobbing involves feeding the revolving hob till it reaches to the required
depth of the gear tooth.
v. Simultaneously it is fed in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation.
vi. The process of gear hobbing is classified into different types according to the directions of
feeding the hob for gear cutting. The classification is described as given below.

 Hobbing with Axial Feed

In this process the gear hob is fed against the gear blank along the face of the blank and parallel to its
axis. This is used to make spur and helical gears.
  Hobbing with Radial Feed
In this method the hob and gear blanks are set with their axis normal to each other. The rotating hob is
fed against the gear blank in radial direction or perpendicular to the axis of gear blank. This method is
used to make the worm wheels.
 Hobbing with Tangential Feed
This is also used for cutting teeth on worm wheel. In this case, the hob is held with its axis horizontal but
at right angle to the axis of the blank. The hob is set at full depth of the tooth and then fed forward
axially. The hob is fed tangential to the face of gear blank.

Fig. 3 Axial feeding

Fig. 4 Radial feed Fig. 5 Tangential feed

Tangential Hobbing (Axis of Hobber and blank are Tangential)

Fig. 6 Worm gear

 Fig. 7 Different speed and feed of gear hobbing (middle)

 Advantages of gear hobbing process are described below:

a. Gear hobbing is a fast and continuous process so it is realized as economical process as compared
to other gear generation processes.
b. Lower production cycle time, i.e. faster production rate.
c. The process has a larger variability‟s in the following of sense as compared to other gear
machining processes.
i. Capable to make wide variety of gears like spur gear, helical gears, worms, splines,
sprockets, etc.
ii. Process of required indexing is quite simplified and capable to make any number of teeth
with consistent accuracy of module.
iii. A special type of gear named harringbon gear can be generated by gear hobbing
exclusively.
iv. Wide variety of batch size (small to large volume) can be accommodated by this process.
v. Several gear blanks, mounted on the same arbor, can be processed simultaneously.
vi. Hob is multipoint cutting tool having multi cutting teeth or edges at a time few number of
cutting edges work so lots of time is available to dissipate the generated heat and is no
over-heating takes place.

 Limitation:
In addition to above mentioned large number of advantages there is one limitation of the process
of gear hobbing i.e. manufacturing of internal gears is not possible.
 Unit 5
 Grinding Machines
Grinding Machines are also considered as machine tools. A distinguishing feature of
grinding machines is the rotating abrasive tool. Grinding machine is employed to obtain high
accuracy along with very high class of surface finish on the workpiece.

However, advent of new generation of grinding wheels and grinding machines,

characterized by their rigidity, power and speed enables one to go for high efficiency deep
grinding (often called as abrasive milling) of not only hardened material but also ductile
materials.

Conventional grinding machines can be broadly classified as:

(a) Surface grinding machine
(b) Cylindrical grinding machine
(c) Internal grinding machine
(d) Tool and cutter grinding machine

Fig. 1 Surface grinding machine Fig. 2 Cylindrical grinding machine

Fig. 3 Internal grinding machine Fig. 4 Tool and cutter grinding machine
 Surface grinding machine:

This machine may be similar to a milling machine used mainly to grind flat surface.
However, some types of surface grinders are also capable of producing contour surface with
formed grinding wheel.
Basically there are four different types of surface grinding machines characterized by the
movement of their tables and the orientation of grinding wheel spindles as follows:

 Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table

 Vertical spindle and reciprocating table
 Horizontal spindle and rotary table
 Vertical spindle and rotary table

Horizontal spindle reciprocating table grinder

Figure 5 illustrates this machine with various motions required for grinding action. A disc
type grinding wheel performs the grinding action with its peripheral surface. Both traverse
and plunge grinding can be carried out in this machine as shown in Fig. 6

A: rotation of grinding
wheel B: reciprocation of
worktable C: transverse feed
D: down feed

Fig.5 Horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder

 (a) (b)

A: rotation of grinding wheel B: reciprocation of worktable

C: transverse feed D: down feed
Fig. 6 Surface grinding (a) traverse grinding (b) plunge grinding

Vertical spindle reciprocating table grinder

This grinding machine with all working motions is shown in Fig. 7. The grinding operation is
similar to that of face milling on a vertical milling machine. In this machine a cup shaped
wheel grinds the workpiece over its full width using end face of the wheel as shown in Fig. 8.
This brings more grits in action at the same time and consequently a higher material removal
rate may be attained than for grinding with a peripheral wheel.
 A: rotation of grinding wheel, B: reciprocation of worktable C: down feed of grinding wheel

Fig. 7 Vertical spindle reciprocating table surface grinder Fig. 8 Surface grinding

Horizontal spindle rotary table grinder

Surface grinding in this machine is shown in Fig. 9. In principle the operation is same as that
for facing on the lathe. This machine has a limitation in accommodation of workpiece and
therefore does not have wide spread use. However, by swivelling the worktable, concave or
convex or tapered surface can be produced on individual part as illustrated in Fig. 10.

Fig. 9 Surface grinding in Horizontal spindle rotary table surface grinder

 Fig. 10 Grinding of a tapered surface in horizontal spindle rotary table surface grinder

Vertical spindle rotary table grinder

The principle of grinding in this machine is shown in Fig. 11. The machine is mostly suitable
for small workpieces in large quantities. This primarily production type machine often uses
two or more grinding heads thus enabling both roughing and finishing in one rotation of the
work table.

A: rotation of grinding wheel

B: work table rotation
C: down feed of grinding wheel

Fig. 11 Surface grinding in vertical spindle rotary table surface grinder

 Cylindrical grinding machine

This machine is used to produce external cylindrical surface. The surfaces may be
straight, tapered, steps or profiled. Broadly there are three different types of cylindrical
grinding machine as follows:
1. Plain centre type cylindricalgrinder
2. Universal cylindrical surfacegrinder
3. Centreless cylindrical surface grinder
Plain centre type cylindrical grinder

Figure 12 illustrates schematically this machine and various motions required for
grinding action. The machine is similar to a centre lathe in many respects. The
workpiece is held between head stock and tailstock centres. A disc type grinding wheel
performs the grinding action with its peripheral surface. Both traverse and plunge
grinding can be carried out in this machine as shown in Fig. 13.

A: rotation of grinding
wheelB: work table rotation
C: reciprocation of worktable
D: infeed

Fig. 12 Plain centre type cylindrical grinder

A A

B C B

A: rotation of grinding wheel

(b) B: workpiece rotation
(a)
C: reciprocation of worktable
D: infeed
Fig. 13 Cylindrical (a) traverse grinding and
(b) plunge grinding
Universal cylindrical surface grinder

Universal cylindrical grinder is similar to a plain cylindrical one except that it is more
versatile. In addition to small worktable swivel, this machine provides large swivel of head
stock, wheel head slide and wheel head mount on the wheel head slide.

A: swivelling wheel head

B: swivelling wheel head slide
C: swivelling head stock
D
D: rotation of grinding wheel

Fig. 14 important features of universal cylindrical grinding machine

This allows grinding of any taper on the workpiece. Universal grinder is also equipped with
an additional head for internal grinding. Schematic illustration of important features of this
machine is shown in Fig. 14.

Special application of cylindrical grinder

Principle of cylindrical grinding is being used for thread grinding with specially formed wheel
that matches the thread profile. A single ribbed wheel or a multi ribbed wheel can be used as
shown in Fig. 15.

A: rotation of grinding
A A
wheelB: rotation of
workpiece
C: Downfeed
B B D: Longitudinal feed of wheel
(b)

Fig. 15 Thread grinding with (a) single rib (b) multi-ribbed wheel
Roll grinding is a specific case of cylindrical grinding wherein large workpieces such as
shafts, spindles and rolls are ground.
Crankshaft or crank pin grinders also resemble cylindrical grinder but are engaged to grind
crank pins which are eccentric from the centre line of the shaft as shown in Fig.16. The
eccentricity is obtained by the use of special chuck.

A: rotation of wheel
B: rotation of crank pin

Fig. 16 Grinding of crank pin

 External centreless grinder

This grinding machine is a production machine in which outside diameter of the

workpiece is ground. The workpiece is not held between centres but by a work support
blade. It is rotated by regulating wheel and ground by the grinding wheel.

Fig. 17 External centreless grinding machine

In through-feed centreless grinding, the regulating wheel revolving at a much lower surface
speed than grinding wheel controls the rotation and longitudinal motion of the workpiece. The
regulating wheel is kept slightly inclined to the axis of the grinding wheel and the workpiece is
fed longitudinally as shown in Fig. 18.
 A: rotation of grinding wheel
B: workpiece rotation
C: reciprocation of worktable

Fig.18 Centreless through feed grinding

Parts with variable diameter can be ground by Centreless infeed grinding as shown in Fig
19 (a). The operation is similar to plunge grinding with cylindrical grinder. End feed grinding
shown in Fig. 19 (b) is used for workpiece with tapered surface.

A A

A: rotation of grinding wheel

B B: rotation of regulating
wheelC: feed on workpiece

(a) (b)

Fig. 19 Centreless (a) infeed and (b) end feed grinding

The grinding wheel or the regulating wheel or both require to be correctly profiled to get the
required taper on the workpiece.

Tool post grinder

A self-powered grinding wheel is mounted on the tool post or

compound rest to provide the grinding action in a lathe. Rotation
to the workpiece is provided by the lathe spindle. The lathe
carriage is used to reciprocate the wheel head.

Fig. 20 Tool post grinder

  Internal grinding machine

This machine is used to produce internal cylindrical surface. The surface may be
straight, tapered, grooved or profiled.
Broadly there are three different types of internal grinding machine as follows:
1. Chucking type internal grinder
2. Planetary internal grinder
3. Centreless internal grinder

Chucking type internal grinder

Figure 21 illustrates schematically this machine and various motions required for grinding
action. The workpiece is usually mounted in a chuck. A magnetic face plate can also be
used. A small grinding wheel performs the necessary grinding with its peripheral surface.
Both transverse and plunge grinding can be carried out in this machine as shown in Fig. 22.

A: rotation of grinding wheel B: workpiece rotation

C: reciprocation of worktable D: infeed

Fig. 21 Internal centreless grinder Fig. 22 Internal (a) traverse grinding and
(b) plunge grinding
Centreless internal grinder

This machine is used for grinding cylindrical and tapered holes in cylindrical parts (e.g.
cylindrical liners, various bushings etc). The workpiece is rotated between supporting roll,
pressure roll and regulating wheel and is ground by the grinding wheel as illustrated in Fig. 23.
 A: grinding wheel

rotation B: workpiece

rotation

C: wheel reciprocation

Fig. 23 Internal centreless grinding

 Grinding wheels
Grinding wheel consists of hard abrasive grains called grits, which perform the cutting or
material removal, held in the weak bonding matrix. A grinding wheel commonly identified
by the type of the abrasive material used. The conventional wheels include aluminium oxide
and silicon carbide wheels while diamond and cBN (cubic boron nitride) wheels fall in the
category of super-abrasive wheel.

 Specification of grinding wheel:

A grinding wheel requires two types of specification- (a) Geometrical specification (b)
Compositional specification
a. Geometrical specification
This is decided by the type of grinding machine and the grinding operation to be performed
in the workpiece. This specification mainly includes wheel diameter, width and depth of rim
and the bore diameter. The wheel diameter, for example can be as high as 400 mm in high
efficiency grinding or as small as less than 1 mm in internal grinding. Similarly, width of the
wheel may be less than 1 mm in slicing applications. Standard wheel configurations for
conventional and super-abrasive grinding wheels are shown in following figures.

Fig. 24 Standard grinding wheel configuration

 Fig. 25 different other grinding wheels

 Straight Wheel
These are generally used for cylindrical, internal, centreless and surface grinding operations.
These wheels vary in size, diameter and width of the face. All the parameters depend on the
clays of work for which the wheel is used, size and power of grinding machine using the
wheel.
 Tappered Face Straight Wheels
It is also a straight wheel but its free is slightly tapered to facilitate the grinding of threads an
gear teeth.
 Cylindrical Wheel Ring
It is used for surface grinding, i.e. production of flat surfaces. Grinding takes place with the
help of face of the wheel.
 Cup Wheel Cup wheel
It is used for grinding flat surfaces with the help of face of grinding wheel.
 Flaring Cup Wheel
It is used in grinding of tools in tool room.
 Saucer Wheel
Saucer wheel is used for sharpening of circular or band saw.
 Segmented Wheel
Segmented wheels are normally on vertical spindle, rotary type and reciprocating type
surface grinders.
 Dish Wheel
It is also used for grinding of tools in tool room. It is capable to grind very narrow places
due to its thinners.

 Size of a Grinding Wheel

Major dimensions of a grinding wheel are the outside diameter; bore diameter; and width of
the face. In addition to the above geometry of the face of grinding wheel also matters. It may
be flat, pointed, concave, convex, etc.

b. Compositional specifications
Specification of a grinding wheel ordinarily means compositional specification.
Conventional abrasive grinding wheels are specified encompassing the following
parameters:
1) the type of grit material
2) the grit size
3) the bond strength of the wheel, commonly known as wheel hardness
4) the structure of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e. the amount of inter grit spacing
5) the type of bond material
6) other than these parameters, the wheel manufacturer may add their own identification
code prefixing or suffixing (or both) the standard code.

 Various elements of grinding wheel

 Grit size
The grain size affects material removal rate and the surface quality of workpiece in
grinding. Large grit- big grinding capacity, rough workpiece surface, Fine grit- small
grinding capacity, smooth workpiece surface.
  Grade
i. The worn out grit must pull out from the bond and make room for fresh sharp grit in
order to avoid excessive rise of grinding force and temperature.
ii. Therefore, a soft grade should be chosen for grinding hard material.
iii. On the other hand, during grinding of low strength soft material grit does not wear out
so quickly.
iv. Therefore, the grit can be held with strong bond so that premature grit dislodgement
can be avoided.
Wheel Grade It indicates the strength of the binding material. When the work material
is hard, the grains wear outeasily and the sharpness of the cutting edges is quickly
lost. This is known as WHEEL GLAZING.To avoid this problem, a soft wheel
should be used.

Different Grades - i. A-H – Soft Wheel

ii. J-P – Medium Wheel
iii. Q-Z – Hard Wheel

 Structure / concentration
i. The structure should be open for grinding wheels engaged in high material removal to
provide chip accommodation space.
ii. The space between the grits also serves as pocket for holding grinding fluid.
iii. On the other hand dense structured wheels are used for longer wheel life, for holding
precision forms and profiles.

 Truing & Dressing

Truing
Truing is the act of regenerating the required geometry on the grinding wheel, whether the
geometry is a special form or flat profile. Therefore, truing produces the macro-geometry of
the grinding wheel.

Truing is also required on a new conventional wheel to ensure concentricity with specific
mounting system. In practice the effective macro-geometry of a grinding wheel is of vital
importance and accuracy of the finished workpiece is directly related to effective wheel
geometry.

Truing tools: There are four major types of truing tools:

Steel cutter:
These are used to roughly true coarse grit conventional abrasive wheel toensure freeness of cut.

Vitrified abrasive stick and wheel:

It is used for off hand truing of conventional abrasive wheel. These areused for truing
resin bonded super-abrasive wheel.
Steel or carbide crash roll

It is used to crush-true the profile on vitrified bond grinding wheel.

Diamond truing tool

Single point diamond truing tools

The single point diamond truing tools for straight face truing are made by setting a high quality
single crystal into cylindrical shank of a specific diameter and length by brazing or casting around
the diamond. During solidification contraction of the bonding metal is more than diamond and
latter is held mechanically as result of contraction of metal around it.

Multi stone diamond truing tool

The truing tool consists of a number of small but whole diamonds, some or all of which contact
the abrasive wheel at the same time. The diamond particles are surface set with a metal binder
and it is possible to make such tool with one layer or multilayer configuration as shown in
Fig. Normalrange of diamond used in this tool is from small about 0.02 carat to as largeas of 0.5
carat. These tools are suitable for heavy and rough truing operation.
 Distribution of diamond Diamond weight Distribution of diamond` Diamond weight

(i) 1 layer-3stone 10 (v) 5 layer-17 stone 50

(ii) 2 layer-3 stone 10 (vi) 5 layer-7 stone 10
(iii) 3 layer-5 stone 10 (vii) 5 layer-25 stone 250
(iv) 5 layer-13 stone 25 (viii) throughout 50

Dressing
Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface which ensures that grit cutting edges are
exposed from the bond and thus able to penetrate into theworkpiece material.

Also, in dressing attempts are made to splinter the abrasive grains to makethem sharp and free
cutting and also to remove any residue left by material being ground. Dressing therefore
produces micro-geometry.
The structure of micro-geometry of grinding wheel determine its cutting ability with a
wheel of given composition. Dressing can substantially influence the condition of the
grinding tool.

Dressing of super-abrasive wheel

Dressing of the super-abrasive wheel is commonly done with soft conventional abrasive
vitrified stick, which relieves the bond without affecting the super-abrasive grits. However,
in modern technique like electrochemical dressing the wheel acts like an anode while a
cathode plate is placed in front of the wheel working surface to allow electrochemicaldissolution.

Electro discharge dressing is another alternative route for dressing metal bonded super-
abrasive wheel. In this case a dielectric medium is used in place of an electrolyte.

Touch-dressing, a new concept differs from conventional dressing in thatbond material is not
relieved. In contrast the dressing depth is precisely controlled in micron level to obtain better
uniformity of grit height resulting in improvement of workpiece surface finish.

Truing and dressing

Truing and dressing are commonly combined into one operation for conventional abrasive
grinding wheels, but are usually two distinctly separate operation for super-abrasive wheel.
 Truing: It is an operation to give the true geometric shape as it becomeworn from an
original shape
Dressing: It is a process of clearing and opening up of the face of a grindingwheel.It remove worn out
grains from the face of the wheel

Both operations can be done by same tool but for different purpose.
 Different Bond in grinding wheels
 Vitrified bond
Vitrified bond is suitable for high stock removal even at dry condition. It can also be
safely used in wet grinding. It cannot be used where mechanical impact or thermal
variations are like to occur. This bond is also not recommended for very high speed
grinding because of possible breakage of the bond under centrifugal force.
 Resin bond
Conventional abrasive resin bonded wheels are widely used for heavy duty grinding
because of their ability to withstand shock load. This bond is also known for its
vibration absorbing characteristics and finds its use with diamond and cBN in grinding
of cemented carbide and steel respectively. Resin bond is not recommended with
alkaline grinding fluid for a possible chemical attack leading to bond weakening.
Fiberglass reinforced resin bond is used with cut off wheels which requires added
strength under high speed operation.
 Shellac bond
At one time this bond was used for flexible cut off wheels. At present use of shellac
bond is limited to grinding wheels engaged in fine finish of rolls.
 Oxychloride bond
It is less common type bond, but still can be used in disc grinding operation. It is used
under dry condition.
  Rubber bond
Its principal use is in thin wheels for wet cut-off operation. Rubber bond was once
popular for finish grinding on bearings and cutting tools.
 Metal bond
Metal bond is extensively used with super-abrasive wheels. Extremely high toughness
of metal bonded wheels makes these very effective in those applications where form
accuracy as well as large stock removal is desired.
 Electroplated bond
This bond allows large (30-40%) crystal exposure above the bond without need of any
truing or dressing. This bond is specially used for making small diameter wheel, form
wheel and thin super abrasive wheels. Presently it is the only bond for making wheels
for abrasive milling and ultra-high speed grinding.
 Brazed bond
This is relatively a recent development, allows crystal exposure as high 60-80%. In
addition grit spacing can be precisely controlled. This bond is particularly suitable for
very high material removal either with diamond or cBN wheel. The bond strength is
much greater than provided by electroplated bond. This bond is expected to replace
electroplated bond in many applications.

 Marking system for conventional grinding wheel

The standard marking system for conventional abrasive wheel can be as follows:

51 A 60 K 5 V 05
• The number „51‟ is manufacturer‟s identification number indicating exact kind of abrasive
used.
• The letter „A‟ denotes that the type of abrasive is aluminium oxide. In case of silicon
carbide the letter ‘C’ is used.
• The number „60‟ specifies the average grit size in inch mesh. For a very large size grit this
number may be as small as 6 whereas for a very fine grit the designated number may be as
high as 600.
• The letter „K‟ denotes the hardness of the wheel, which means the amount of force
required to pull out a single bonded abrasive grit by bond fracture. The letter symbol can
range between „A‟ and „Z’, „A‟ denoting the softest grade and „Z‟ denoting the hardest one.
• The number „5‟ denotes the structure or porosity of the wheel. This number can assume
any value between 1 to 20, „1‟ indicating high porosity and „20‟ indicating low porosity.
• The letter code „V‟ means that the bond material used is vitrified. The codes for other bond
materials used in conventional abrasive wheels are B (resinoid), BF (resinoid reinforced), E
(shellac), O (oxychloride), R (rubber), RF (rubber reinforced), S (silicate)
• The number „05‟ is a wheel manufacturer‟s identifier.

 Type of abrasives

 Aluminium oxide
 Aluminium oxide may have variation in properties arising out of differences in
chemical composition and structure associated with the manufacturing process.
 Pure Al2O3 grit with defect structure like voids leads to unusually sharp free cutting
action with low strength and is advantageous in fine tool grinding operation, and heat
sensitive operations on hard, ferrous materials.

 Regular or brown aluminium oxide (doped with TiO2) possesses lower hardness and
higher toughness than the white Al2O3 and is recommended heavy duty grinding to
semi finishing.
 Al2O3 alloyed with chromium oxide (<3%) is in pink colour.
 Monocrystalline Al2O3 grits make a balance between hardness and toughness and are
efficient in medium pressure heat sensitive operation on ferrous materials.
 Microcrystalline Al2O3 grits of enhanced toughness are practically suitable for stock
removal grinding.
 Al2O3 alloyed with zirconia also makes extremely tough grit mostly suitably for high
pressure, high material removal grinding on ferrous material and are not
recommended for precision grinding. Microcrystalline sintered Al2O3 grit is the latest
development particularly known for its toughness and self-sharpening characteristics.

 Silicon carbide
 Silicon carbide is harder than alumina but less tough. Silicon carbide is also inferior to
Al2O3 because of its chemical reactivity with iron and steel.
 Black carbide containing at least 95% SiC is less hard but tougher than green SiC and
is efficient for grinding soft nonferrous materials.
 Green silicon carbide contains at least 97% SiC. It is harder than black variety and is
used for grinding cemented carbide.
 Diamond
 Diamond grit is best suited for grinding cemented carbides, glass, sapphire, stone,
granite, marble, concrete, oxide, non-oxide ceramic, fiber reinforced plastics, ferrite,
graphite.
 Natural diamond grit is characterized by its random shape, very sharp cutting edge and
free cutting action and is exclusively used in metallic, electroplated and brazed bond.
 Monocrystalline diamond grits are known for their strength and designed for
particularly demanding application. These are also used in metallic, galvanic and
brazed bond.
 Polycrystalline diamond grits are more friable than monocrystalline one and found to
be most suitable for grinding of cemented carbide with low pressure. These grits are
used in resin bond.

 cBN (cubic boron nitride)

 Diamond though hardest is not suitable for grinding ferrous materials because of
its reactivity.
 In contrast, cBN the second hardest material, because of its chemical stability is
the abrasive material of choice for efficient grinding of HSS, alloy steels, HSTR
alloys.
 Presently cBN grits are available as monocrystalline type with medium strength
and blocky monocrystals with much higher strength.
 Medium strength crystals are more friable and used in resin bond for those
applications where grinding force is not so high.
 High strength crystals are used with vitrified, electroplated or brazed bond where
large grinding force is expected.

Truing and Dressing

 Truing
 Truing is the act of regenerating the required geometry on the grinding wheel, whether
the geometry is a special form or flat profile. Therefore, truing produces the macro-
geometry of the grinding wheel.
 Truing is also required on a new conventional wheel to ensure concentricity with specific
mounting system.
 In practice the effective macro-geometry of a grinding wheel is of vital importance and
accuracy of the finished workpiece is directly related to effective wheel geometry
 Dressing
 It is a process of clearing and opening up of the face of a grinding wheel. It remove
worn out grains from the face of the wheel.
 Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface which ensures that grit cutting
edges are exposed from the bond and thus able to penetrate into the workpiece
material.
 Also, in dressing attempts are made to splinter the abrasive grains to make them
sharp and free cutting and also to remove any residue left by material being ground.
Dressing therefore produces micro-geometry.
 The structure of micro-geometry of grinding wheel determine its cutting ability with
a wheel of given composition. Dressing can substantially influence the condition of
the grinding tool.

Fig. 26
Dressing
Truing and Dressing: Both operations can be done by same tool but for different
purpose.

Fig. 27 Before and after Truing and Dressing conditions of grinding wheel
Unit 6
 Super-finishing Processes

To ensure reliable performance and prolonged service life of modern machinery, its
components require to be manufactured not only with high dimensional and geometrical
accuracy but also with high surface finish. The surface finish has a vital role in influencing
functional characteristics like wear resistance, fatigue strength, corrosion resistance and
power loss due to friction. Unfortunately, normal machining methods like turning, milling or
even classical grinding cannot meet this stringent requirement.

Table 1 illustrates gradual improvement of surface roughness produced by various processes

ranging from precision turning to superfinishing including lapping and honing.

Table 1

Therefore, superfinishing processes like lapping, honing, polishing, burnishing are being
employed to achieve and improve the above-mentioned functional propertiesin the machine
component.
 Lapping
Lapping is regarded as the oldest method of obtaining a fine finish. Lapping is basically an
abrasive process in which loose abrasives function as cutting points finding momentary
support from the laps. Figure 1 schematically represents the lapping process. Material
removal in lapping usually ranges from .003 to .03 mm but many reach 0.08 to 0.1mm in
certain cases.

Characteristics of lapping process:

 Use of loose abrasive between lap and the workpiece
 Usually lap and workpiece are not positively driven but are guided in contact with
each other
 Relative motion between the lap and the work should change continuously so that
path of the abrasive grains of the lap is not repeated on the workpiece.

Abrasive particle

Fig. 1 Scheme of lapping process

Cast iron is the mostly used lap material. However, soft steel, copper, brass,
hardwood as well as hardened steel and glass are also used.

Abrasives of lapping:
 Al2O3 and SiC, grain size 5~100 m
 Cr2O3, grain size 1~2 m
 B4C3, grain size 5-60 m
 Diamond, grain size 0.5~5 V

Vehicle materials for lapping

 Machine oil
 Grease

Technical parameters affecting lapping processes are:

 unit pressure
 the grain size of abrasive
 concentration of abrasive in the vehicle
 lapping speed
Lapping is performed either manually or by machine. Hand lapping is done with abrasive
powder as lapping medium, whereas machine lapping is done either with abrasive powder or
with bonded abrasive wheel.

Hand lapping
Hand lapping of flat surface is carried out by rubbing the component over accurately
finished flat surface of master lap usually made of a thick soft close- grained cast iron block.
Abrading action is accomplished by very fine abrasive powder held in a vehicle. Manual
lapping requires high personal skill because the lapping pressure and speed have to be
controlled manually.

Laps in the form of ring made of closed grain cast iron are used for manual lapping of
external cylindrical surface. The bore of the ring is very close to size of the workpiece however,
precision adjustment in size is possible with the use of a set screw as illustrated in Fig.2(a).
To increase range of working, a single holder with interchangeable ring laps can also be used.
Ring lapping is recommended for finishing plug gauges and machine spindles requiring
high precision. External threads can be also lapped following this technique. In this case the
lap is in the formof a bush having internal thread.

Adjusting
screw

Fig. 2 Manual Ring lapping of Fig. 2 (b) Manual Lapping of

external cylindrical surface internal cylindrical surfaces

Solid or adjustable laps, which are ground straight and round, are used for lapping holes.
For manual lapping, the lap is made to rotate either in a lathe or honing machine, while
the workpiece is reciprocated over it by hand. Large size laps are made of cast iron, while
those of small size are made of steel or brass. This process finds extensive use in finishing
ring gauges.

Lapping Machine
Machine lapping is meant for economic lapping of batch qualities.
In machine lapping, where high accuracy is demanded, metal laps and abrasive
powder held in suitable vehicles are used. Bonded abrasives in the form wheel are
chosen for commercial lapping. Machine lapping can also employ abrasive paper or
abrasive cloth as the lapping medium.
Production lapping of both flat and cylindrical surfaces are illustrated in Fig. 3 (a) and (b). In
this case cast iron plate with loose abrasive carried in a vehicle can be used. Alternatively,
bonded abrasive plates may also be used.
Centreless roll lapping uses two cast iron rolls, one of which serves as the lapping roller
twice in diameter than the other one known as the regulating roller. During lapping the
abrasive compound is applied to the rolls rotating in the same direction while the workpiece
is fed across the rolls. This process is suitable for
lapping a single piece at a time and mostly used for lapping plug gauges, measuring wires
and similar straight or tapered cylindrical parts.

Fig.3 Production lapping on (a) flat surface (b) cylindrical surface

Centreless lapping is carried out in the same principle as that of centreless grinding. The
bonded abrasive lapping wheel as well as the regulating wheel are much wider than those
used in centreless grinding. This technique is used to produce high roundness accuracy and
fine finish, the workpiece requires multi-pass lapping each with progressively finer lapping
wheel. This is a high production operation and suitable for small amount of rectification on
shape of workpiece. Therefore, parts are to be pre-ground to obtain substantial straightness
and roundness. The process finds use in lapping piston rings, shafts and bearing races.

Machines used for lapping internal cylindrical surfaces resembles honing machines used with
power stroke. These machines in addition to the rotation of the lap also provide reciprocation
to the workpiece or to the lap. The lap made usually of cast iron either solid or adjustable type
can be conveniently used.

Figure 4 shows that to maximize the MRR (material removal rate) an optimum lapping
pressure and abrasive concentration in the vehicle have to be chosen.
Roughness (R)
MRR (Q),

Unit pressure
Fig. 4 Effect of abrasive content Fig. 5 Effect of lapping pressure on
on MRR surface roughness and MRR
The effect of unit pressure on MRR and surface roughness is shown in Fig. 5. It is shown in
the same figure that unit pressure in the range of p1-p2 gives the best values for MRR and
roughness of the lapped surface.

The variation in MRR and surface roughness with grain size of abrasive are shown in Fig.6. It
appears that grain size corresponding to permissible surface roughness and maximum MRR
may be different. Primary consideration is made on the permissible surface roughness in
selecting abrasive grain size.

Roughness (R)
Roughness (R)

MRR (Q),
MRR (Q),

Fig. 6 Effect of abrasive grain size on Fig. 7 Effect of lapping time on

surface roughness and MRR surface roughness and MRR

The dependence of MRR, surface roughness and linear loss (L) of workpiece dimension is
shown in fig. 7. Lapping conditions are so chosen that designed surface finish is obtained with
the permissible limit of linear loss of workpiece dimension as shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Criteria for choosing lapping time

Honing
Honing is a finishing process, in which a tool called hone carries out a combined rotary
and reciprocating motion while the workpiece does not perform any working
motion. Most honing is done on internal cylindrical surface, such as automobile
cylindrical walls.
The honing stones are held against the workpiece with controlled light pressure. The honing
head is not guided externally but, instead, floats in the hole, being guided by the work surface
(Fig. 9). It is desired that

1. honing stones should not leave the work surface

2. stroke length must cover the entire work length.
In honing rotary and oscillatory motions are combined to produce a cross hatchedlay
pattern as illustrated in Fig. 10

Honing
head

Workpiece
Fig. 9 Honing tool Fig. 10 Lay pattern produced by
combination of rotary and oscillatory motion

The honing stones are given a complex motion so as to prevent every singlegrit from
repeating its path over the work surface. The critical process parameters are:
1. rotation speed
2. oscillation speed
3. length and position of the stroke
4. honing stick pressure

With conventional abrasive honing stick, several strokes are necessary to obtain the desired
finish on the work piece. However, with introduction of high performance diamond and cBN
grits it is now possible to perform the honing operation in just one complete stroke. Advent of
precisely engineered microcrystalline cBN grit has enhanced the capability further. Honing
stick with microcrystalline cBN grit can maintain sharp cutting condition with
consistent results over long duration.

Superabrasive honing stick with monolayer configuration (Fig. 11), where a layer of cBN
grits are attached to stick by a galvanically deposited metal layer, is typically found in single
stroke honing application.
 Superabrasive grains

Galvanic bond
Fig.11 Superabrasive honing stick withsingle
layer configuration

With the advent of precision brazing technique, efforts can be made to manufacture
honing stick with single layer configuration with a brazed metal bond. Like brazed
grinding wheel such single layer brazed honing stick are expected to provide controlled
grit density, larger grit protrusion leading to higher material removal rate and longer
life compared to what can be obtained witha galvanically bonded counterpart.

The important parameters that affect material removal rate (MRR) and surface roughness
(R) are:

(i) unit pressure, p

(ii) peripheral honing speed, Vc
(iii) honing time, T

The variation of MRR (Q) and R with unit pressure is shown in Fig. 12. It is evident from the
graph that the unit pressure should be selected so as to get minimum surface roughness with
highest possible MRR.

Fig. 12: Effect of honing pressure on MRR and surface finish

Figure 13 shows that an increase of peripheral honing speed leads to enhancement of material
removal rate and decrease in surface roughness.
 Figure 14 shows that with honing time T, MRR decreases. On the other hand, surface
roughness decreases and after attaining a minimum value again rises. The selection of honing
time depends very much on the permissible surface roughness.

Fig. 13 Effect of peripheral Fig. 14 Effect of honing time on

honing speed material removal rate and surface roughness

Superfinishing

In this both feeding and oscillation of the superfinishing stone is given in the radial
direction.

Figure 16 shows the superfinishing operation in plunge mode. In this case theabrasive
stone covers the section of the workpiece requiring superfinish.
The abrasive stone is slowly fed in radial direction while its oscillation is imparted inthe axial
direction.

Fig. 15 superfinishing of end face of a Fig. 16 superfinishing operation in

cylindrical work piece in radial mode plunge mode

Superfinishing can be effectively done on a stationary workpiece as shown in Fig.

17. In this the abrasive stones are held in a disc which oscillates and rotatesabout the
axis of the workpiece.
Fig. 18 shows that internal cylindrical surfaces can also be superfinished by axially
oscillating and reciprocating the stones on a rotating workpiece

Abrasive tool Abrasive tool

oscillation reciprocation
 Abrasive tool
rotation Abrasive tool
oscillation

Workpiece

Abrasive tool oscillation

Workpiece

Fig. 17 Abrasive tool rotating and oscillating Fig. 18 Superfinishing of

about a stationary workpiece internal surface

Burnishing

The burnishing process consists of pressing hardened steel rolls or balls into the
surface of the workpiece and imparting a feed motion to the same.
Ball burnishing of a cylindrical surface is illustrated in Fig. 19.

Fig. 19 Scheme of ball burnishing

During burnishing considerable residual compressive stress is induced in the surface
of the workpiece and thereby fatigue strength and wear resistance of the surface layer
increase.
 Magnetic float polishing

Magnetic float polishing (Fig.20) finds use in precision polishing of ceramic balls. A
magnetic fluid is used for this purpose [The fluid is composed of water or kerosene
carrying fine ferro-magnetic particles along with the abrasive grains].

Ceramic balls are confined between a rotating shaft and a floating platform. Abrasive
grains ceramic ball and the floating platform can remain in suspension under the action of
magnetic force.
The balls are pressed against the rotating shaft by the float and are polished by their abrasive
action.
Fine polishing action can be made possible through precise control of the force exerted by the
abrasive particles on the ceramic ball.

Fig. 20 Scheme of magnetic float polishing

Magnetic field assisted polishing

Magnetic field assisted polishing is particularly suitable for polishing of steel or ceramic
roller. The process is illustrated schematically in Fig. 21.
A ceramic or a steel roller is mounted on a rotating spindle. Magnetic poles are subjected
to oscillation, thereby, introducing a vibratory motion to the magnetic fluid containing
this magnetic and abrasive particles. This action causes polishing of the cylindrical roller
surface.
In this technique, the material removal rate increases with the field strength, rotational
speed of the shaft and mesh number of the abrasive.
But the surface finish decreases with the increase of material removal rate.
 S-pole N-pole

Fig. 21 scheme of magnetic field assisted polishing

Electropolishing

Electropolishing is the reverse of electroplating. Here, the workpiece acts as anode and the
material is removed from the workpiece by electrochemical dissolution. The process is particularly
suitable for polishing irregular surface since there is no mechanical contact between workpiece
and polishing medium. The electrolyte electrochemically etches projections on the workpiece surface
at a faster rate than the rest, thus producing a smooth surface. This process is also suitable for deburring
operation.
 Unit 7

 POWDER METALLURGY

3.1. Introduction

Powder metallurgy is the art and science of producing fine metal powders and then making objects from
individual, mixed or alloyed metal powders with or without the inclusion of non-metallic constituents.
(or) Powder metallurgy is a branch of metallurgy which deals with the production of metal and non-
metal powders and subsequently manufacture of components by using these powders.

3.2. Powder Metallurgy Process

1. Producing metal powders

2. Mixing

3. Pressing

4. Pre-sintering

5. Sintering

6. Finishing and sizing the final product.

Fig. Flow chart of powder metallurgy process

3.2.1. Producing metal powders

Various methods for manufacturing powders are

i. Atomization

ii. Reduction

iii. Crushing

iv. Milling

v. Shotting

vi. Electrolysis.

Atomization

The process of metal spraying against a stream of compressed air or inert gas is atomization. It is
an excellent means of producing metal powders from many of the low temperature metals such as lead,
aluminum, zinc and tin.

Fig. Atomization

Reduction

Reduction process is carried out in an atmosphere controlled furnace. In reduction process, the compounds
of metals usually oxides like iron oxides are reduced with CO/H at temperature below melting point
of metal. Tungsten, molybdenum, iron, cobalt, nickel powders are commercially produced by this
process.

Fig. Reduction
Crushing

Process of passing the metal powders against two rollers so that the metal powders are crushed to required
size. Crushing requires equipments such as stamp, hammers, and jaw
crushers.

Fig. Crushing

Milling

Milling is carried out by using equipments such as ball mill, rod mill, impact mill, disk mill etc. In ball
milling, material to be powdered is collected in a container with a large number of hard steel balls. These
balls hit the material and break it in powder form.

Shotting

The process of pouring molten metal through a sieve or orifice and cooling by dropping into water is
known as shotting. This process gives spherical or pear shaped powder particles.

Electrolysis

In this method, an electrolytic cell is set up as shown in figure. The desired metal is made to act as anode.
Anode slowly dissolves and gets deposited on the cathode from where the deposit is removed, washed and
dried.

Fig. Electrolysis
3.2.2 Mixing / blending of metal powders

Blending : Mixing powder of the same chemical composition but different sizes

Mixing : Combining powders of different chemistries

The above figure (a) shows the container in which the powder to be mixed is added

 The blade continuously rotates and mixes the powder.

 Figure (b) shows a rotating drum in which powder is filled and the drum keeps on rotating and
simultaneously mixing the powders.

 Wet or dry mixing is generally employed.

 For wet mixing water or dry solvent is used to obtain better mixing.

 Blending and mixing is necessary for

 Addition of lubricants coats the powders and reduces die wear and lowers pressure required
for pressing of powders.
 Mixing powders of different materials

 Obtaining uniform distribution of particle sizes.

3.2.3 Compacting / Pressing of metal powders.

Pressing the powders into desired part shape as closely as possible to final dimensions

Powders are compacted using high pressure.

 Degree of pressure required depends upon

 Required density of final product

 Ease with which powder particles will weld together.

 Compacting processes are

i. Die pressing

ii. Roll pressing

iii. Extrusion

Die pressing

➢It consists of upper punch and lower punch as shown in fig.

➢Powder is filled on the space above lower punch.

➢Upper punch applies high pressure to the powder.

➢Finally the green compact powder is received as shown in fig.

 Fig. Die pressing

Roll pressing

➢ Two rolls of appropriate sizes are used.

➢Stream of powder is guided, so that the rolls are able to apply the necessary compacting pressure in a
continuous sequence.

Fig. Roll pressing

Extrusion method

➢Ram is used for applying force.

➢ Two dies are used for achieving proper thickness.

➢As seen in the figure the green compact is received which is further send for sintering process.
 Fig. Extrusion

3.2.4 Pre-sintering

 Powder metallurgy is used to make parts from materials that are very difficult to machine.

 When some machining is required on such parts, Pre-sintering is done before actual sintering
operation.

 Compact is heated for a short time at a temperature below sintering temperature

 Pre-sintering removes lubricants and binders added to powders during blending operation.

 After pre-sintering, the part acquires sufficient strength to be handled and machined without
difficulty

3.2.5. Sintering

 Sintering is the heat treatment process, to bond the metallic particles, thereby increasing strength
and hardness

 Sintering consists of heating pressed metal compacts in batch or continuous furnaces to a

temperature below the melting point of material.

 Most metals are sintered at 70 % to 80 % of melting temperature.

Fig. Sintering

3.3. Secondary /Finishing Operations

A number of secondary and finishing operations can be applied after sintering, some of them are:

 Sizing : cold pressing the sintered part to improve dimensional accuracy.

 Coining : cold pressing to press details into its surface.

 Impregnation : oil fills the pores of the part

  Infiltration : pores are filled with a molten metal

 Heat treating : annealing can be done for stress relief in powder metallurgy part.

 Machining : creates geometric features that cannot be achieved by pressing, such as threads, side
holes, and other details

3.4 Characteristics of metal powders / powder testing

A powder can be defined as a finely divided particulate solid.

 Engineering powders include metals and ceramics.

 The main purpose of powder testing is to ensure whether or not the powder is suitable for further
processing.

Principle characteristics of metal powders are

1. Chemical composition (purity)

2. Particle size and its distribution

3. Particle shape

4. Particle porosity

5. Particle microstructure

6. Specific characteristics like -Specific surface, apparent density, tap density, flow rate, green density and
green strength

Chemical composition (Purity)

It is the term to understand the type and percentage of impurities that the powder contains.
 Fig. Several of the possible (ideal) particle shapes in powder metallurgy

Particle size and its distribution

The particle size is defined by the mesh count. Mesh count refers to the number of openings per linear inch
of mesh.

Particle shape

Various shapes of metal powders observed according to the method of production

Particle porosity

•Ratio of the volume of the pores (empty spaces) in the powder to the bulk volume

•Porosity increases stress in the part so it is not desirable.

Particle microstructure

•For observation of microstructure, the powder metallurgy part is first polished, then etching of the surface
similar to the dye penetrant method is done which will show the microstructure of the powder metallurgy
part.
 Fig. micro structure of particles

3.5. Specific characteristics

 Specific surface: Total surface area of particle per unit weight.

 Apparent density: It is also called packing density – mass per unit volume of loose powder or
unpacked powder.

 Tap density: Density of powder after it is packed.

 Flow rate: Rate with which metal powder flows under gravity from container.

 Green density: Density of compacted powder before sintering

 Green strength: Strength of metal powder before it is sintered (heated).

 Green spring: After the ejection of compacted powder from die, expansion of powder takes place.
The difference between size of compact and die is green spring.

3.6. Advantages of powder metallurgy process

 A combination of metals and non-metals powdered parts can be manufactured.

 High dimensional accuracy is achieved.

 Fine surface finish is achieved.

 No material is wasted as scrap. This process makes use of 100 % raw material unlike casting, press
forming etc.

 Porous parts can be produced which is not possible by any other method.

 Highly qualified or skilled person is not required for handling powder metallurgy method.

 Large scale production of small parts with this process gives efficient results.

 Production of cemented carbide tools is possible only by this process.

 It eliminates numerous machining operations.

 Powder metallurgy parts can be easily brazed, welded, soldered.

  Process is economical as mass production process.

3.7. Limitations of powder metallurgy process

There are limitations and disadvantages associated with P/M processing. These include:

 High tooling costs.

 Expensive raw materials (powders).

 Relatively long parts are difficult to manufacture.

 Difficult storing and handling of powders

 Powder metallurgy is not economical for small scale production.

 Articles produced by powder metallurgy process possess poor ductility.

 Difficult to produce high purity powder.

 Due to porosity, specified mechanical properties are difficult to be obtained.

 P/M parts show poor plastic properties.

 Punches, dies, rolls etc. are very costly and also very bulky to transfer from one place to another