1

SETTING THE STAGE: A ROAD MAP

FOR USING THIS BOOK

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

• Explain how to use this book as a

• supervisee

• supervisor

• supervision coordinator

• practica instructor

INTRODUCTION

Training to become a competent behavior analyst can feel both exciting and stressful at the
same time. Often physiological symptoms of being super excited and highly stressed are the
same, such as increased heart rate, high arousal, feeling “butterflies in the stomach,” trembling,
or sweaty palms. Ultimately, the difference between excitement and stress is that we approach
things when we label them as exciting and avoid them when we label them as stressful. No
significant growth happens without being challenged and pushed or without failing. None
of us would have ever learned to walk, eat, talk, multiply, divide, or problem-solve without
falling, trembling, stumbling, rehearsing, practicing, and approaching challenges. What would
have happened if we did not get back up after a fall when we first learned to walk? Our first
recommendation to the supervisees and supervisors reading this book is to think of the su-
pervision journey as an exciting roller coaster of learning opportunities with highs and lows.
The quality and intensity of the supervision experience may significantly impact becoming
an effective and ethical practitioner (Turner et al., 2016). With supervision, there is a butterfly
effect such that the quality of supervision affects future behavior analysts’ competency, influ-
encing the quality of services and the profession’s reputation. This is why we have devoted

1
2 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

our careers to helping establish high-quality supervision experiences for supervisors and
supervisees. The foundations for this book were set in 2011 when Dr. Kazemi founded the
graduate program in applied behavior analysis, and she and Dr. Adzhyan started supervising
graduate students. They wanted to address concerns they had encountered in their efforts to
teach and train behavior analysts at California State University, Northridge (CSUN). Observing
supervision practices in Southern California, they noticed what can only be described as a
scattershot approach to supervision. It focused primarily on accruing hours for certification
with limited emphasis on acquiring the skills needed to practice as a competent behavior
analyst. Similarly, they noticed that targeted competencies were chosen primarily because of
convenience (e.g., as it became relevant to a participant) rather than being addressed in a sys-
tematic manner that would allow building the necessary foundational skills before learning
more advanced skills. Alongside these concerns, community partners and local supervisors
reported needing support, further training, and collaboration to improve their supervision
practices. As such, in 2011, the document titled “Structured Supervision Folder: A Guide for
Supervisors and Supervisees” was created by Dr. Kazemi and Dr. Adzhyan for use by CSUN
graduate students and partnering community-based supervisors. The guide provided a road
map for systematic appraisal and teaching competencies by first emphasizing the developing
of foundational skills and then advanced skills. Competencies provided in this book resulted
from testing and modifications of the original 2011 guide.
The purpose of this book is to provide a road map to supervisees and supervisors on
becoming certified behavior analysts, establish clear guidelines for evidence-based super-
vision, and provide the tools that will support building the needed competencies to work
as competent behavior analysts. The chapters in the book are designed to guide readers
through the supervision journey. Supervision should be a collaborative process where the
supervisee and supervisor work together to establish and enhance professional competence
and science-based practice (Irwin Helvey et al., 2022). A competent professional has the skills
to be compassionate, ethical, and evidence-based. A competent behavior analyst obtains op-
timal outcomes for their clients in an efficient, methodical, and consumable manner. In this
book, we chunked competencies and provided detailed recommendations for the core skills
required to meet each competency. We provided step-by-step activities for supervisees and
supervisors.

INSTRUCTORS OF UNIVERSITY PRACTICA

The term practicum (plural practicums or practica) refers to the coursework associated with
experiential learning. Some university programs may offer practica coursework and require
certain internship hours to be fulfilled as part of the practica courses. Practicum usually
provides supervisees with opportunities to practice skills learned in classes (e.g., developing
behavior intervention plan, designing functional analysis), case consultations, peer reviews,
and role-plays to practice specific skills.
The sequence of the information provided in this book has been used by us in our
university-based practica classes since 2008. We have found that addressing specific compe-
tencies each semester has supported building a solid foundation for clinical work. One of the
purposes of this book is to provide university practicum instructors with a handbook that
they can use to develop their own practica course syllabi. We developed the timeline and the
content of this book based on how we carry out our practica coursework to align fieldwork
experience with graduate coursework in behavior analysis.
The first-year course sequence at the CSUN Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) graduate pro-
gram includes all the foundational knowledge such as behavioral concepts, research methods,
functional behavior assessment, and behavior reduction and skills acquisition treatment
 1 Setting the Stage: A Road map for Using this Book  3

FIGURE 1.1 Sample course syllabus for first-year fall semester.

• Week 1: Introduction to practica and supervision

 Practica discussion activities
 The process of becoming a credentialed behavior analyst
 Defining supervision and supervision expectations
 The role of a supervisor and supervisee
 Fieldwork placement factors to consider
 Selecting a supervised experience setting
 Supervisor competence and supervisor–supervisee relationship that fosters
growth
 Evidence-based performance feedback
 Assigned readings: Chapters 2, 3, and 5
• Week 2: Setting the foundation for collaborative supervision experience
 Practica discussion activities
 BACB experience hour categories
 Tracking hours and supervision using a unique tracking system
 Facilitating engagement and growth in different modes of supervision
 Assigned readings: Chapters 4, 7, and 8
• Weeks 3 and 4: Collaborative supervision experience
 Practica discussion activities
 Strengthening the supervisory relationship
 Promoting ethical and Evidence-Based Practices (EBPs) practices
 Enhancing supervisee growth and development
 Ensuring accountability and quality assurance
 Building resources to support transitioning to the role of a behavior analyst
 Assigned readings: Chapter 6 and 9
• Weeks 5–9: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Selecting and
defining problem and socially appropriate behaviors
 Practica activities
 Select and define problem and socially appropriate behaviors
 Assigned readings: Chapters 10 and 11
• Weeks 10–13: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Data collection
 Practica activities
 Select and use appropriate data collection methods
 Assigned readings: Chapter 12
• Weeks 13–15: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Interobserver
agreements (IOAs)
 Practica activities
 Select and use the most appropriate methods of calculating IOA
 Assigned readings: Chapter 13

procedures. The second-year course sequence includes advanced skills in evidence-based as-
sessment and clinical applications of behavior analysis. The sample syllabi in Figures 1.1 to 1.4
show first- and second-year students’ practica course content for the fall and spring semesters.
The discussion items for each practica meeting are selected from chapter learning objectives.

SITE COORDINATORS OF SUPERVISION

Fieldwork experience refers to the experiential learning related to a behavior analyst’s job
responsibilities. Fieldwork can be part of a university-based practicum or a standalone super-
vised experience. Some universities do not provide practica courses, and supervisees must
4 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

FIGURE 1.2 Sample course syllabus for first-year spring semester.

• Week 1–5: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Graphic display of

data and data analysis
 Practica activities
 Select and use most graphs for given data
 Generate different types of graphs
 Draw level and trend and analyze data
 Assigned readings: Chapter 14
• Weeks 6–11: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Conducting
Functional Behavior Assessments and developing assessment reports
 Practica activities
 Practice conducting interviews and use of rating scales
 Design functional analysis for behaviors with different severity
 Practice running functional analysis conditions
 Practice collection and analyzing ABC data
 Practice writing Functional Behavior Assessment reports
 Assigned readings: Chapters 15
• Weeks 11–15: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Conducting skills
assessments and developing skills assessment reports
 Practice conducting skills assessments using standardized tests (e.g., Vineland
Adaptive Behavior Scales – 3rd Edition)
 Practice conducting skills assessments utilizing assessment tools that use criterion
interpretation of results
 Practice, using the assessment results, to develop objective present levels of
performances that include behaviors in the client’s repertoire and needs
 Assigned readings: Chapter 16

work with agencies or schools where they work to secure supervision. Some organizations
have site supervision coordinators to manage the supervision of employees. The job respon-
sibility of the coordinator may include conducting group supervision and coordinating with
field supervisors. Supervision coordinators can easily adapt the book’s content to support
the provision of structured supervision experience for supervisees obtaining their graduate
degrees and working on completing experience hours.
The site supervision coordinator may hold biweekly group supervision meetings
during which the following chapters can be assigned and activities utilized. For example,
suppose the organization does not offer group supervision. In that case, the coordinator
can work with field supervisors and guide them to use the information from the book
during individual meetings with the supervisees. Figure 1.5 shows sample biweekly group
meeting agendas with assigned readings from the book that can also be used during in-
dividual meetings.

SITE CLINICAL SUPERVISORS

The role of the field supervisor is not only to support teaching how to implement specific
procedures designed for the client the supervisee is working with but also to support the overall
professional growth of the supervisee. Supervisors are generally considered the gatekeepers
for future behavior analysts to ensure that only competent professionals enter the profession.
Essentially, supervisors are responsible for decreasing premature entry into a profession by
screening the suitability of supervisees to engage in competent and evidence-based practice.
 1 Setting the Stage: A Road map for Using this Book  5

FIGURE 1.3 Sample course syllabus for second-year fall semester.

• Weeks 1–8: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Developing

evidence-based behavior intervention plans
 Practica activities
 Implement behavior reduction plans that include a combination of antecedent
and consequence-based interventions
 Practice using dimensions of applied behavior analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley,
1968) to evaluate whether behavior reduction treatment plans used with clients
are behavior-analytic
 Practice identifying antecedent variables (Setting Events, Mos, and SDs) and
consequences that evoke/abate and maintain targeted behaviors
 Practice selecting socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for each targeted
problem behavior(s) by taking into account the function of the targeted problem
behavior(s) and client’s repertoire
 Develop treatment goals for selected problems and socially appropriate
replacement behaviors
 Practice utilizing current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based
treatments/procedures by taking into account assessment results, the client’s
repertoire, preferences, environmental barriers, risks, and social validity of the
targeted skills
 Develop treatment plans that incorporate the use of evidence-based antecedent
and consequence-based procedures listed below to decrease the occurrence of
problem behaviors and increase the occurrence of socially appropriate behaviors
 When treatment plans that incorporate differential reinforcement and antecedent
procedures are not sufficient to achieve significant behavior change, practice
using negative punishment procedure is protective and therapeutic, and there is
informed consent from caregivers, develop behavior-analytic treatment plans that
incorporate Negative Punishment procedure(s) (e.g., Response cost) in
combination with Differential Reinforcement and antecedent procedure(s)
 When treatment plans that incorporate differential reinforcement and antecedent
procedures are not sufficient to achieve significant behavior change, practice
using positive punishment procedure is protective and therapeutic, and there is
informed consent from caregivers and client, develop behavior-analytic treatment
plans that incorporate Positive Punishment procedure(s) (e.g., RIRD) in
combination with Differential Reinforcement and antecedent procedure(s)
 Assigned readings: Chapter 17
• Weeks 10–15: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Developing
evidence-based skill acquisition intervention plans
 Practica discussion activities
 Practice selecting skills that need to be taught based on assessment results
 Develop treatment goals for selected skills
 Practice, using the most current research, to select the most effective and
evidence-based treatments/procedures to teach selected skills
 Practice selecting procedures to promote generality (e.g., Multiple-exemplar
training) and incorporating them into skill acquisition treatment plans at the onset
of the interventions
 Assigned readings: Chapter 18

Supervision is a time-consuming responsibility that requires monitoring trainees’ skill devel-

opment and consistently thinking about how and when to provide supervisees with opportu-
nities to develop the needed skills. Each skill-building chapter of this book includes specific
activities for supervisors to use and is designed to establish and maintain basic, intermediate,
6 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

FIGURE 1.4 Sample course syllabus for second-year spring semester.

• Weeks 1–2: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Developing

evidence-based skill acquisition intervention plans
 Practica activities
 Practice selecting skills that need to be taught based on assessment results
 Develop treatment goals for selected skills
 Practice, using the most current research, to select the most effective and
evidence-based treatments/procedures to teach selected skills
 Practice selecting procedures to promote generality (e.g., multiple-exemplar
training) and incorporating them into skill-acquisition treatment plans at the onset
of the interventions
 Assigned readings: Chapter 19
• Weeks 3–5: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Disseminate the
practice of applied behavior analysis to individuals unfamiliar with behavior analysis
 Practica discussion activities
 Practice developing training modules and teach using non-technical language
- Basic concepts (e.g., behavior, reinforcement, and punishment)
- Data collection methods (e.g., event recording, timing, and time sampling) and
behavior measures (e.g., frequency/rate, duration, and latency)
- Purposes and applications of behavior reduction (e.g., DRA, DRI, and DRL)
and skill acquisition procedures (e.g., shaping and chaining, incidental
teaching, and DTT)
 Practice developing rating scales to measure social validity of treatments and
treatment acceptability
 Practice culturally competent active listening and “bedside manners” when
discussing assessment results, obtaining informed consent, and discussing
progress with caregivers, clients, school, and direct staff
 Assigned readings: Chapter 20
• Weeks 6–9: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Personnel
supervision and management
 Practica discussion activities
 Practice developing Performance Monitoring Checklists (PMCs) for each of the
following treatment plans/procedures
 Practice using Performance Monitoring Checklists (PMCs) to monitor
performance and provide feedback
 Assigned readings: Chapter 21
• Weeks 10–12: Applying, interviewing, securing a position, and growing professionally
 Practica discussion activities
 Building cover letter and CV
 References
 Letters of recommendation
 Selecting an ethical employer
 Preparing for the interview
 Assigned readings: Chapter 22
• Weeks 13: Job–life balance in the first two years: Preventing burnout
 Practica discussion activities
 Guests from the field with various years of experiences
• Weeks 14–15: Applying, interviewing, securing a position, and growing professionally
 Practica discussion activities
 Study tips and guide for preparing for BACB exam
FIGURE 1.5 Sample biweekly meeting agendas with activities and assigned readings
for group and individual meetings.

• Meeting 1: Introduction to supervision

 Group activities
 The process of becoming a credentialed behavior analyst
 Defining supervision and supervision expectations
 The role of a supervisor and supervisee
 Fieldwork placement factors to consider
 Selecting a supervised experience setting
 Supervisor competence and supervisor–supervisee relationship that fosters growth
 Evidence-based performance feedback
 Assigned readings: Chapters 2, 3, and 5
• Meetings 2 and 3: Setting foundation for collaborative supervision experience
 Group activities
 BACB experience hour categories
 Tracking hours and supervision using a unique tracking system
 Facilitating engagement and growth in different modes of supervision
 Assigned readings: Chapters 4, 7, and 8
• Meetings 4 and 5: Collaborative supervision experience
 Group activities
 Strengthening the supervisory relationship
 Promoting ethical and Evidence-Based Practices (EBPs) practices
 Enhancing supervisee growth and development
 Ensuring accountability and quality assurance
 Building resources to support transitioning to the role of a behavior analyst
 Assigned readings: Chapters 6 and 9
• Meetings 6–9: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Selecting and
defining problem and socially appropriate behaviors
 Group activities
 Select and define problem and socially appropriate behaviors
 Assigned readings: Chapters 10 and 11
• Meetings 10–12: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Data collection
 Group activities
 Select and use appropriate data collection methods
 Assigned readings: Chapter 12
• Meetings 13–14: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Interobserver
agreements (IOAs)
 Group activities
 Select and use the most appropriate methods of calculating IOA
 Assigned readings: Chapter 13
• Meetings 15–17: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Graphic display of
data and data analysis
 Group activities
 Select and use most graphs for given data
 Generate different types of graphs
 Draw level and trend and analyze data
 Assigned readings: Chapter 14
• Meetings 18–20: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Conducting
Functional Behavior Assessments and developing assessment reports
 Group activities
 Practice conducting interviews and use of rating scales
 Design functional analysis for behaviors with different severity
 Practice running functional analysis conditions
 Practice collection and analyze ABC data
 Practice writing Functional Behavior Assessment reports
 Assigned readings: Chapters 15

(continued)
8 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

FIGURE 1.5 (continued)

• Meetings 21–23: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Conducting skills

assessments and developing skills assessment reports
 Group activities
 Practice conducting skills assessments using standardized tests (e.g., Vineland
Adaptive Behavior Scales – 3rd Edition)
 Practice conducting skills assessments utilizing assessment tools that use
criterion interpretation of results
 Practice, using the assessment results, to develop objective present levels of
performances that include behaviors in the client’s repertoire and needs
 Assigned readings: Chapter 16
• Meetings 24–31: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Developing
evidence-based behavior intervention plans
 Group activities
 Implement behavior reduction plans that include a combination of antecedent and
consequence-based interventions
 Practice using dimensions of applied behavior analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley,
1968) to evaluate whether behavior reduction treatment plans used with clients
are behavior-analytic
 Practice identifying antecedent variables (Setting Events, MOs, and SDs) and
consequences that evoke/abate and maintain targeted behaviors
 Practice selecting socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for each targeted
problem behavior(s) by taking into account the function of the targeted problem
behavior(s) and client’s repertoire
 Develop treatment goals for selected problems and socially appropriate
replacement behaviors
 Practice utilizing current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based
treatments/procedures by taking into account assessment results, the client’s
repertoire, preferences, environmental barriers, risks, and social validity of the
targeted skills
 Develop treatment plans that incorporate the use of evidence-based antecedent
and consequence-based procedures listed below to decrease the occurrence of
problem behaviors and increase the occurrence of socially appropriate behaviors
 Assigned readings: Chapter 17
• Meetings 32–38: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Developing
evidence-based skill acquisition intervention plans
 Group activities
 Practice selecting skills that need to be taught based on assessment results
 Develop treatment goals for selected skills
 Practice, using the most current research, to select the most effective and
evidence-based treatments/procedures to teach selected skills
 Practice selecting procedures to promote generality (e.g., multiple-exemplar
training) and incorporating them into skill-acquisition treatment plans at the onset
of the interventions
 Assigned readings: Chapter 18

and advanced skills related directly to fieldwork. The group activities can be used as part of
one-on-one meetings with supervisees. For example, the supervisor can use a group activity
designed to establish an intermediate skill—such as graphing a single behavior at baseline,
two to three different intervention phases, generality probes, and maintenance phase—and
apply the same activity when meeting one-on-one with a supervisee.
 1 Setting the Stage: A Road map for Using this Book  9

FIGURE 1.5 (continued)

• Meetings 38–39: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Disseminate the

practice of applied behavior analysis to individuals unfamiliar with behavior analysis
 Practica activities
 Practice developing training modules and teach using non-technical language
- Basic concepts (e.g., behavior, reinforcement, and punishment)
- Data collection methods (e.g., event recording, timing, and time sampling) and
behavior measures (e.g., frequency/rate, duration, and latency)
- Purposes and applications of behavior reduction (e.g., DRA, DRI, and DRL)
and skill-acquisition procedures (e.g., shaping and chaining, incidental
teaching, and DTT)
 Practice developing rating scales to measure social validity of treatments and
treatment acceptability
 Practice culturally competent active listening and “bedside manners” when
discussing assessment results, obtaining informed consent, and discussing
progress with caregivers, clients, school, and direct staff
 Assigned readings: Chapter 20
• Meetings 40–41: Establishing competencies in behavior-analytic practice: Personnel
supervision and management
 Practica activities
 Practice developing Performance Monitoring Checklists (PMCs) for each of the
following treatment plans/procedures
 Practice using Performance Monitoring Checklists (PMCs) to monitor
performance and provide feedback
 Assigned readings: Chapter 21
• Meeting 42: Job–life balance in the first two years: Preventing burnout
 Group activities
 Guests from the field with various years of experiences

SUPERVISEES

As noted earlier, completing the requirements to become a certified or licensed behavior

analyst is a long journey for supervisees. One of the purposes of this book is to make
the journey more informative and less stressful by presenting the needed information
through case scenarios and self-reflection exercises. We have provided clear guidelines
on establishing and maintaining basic, intermediate, and advanced skills in required
competencies. We strongly recommend completing the self-reflection exercises to build
self-awareness about your values, strengths, and needs. We have provided specific activ-
ities for each competency where supervisees can build and maintain basic, intermediate,
and advanced skills. Although reading the content of this book is an excellent first step,
applying the information provided is the key to successfully completing the supervision
experience.

CONCLUSION

Supervision experience can be an exciting journey for the supervisor and supervisee. The road
is filled with opportunities for learning and growing together. Structured, competency-based,
and evidence-based supervision requires preparation, ongoing evaluation, and scaffolded
10 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

skill development as the supervisee acquires the core skills to meet each competency. In this
chapter we have outlined how the supervisor and supervisee can use this book to go through
the supervision journey step-by-step. We hope that our efforts in developing these compe-
tencies, agendas, activities, and recommendations will provide the users with a toolbox with
practical tips and guidance to reduce efforts and increase the probability of success.

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCES

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis.
Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, Spring, 1, 91–97. [Link]
Irwin Helvey, C., Thuman, E., & Cariveau, T. (2022). Recommended practices for individual supervision:
Considerations for the behavior-analytic trainee. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 15(1), 370–381.
[Link]
Turner, L. B., Fischer, A. J., & Luiselli, J. K. (2016). Towards a competency-based, ethical, and socially valid
approach to supervision of applied behavior analytic trainees. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9(4), 287–298.
[Link]
 2
PREPARING FOR SUPERVISION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

• State the steps for obtaining a credential to practice as a behavior analyst

• Explain the importance of being able to communicate with clients and other stakeholders about the
credentialing process

• Describe your goals and expectations for supervision

• Differentiate between myths and facts when it comes to the supervision experience

THE PROCESS OF BECOMING A CREDENTIALED BEHAVIOR ANALYST

Understanding the credentialing process is an integral first step for the supervisee and
supervisor. Understanding the credentialing process allows the supervisee to take equal
responsibility for their experience and ensure compliance with all requirements. By taking
ownership of the process, supervisees can advocate for the experiences they need and ade-
quately prepare for any potential barriers to the process. Knowledge of the current credentialing
process allows the supervisor to guide the supervisee and comply with ethical requirements
regarding the providing of supervised fieldwork experiences. As with most professions, the
credentialing processes in behavior analysis change as the field grows and standards are
improved to maintain or increase the quality of service delivery. Although the credentialing
entities provide plenty of notice and time for changes to occur, change requires additional
effort from supervisors to ensure understanding and compliance with current supervision
and credentialing requirements.

Note…
Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) certification is only available in the United States,
United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada

11
12 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

FIGURE 2.1 The degree, coursework, and supervision requirements to become eligible
to sit for the board exam.

Degree Coursework Supervision

Additionally, behavior analysts need to be able to communicate the extensive training

and experience requirements accurately as a professional representing the field of behavior
analysis to clients, families, supervisees, and the community at large. A behavior analyst can
make a lasting impression on the credibility of our profession by how they describe what
it took to become credentialed to practice. We have outlined the credentialing process and
fieldwork experience requirements in this section to support readers in gaining the skills
needed to become proficient in communicating to others about the professional requirements
for becoming a behavior analyst.
The training and the credentialing processes in behavior analysis are similar to that
of medical professionals or other licensed behavioral health providers such as clinical
psychologists, clinical social workers, school psychologists, and marriage and family
therapists (Kazemi & Shapiro, 2013). As shown in Figure 2.1, to practice independently,
the initial training begins with completing specific coursework requirements typically
integrated into graduate degree programs. Gaining practical experience under the tu-
telage and direct supervision of an experienced professional who has met certain board
requirements to be allowed to supervise others is the second requirement. After meeting
the credentialing board’s minimum requirements for coursework and supervision, taking
and passing the board examination is the last step in the credentialing process. Last, like
all other fields, learning and professional growth continues through continuing education
after initially being credentialed.
The specific credentials needed to practice as a behavior analyst differ depending on
where one lives in the United States. For example, some states, like Hawaii, require a license to
practice independently; thus, in addition to meeting the credentialing board’s requirements,
a candidate interested in practicing behavior analysis in such states must also apply to a
licensing board and pass their exam(s). Alternatively, at this time, some states, like California,
have not regulated the profession of behavior analysis, and one can practice as a certified be-
havior analyst with only board certification (i.e., Board Certified Behavior Analyst [BCBA]).
For this book, we decided to outline the minimum requirements as broadly as possible
because we know that the readers may live anywhere in the United States or the world. We
strongly recommend becoming familiar with the specific credentialing requirements for
your state or country of residence by visiting government websites that are involved with
the practice of behavior analysis. Regardless of which credentialing board(s) serves as the
regulatory system in a given region, to practice as a behavior analyst, in addition to meeting re-
gional requirements, one must complete graduate degree, meet the educational and course-
work requirements, complete a certain number of supervised experience hours, and pass
the board examination.
As a point of reference, the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) is a nonprofit
organization established in 1998 that oversees the BCBA certification requirements for
 2 Preparing for Supervision  13

behavior analysts. This organization provides guidelines to professionals and consumers,

monitors the provision of supervision for emerging certificants, and administers the
certification exam (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2023). We strongly encourage
learning more about this organization by visiting [Link]. For information re-
garding coursework sequences that meet standards for specific credentialing bodies,
you can reference the Verified Coursework Sequences (VCS) provided by Applied
Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) as the organization currently serves as the body
to verify if coursework meets the minimum standards. You can access this information
at the VCS page provided on their website ([Link]/[Link]). Some
states require practitioners to have both a license and a certificate. We highly recom-
mend discussing which credentials are required for behavior analytic practice for your
region with other practicing behavior analysts and your regional or state association
for behavior analysts. The supervisee should spend some time learning about various
credentials in behavior analysis by visiting the Association for Professional Behavior
Analysts website ([Link]/) (Dorsey et al., 2009; Green & Johnston, 2009)
and clicking on Licensure of ABA Practitioners under the Resources tab.
In summary, to become a credentialed behavior analyst, at a minimum the following
requirements must be met:

• Have a graduate degree in a related field

• Complete graduate-level coursework requirements (these may be coursework in
your graduate degree program)
• Obtain fieldwork experience hours under the guidance of a supervisor
• Take and pass a board examination

As we noted earlier, the requirements to sit for the board exam are likely to change
every few years. Tracking these changes and meeting the requirements for continuing
education are the responsibility of each individual. For example, at the time of this
writing, the BACB examination covers information from their Fifth Edition Task List
but starting in 2025 the task list will move into the Sixth Edition. One way of keeping
current with credentialing changes is to visit governing bodies’ websites, read the
newsletters and announcements regularly, and attend webinars or live sessions where
updates are provided.
Knowing about credentialing or licensing requirements and how to maintain a credential
is necessary but not sufficient for communicating those requirements with others who are not
familiar with the field of behavior analysis. Reading and thinking about the requirements
are different from saying them out loud to another individual because they have different
topographies (one is covert and the other is overt) and functions. For example, many of us
have had moments when we spent time thinking what we wanted to say to someone, and
then when it was time to say it out loud when standing in front of that person, we could
not clearly articulate our thoughts. To become fluent in communicating with others about
certification requirements we recommend supervisees and supervisors discuss the creden-
tialing process and requirements out loud to practice communicating about them to others.
We recommend you program for this practice to be able to represent the profession accu-
rately (see Figure 2.2). After learning what to say, practice by explaining the credentialing
requirements to family members and friends to gain experience answering questions that
may arise. To support practicing some things we recommend, we have embedded practice
exercises throughout the chapters.
14 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

FIGURE 2.2 As an exercise, practice discussing the credentialing process and

requirements out loud with others.

The requirements are

similar to other
What does it take to medical or clinical
become a practitioners. We have
credentialed behavior to…..
analyst?

You

DEFINING SUPERVISION AND SUPERVISION EXPECTATIONS

Supervision is a transition from learning theories, philosophy, concepts, assessments, procedures,

and analyses in the classroom to applying what is learned with clients. The primary purpose of
supervision requirements for practice-based credentials, in addition to degree and educational
requirements, is to gain the skills needed to become a competent practitioner.

Remember…
The primary purpose of supervision is for you to gain the skills you need to become a com-
petent professional.

Both supervisors and supervisees may have some ideas about what clinical supervision
looks like, depending on their own previous experiences or information received from others.
One’s preconceived notions of and history with supervision may influence their supervi-
sion experience and the working relationship between supervisee and supervisor. Before
committing to the supervision process, we recommend that supervisees self-evaluate their
beliefs about the concept of supervision. Self-reflection—meaning taking the time to think
about one’s own thoughts, history, values, motives, and actions—is an important exercise in
professional development. To help with the self-reflection process, we strongly encourage
completing Self-Reflection Exercises 2.1 and 2.2. Write down what optimal supervision would
look like from both the supervisee and supervisor perspective.

SELF-REFLECTION EXERCISE 2.1

Before you move forward, take some time to self-reflect. My supervisor’s primary role will be
to . How would you fill in the blank?
1.
2. Self-reflect
3. and think to
yourself
4.
5.
 2 Preparing for Supervision  15

SELF-REFLECTION EXERCISE 2.2. SUPERVISION EXPECTATIONS

Write down what you would hope for in a supervision interaction for each prompt below:

Frequency of visits Opportunities for practice of novel skills

Presentation of feedback for corrections Process of competency development
Presentation of positive feedback Feedback delivery to supervisor
Best method for communication Additional assignment requirements

MYTHS VERSUS THE TRUTH OF SUPERVISION

After completing the reflection exercises, we recommend comparing the following listed ex-
pectations with common myths about supervision experiences. After reviewing the myths,
we recommend revising the expectations to reflect more realistic and beneficial expectations.
Over the course of our time providing supervision, we have encountered a number of common
expectations of supervision that do not reflect best practices or result in beneficial supervision
interactions experiences. Here we have listed some myths about supervision that have been
shared in previous reflections by our supervisees.

Myth 1: Supervision is about the supervisee feeling empowered, confident, and pre-
pared at all times. A supervisor will not ask me to take risks and will only let me try
new things when I feel 100% ready.

The Truth: Supervision is about learning from doing. Supervisors will encourage supervisees
to engage in new behaviors and put their behavior out there so that feedback can be delivered
for the sake of improvement. Supervisees will find that the quicker they begin to demonstrate
their skills and become open for evaluation and feedback, the sooner a supervisor can assess
current progress and how to continue improving.

Myth 2: A good supervisor is primarily a supporter and will always build up

supervisees, especially in situations where supervisees feel nervous, down on their
performance, or dumb for having made some bad clinical judgments.

The Truth: A good supervisor is a supporter and therefore will provide accurate feedback
about performance. This means that a good supervisor identifies errors made and will help
provide information and models for how to correct the errors to reduce their likelihood in
the future. Pointing out specific errors does not make a supervisor any less of a supporter
of a supervisee. In fact, giving corrective feedback takes effort and is challenging for most
supervisors. A good supervisor will take on this challenge, knowing that accurate feed-
back will be effective in helping the supervisee grow and will be the best way to support
a supervisee. It is important for the supervisor to create space where the supervisee feels
encouraged and supported, but creating such space does not immediately guarantee that
the supervisee does not feel down on themselves for errors or does not get nervous when
being observed or reviewed. There is a long history of learning and getting feedback that
may influence the supervisor-supervisee relationship, and it takes time to establish trust
and feel support.
16 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

Myth 3: A supervisor’s job is to be critical of my work.

The Truth: A supervisor’s job is to give you accurate feedback. That means that a su-
pervisor will not only identify errors but also areas of excellence and improvement. When
a supervisee progresses in a specific area or experiences success, a supervisor will come
alongside and acknowledge it. At no time should your supervisor focus only on your errors
and mistakes because it is just as important for a supervisee to learn what to keep doing as
it is to know what to change.

Myth 4: A supervisor will provide feedback on clinical tasks only.

The Truth: A strong supervisor will provide feedback on clinical as well as ethical
and professional skills. This will include, but is not limited to, mannerisms, word choices,
interactions with others, and how the supervisee self-cares. The supervisor’s goal is to build
up the skills to help the supervisee become a competent behavior analyst. Teaching only
clinical skills or focusing on behavior analytic concepts alone would likely result in an in-
complete supervisory experience.
Now that the self-reflection on supervision has been completed, it is necessary to define
both supervision and supervisor so that all parties can start on the same page. After com-
pleting the reflection exercise, we recommend comparing the listed expectation with the
other potential member(s) of the supervisory relationship (e.g., direct supervisor) and com-
paring expectations. Based on our experience, having clear expectations, communicating
those expectations with supervisors, and clarifying supervision expectations can make the
supervision process more effective and efficient.

THE ROLE OF A SUPERVISOR

A supervisor is the supervisee’s coach, trainer, mentor, advisor, and partner in the super-
vision experience. The supervisor’s main role is to support learning and maintaining
skills required to become a competent behavior analyst by evaluating the supervisee’s
performance on an ongoing basis and providing feedback to support acquiring new
skills. That is why supervisors are generally considered the gatekeepers to becoming a
professional. It is their job to evaluate their supervisee’s performance and to determine
when the supervisee is ready to take the final steps to become a certified behavior analyst.
Essentially, supervisors are responsible for training competent behavior analysts, which
in turn may increase the value of the services provided by competent behavior analysts.
We consider a supervisor’s skills to train competent professionals as the foundation of
the practice of behavior analysis. The higher the quality of supervision, the stronger the
foundation on which services are based.
In behavioral health professions the supervisor is ethically—and, in some cases, by
law—responsible for the following:

• The quality of services of clients serviced by supervisee

• Supervisee’s therapeutic relationship with clients and stakeholders
• Supervisee’s interactions with clients and delivery of ethical practice
• Supervisee’s selection of evidence-based assessments and treatments
• Supervisee’s professional growth, competence, and well-being
• Supervisee’s work productivity such as timely submission of reports and progress
notes
 2 Preparing for Supervision  17

THE ROLE OF A SUPERVISEE

A supervisee is the beneficiary, the recipient of supervision services, and a partner in the su-
pervision experience. The supervisee’s main responsibilities are to be curious, ask informed
questions, complete readings and assigned tasks, attempt to carry out the tasks assigned to
the best of their capacity even if given little direction, request performance feedback, im-
plement feedback, and demonstrate appreciation for growth. In our collective experiences
as supervisors, the best supervisees are the ones who give us the benefit of the doubt, put
their behavior out there to be shaped, and show appreciation for the learning that occurs
by implementing feedback. Additionally, an excellent supervisee takes equal accountability
for the supervisor-supervisee relationship and is a partner in enriching the experience with
new learning opportunities. We will discuss how a supervisee can make the most out of the
supervision experience in Chapter 7.

SELF-EVALUATION BEFORE SUPERVISION

In addition to the information previously provided, both parties involved in the supervisory
relationship should take the time to thoroughly evaluate their perceived abilities across the
competence areas to be targeted in supervision. One might ask, “Why should a supervisor
evaluate their competence? Shouldn’t they know what to do?” The answer is simple: although
supervisors generally have competence across behavior analytic content based on their course
sequence and experience, they also have strengths and weaknesses to be accounted for as
they supervise. Consider, for example, Case Scenario 2.1.

CASE SCENARIO 2.1

Jan Green has taken on a new supervisee interested in the applications of behavior analysis
to improve sports performance. When evaluating his familiarity with this area, Jan recognizes
that while he understands the principles being utilized and the procedures chosen, he is not
clear on how to teach the decision-making process that led to those procedures based on in-
itial assessment. As such, Jan decided to reach out to a colleague with additional experience
in the application of behavior analysis in this area.

Although Jan could address the area of interest presented by his supervisee, he would
not be the optimal individual to provide feedback and training in this area. By taking the
time to evaluate his ability to serve his supervisee, Jan can seek out support and expertise
in this area proactively. This support will likely not only benefit the supervisee but also give
Jan additional development opportunities.
In the case of supervisees, taking time to evaluate perceptions of competency will allow
for a more productive conversation regarding the planning of supervision tasks and prior-
ities. Although we will cover this in more detail in later chapters, this process will involve
the following steps:

• Engaging in self-reflection of strengths and weaknesses

• In perceived areas of strength, evaluating if the supervisor can:
a. Explain it
b. Do it
c. Teach it
18 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Ordering items from most to least important based on one or more of the following
factors:
a. Prerequisites to more advanced behavior analytic topics
b. Relevance to current and future job tasks
c. Potential effort required to address competency
Last, it is recommended that the supervisee spend time evaluating specific areas of in-
terest in behavior analysis and their future goals. As part of the initial supervision meetings,
it is imperative that the supervisor and supervisee discuss the direction of the supervisee’s
career, steps needed to get there, and specific areas of interest. This discussion, which may
occur multiple times over the supervisory relationship, not only sets the tone and parameters
for supervision but may also serve to increase a supervisee’s motivation for the supervision
process.

CONCLUSION

In this chapter we outlined the steps that need to be taken to become a credentialed behavior
analyst. To set up readers for success, we provided some guidelines to help with self-reflection
before beginning the supervision journey and offered information on supervision expecta-
tions. Supervised learning experiences are crucial for all practitioners (e.g., nurses, physicians,
medical technicians, dentists, dental hygienists, counselors, therapists, social workers, and
teachers) and are a significant part of training in becoming a competent professional.

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCES

Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2023). About the BACB. Retrieved from [Link]
Dorsey, M. F, Weinberg, M., Zane, T., & Guidi, M. M. (2009). The case for licensure of applied behavior
analysts. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 2(1), 53–58. [Link]
Green, G., & Johnston, J. M. (2009). Licensing behavior analysts: Risks and alternatives. Behavior Analysis in
Practice, 2(1), 59–64. [Link]
Kazemi, E., & Shapiro, M. (2013). A review of board standards across behavioral health professions: Where
does the BCBA credential stand? Behavior Analysis in Practice, 6(2), 18–29. [Link]
/BF03391799
 3
FOSTERING THE SUPERVISOR-SUPERVISEE
INTERRELATIONSHIP FOR MUTUAL GROWTH

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

• Explain why the supervisor-supervisee relationship can be best described as an interrelationship

• Outline what makes a supervisor competent to provide supervision

• Describe how the support systems in place can influence the supervisor-supervisee relationship

• Explain the importance of providing and receiving feedback for learning and growth

• State the steps for giving effective feedback

• State the steps for receiving feedback to encourage future feedback provision

• State the main components of providing effective feedback to peers, supervisors, and others

INTRODUCTION

Relationship and interrelationship refer to the connection between people and can be used
interchangeably in certain contexts. However, we used the word interrelation in this chapter
to emphasize how the individuals in a supervisory relationship are connected and affect each
other. Unlike the word relationship, which implies a static connection between individuals,
interrelationship suggests a mutual influence, and a relationship that is dynamic and constantly
changing. With supervision, we feel the connection between supervisors and supervisees is
better described as interrelated.
At its core, supervision is a straightforward process. LeBlanc and Luiselli (2016) defined
supervision as an untrained individual working in collaboration with a competent profes-
sional to target and master specific competencies in their area of professional growth. This

19
20 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

definition highlights the critical components of supervision: at least two individuals working
together to pass on knowledge regarding a specific area, and one of them having competence
in the skills being taught. Despite this apparent simplicity, having specified competencies and
supervision outcomes is important because the supervision process can vary dramatically
based on each individual’s experiences, values, expectations, and training. The information
we present in this chapter serves as a guide for developing a supervisory experience built
on a solid foundational interrelationship that is encouraging, transparent, and, at the same
time, competency- and evidence-based.

FUNCTION OF SUPERVISION

The primary function of supervision is for competent supervisors to pass on their skills and
knowledge so that more competent behavior analysts can enter the behavioral health field as
care professionals. To meet this function, the supervisor must provide the supervisee with as
many learning opportunities as possible to shape the skills the supervisee needs to become a
competent practicing professional. Unlike graduate coursework, the learning objectives for
supervision go beyond definition, description, interpretation, and critical analysis. Supervision
learning objectives are focused on learning by doing. Experience-based learning objectives
include applying what has been learned in the classroom and in-the-moment decision-making
to tailor therapy. Therefore, supervision should focus on building a supervisee’s core com-
petencies to apply technical procedures efficiently, ethically, and compassionately. It should
also focus on identifying evidence-based treatments that benefit clients most, detecting what
needs to be adjusted and when, and making good decisions under pressure. In addition to
these skills, the function of supervision is to prepare the supervisee to train and oversee the
performance of primary implementers of the treatment procedures (i.e., staff, school per-
sonnel, caregivers) and strengthen skills that emerging behavior analysts need to become
future competent supervisors.
The Behavior Analyst Certification Board’s (2022) (BACB) Supervisor Training Curriculum
(Version 2) specifies that the purpose of supervision is the following:

• Providing high-quality client services

• Developing and maintaining behavior analytic, professional, and ethical repertoires
• Teaching supervisees conceptual skills through case examples
• Developing problem-solving skills
• Creating decision-making skills in professional, ethical, and clinical scenarios
• Modeling and developing assistance-seeking skills
• Improving and maintaining beneficial behavioral repertoires in the supervisee
• Modeling effective supervision practices

In addition to specifying the purposes for supervision, the curriculum emphasizes that
the outcomes of ineffective supervision include low-quality client services, missed training
opportunities for the supervisee, production of an ineffective supervisor, inadequate pro-
fessional repertoires, and increased attrition risks. Simply put, supervision has a butterfly
effect such that great supervision results in strong emerging professionals, excellent client
services, and positive outreach for the field of behavior analysis. Poor supervision has the
opposite effect. Since supervision provides opportunities for learning, guidance, and men-
torship, fostering supervisor-supervisee relationships is critical for supervisees to thrive
during the supervision experience. The BACB, like most certification and licensure boards,
requires specific hours and duration for supervised experience. However, the time-based
nature of the requirements is not the most important aspect of supervision. In fact, to date,
 3 Fostering the Supervisor-Supervisee Interrelationship for Mutual Growth  21

there is no empirical support for a specific dosage or duration of supervision. Instead, most
credentialing boards hold the supervisor responsible for determining when a supervisee is
ready to graduate from the supervision experience and eligible to sit for the board examina-
tion. Essentially, the supervised experience is completed when the supervisor determines
that the supervisee is ready.
Like developmental stages of growth, given the optimal learning environment, a
supervisee will likely meet milestones and master skills at their own pace. In our experience,
the supervisees’ learning curves are influenced by their willingness to dedicate time and take
advantage of learning opportunities, their history of learning similar skills, experiences related
to the new skills targeted for learning, and their experiences with feedback. The supervisees’
learning curve is most influenced by their willingness to behave when opportunities arise
and change behaviors based on feedback. In turn, the supervisor’s skills in providing mean-
ingful feedback influence the future likelihood of the supervisee demonstrating newly learned
skills. How the supervisee receives feedback also affects the supervisor’s likelihood to offer
it. The importance of learning through experience and feedback is why we have focused this
chapter on the interrelationship between the supervisor and supervisee and how to provide
and receive feedback.
Suppose the nature and function of supervision are unclear at the onset of supervision.
In that case, a supervisee may only seek opportunities to accrue supervised hours and
place the focus on the duration of supervision. However, when the supervisor-supervisee
interrelationship focuses on achieving competencies for becoming a successful behavior
analyst, the supervised experience hours and duration will differ based on what it takes for
the supervisee to achieve outcomes. In our collective experience, the focus entirely shifts to
competencies in structured- and competency-based supervision. We believe the purpose
of supervision can be boiled down to the following statement from a former student: “As a
result of my time with you, I find that I am not only a better behavior analyst but also better
prepared to handle anything the world throws at me.”

SUPERVISOR COMPETENCE

Ethically, supervisors are accountable for their supervisory practices and must train others
only within their identified scope of competence (see the BACB Ethics Codes 4.01 and 4.02;
Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2020). Additionally, most credentialing boards require
specific training and experience to be eligible to supervise emerging professionals. Despite the
importance of the supervisory role and the additional preparation and competence individ-
uals need to carry out this role effectively, two surveys of Board Certified Behavior Aanalysts
(BCBAs) found that a majority of BCBAs received no specific training on supervision from
their agencies, nor did the agencies track the quality of supervision provided by BCBAs to
supervisees (Blackman et al., 2023; DiGennaro Reed & Henley, 2015). Therefore, it is essential
for potential supervisors to self-assess their preparation and competence to provide super-
vision. The questions provided in Quick Reference 3.1 list some initial items for supervisors
to use to self-evaluate.
It is important to note that not every supervisor will have the expertise to provide su-
pervision across every task that a behavior analyst may encounter. This does not necessarily
make a supervisor less qualified to serve as a good supervisor. Still, it does indicate that
additional support or supervisors will be needed to fill in any relevant gaps. Additionally,
depending on the geographical location for services, there may not be enough competent and
seasoned behavior analysts to provide supervision. The shortage of qualified professionals
is why the BACB has developed “Consulting Supervisor Requirements” (2022) for new
BCBAs (i.e., individuals within their first year as a BCBA) who must provide supervision
22 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

in such regions. A BCBA with less than one year of experience can provide supervision
under the consultation and ongoing oversight of a more seasoned BCBA (i.e., certified for
at least five years). As with everything else we have discussed in this book, having pro-
active communication about supervision experience helps establish clear expectations by
the supervisees and supervisors.

QUICK REFERENCE 3.1. SELF-EVALUATION OF SUPERVISION SKILLS

 Knowledge of the most recent requirements for becoming credentialed

 Knowledge of the role and functions of supervisors in behavior analysis
 Knowledge of legal, ethical, and regulatory guidelines (e.g., school policies) that apply to the
context of supervision
 Knowledge of the philosophy, principles, and methodology of behavior analysis
 Competence in all areas of consumer care
 Competence in relationship skills (e.g., building rapport and trust)
 Competence in application of behavior analysis (e.g., conducting behavior assessments and
prescribing appropriate function- and evidence-based behavior interventions)
 Competence in minimizing, mitigating, and resolving conflict that may arise between the su-
pervisor and supervisee, the client and supervisee, co-workers, and others.
 Competence in case conceptualization, problem-solving, and family systems
 Competence in crisis management
 Competence in integrating perspectives and core values of others, such as their ethnic, cul-
tural, gender, disability, and religious identities, in client services as well as the supervisory
relationship
 Competence in minimizing harm to consumers and supervisees by limiting or resolving ethical
dilemma
 Competence in Behavior Skills Training (BST)
 Competence in providing feedback
 Competence in general professional skills (time management, oral and written verbal
communications, recording documentations)

THE SUPPORT SYSTEMS FOR SUPERVISION

As Rummler and Brache (1995) noted, “When you pit a good performer against a bad system,
the system always wins” (p.13). In the case of a supervisor, the system is the employing
organization. Although it is essential to work with a competent supervisor, it is equally,
if not more important, to recognize that the supervisor’s behaviors are likely to be im-
pacted by the contingencies and culture of the organization that employs them. Ethically
speaking, a supervisor must self-assess and determine if they have the appropriate time
and resources to agree to supervise. However, this self-assessment can be highly influenced
by the supervision culture of the organization that employs the supervisor. Well-meaning
supervisors may encounter restrictions on their ability to provide adequate supervision
because of barriers put in place by the fieldwork site. Examples of these barriers include:

• Limitations on non-billable (often unrestricted) work for 1:1 associates

• Lack of supervisor availability due to a large caseload
• Lack of supervisor support due to supervising a high number of candidates
• Lack of supervisor proficiency with specific tasks
 3 Fostering the Supervisor-Supervisee Interrelationship for Mutual Growth  23

We recommend that the supervisee proactively discuss these potential barriers with the
fieldwork site and supervisor before starting the supervision experience. If the supervisee
can select between sites, the answers to these questions can help effectively plan around the
barriers or, potentially, the selection of a site that minimizes these barriers. The conversation
will likely consist of difficult questions and discussions of potential solutions. Questions to
ask the fieldwork site and proposed supervisor could include:

• How often should I expect my supervisor to observe me in the field?

• What is this site’s policy on unrestricted work and supervision meetings outside di-
rect fieldwork?
• Are unrestricted activities and supervision meetings paid at the same rate as other
work?
• What steps should be taken if my supervisor cannot meet the minimum supervision
standards required?
• How is a supervisor assigned to a supervisee?
• What happens if my supervisor is no longer able to provide supervision?

We recommend that the supervisor enters the supervisory relationship acknowledging

the barriers that may arise and the steps for handling them based on prior experiences.
Taking the time to evaluate known challenges, openly divulging them to supervisees, and
establishing a plan for how to proceed models open and honest communication and sets the
stage for a supervision experience that is collaborative and transparent.

SUPERVISOR-SUPERVISEE INTERRELATIONSHIP THAT FOSTERS GROWTH

The supervisor-supervisee interrelationship is the foundation for developing an optimal envi-

ronment for learning bi-directly. The supervisor and supervisee are likely to learn from each
other when the relationship feels safe, free of personal judgment, and supportive of growth.
In a safe supervisory relationship, each partner feels they can make mistakes and learn from
them without being harshly judged. The freedom to err without harsh judgment allows for
more open communication and transparency regarding personal values, gaps in knowledge,
history of learning experiences, expectations of supervision, and confidence in dealing with
various issues that arise. The question is, how can the supervisor and supervisee establish
such a relationship?
First, it is safe to assume that the experiences the supervisee and supervisor have had
with previous supervisees or supervisors affect how they walk into the current relation-
ship. It is only natural for the learning experiences in previous relationships to generalize
to new relationships. Therefore, the supervisor and supervisee must be honest with each
other, and communicate what experiences they found to be supportive versus discouraging
learning. They also need to discuss how their histories influence the current relationship
and what steps they can take to set the relationship for success and give each other the
benefit of the doubt.

Determining and Setting Supervision Expectations

Following the initial conversations, the supervisor and supervisee should focus on their ex-
pectations regarding the supervisory relationship. As with any relationship, the absence of
specific expectations or a misunderstanding regarding roles, purpose, and direction can hurt
the relationship. In Chapter 2 of this book, we have provided opportunities to self-evaluate
expectations for these reasons. For example, the supervisee may enter the relationship expecting
24 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

clear and consistent performance standards to be provided at the outset. At the same time,
the supervisor may withhold those standards until task completion to assess the baseline.
Without discussing these expectations, both individuals set themselves up for potential con-
flict when the situation does not proceed as anticipated.
One of the primary ways to establish expectations is through developing a supervision
contract between the parties. This contract can lay out logistical items (e.g., how much su-
pervision can be expected and what activities will be completed) and individual practices
within the relationship. In our experience, most supervisors utilize a pre-written contract
from their relevant certification board or employer agency. Pre-written contracts typically
cover the basic requirements for certification and adherence to licensing standards. We rec-
ommend that supervisors and supervisees take time to review and add to the basic contract
to develop an individualized agreement that considers the supervisee’s individual needs.
We suggest the following steps in completing the supervision contract:

• Have the supervisor provide example(s) contract(s)

• Have the supervisor detail the expectations for certification and or licensure as pro-
vided by the credentialing body
• Have the supervisee lead revisions to the pre-written contract based on the following:
• Discuss the specific expectations of the supervisor (e.g., what is the best form of
communication, how will feedback be provided)
• Discuss the specific expectations of the supervisee (e.g., how to inform the super-
visor if something is unclear, when to notify about illness or missing a session)
• Discuss a plan of action for performance improvement if the supervisor or supervisee
is not meeting the terms of the agreement
• Discuss the expected sequence for tackling each competency (see Chapter 1) and
how the supervisee will know they have met a competency and are ready for an-
other (see Chapter 10)
• Have the supervisor review and provide feedback on the contract
• Have both supervisor and supervisee work together to create a finalized contract to
be signed

We recommend that the supervisee leads the contract revisions under the supervisor’s
guidance to ensure that the supervisee understands the requirements and expectations. We
have often found that when a supervisee drafts the revisions for the contract, they come back
with several prudent questions about the supervision process. Having the supervisee take
the lead in revising a pre-written contract sets the stage for empowering them to have equal
partnership in the supervision process.
Another specific area of expectations that should be established is the purpose and
provision of performance feedback. In the authors’ opinion, feedback is the backbone of
the supervision process as it is the best tool for shaping behaviors that cannot be learned
directly by interacting with the environment. Although falling when learning to walk
can provide feedback and change the individual’s stance, when it comes to clinical work,
a social agent, such as a supervisor who is observing, is needed to provide feedback
about what could be done differently. Having an observer provide feedback for change
can be unsettling if the supervisor and supervisee have not had positive experiences
giving and receiving feedback. Given this possibility, both supervisor and supervisee
are recommended to engage in a discussion about the feedback process, expectations of
behavior change following feedback, and preferences regarding the delivery of feedback.
This conversation should not be limited to feedback delivered to the supervisee but also
 3 Fostering the Supervisor-Supervisee Interrelationship for Mutual Growth  25

from the supervisee to the supervisor. As discussed in the following, the supervisory
relationship should consist of reciprocal feedback from both parties to improve both
individuals’ behavior. Proactive discussion regarding feedback can reduce conflict in the
future when feedback is delivered.

GAINING THE MOST FROM FEEDBACK

Feedback is commonly used as a succinct term for performance feedback, and it has been
defined as information about performance that allows a person to change their behavior
(Daniels & Bailey, 2014). The definition of feedback implies that if the information does not set
the occasion for behavior change, it has not been delivered effectively. Simply put, feedback
requires both the feedback giver and the receiver in the interrelationship to engage in behavior
change following the feedback. Feedback is a robust tool for improving performance and has
been one of the most frequently used interventions in organizational settings (Alvero et al.,
2001; Gravina et al., 2018). Supervisors reported feedback as one of the most important factors
to motivate staff, and staff prefer feedback to a no-feedback condition (Parsons et al., 2003).
It has been found to be effective in promoting, improving, and maintaining a wide range of
behaviors with diverse populations (e.g., bank tellers, restaurant staff, tellers, medical staff,
and individuals with disabilities).
All the best practice recommendations for ethical and effective supervision emphasize
effective training and delivery of performance feedback to supervisees (e.g., Sellers et al., 2016;
Turner et al., 2016). In fact, it is the supervisor’s ethical responsibility to provide the supervisee
with consistent feedback (Behavior Analyst Certification Board,, 2020). Researchers have found
that effective teaching of performance-based skills generally consists of instructions, mod-
eling, practice, and giving feedback until a predetermined mastery criterion is achieved. This
type of hands-on training is referred to as behavior skills training (BST; Parsons et al., 2012).
The BST approach requires that supervisors develop performance monitoring tools (PMTs)
for the tasks the supervisees are to complete, find opportunities for directly observing them
perform the tasks, model the correct ways to complete the tasks and provide supervisees
with feedback until the skill is completed to standards set by supervisor. Ward-Horner and
Sturmey (2012) found that the feedback portion of the training was more effective than all the
other components of BST for performance improvement. In a review of all effective training
strategies, Shapiro & Kazemi (2017) found that 75% of the studies used some form of feed-
back to bring individuals’ skills to mastery. Performance feedback is not only relevant when
a learner is acquiring new skills but also used to maintain and help with generality of those
skills (DiGennaro Reed et al., 2013).
Outside of training and direct implementation of behavior programming, the supervisor
may also provide feedback on any of the supervisee’s behaviors related to their professional
competence (e.g., writing skills, oral communication skills, soft skills, timeliness) to help
improve overall skills. That is probably why Daniels and Bailey (2014) said that feedback is
the breakfast of champions for supervisors and that it “can make normal individuals into
powerful change agents” (p. 170). However, for feedback to improve behavior effectively,
the person receiving it must accept it, find it helpful to implement, and change their own
behaviors based on received feedback. Additionally, the feedback giver must possess the skills
to provide feedback in a way that is clear and well-received. Therefore, the feedback giver
must create a loop for receiving feedback on their feedback giving to acquire and improve
their feedback-giving skills. Next, we will discuss how to give feedback effectively, how to
receive it to encourage future feedback, and how to create a feedback loop for the overall
growth of everyone involved.
26 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

How to Provide Feedback Well

Research evidence indicates that feedback provided by a supervisor is more likely to

produce more consistent results than other sources of feedback such as self-evaluations
(Balcazar et al., 1985). For a supervisor to provide feedback, they must review the
supervisee’s work and observe their performance. Additionally, they must evaluate and
document supervisee pre- and post-feedback performance. The evaluation process can
be stressful for the supervisor and the supervisee without some groundwork and mutual
trust. A few factors likely heighten the stress. First, unless the supervisee has a history
of competitive talent or athletic activity, it is unlikely they are used to being watched
closely and then receiving feedback for change. The mere notion of being evaluated can
be stressful, particularly if it is new or if the supervisee has had bad experiences with
evaluations. For the supervisor, evaluating the performance of the supervisee can also be
stressful because they have to be very familiar with what the supervisee is doing, conduct
in vivo observations while completing PMTs, ensure or console the supervisee simulta-
neously with deeming the correctness or incorrectness of the supervisee’s behaviors, and
prepare to give feedback. The stress for supervisors may also be heightened because of
poor training or lack of it on how to provide feedback (Sellers et al., 2016). In this section,
to reduce the stress associated with providing feedback, we provide some strategies for
providing feedback effectively.
Feedback can be provided in various forms. One common form of providing feedback
is vocal and either during or shortly after observing the supervisee carry out a procedure.
We recommend the following strategies for supervisors to provide effective feedback (also
see Carroll et al., 2022 for providing effective feedback):

1. Discuss the purpose of the feedback with the supervisee proactively and learn about their
history of receiving feedback. Have supervisees share positive and negative experiences
they have had with feedback.
a. For example, the supervisee can be asked, “Have you ever received feedback that you
did not feel you could grow from? Can you tell me more about that and what made it
not useful?” and “Have you ever received feedback you found very helpful to grow
from? Can you tell me more about what made it effective or useful?”
2. Ask the supervisee if they have a preference for how they receive feedback.
a. For example, supervisors can say, “Some people like to hear about the things they did
well and should keep first and then hear about what they need to change, or vice versa.
Do you have any preferences in how you receive feedback to find it most useful?”
3. Prepare the supervisee for the evaluation process.
a. Provide the supervisee with any evaluation tools that will be used and ask them to
review them and ask questions. It is good to check in and ask if the supervisee knows
what it is the supervisor will be looking for during performance evaluations. For ex-
ample, the supervisor can ask, “Can you tell me what you think I will be looking for
when I observe your session?”
b. Bonus: One of the best ways to ease a supervisee’s concerns about evaluation is to
hand them the evaluation tool and simulate the procedures. This procedure, as a part
of BST, can be very helpful in the supervisee learning that feedback is not personal
liking or disliking of someone but rather an adherence to preset standards. We have
found that the quicker the supervisee is afforded the opportunity to give feedback to
others using tools, the sooner they appreciate the feedback process.
4. Prepare the supervisee for the feedback process.
a. Provide the supervisee with information about how the feedback session will likely
proceed. For example, a supervisee can be told, “I will typically need a few minutes
 3 Fostering the Supervisor-Supervisee Interrelationship for Mutual Growth  27

to look over my notes to be able to digest what I have to discuss with you. I will ask
you to step to the side so that we are in a private space away from the client. I will go
through my evaluation tool and explain how you did on each item. I may show you
how to do something differently in the future or ask you why you did certain things to
learn more about your perspective of the situation. I will share my thoughts about how
we can improve for the next time and ask if you have questions. I ask that you listen
to the feedback, ask any immediate questions you have about anything you feel is un-
clear, give yourself 24 hours to think it over, and then send me any follow-up questions
you have.”
5. Collect performance data accurately.
a. A supervisor must be very familiar with tools and the procedures that will be used
to collect performance data. To obtain objective and accurate data, a supervisor must
select a time for observation and evaluation that is free of distractions. If there are situ-
ations for which data collection methods used by supervisors are not appropriate, the
supervisor may seek consultation, talk with peers, or revise the PMT. Inaccurate data
collection or the supervisor expressing they are unsure about how the performance
indicator applies can really decrease the supervisee’s confidence in the feedback they
receive.
6. Provide behavior-specific praise.
a. It is important for the supervisor to use differential reinforcement and be as clear
and specific about what the supervisee has done correctly, should do again, and
keep in their repertoire as about what the supervisee should change. An example
of this is to say, “I noticed when we walked into the session today the client was
dragging his feet and did not seem ready to work. It was great of you to begin
with a game you had identified as something he liked from your experiences with
him, and you were animated, which made him laugh. Your engagement in this way
made a noticeable difference in his motivation to start the session, and I can see, be-
haviorally speaking, how that would work because you reconnected your attention
to a reinforcing event.”
7. Pinpoint incorrect performance and provide a model for correct performance.
a. This is one of the harder steps in providing feedback because the supervisor must pro-
vide a clear description, without adjectives or judgment, of the incorrect performance
and also model the expected behavior. This is where accurate data collection and note-
taking become evident. It is very difficult to ask the supervisee to change behavior
if what they did in the first place is not clear. If the supervisor and supervisee agree
on providing and receiving feedback when errors are observed, providing a model
for expected performance when it is observed may be more effective in improving
performance than vocally describing the expected performance. For example, after
observing an error in the delivery of the reinforcer, the supervisor may immediately
step in and tell the supervisee, “Please provide the reinforcer for each correct response
after each trial.”
8. Provide a rationale for change.
a. Butler et al. (2013) found that feedback that explains the rationale for the correct re-
sponse is more likely to result in the generality of the targeted skills. The research
suggests that providing a rationale for change makes the specific behavior change
more probable as well as improves generalization of the skill. For example, the super-
visor can say, “For this client, the words ‘good,’ ‘right,’ or ‘correct’ have been found to
be reinforcing. During teaching trials, it is important to reinforce correct responses to
increase their likelihood in the future.”
9. State exactly how to improve the behavior.
a. Provide instruction and examples for the behavior that can be corrected. Focus on how
to perform the behavior correctly here, not what was done incorrectly.
28 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

10. Provide an opportunity for questions.

a. After providing a rationale, instructions, and model, allow time for supervisee to ask
no more than two to three questions related to the feedback. We suggest providing
praise for asking clarifying questions, which may demonstrate attempt by supervisee
to think about ways to implement the feedback.
11. Provide an opportunity to practice the correct response.
a. Often, feedback sessions end after the supervisor provides instruction and perhaps
models. However, without seeing if the supervisee can perform the behavior cor-
rectly, it is unclear if the feedback was effective. Providing the supervisees with an
immediate opportunity to practice provides them with the opportunity to demon-
strate what they learned, what parts of the feedback worked, and what parts did not;
it also provides the supervisees with an immediate contingency for actively listening
to the feedback and asking clarifying questions.
12. State when next observation of the skill for which feedback was provided will be
conducted.
a. Sometimes, the supervisee needs to practice the skill to improve. It is important to
relay when they will have another opportunity to demonstrate the skill.

Another common form of giving feedback is written as standalone feedback for procedures
and reports, as additional information to the vocal feedback given during the observation, or
as confirmation of the information the supervisee was told vocally. For example, the super-
visor might email the main points of provided feedback and include short-term objectives
the supervisee needs to work on. Written feedback is also used when supervisors review
written materials, such as clinical case reports, graphed data, or intervention plans. On some
occasions, the feedback may be given as a visual representation of performance using graphs
to help the supervisee visualize the level of behavior change and impact of behavior change
in client behaviors. We recommend following the guidelines listed here for providing written
or visual feedback as well. For example, for written feedback, the supervisor can use the Track
Changes option on Word to model correct sentence structure or use the comment boxes to
provide behavior-specific praise of what to keep and what to change.
Here we have outlined some additional tips based on our collective experiences super-
vising (also see Alvero et al., 2001; Daniels & Bailey, 2014).

1. Balance the number of correct and incorrect items. Often, when teaching supervisors
to provide feedback, we have learned that they put a great deal of time and focus on
corrections. The overall performance evaluation can feel corrective if most of the time is
spent on correction. We suggest selecting a few behaviors to target for change and bal-
ance providing behavior-specific praise with corrections.
2. Select behavior change that is in the control of the receiver to change. Do not waste time
on things that were unexpected or uncontrollable (e.g., the client had not slept the night
before and was more distractable or irritable). Instead, place focus on what to do under
similar circumstances in the future (e.g., it might be helpful to quickly review session
objectives and make changes knowing that the setting events for the session have evoca-
tive effects on problem behaviors).
3. Provide feedback as immediately as possible, right after the performance, or before the
supervisee engages in the same performance. We have found the feedback session is
much smoother if both parties recall exactly what happened. Also, it is best to avoid the
practice of incorrect behaviors.
4. Individualize feedback so that the receiver can identify their contribution to making a
change.
 3 Fostering the Supervisor-Supervisee Interrelationship for Mutual Growth  29

5. Provide the receiver of feedback with the opportunity to provide self-reflection or self-
feedback. Sometimes the individual has already caught what went wrong and only needs
help to do it correctly. Encouraging self-monitoring and self-reflection by the supervisee
prepares them for a journey as a supervisor and to learn even when the supervisor is not
available to observe and provide feedback.
6. Provide a social comparison when possible. Often, we have found that supervisees
want to know holistically how they are doing. It is helpful to provide benchmarks or
comparisons to peers or others in their developmental stages. It is good to take time to
say things such as, “I have supervised hundreds of students, and by this stage in their
supervision, they are exactly where you are. Keep doing what you are doing.”
7. Graph or provide visuals when possible to show improvement based on the individual’s
progress, the client’s improvement, or the group’s achievements.

How to Receive Feedback Well

In the supervision process, the receiver is just as important as the feedback provider.
Researchers have found that how a receiver responds to feedback influences the accurate
recording of performance and the feedback given. Matey et al. (2021) trained participants
to record performance and provide feedback to a confederate who responded either posi-
tively, neutrally, or negatively to the feedback. Positive responses were things like, “Thank
you for the feedback. I can do that in the future.” Negative responses were things like,
“Whatever, I do not think I did that.” The authors found that the behavior of the feed-
back giver was markedly influenced by the behavior of the feedback receiver such that
negative feedback responses resulted in lower accuracy of performance recording and
omission of feedback. The results of this study provide evidence for the importance of the
interrelationship between the supervisee and supervisor to ensure that feedback giving
is encouraged and fostered.
Along these lines, Ehrlich et al. (2020) developed a list of skills that they identified as how
the receiver should respond to feedback and trained staff to demonstrate these behaviors
using BST (see Ehrlich et al.’s appendix for a list of the skills, operational definitions, and
a scoring system that can be used to rate feedback receiver’s performance). Some of their
suggestions align with what we outline later in this section and noted in the first edition of
this book. Our suggestions are based on our collective experiences working directly with
supervisees, observing supervisors providing supervision to our supervisees, learning from
emerging supervisors, and speaking with other seasoned supervisors.
Receiving feedback well involves engaging in conversation with the person who
provides the feedback and focusing on how to use the information to grow and do
better in the future. Receiving feedback well does not mean that feedback does not elicit
emotional responses such as disappointment, hurt, or anger, but it does mean that even
in the presence of those negative emotional responses, the receiver engages in active
listening by focusing on how to change behaviors related to feedback. The receiver’s
learning history with feedback will have much to do with how they respond to it ini-
tially. It will take some time and several new experiences with feedback for an emotional
response to change; an experienced feedback giver will recognize that. Responding well
to feedback involves managing emotional triggers by focusing on what can be gained
from the feedback at this moment. It is important to receive feedback knowing that the
feedback provider may not have had as many opportunities to sample behavior and
that suggestions for correction do not mean anything above or beyond the behaviors at
hand. Consider Case Scenario 3.1.
30 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

CASE SCENARIO 3.1

Emma is a first-year graduate student providing focused treatment to a 10-year-old boy with
severe aggression in the form of kicking or punching caretakers. Over the past two weeks of
treatment, Emma has made great progress with her client and cannot wait for her supervisor,
Chayanne, to see the results. During supervision, however, the client refuses Emma’s requests
and proceeds to do his own thing instead of following through with what Emma asks him to do.
During the session, Chayanne provided Emma with feedback about how Emma worked with the
client. Chayanne asks that Emma provide the client with brief, direct, and clearer instructions
in the future. Chayanne also modeled how Emma should place the requests and explained
to Emma how her instructions may have been unclear. Emma felt flushed in her cheeks and
responded to Chayanne’s feedback by saying, “Well, normally, he responds really well to my
instructions. He must be acting this way because you are here.”

In Case Scenario 3.1, Emma had a learning opportunity that could have improved her
skills. Instead, her response to feedback indicates that she was not ready to receive corrective
feedback. Despite the challenges that the client unexpectedly presented, the supervisor’s
observation and feedback are likely to prove helpful in the future with clients. Here we out-
line some strategies that can be used to maximize learning opportunities when receiving
feedback.

1. Accept the Feedback. Instead of evaluating the feedback or questioning its accuracy, we
recommend considering it and what can be gained from it. Accepting feedback does
not mean blindly following everything the feedback giver requests. Instead, it simply
means accepting the feedback for consideration and further thought. If the feedback
is based on an observation that the supervisee feels is inaccurate, that’s okay, because
there will be more chances for observation and forming impressions of the supervisee’s
skills. Accepting feedback without defiance or judgment demonstrates a willingness to be
wrong, openness to new ideas, and the likelihood to actively listen.
2. Restate the Feedback You Received. Summarizing the feedback before the session ends clearly
indicates acceptance of feedback and helps establish clear communication with the feed-
back giver. Focusing on restating the feedback may help regulate emotional responses
and place focus on the descriptions or actions for change. Summarizing helps the feed-
back giver identify if the feedback was clearly communicated. When engaging in active
listening, the summary of received feedback should include the main points that need
to be implemented to improve future performance. For example, in Emma’s case, before
Chayanne left, Emma would have helped foster a positive relationship by saying some-
thing like, “Moving forward, I should provide short and to-the-point directions as we
practiced today. Did I understand that correctly?”
3. Ask Clarifying Questions. Asking for clarifications, specific examples, or models enhances
the quality of the feedback received. Feedback givers and receivers should try to con-
nect the feedback to the bigger picture of why it matters. We strongly recommend asking
for clarification and rationales from supervisors when given feedback that does not in-
corporate reasons for requested behavior change. For example, in Emma’s case, if she
moved to ask questions about her instruction giving, she may have learned more about
evidence-based methods to increase compliance (which partly has to do with the way
instructions are given) and the specific steps she can take to increase the probability
of compliance. Some specific questions she could have asked to clarify how to give
instructions are: “To be ‘direct,’ I should just say ‘clean up’ instead of ‘Can you please
clean up your toys before we move to the next activity?’” “Should I first ask him to
 3 Fostering the Supervisor-Supervisee Interrelationship for Mutual Growth  31

do tasks he does with no issues like ‘come over here’?” Emma’s emotional response
may have been mitigated if Chayanne had provided a rationale for her feedback be-
fore asking Emma to change her behavior. In this case, Emma, after implementing the
given feedback, could have asked Chayanne to provide a rationale for using brief, direct,
and clear instructions (e.g., “Can you help me understand why it is important to use
short, direct, and clear instructions?”), which in turn would have increased the value of
the feedback.
4. Thank the Feedback Provider. It takes time and effort to provide feedback for the pur-
pose of improving performance. It is not easy to evaluate and provide feedback. When
someone takes the time and is committed to providing feedback, their efforts should
not go unnoticed. Showing gratitude for giving feedback may send a message to the
feedback giver that you value receiving and growing feedback, and it may also func-
tion as a reinforcer for feedback giving. In Emma’s case, to show appreciation for feed-
back, she could have thanked Chayanne at the end of the session for spending time
providing feedback.
5. Acknowledge Mistakes. No one is perfect, and we all make mistakes. Admitting you
made a mistake is the first step to a behavior change. You can nod your head, make af-
firmative statements such as “I see,” or “yes, I noticed that,” and describe the mistake.
Accountability or acknowledging the mistake makes it easier for the feedback provider
to know you are aware of the error.
6. Solicit Feedback. We strongly recommend that supervisees solicit objective feedback and
be approachable for impromptu feedback by smiling, nodding, and demonstrating con-
sideration of the feedback for their future gains.

Although supervisors usually focus on behaviors that supervisees should emit instead
of stating how feedback should be received, supervisees and supervisors must refrain from
certain behaviors that may suppress the frequency and quality of feedback to the extent that
is possible. Consider the situation in Case Scenario 3.2.

CASE SCENARIO 3.2

After Chayanne explains to Emma that she probably had never seen Emma give instructions
to her client because he was effectively avoiding tasks by aggressing toward caregivers in
the past, Chayanne explains the importance of giving clear and brief instructions. Emma then
explains that she would have known to do that if she was not so focused on showing Chayanne
that the client’s aggression has significantly decreased. Then Emma explained that she also
did not think to give brief instructions because she was caught off guard by her client behaving
so differently, but that if she had more time to think about it, she would have given better
instructions to her client.

When receiving feedback, the following behaviors most likely would have a suppressive
effect on the frequency and quality of feedback and strain the interrelationship:

• Making justifications. During supervision visits, supervisors get to observe a sample

of the skills in the supervisees’ repertoire. Supervisees should remember that there
will be ample opportunities to show the supervisor the level of competence with spe-
cific skills over time. Instead of explaining why things went wrong or giving reasons
for engaging in behaviors that need to be modified, accept the feedback using the
lstrategies listed earlier and ask the supervisor for another evaluation of the skill
32 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

during the next supervision visit. In Case Scenario 3.2, Emma engages in unnecessary
justifications, which takes away time from learning different ways of working with
clients who struggle with following instructions.
• Repeating the feedback back as supervisee’s own idea or skill already being performed. It is
punishing for someone providing feedback to hear “I was going to do that” or “That
is what I was thinking” after they have worked hard to formulate and provide feed-
back. The receiver, saying they already knew how to engage in the correct response,
sends a message that the feedback giver does not have anything valuable to offer to
the relationship.
• Getting defensive. Any attempt to provide a rationale for behavior that was asked to be
changed by a supervisor is a defensive response. For example, Emma saying, “Well,
normally he responds really well to my instructions. He must be acting this way
because you are here,” is a defensive response to feedback. As we emphasized in pre-
vious sections of this chapter, putting one’s behaviors out there and making mistakes
creates learning opportunities. Some supervisees enter supervisory relationships
with learning histories where the removal of feedback reinforced defensive responses,
and some have learning histories of feeling negative emotional responses elicited by
mistakes. One way to reduce the use of defensive responses is to practice competing
responses that can be used to compete with defensive responses. Some of these com-
peting responses include asking clarifying questions, thanking the feedback giver,
and summarizing the feedback given.
• Withdrawing from further discussion or engagement. This one is easier to say and much
harder to do. Sometimes, if in the past feedback has been paired with punishers,
the supervisee may immediately withdraw when given feedback. We recommend
maintaining eye contact and nodding when listening to feedback to replace behaviors.

In summary, if after providing feedback the supervisor is rebuffed, argued with, dismissed,
or exposed to defensive behaviors, they are less likely to provide frequent and helpful feedback
in the future. These types of feedback receiver behaviors function as punishers to providing
feedback. Decreasing the supervisor’s willingness to give corrective feedback, even if it is done
unintentionally, may create a strong barrier to professional growth and becoming a compe-
tent behavior analyst. These same tips apply when a supervisee is providing feedback to the
supervisor. The receiver of feedback influences the quality and frequency of future feedback.

How to Encourage a Feedback Loop

We strongly recommend keeping the communication lines open and providing ample oppor-
tunities for the supervisees to provide feedback to the supervisor and vice versa. We also
recommend that supervisors seek consultation and feedback on their feedback from their
peers, supervisors, and supervisees. Seeking and growing from feedback is an opportunity
to model behaviors that demonstrate growth from feedback. Additionally, having check-
ins and creating a safe environment where everyone grows by being open to giving and
receiving feedback is helpful. In this sense, the feedback giver is not a judge but another
learner invested in growth.
When giving qualitative feedback, we recommend that the discussions focus on the
behaviors, and not the person, and involve “I” messages. Using “I” messages means that
when rephrasing what one said, instead of saying “you said for me to do,” the person uses
“just to clarify, I need to do.” For example, when discussing opportunities for growth with
a supervisor, instead of saying, “You do not give me enough opportunities to meet my com-
petencies,” one might say instead, “Given the limited opportunities I am getting to advance
my skills, I feel like I would not be able to meet many of the competences for another two
 3 Fostering the Supervisor-Supervisee Interrelationship for Mutual Growth  33

years.” By using an “I” messages and always referring to behaviors of the person and not the
person, the receiver will view feedback in a more positive light, and they will more likely be
open to considering a change.
Case Scenario 3.3 includes an example of a supervisee giving feedback to a supervisor.

CASE SCENARIO 3.3

One of my supervisors implemented a treatment plan in which the child was getting a break
from work after a fixed amount of time. This treatment plan was in place to reduce instances
of self-injurious behavior (SIB) whenever a demand was presented at the table. After a month,
I noticed that the client was still engaging in SIB when the client was at the table, and he was
engaging in SIB even during breaks and free playtime. While I was aware that the treatment
plan was not working, I was exceptionally nervous about approaching my supervisor since I did
not know if he had some rationale as to why he was running this program, and my questioning
of it would only serve to paint my lack of understanding about it.
After reading Dr. Kazemi’s work on how to provide feedback to supervisors, I decided to ap-
proach my supervisor and asked him if he had some time to review the client’s case with me and
to tell me more about why he chose to terminate the task demands on the fixed-time schedule.
My supervisor told me he selected the program because he wanted to suppress SIB and mimic
the school setting (where most instruction and termination of instruction are contingent on a
fixed-time schedule, which is the bell ringing). I brought up my observations of SIB and how I
had some reservations because I did not see any SIB decrease after a month. I also mentioned
that the behavior was occurring outside of instructional activities. He informed me that he had
introduced the program based on an interview with the mother, but that since I brought my con-
cern to his attention, he would love to conduct a functional analysis of the SIB if I was willing to
help him with it and then help with treatment plan development. I was very happy to be able to
help with designing and conducting functional analysis and treatment planning. After we com-
pleted the functional analysis and identified the variables that maintained the SIB, my super-
visor and I developed a treatment plan that effectively eliminated the SIB. I regretted letting my
emotions deter me from bringing the issue up earlier with my supervisor.

In Case Scenario 3.3, the supervisee had reservations about questioning the supervisor’s
rationale. It is common for supervisees to feel intimidated or reserved about bringing up
issues with their supervisors. Sometimes, in doing so, the supervisee may admit that they
don’t know something. That is absolutely okay, and it is the supervisor’s job to help create a
safe environment in which admitting a lack of knowledge about something is not punished.
What the supervisee did in Case Scenario 3.3 was to approach the supervisor with questions
and a desire to learn through questioning. The supervisee gave the supervisor the benefit
of the doubt and set the stage for a collaborative discussion that led to the supervisee’s help
being a part of the solution.

CONCLUSION

In this chapter, we outlined the steps the supervisor and supervisee must take to develop a
strong interrelationship fostering growth. We discussed how to set expectations and develop
feedback loops that create a safe environment for learning from each other. The supervisor
and supervisee influence each other in the supervisory process and learning to give and re-
ceive feedback is a part of the foundation of a strong interrelationship.
34 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

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/10.1007/s40617-015-0044-5
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 4
TRACKING HOURS
AND SUPERVISION CONTACTS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

• Define the specific hour types required to meet eligibility criteria for the Behavior Analyst Certification
Board certification exam

• Identify the hour type when presented with real-life examples of hour accrual opportunities

• Produce a unique tracking system for monitoring hours using Excel

• Utilize a supervision contract template to monitor supervisee performance in supervisory interactions

INTRODUCTION

During our work consulting with others regarding supervision, we have found that accruing
and tracking experience hours is a primary concern brought forward by supervisors and
supervisees. This topic arises as a concern even ahead of other important experience activ-
ities, such as demonstrating competence or accessing opportunities to target competencies
in natural environments. Consider Case Scenario 4.1.

CASE SCENARIO 4.1

Upon starting her graduate program, Charlotte felt excited about the next step in her education
until she read through the Behavior Analyst Certification Board’s (BACB) requirements needed
to become eligible to sit for the certification exam. Looking at restricted hours, independent
hours, group supervision, and the BACB’s requirements for maintaining specific percentages,
Charlotte felt overwhelmed and unsure of how to proceed. During Charlotte’s initial meeting
with her supervisor, she expressed concern about the requirement to track her experience
hours. Her supervisor responded by saying, “Interesting … when I tracked my hours, the BACB
provided a tracker and some instructions. Looks like that doesn’t exist anymore,” and then she
followed up with, “I guess we can just figure it out as we go. I’m sure it will all work out fine.”

36
 4 Tracking Hours and Supervision Contacts 37

As the requirements for the certification exam evolve, creating a documentation system that
is dynamic and can be modified as requirements change becomes imperative. We encourage
the supervisor and supervisee to review the requirements together. Ultimately, however, it
is the supervisor’s responsibility to guide the supervisee in this process and ensure that the
supervisee’s documentation adheres to the credentialing board’s standards. In the following,
we identify the general types of experience hours that supervisees can access, explain how to
determine when each type of hour can be counted, and describe the fundamental processes
behind creating a unique tracking system using Excel.

BEHAVIOR ANALYST CERTIFICATION BOARD EXPERIENCE

HOUR CATEGORIES

Before beginning the process of hour accrual, both the supervisor and supervisee would ben-
efit from reviewing the Board Certified Behavioral Analyst (BCBA) Handbook thoroughly
(Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2023). The BACB announces changes through their
newsletters ([Link]/newsletters/) and documents all recent and updated changes
on their website ([Link]/upcoming-changes/). Within each new version of the
Handbook, the BACB also dedicates a page to a complete list of updates and changes. The
Handbook details the different criteria candidates must meet to become eligible to sit for
the BCBA exam. Within the supervised experience portion, the BACB has outlined types of
supervised fieldwork hours to be accrued during the experience and the specific ratios re-
quired for each type. The BACB breaks down hours into categories based on the activities
completed during the specific behavior analytic experience. The total fieldwork hours accrued
by a supervisee include both independent work and supervised experiences. In Figure 4.1,
we illustrated the basic breakdown of fieldwork hours.
As shown in Figure 4.1, Fieldwork hours refer to all hours accumulated as part of the
supervised experience and includes independent and supervised hours. Independent hours
occur when the supervisee engages in behavior-analytic work assigned by the supervisor or
previously agreed on by the supervisor as activities that are deemed appropriate for super-
vised independent fieldwork experience. The supervisor is not present during the independent
fieldwork hours. Supervised hours consist of any behavior analytic work occurring in the
presence of the supervisor where feedback or instruction is delivered to improve the beha-
vior analytic repertoire of the supervisee (e.g., face-to-face, telehealth, phone call, or watching
asynchronous work with the supervisor in an office/telehealth setting). Per BACB guidelines,
the supervised hours may occur as individual supervision (i.e., one-on-one contact between

FIGURE 4.1 Illustration of hour types for BACB hour accrual.

Fieldwork Hours

Independent Hours Supervised Hours

Unrestricted Restricted Individual Group

Restricted Unrestricted Restricted

38 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

supervisor and supervisee) or group supervision (supervisory meetings with 2–10 supervisees
participating in activities intended to improve their behavior analytic repertoires).
Across independent and supervised hours, the distinction between two additional cat-
egories, unrestricted and restricted hours, is important. Per the Handbook, restricted hours
consist of the “amount of hours spent delivering therapeutic and instructional procedures
during fieldwork” (BACB, 2023, p. 15). This distinction primarily refers to completing work
directly with the clients or research participants utilizing the written procedures provided
by a BCBA. For example, if a behavior technician (BT) or Registered Behavior Technician
(RBT) targets teaching tacts following the errorless discrimination procedure provided by his
supervisor, this BT or RBT would be completing restricted hours. Similarly, if a middle-tier
supervisor (i.e., an individual who is not a BCBA but supports managing programs under
the supervision of BCBA) implements a differential reinforcement of alternative behavior
(DRA) procedure written by a BCBA to reduce the occurrence of aggression, that middle-tier
supervisor would be engaging in a restricted hour activity as well. Put differently, restricted
activities refer to an individual completing similar work at the level of an RBT. Unrestricted
hours, on the other hand, consist of activities “most likely to be performed by a BCBA”
(BACB, 2023, p. 15). The Handbook lists activities such as data collection, graphing, and
analysis; training of staff or caregivers; conducting assessments; researching the literature
to find evidence-base for an assessment or intervention; or writing and revising programs
as examples of ways to access unrestricted hours.
The list of unrestricted activities outlined in the Handbook is by no means intended to
serve as an exhaustive list; rather, it serves as a starting place for the conversation with a
supervisor. It is important to note that not all client-related activities meet the criteria for re-
stricted activities. As such, the supervisor must follow BACB guidelines and consider which
type of fieldwork experience could be categorized as restricted versus unrestricted at any
given time. Consider Case Scenario 4.2 and determine if the activities described best meet
the criteria for restricted or unrestricted activities.

CASE SCENARIO 4.2

Jose’s supervisor has taught Jose the different types of measurement methods and provided
models and feedback on his observation and data collection skills. The supervisor instructed
Jose to propose a method of measurement for capturing baseline measure of a client’s social
interactions, develop the needed data sheet, and measure the latency to initiation of play and
the time between each initiation (interresponse time, IRT) at the after-school daycare setting.
After reviewing the baseline data with Jose, the supervisor requested that Jose implement
behavior reduction treatment plans to address tantrums evoked by denial of mands and re-
moval of tangibles. The intervention plan specifically outlined teaching manding and following
one-step directions using incidental teaching treatment plans. After the three-hour session in
the daycare setting, Jose’s supervisor requested a summary of the intervention data in graph-
ical format. What type of fieldwork hours (restricted/unrestricted) should Jose record on his
supervision tracker?

In evaluating this scenario, a few specific statements should stand out. First, the descrip-
tion of Jose taking a baseline measure of his client’s social interactions best matches up to the
observation and data collection category discussed under the BACB’s definition of unrestricted
hours. Notice that the supervisor did not define the behavior, develop the datasheet, and pro-
vide Jose with instructions for recording the behavior. Instead, the supervisor asked Jose to
propose the measurement method, develop the datasheet, and record the behavior. Jose then
 4 Tracking Hours and Supervision Contacts 39

showed the baseline data to the supervisor, and together they interpreted the results. All these
activities are in line with unrestricted supervision hours because they prepare Jose to become
an independent behavior analyst. Second, the statements regarding the implementation of
already developed behavior reduction treatment plans and the use of incidental teaching to
teach manding and following directions fall in line with the description of restricted hours.
The intervention plan was prescribed, and Jose did not have to develop a teaching program.
Last, summarizing the data into a graph to monitor the client’s progress closely matches an
unrestricted activity because Jose was not provided a pre-populated graph.
Reviewing Jose’s experience hours, we would come to the conclusion that Jose should
log both independent restricted and unrestricted fieldwork hours on his tracker for the same
client and sometimes the same session. Apart from documenting independent restricted
and unrestricted fieldwork experience, Jose must document the supervised experience. In
Case Scenario 4.2, Jose’s supervisor reviewed his proposed method of measurement before
Jose developed a data sheet and collected data. Let’s say this was a 30 minute meeting; it
then would be logged as 30 minutes of unrestricted supervision. Afterward, Jose developed
the data sheet and recorded the data independently, which took him 3 hours; this would
be logged as independent unrestricted hours. Then, the supervisor and Jose reviewed the
baseline data and interpreted it for 1 hour; this would be logged as supervised unrestricted
hours. What is not in the scenario but highly probable is that the supervisor observed Jose as
he implemented the intervention during some sessions. These would be logged as restricted
supervised hours. Jose must document each supervision activity under the right category. If
Jose worked a total of 3 hours one day and spent an hour doing unrestricted activity while
being supervised, Jose accrued 2 hours of independent work (out of which 1 hour was unre-
stricted) and 1 hour of supervision during unrestricted work.
The distinction between restricted and unrestricted hours holds a high level of importance
not only regarding hour accrual toward certification but also to the opportunity for targeted
growth by a supervisee in the areas most integral to the work performed by a behavior an-
alyst. As noted in the Handbook, “following certification, most behavior analysts primarily
perform unrestricted activities” (BACB, 2023, p. 15) and as such, individuals training to be-
come certified behavior analysts must have consistent opportunities to practice these skills
and receive supervision for these activities.
Within the supervision relationship, both parties are accountable for knowing the definition
of and discriminating between each fieldwork hour type. As previously noted, the eligibility
criteria to take the certification exam requires specific ratios of restricted and unrestricted
fieldwork hours, but of vastly greater importance is seeking and providing opportunities for
growth in the specific competencies that are fundamental to a behavior analyst’s job duties.
In situations where the supervisee is unsure about the categorization of fieldwork hours, the
supervisor takes the responsibility to determine how specific hours should be counted, uti-
lizing the resources available to them to make that determination as accurately as possible.

TRACKING HOURS

Since the inception of the certification process, the supervision requirements have under-
gone dramatic changes. Even at the time of writing this book, the BACB has communicated
changes to the standards that will go into effect in 2027. Given the continued changes, the
emphasis should not be on the specific requirements at this time, but rather on the creation
of a document to track all relevant aspects of a supervised fieldwork experience that can be
easily adapted to any future changes.
Should the supervisor-supervisee decide to create their own unique tracking document,
specific information regarding the system should be communicated and planned for by both
40 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 4.1 Suggested Items to Include in A Unique Tracking System

Independent Hours Supervision Hours Supervision Notes

Date Date Competencies/task list items

targeted
Start Time Start Time Supervisee performance on
specific skills
End Time End Time Documentation of supervision
hours (see Supervision
Hours section)
Fieldwork Type Format (e.g., in person, online) Feedback summary
Setting Name Fieldwork Type Assignments to be completed
Supervisor Name Activity Category: Restricted or
Unrestricted
Activity Category: Supervision Type: Individual or
Restricted or Group
Unrestricted
Activity Summary Client Presence or Absence
(what was done)
Activity Summary (what was
done)

individuals. In Table 4.1, we list the items to be included in any unique tracking system based
on our experiences and the 2023 BACB Handbook.

CREATING A UNIQUE TRACKING SYSTEM

When creating a unique tracking system using software such as Microsoft Excel, planning
the system in advance is the most important step. By creating a specific plan and outline,
the supervisor/supervisee can avoid many headaches and revisions to the tracking system.
First, the supervisor and supervisee should focus on creating the Microsoft Excel tracking
document for each month of the supervised experience. Creating this form allows for copying
the document into all subsequent months and, if chosen by the team, it can be coordinated
into a single summary sheet to track all hours. The monthly sheet should ideally contain the
following column headings and individual columns. For the items listed in italics, we recom-
mend using drop-down menus to minimize errors. For the underlined items, we recommend
using Excel formulas to calculate the fieldwork hours accurately.

• Experience Type • Work Setting • Supervisor Name

• Experience Date • Start Time • End Time
• Experience Duration • Unrestricted Hours • Restricted Hours
• Activity Notes • Supervision Method • Supervision Start Time
• Supervision End Time • Supervision Duration • Individual Supervision Hours
• Group Supervision Hours • Independent Hours • Client Observation
• Activity Category • Supervision Type • Supervision Notes Taken
 4 Tracking Hours and Supervision Contacts 41

Including these headings in the monthly tracker ensures that all relevant information
that is to be reported appears on the form. After completing these items, the supervisor/
supervisee will create a summary section using a separate Excel sheet to total all relevant
information at the bottom of the sheet. This step will reduce the response effort of the
supervisors and supervisees when determining if the specific monthly requirements have
been met for a given experience type during the month. It is recommended to include the
items listed next in the summary sheet (all summary formulas appear in supplemental
information).

• Independent Hours • Unrestricted Hours • Restricted Hours

• Supervision Hours • Individual Supervision • Group Supervision
• Total Hours • Supervisor Client Contacts • Supervisor Contacts
• Supervision Hour % • Individual Supervision % • Unrestricted Hours %

The final version of the monthly Excel tracking document should resemble Figures 4.2
and 4.3.
Although the creation of the monthly tracking document provides the required
information for further documentation of experience, we also recommend creating an
overall summary sheet for all hours to allow the supervision team to evaluate if the
hour accrual remains on track. For individuals interested in creating this summary
sheet, please see the supplemental information for instructions on this process. Last,
creating a supervision notes template assists with uniform documentation of all super-
vision contacts and the details of those contacts. To create this document, begin with a
new Excel worksheet. Next, create the required headings: Competencies/Task List Items
Covered, Supervisee Performance, Supervision Session Details, Feedback Provided, and
Supervision Assignments. If desired, headings such as competencies/task list items can
utilize drop-down menus to reduce the level of effort for both supervisor and supervisee.
At the conclusion of creating the supervision notes forms, it should resemble the form
found in Figure 4.4.

CONCLUSION

Often, administrative tasks are the most troublesome and stressful for individuals com-
pleting their supervised experience in most practice-based professions, including behavior
analysis. Although the ongoing changes to supervision requirements are meant to improve
practice of applied behavior analysis, keeping up with the changes for both supervisees
and supervisors could be a challenging and time-consuming task. The key to remaining
current and having a clear understanding of supervision requirements lies in taking a pro-
active approach in keeping up with change. First, both supervisor and supervisee must
familiarize themselves with the most current requirements from the credentialing body
(e.g., The BACB) regarding the completion of fieldwork experience. Second, supervisors
and supervisees should clearly define the fieldwork hour types to be accrued and how
those hours will be counted during fieldwork experience. Finally, both individuals should
collaborate in the choosing or creating a unique tracking system to collect and summarize
all accrued fieldwork hours. By proactively addressing these items before the initiation of
a supervision relationship, the fieldwork hour accrual process and administrative steps
become less mystical and stressful, and it takes less response effort to track and report
supervised experience.
 42

FIGURE 4.2 Example columns for Excel tracking worksheet.

Unrestricted
Work Experience Experience Hours (includes Restricted Supervision
Setting Supervisor Date Start Time End Time Duration supervision time) Hours Method

0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00

Individual Group Total Supervisor

Unrestricted Restricted Supervision Supervision Supervision Accumulated Client Supervisory
Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours Observation Contacts
FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0

Individual Unrestricted
Supervision Hour
Percentage Percentage

#DIV/0! #DIV/0!
 FIGURE 4.3 Additional example columns for Excel tracking worksheet.

Supervision Supervision Supervision Supervised Individual Group Independent Client Activity Supervision Supervision Activity
Method Start End Hours Supervision Supervision Hours Observation Category Type Notes Notes

0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
4

0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
Tracking Hours and Supervision Contacts
43
 44

FIGURE 4.4 Example supervision notes form.

BACB 5th Edition Task List Items Targeted
Task List Section SubArea Task List Item 1 Task List Item 2 Task List Item 3 Task List Item 4

General Supervisee Performance

Arrives on time for Arrives prepared for Maintains professional and Maintains professional Seeks supervision Accepts supervisory
supervision supervisory interaction courteous interactions and appropriate attire appropriately feedback appropriately

Adheres to Uses effective oral Uses effective written Acquired target skills Maintained acquired skills Overall evaluation of
7 dimensions of ABA communication skills communication skills during supervision from previous supervision supervisee
FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

Supervision Documentation
Supervision Date Supervisor Supervision Method Supervision Start Supervision End Supervised Hours
0.00
Individual Supervision Group Supervision Client Observation Activity Category Supervision Type Supervision Location

(continued)
 FIGURE 4.4 (continued )
Supervision Summary
Items done well Areas to improve
4

Supervisee Assigned Tasks Due Date Due Date

Tracking Hours and Supervision Contacts
45
46 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCE

Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2023). Board certified behavior analyst handbook. Retrieved from
[Link]
 5
SELECTING A SUPERVISED
EXPERIENCE SETTING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

• State pros and cons of university-based or university-affiliated supervised experiences

• State pros and cons of community programs, private and non-private organizations

• State pros and cons of school-based programs in educational settings

• Identify the vast array of applications of behavior analysis

INTRODUCTION

Significant differences exist among the types of supervised experience opportunities, depending
on the context of the fieldwork, funding sources, and the services offered by the supervision
site. As with anything else in life, there is no perfect fieldwork experience. Additionally, al-
though we outlined some general characteristics of each type of fieldwork, the descriptions
are solely based on our experiences. There are always exceptions, and supervisees should
do their homework before deciding. When there is an opportunity to choose, supervisees
should consider selecting the fieldwork placement that best matches their short-term (things
one would like to achieve in the next two years) and long-term (things one would like to ac-
complish in three or more years) goals for supervision. We have outlined the pros and cons of
each type of fieldwork experience to help with the decision-making process. Before learning
more about the differences, we encourage the readers to self-reflect about their preferences,
strengths, areas for improvement, and personal goals using Self-Reflection Exercise 5.1.

47
48 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

SELF-REFLECTION EXERCISE 5.1

Strengths you feel you bring (e.g., good writing skills)

Self-reflect
on the
following
Areas you feel you need improvement in (e.g., better commu-
nication skills)

Target populations you prefer to provide services to (e.g., au-

tistic individuals)

Specific age range you prefer to provide services to (e.g., life-

span, young children)

Settings you prefer to work in (e.g., school, client’s home, pro-

fessional clinic)

What do you see yourself doing in three years?

What do you see yourself doing in five years?

Selecting a fieldwork experience site depends on what is available to the supervisee

based on their geographical location, the minimum education and credentials required
for the supervisee to be able to provide supervised services, and if there are university-
approvals or accreditation requirements for practica coursework. If there are several options,
the interviewing process allows the supervisee to ask the right questions to determine if the
fieldwork experience site can support their individual short-term goals. At the same time,
it is an opportunity for the site to determine if the supervisee’s skills and short-term goals
align with their values and needs. As a result, there might be instances when the supervisee
might consider the site a good match. Still, the site might not agree to establish a working
relationship with the supervisee. We strongly recommend taking the time and doing due
diligence during the selection process of a site by understanding the fieldwork experiences
available, the supervision structure of the desired settings, and getting to know the potential
supervisors. We encourage keeping an open mind and getting to know all options before
selecting the site most suitable for one’s skills and goals (see Figure 5.1).
 5 Selecting a Supervised Experience Setting 49

FIGURE 5.1 Selecting a fieldwork experience.

CO UNIVERSITY
MM
BA UNIT BASED
SE Y
D

UNIVERSITY-BASED OR UNIVERSITY-AFFILIATED SITES

University-based clinics and university-affiliated community placements usually have been

developed in conjunction with seasoned university faculty members. One of the primary
purposes of developing university-based or affiliated experience sites is to provide high-
quality supervision to students and, in most cases, opportunities for collaborative and ap-
plied research projects (see Dubuque & Dubuque, 2018). Such sites are often affiliated with
academic institutions and provide a bridge between research and practice. University-based
clinics often provide focused services to specific populations (e.g., children under the age of
4 diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, individuals with pediatric feeding disorders, or
adults with severe self-injury) depending on the research projects and expertise of the fac-
ulty members involved with the site. If the university provides services, families looking for
these services are typically more educated and less wary of student interns and research. It is
likely that many service recipients are faculty, staff, students, or alumni of the university or
that they have heard about the university services through such individuals. In most cases,
potential clients have sought university services because they are looking for something other
than what is available to them through their insurance provider. In our experience, service
recipients at university-based sites are more likely to be involved in treatment planning, favor
treatment recommendations, and follow treatment protocols.
Supervisors at university-based practica are often tenured or adjunct faculty members
or professionals hired by the university to supervise supervisees. Therefore, they have
a high level of control over the training curriculum, supervision model, and supervisee
development. One of the primary advantages of university-based sites is access to faculty
50 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

members who are experts in their respective fields. Compared with non-university–based
sites, the supervisor will likely spend less time on administrative tasks such as scheduling
clients, billing insurance, and completing other related paperwork. This is especially true if
the university-based site is funded through grants and donations instead of a third-party
payer (e.g., an insurance company). University-based sites tend to provide more hours of
supervision and more research assistantship opportunities compared to non-university–
based placements. Supervisees are also likely to have dedicated time with a supervisor
to discuss ideas, review the research literature, and examine new procedures under the
supervisor’s guidance.
University-based sites that provide access to supervisees to become involved with re-
search endeavors are very suitable for anyone considering a doctoral degree and a career as
an academic and researcher. It provides opportunities to get applied research experience,
gain mentorship from university faculty, and learn more about university-affiliated systems
of care. Another advantage of university-based fieldwork is that sometimes supervisor(s) are
also faculty in graduate programs and help link supervised experience with the coursework
content. Also, with a higher ratio of staff to clients and two-way observation mirrors or ded-
icated space for therapy, there are more opportunities to implement treatment procedures
with high fidelity because it would be easier to control the environmental variables than in
clients’ homes or schools. Last, university-based sites provide opportunities to use the most
recent evidence-based treatments available and be part of cutting-edge research that has not
yet been published.
Some advantages of university-based sites can also be a disadvantage, however, depending
on the supervisee’s short- and long-term goals. For example, one drawback is that supervisees
may be less prepared for the world outside of the university, where the controlling agents
are often third-party payers and there is less control over the context of services. One can
argue that university-based sites may potentially limit the emphasis on real-world, practical
skills. Also, university-based sites or labs usually provide experiences in the faculty’s area of
research interest, thus limiting the opportunities for supervisees to gain competencies across
areas that would be required of them when working with individuals in home or school
settings. For example, a supervisee may get excellent supervision and build competency in
skills needed to teach social and communication skills but not have opportunities to work
with severe problem behaviors or individuals requiring daily living skills. Additionally,
when working in controlled environments that support research studies the supervisees
might not have opportunities to learn how to problem-solve and make treatment decisions
in settings where there is less control over the environmental variables, such as in the client’s
home. Last, faculty presence may create hierarchical dynamics, where the supervisee feels
a power imbalance. This could hinder open communication and collaboration between the
supervisor and supervisee for a more egalitarian supervisory relationship.

COMMUNITY-BASED SITES

For the remainder of this chapter, we will refer to non-university–based sites in private or
non-profit settings as community sites. Supervised fieldwork experiences at community sites
allow the supervisee to experience what a career as a behavior analyst working outside of a
university setting will look like. The primary focus of supervision in such a setting is client
services, usually in homes, schools, centers, or the community. Supportive community-based
fieldwork sites that employ highly skilled supervisors may offer the supervisee opportunities
to learn how to balance various responsibilities, juggle between stakeholders, manage time,
problem-solve in messy situations, and more.
 5 Selecting a Supervised Experience Setting 51

Some advantages of community-based fieldwork are that they may offer opportunities
to learn firsthand how to work with highly diverse clients and families across the lifespan.
Community-based fieldwork also provides opportunities to work with staff with varying
skills, motivations, and communication styles. Working in community settings provides
the supervisee ample opportunities to learn how to deal with challenging caregivers, un-
satisfied clients, nonresponsive family members, parents with concerns, and other difficult
circumstances that affect the therapeutic relationship. Community-based placements also
allow supervisees to learn how to adapt evidence-based interventions and make the necessary
changes to the assessment and intervention protocols to be executable in more unpredictable
and challenging-to-control settings (e.g., considering younger siblings in the household).
Some limitations of community-based sites for supervised experience are that the focus
of such sites is client care and not supervisee training. Supervisors will likely have various
administrative and clinical duties, which can be challenging to balance and may impact their
capacity to provide the supervisee with the time and attention they need. Many supervisors
may have multiple supervisees and might be overwhelmed with cases, resulting in minimum
supervision and contact with the supervisees (e.g., providing 5% of supervision instead of
10%). The focus of community-based services is consumer care, and by design the develop-
ment and needs of supervisees are not the priority.
In community settings, supervisors usually have little or no control over the number of
clients they are assigned, which staff are hired, and who they supervise. Therefore, it may
be more challenging for the supervisee to find a supervisor who best matches the supervi-
sory relationship. Also, community-based supervisors are likely to have different training
backgrounds and skills, sometimes resulting in contradicting treatment selections and
differing feedback. For example, one supervisor might model more often with clients, the
other might provide vocal feedback outside of sessions. The diversity of the training and
experiences means the quality of the supervisors might vary from supervisor to supervisor.
Last, there is a higher probability that supervisees in this setting might not get sufficient
opportunities to engage in activities that would allow completion of fieldwork experience
requirements before earning a graduate degree.
If a career as a clinical supervisor and then as a clinical director is a short- and long-
term goal, the community-based setting may be a more suitable placement because it may
provide opportunities to learn about the ins and outs of community-based service delivery
from the onset of experience.

SCHOOL SITES

Many behavior analysts work at schools, and school placements have their advantages and
disadvantages. Schools offer a supervisee the opportunity to work with parents and teachers
and typically develop students with various learning and behavioral challenges. For example,
schools provide opportunities to work with students who have diagnoses of Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), learning disabilities, and specific phobias. Regarding
supervision, working at a school site with a full-time Board Certified Behavioral Analyst
will allow more face-to-face contact with the supervisor. Working at schools also provides
opportunities to learn how to train large groups of individuals, create training modules, and
conduct training with teachers and school staff who directly work with students and parents.
Additionally, the supervisee can learn about special education laws and practices and how
Individualized Education Program (IEP) meetings are conducted. Many clients who receive
services at home have special needs and receive different special education supports. Being
familiar with special education laws and practices could be helpful when working with
52 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

clients outside of school. Supervised fieldwork experience in a school may provide learning
experiences in designing and implementing group contingencies, using precision teaching
procedures, developing behavior contracts, and implementing behavior reduction plans for
various behaviors that classroom peers may evoke or maintain.
Supervised fieldwork in school settings has its disadvantages. Experiences gained at
school sites are limited to issues related to education. They might limit opportunities to
gain the experiences needed to work as a behavior analyst providing services in a client’s
home. For example, working at schools might limit opportunities to use assessment tools
such as the Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP) or
to develop and use treatment plans to teach daily living skills. Interactions with caregivers
are likely limited to interventions that address homework completion or bedtime routines
to support school attendance and readiness for learning. In summary, although the school
settings provide plenty of opportunities for the supervisee to gain skills that community-
based sites might not offer, they limit learning necessary skills to work in community-based
sites if school employment is unavailable after completing the fieldwork experience.
Quick Reference 5.1 considers the advantages of each type of fieldwork when making
decisions about fieldwork experience.

QUICK REFERENCE 5.1. ADVANTAGES OF EACH FIELDWORK PLACEMENT

University-Based Community-Based School-Based

1. Work directly with faculty 1. Become exposed 1. Work with students with
member(s) at university in to different client different needs and
their area of expertise populations and disabilities, parents, and
intervention approaches teachers, and conduct
individual and group
training
2. Develop expertise in 2. Practice balancing 2. Have more supervisory
specific clinical area(s) clinical and administrative contact and access
and, in some cases, tasks required of a to indirect experience
research area(s) community-based activities
supervisor
3. Have more supervisory 3. Access clearly defined 3. Learn about special
contact and access roles and growth education laws and
to indirect experience opportunities within the practices
activities organization
4. Access a connection 4. Observe utilization 4. Design and implement
between coursework and of procedures based group contingencies,
supervision experience on client, setting, and behavior contracts, and
funding entity behavior reduction plans
for various behaviors
5. Focus on developing 5. Address a wider variety 5. Use precision teaching to
competencies in a of competencies as teach academic skills
systematic fashion opportunities arise

OTHER PLACEMENT OPTIONS

Depending on geographical region, there may be opportunities to obtain supervision under

behavior analysts outside of home and school settings. For example, there might be an op-
portunity to work with patients with traumatic brain injury within a hospital setting. Having
 5 Selecting a Supervised Experience Setting 53

access to work with behavior analysts who provide organizational behavior management
consultations to various organizations might present an opportunity to learn about the appli-
cation of behavior analysis within organizations. Working within an organization that provides
adult services may offer the opportunity to gain experience with adults in group homes and
geriatric patients in senior home facilities. Behavior analysis has many applications, and
practice is not limited to a particular population or setting (see subspecialty areas, Behavior
Analyst Certification Board, 2023). At the time of this writing, about 75% of behavior analysts
provide services to individuals with autism spectrum disorders, likely because of insurance
funding (see Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2024).

CHOOSING THE RIGHT EXPERIENCE FOR YOU

In an ideal world, having an opportunity to receive supervision in two different settings, such
as a university-based clinic and a community-based setting, may be the best training one can
receive. If simultaneous experiences are unavailable, obtaining experience in a community-
based setting after meeting competencies in the university-based or school setting will allow
the supervisee to build a more extensive repertoire. In addition to gradually building skills,
such simultaneous or sequential supervised experience would allow access to multiple
supervisors before practicing independently. The advantage of having numerous supervisors
is learning from their different perspectives and gaining insight when their feedback is re-
liable across supervisors. Some behavioral health professions, such as clinical psychology,
require a multistep supervision experience such that students are required to obtain a certain
amount of supervised experience both pre- and post-doctoral. However, currently in behavior
analysis one will rarely have such an opportunity because of the ever-increasing demand for
credentialed behavior analysts.
If given choices, it is essential for the supervisee to select a site based on their strengths,
goals, and hopes for supervision. Besides knowing the advantages and disadvantages of
each type of fieldwork experience, Self-Reflection Exercise 5.2 can serve as a guide to help
the supervisees identify the best fieldwork experience given their strengths and short-term
goals. Completing this exercise requires the use of information from Self-Reflection Exercise
5.1 and Quick Reference 5.1.

SELF-REFLECTION EXERCISE 5.2

Considering your strengths and goals from Self-Reflection Exercise 5.1 and the advantages
of each fieldwork experience from Quick Reference 5.1, jot down the five top advantages that
best match your short-term goals.
1. Self-reflect
2. and think to
yourself
3.
4.
5.

After completing the exercise, the supervisee should select the fieldwork experience with
the most listed advantages. When making selections, we strongly encourage the supervisee
54 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

not to get sidetracked by bells and whistles and how fancy a fieldwork experience sounds.
While writing this book, we know there is a shortage of competent, qualified individuals,
and most sites are eager to recruit top talent. What matters is for the supervisee to select the
fieldwork that best matches their identified skills and short-term goals. Clinical and analytic
competencies are built over time, and, based on our experience, no single fieldwork type can
offer opportunities to master skills in all areas. We recommend that the supervisee narrow
down site options to those that will meet the most immediate short-term goals. Over time,
the supervisee can broaden their experiences as they grow professionally.

ADJUSTING WHEN YOUR PREFERRED PLACEMENT IS NOT AVAILABLE

Two other issues can arise when supervisees are looking for fieldwork placements: (1) the
supervisee cannot find access to the population or setting that matches their long-term goals,
and (2) the supervisee is not accepted to their placement of choice. Helping a supervisee find
access to the population or setting of their choice can be challenging. Although behavior
analysts work with NASA engineers, firefighters, and geriatric and infantile populations,
the supervisees may not be in a geographical location that allows them to access such super-
vised experience opportunities. In cases where the supervisee has a particular passion, there
are a few options that the supervisee can explore with an advisor. One option may be for
the supervisee to work with a supervisor or organization that can create the opportunity the
supervisee seeks. Another option is for the supervisee to find the type of supervised experi-
ence opportunity that may provide training close to their professional goals. Although the
type of supervised experience may not be an exact match, the supervisee can expand their
scope of practice as they professionally grow (for a self-assessment tool and guidance for
increasing your scope of practice, see Fitzpatrick et al. [under review]).
What if the supervisee has access to their top choice but is not accepted? Sometimes, a
supervisee’s first or second choice of a site may be a situation with competitive positions with
only a few candidates selected each year. It is not uncommon for on-campus sites, those that
offer the highest stipends or pay, or those that are flexible in hours or geographically closer to
the campus to be more competitive. An example may be a university-based applied research
experience where the number of seats available may be contingent on the total number of
supervisees a faculty member can supervise and the amount of grant funding available for
students. If a supervisee has their heart set on a highly competitive fieldwork placement, they
may be profoundly disappointed or even feel crushed if they are not accepted. To mitigate
the impact of non-acceptance to a top-choice placement, supervisees are encouraged to rank
their top five choices before applying and to be prepared to move to their subsequent choice
options if they are not accepted to their top-ranked sites.

A NOTE TO THE SUPERVISEE

What if you were not offered a position? Be proud of yourself for selecting and applying to
your top-ranked positions. Your best bet is to have backup plans and interview at multiple
levels to secure a position. If you find that you did not secure the position(s) you wanted, you
should try and meet with your practica instructor, program advisor, or internship coordinator
and ask for some tips and feedback on your application. In some situations, especially if the
site has a formal internship agreement with your university, these individuals may be able
to reach out to their contacts at the sites to access additional feedback regarding your inter-
view. Your best bet is to stay connected with individuals close to you and seek the support
 5 Selecting a Supervised Experience Setting 55

of faculty, advisors, and peers. Asking for help demonstrates maturity and professionalism
on your part; it is not a sign of weakness. Lean on your support system and implement the
feedback and suggestions you receive. Sometimes, you do not secure a desired position despite
your best efforts. Avoid stressing yourself out by asking questions that have circular answers,
such as “What if I did this?” or “What if I was feeling better during that?” Although taking
a different perspective when you feel rejected is challenging, it is essential to know that the
selection process is bidirectional and that sometimes you are an excellent candidate but not
the right match. Also, your fieldwork decision, albeit important, will not wholly shape your
career. Each site and experience will offer unique learning opportunities, and you can grow
in any supportive environment if you focus on finding those opportunities and devote your
supervised experience to self-growth.

CONCLUSION

In this chapter, we outlined the pros and cons of various supervised fieldwork experiences. We
also set the occasion for self-reflection activities to help with the fieldwork selection process.
We recognize that not all readers of this book will have the opportunity to select between these
fieldwork experiences. However, knowing about the different types of fieldwork available
for experiential learning can be very helpful for future decision-making.

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCES

Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2023). Applied behavior analysis: Subspecialty areas. [Link]
.[Link]/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Executive-Summary_230412-[Link]
Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2024). BACB Certificant Data. [Link]/bacb-certificant-data/
Dubuque, E. M., & Dubuque, M. L. (2018). Guidelines for the establishment of a university-based practical
training system. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 11(1), 51–61. [Link]
Fitzpatrick, B., Arreguin, J., Vera, J., & Kazemi, E. (under review). Competent practice of ABA: Tools to self-
assess and expand competence.
 6
MAKING DATA-BASED DECISIONS
IN SUPERVISION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

• Explain how measuring supervision outcomes

• Benefit supervisees, supervisors, clients, and the field of applied behavior analysis

• Promote ethical practice and evidence-based practice

• Enhance supervisee growth and development, supervisor-supervisee relationship, and accounta-

bility and quality assurance

• Select and develop tools for measuring performance, competence, and the supervisory relationship

INTRODUCTION

Supervision is like any other intervention behavior analysts carry out. The difference is
that the service recipient in supervision is the supervisee. A behavior analyst must conduct
assessments and track supervisee improvement just as they must conduct assessments and
track client improvements. Tracking changes based on supervision enables the supervisor
to determine if the supervision activities effectively establish the skills necessary for the
supervisee to become a competent behavior analyst.
Historically, clinical supervision was less structured and relied almost solely on the
supervisor’s expert judgment about the supervisee’s readiness. Supervisors would keep
notes of subjective observations and maybe anecdotal feedback. However, the importance
of using empirical evidence and outcome measurement in supervision today cannot be
overstated. In most instances, the supervisee enters the supervision relationship with
several unique strengths and areas that need improvement. Many of the areas that need
the most improvement likely include those unique to the science and practice of behavior
analysis. However, it is also likely that the supervisee needs support and growth in other
areas to become a strong, compassionate, and ethical practitioner and behavior change

56
 6 Making Data-Based Decisions in Supervision 57

agent. For example, the supervisee may have excellent observation and recording skills
and quickly meet the mastery criteria for behavior measurement competencies. Still,
the same supervisee may lack the skills to validate the family’s concerns or demonstrate
compassion when the family expresses frustration with the proposed behavior change
program. Regardless of what it may be, data-based supervision allows a supervisor to
assess the supervisee’s skills and make data-informed decisions to help improve the skills
the supervisee needs to carry out the roles and responsibilities of a competent behavior
analyst. Therefore, it is essential that progress, or lack thereof, is recorded and monitored.
Consider Case Scenario 6.1.

CASE SCENARIO 6.1

Ainsley has supervised Emerson in a clinic-based autism service agency for the past year. As
they began to target Emerson’s assessment skills, Ainsley observed Emerson struggling with
designing experimentally sound functional analysis procedures. After providing feedback and
setting clear objectives related to improving performance in designing functional analysis,
Ainsley assigned two activities for Emerson to complete to target this area of concern. Over
the course of two months, Ainsley continued to target various skill areas but neglected to follow
up on Emerson’s assignments and the feedback that was previously delivered. When an op-
portunity arose to design a functional analysis, Ainsley informed Emerson that they were not
confident in Emerson’s ability to create the functional analysis. Since Emerson was not given
the opportunity to complete the functional analysis that day, Ainsley has observed Emerson
being more withdrawn, performing at a lower level in assigned tasks, and appearing less en-
gaged with the supervision process.

In Case Scenario 6.1, the supervisor (Ainsley) accurately identified an area for growth for
their supervisee and took steps to support the skill development. However, the supervisor did
not adequately document or follow up with additional opportunities where the supervisee
may have demonstrated improvement in the targeted area. In this example, when another
opportunity arose, the supervisor responded to the supervisee’s past behavior and, as a re-
sult, may have inadvertently placed it on extinction or punished the supervisee’s attempts
to improve in this area. This scenario illustrates the importance of accurately tracking and
monitoring progress in supervision.
Measuring the impact of supervision and recording the supervisee’s gains over time
promotes best practices and enhances the supervisor-supervisee relationship. Next, we dis-
cuss the various reasons for measuring the outcomes of supervision.

PROMOTING ETHICAL PRACTICE

In accordance with the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts (Behavior Analyst Certification
Board, 2020), behavior analysts are accountable for their supervisory practices and the
professional activities of their supervisees that occur as a part of the supervisory prac-
tice. The supervisor must engage in evidence-based data collection and performance
monitoring of their supervisees to provide timely feedback to improve performance.
Supervisors must actively evaluate their supervisory practices and obtain feedback from
various sources such as clients, supervisees, and the outcomes achieved. Additionally, the
supervisor must document the results of these evaluations, collaborate with the supervisee
to select skills that need improvement, and adjust their supervisory and training practices
58 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

as needed. Therefore, a behavior analyst’s ethical duty is data- and outcome-based su-
pervision practice. By evaluating their supervisory practice and coaching the supervisee
through data-based supervision practices, the supervisor is helping the supervisee be-
come a competent behavior analyst and simultaneously modeling ethical supervision
practices (Turner et al., 2016).

ENHANCING SUPERVISEE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Data-based decisions provide a more objective and comprehensive view of a supervisee’s

performance and progress (Garza et al., 2018). By collecting data on various aspects of the
supervisee’s work—such as client outcomes, the procedural integrity of treatments, verbal
behavior of supervisees as they interact with different stakeholders, and supervisee adher-
ence to evidence-based practices (EBP)—supervisors can identify areas of growth and need
and tailor their feedback and guidance accordingly. This data-driven approach fosters a clear
road map for skill enhancement by helping supervisees recognize their strengths and areas
that need continued improvement.
In this book, we have provided the supervisor and supervisee with a structured system
to track the supervisee’s skills as they develop the component skills, or the competencies,
to become proficient practitioners. Tracking progress toward mastery is one of the ways
a supervisor can evaluate if supervision is improving the supervisee’s skills. Garza et al.
(2018) provided a set of tools from the field of organizational behavior management to help
supervisors record supervisees’ performance and provide ongoing feedback. Some of the
tools these authors provide include job models and templates for developing task analyses.
The competencies we provided in this book are expanded versions of the job models and
task analyses that Garza et al. (2018) outlined.
Research evidence supports competency-based training for supervision (Parsons et al.,
2012; Reid et al., 2012). In this book, for each competency, we have provided you with sample
progress monitoring tools and progress indicators. Supervisors can use objective data to
identify specific learning needs and create personalized training plans for their supervisees.
For example, consider Case Scenario 6.2.

CASE SCENARIO 6.2

A supervisee’s performance on the progress monitoring tool shows implementing incidental

teaching at set criterion but missed performance criteria related to data collection and im-
plementation of behavior reduction and skill acquisition plans that use structured teaching
methods (e.g., discrete trial teaching). The personalized training plan may include having the
supervisee continue using only incidental teaching when working with clients while focusing
the training on implementing behavior reduction plans and data collection specific to incidental
teaching and behavior reduction. After the supervisee meets the set criteria for implementing
behavior reduction plans and collecting accurate data, the supervisor can begin shaping the
use of structured teaching methods.

This targeted approach to competency-based training optimizes resources and time,

ensuring supervisees receive the most relevant and impactful training without feeling
overwhelmed. Furthermore, client data and treatment outcome measurement ensure
that supervisees’ performances are aligned with treatment goals and that interventions
are implemented with appropriate treatment integrity. Measuring client progress sets
 6 Making Data-Based Decisions in Supervision 59

the occasion for the supervisors and supervisees to work together and make real-time
adjustments to their approaches, leading to better outcomes and a more positive impact
on clients’ lives.

PROMOTING A BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

Just as with any intervention, there are times that growth is stagnant or the supervisee is making
little progress. Such occasions call for the supervisor to evaluate their training methods and
re-evaluate the environmental contingencies to determine if the supervisee’s lack of progress
requires further training, task clarification, or alteration of the motivating conditions. By using
tools such as the Performance Diagnostic Checklist-Human Services (PDC-HS; Carr et al.,
2013), the supervisor promotes a behavioral approach to problem-solving and models that
the behavioral principles can be utilized to identify variables responsible for lack of change
not only for client behaviors but also supervisees’ behaviors.
The PDC-HS is an excellent tool for the supervisor to determine if the supervisee’s per-
formance on a given skill is a “can’t do” or a “won’t do” issue. The tool was designed to be
used as an interview with the direct supervisor, with a portion that requires direct obser-
vation of supervisee behavior. The tool is free, available online, and easy to use. Every “no”
response on the tool is an opportunity for intervention. The results can be summarized by
counting the yeses and noes that accumulate into the following four categories: (1) training,
(2) task clarification and prompting, (3) resources, materials, and processes, and (4) perfor-
mance consequences, effort, and competition. In addition to identifying the environmental
variables surrounding the performance problem, the authors have suggested evidence-based
interventions for improving staff performance based on the results. For example, let us say
the PDC-HS was used in the example mentioned earlier of a supervisee who struggled with
implementing behavior reduction treatment plans and structured teaching procedures. The
PDC-HS assessment results showed that task clarification and prompting, resources, materials,
processes, performance consequences, effort, and competition were not variables contributing
to difficulties with implementing the plans. The training was the only area that needed to be
addressed. The assessment showed that although the supervisee received initial training for
each procedure, the supervisee could not accurately describe the procedures. There was no
evidence that the supervisee performed the skill to set criteria with any of the clients. Using
the recommendation listed under the PDC-HS intervention planning section, the supervisor
should select behavior skills training to improve the supervisee’s performance. The reader
is encouraged to review Brand et al. (2022) for further guidance on administration, scoring,
interpretation, and intervention selection based on the PDC-HS.

PROMOTING EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICES

Data-based decisions in supervision promote the adoption of evidence-based practices (EBPs).

Supervisors can evaluate whether supervisees adhere to established protocols and guidelines,
ensuring the consistent implementation of best practices. This approach reduces the risk of
ineffective or potentially harmful interventions, fostering a culture of evidence-based care.
Additionally, using a competency-based approach for training and evaluating skills enables
the supervisor to program for training and supervision of evidence-based assessment methods
and interventions. Last, using competency-based training and data-based decision-making
in supervision not only supports the acquisition of skills by supervisees but also serves as a
model for evidence-based supervision practice.
60 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

STRENGTHENING THE SUPERVISORY RELATIONSHIP

A robust supervisory relationship contributes to the quality of supervision, such that a

supervisee is much more likely to thrive in a safe, reinforcing relationship with their super-
visor. Data-based supervision enhances supervisory relationships by promoting transparency
and objectivity. When supervisors base their feedback and evaluations on concrete data,
the supervision process becomes less subjective. Data-based decision-making and feedback
foster trust and confidence between supervisors and supervisees, creating a safe space for
open communication and self-reflection and allowing the supervisees to participate actively
in their learning. A collaborative approach to evaluation and training allows supervisees to
view their supervisors as mentors rather than critics. This leads to more excellent receptive-
ness to feedback and a willingness to learn and grow.
One aspect of the supervision relationship to monitor is the degree to which a supervisor
and a supervisee have rapport, or behaviorally speaking, are mutual discriminative stimuli
for generalized reinforcement (Turner et al., 2016). In their systematic review of empirical
studies evaluating supervision outcomes, Hersch et al. (under review) found that 24 out of
the 26 articles (i.e., 92%) used self-report measures. Of the 24 articles, 52% had the supervisor
and supervisee complete the self-report measures, with the remaining 40% completed by
the supervisee and 2% by the supervisor. Several common categories were measured across
the measures. Supervisors and supervisees were asked to report on their rapport and mu-
tual respect. For example, they were asked questions such as “My supervisor respects my
views and ideas.” They were also asked questions about their satisfaction with their goals.
For example, the supervisee was asked, “The criteria for evaluating my performance in su-
pervision is clear.” Additionally, the supervisee was asked questions about the supervisor’s
practices. For example, “My supervisor seeks feedback to improve supervision processes.”
Last, the self-report measures commonly included other questions such as timely attendance,
removal of distractors during meetings, on-time and accurate completion of work, and prep-
aration for meetings. In Table 6.1, we have provided some example categories and sample
questions. The same questions can be used for the supervisor and supervisee to report on
each other’s behaviors.
Based on their systematic review of supervision articles published across disciplines,
Hersch et al. (under review) recommended that the supervisor and supervisee complete short
self-report measures about the supervisory relationship and review the results to provide each
other feedback. The supervisor must use these opportunities to show openness to feedback
and change. Such discussions will likely lead to self-reflection and a feedback loop that allows
the supervisor and supervisee to implement feedback and adjust supervision practices as
needed. In the competencies section of this book, we recommend that the supervisee seeks
new learning opportunities from their supervisors to expand their repertoires. Collaboration
and joint review of supervision practices can lead to a stronger supervisory relationship that
supports supervisees in reaching their full potential as human care professionals.

ENSURING ACCOUNTABILITY AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

Data-based decisions in supervision contribute to accountability and quality assurance

within healthcare organizations. We strongly recommend that organizations closely monitor
supervisory practices and provide support and professional development opportunities to
supervisors to maintain consistent and high levels of supervision practices. Using perfor-
mance measures to measure supervisees’ and client performance and supervisees’ ratings of
supervisors’ job performance may provide objective data on the supervisory duties meeting
 6 Making Data-Based Decisions in Supervision 61

TABLE 6.1 Sample Questions for Supervisor and Supervisee

Likert Scale (1 = not at all, 5 = very much)
Supervisor

Competence
Sets personal goals to enhance supervisory skills
Reviews updates and newsletters from the appropriate credentialing board
and guides changes and adherence to requirements in supervisory
practice
Seeks and provides appropriate accommodations for the supervisee
Expectations
Makes the criteria for evaluating performance in supervision clear
Defines expectations, goals, and requirements of the relationship
Defines expectations for interpersonal and modes of communication
Sets expectations for a collaborative model of supervision
Feedback
Seeks feedback to improve the supervision process
Takes steps to implement feedback and adjust supervision accordingly
Assesses supervisee performance
Determines if progress is made toward the supervisee’s goals
Observes sessions and collects and interprets data with the supervisee
Reviews written work and documentation
Examines data to identify patterns of behavior and targets for improvement
Relationship
Is respectful of the supervisee’s views and ideas
Notes when supervisee shows growth from supervision
Engages in difficult conversations when appropriate regarding supervisee
performance
Engages in active listening
Demonstrates cultural competence
Model and Train
Demonstrates cultural competence
Takes responsibility for the supervision journey
Provides training on needed skills
Supervisee

Competence
Takes charge of supervision by reading and reviewing information provided
by teachers/supervisors/peers regarding supervision experience
Sets personal goals to enhance skills in supervision
(continued)
62 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 6.1 Sample Questions for Supervisor and Supervisee

Likert Scale (1 = not at all, 5 = very much) (continued)
Supervisee

Expectations
Reviews sources to find answers before going to the supervisor for answers
Seeks supervisor’s help appropriately
Feedback
Seeks feedback to improve the supervision process
Takes steps to implement feedback and adjust accordingly
Engages in self-reflection and self-monitoring
Relationship
Is respectful of supervisor’s views and ideas
Acknowledges when supervision has helped in learning and growth
Identifies areas for improvement and provides solutions
Takes responsibility for the supervision journey

the organizational standards and alignment with the profession’s guidelines. Supervision
outcome measurement also enables supervisors to track the impact of their supervision on
supervisees and client outcomes. By assessing the effectiveness of the supervisory process,
organizations can identify areas for improvement and invest in training and professional
development opportunities that enhance the quality of the services they provide. Such data-
based decisions enable the organization to be accountable for the supervisee’s performance,
the supervisor for their supervision practices, and the profession of behavior analysis to be
accountable for the supervised experience provided to emerging behavior analysts.

ADVANCING SUPERVISION PRACTICES AND THE FIELD OF

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

Outcome measurement also serves as a valuable feedback loop for supervisees, encouraging
them to engage in self-assessment and reflective practice (Sellers et al., 2016). As supervisees
witness the direct relationship between their efforts and client outcomes, they are much more
likely to be motivated to seek ongoing learning opportunities and take responsibility for their
professional growth. Furthermore, as the number of behavior analysts grows exponentially
each year, supervision is essential in maintaining a thriving profession. Outcome measure-
ment in supervision sets the occasion for professional discussions of core competencies,
effective supervision practices, and solutions for the continued advancement of behavior
analysis. By adopting a data-based approach, supervision contributes to advancing the field
itself. Collecting and analyzing data can lead to valuable research and insights that improve
supervision practices and inform best practices for future supervisors.

CONSIDERATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN DATA-BASED SUPERVISION

Undoubtedly, measuring supervision has many benefits for the clients, supervisees, and
supervisors. However, there is much room for growth in this area of research. Sellers et al.
(2019) studied supervision practices by surveying 284 participants recruited through voluntary
 6 Making Data-Based Decisions in Supervision 63

and snowball sampling. The authors posted survey links and recruited participants through
national and state professional organizations, social media sites, and a Behavioral Analyst
Certification Board (BACB) email blast. They found that 79% of participants indicated they
use competency-based evaluation and tracking related to the BACB Task List, and most of
them make the competency list available to their trainees. Most respondents reported using
self-developed competency tools (i.e., 61%) and tools developed by their employers (i.e., 44%).
Of the 80% of respondents who reported actively tracking their trainees’ mastery of skills, 72%
set the mastery criteria, measured the trainee’s performance, and provided feedback. About
26% used graphic displays of the trainee competency. Additionally, about two-thirds of the
respondents noted that they measured their supervisees’ interpersonal, communication, time
management, and organizational skills; however, there was much variability in how these
skills were measured, and most reported difficulty in and a lack of understanding of how to
measure these skills. The results of this study are limited by the fact that participation in the
study was voluntary and through snowball sampling. For example, it is possible that the indi-
viduals who responded to the survey were motivated to learn more about supervision, knew
the authors because they engaged in supervision research, or were stronger supervisors proud
to report on their supervision practice. Therefore, the results may be inflated. Additionally,
self-report surveys have various limitations. For example, the respondents may have felt in-
clined to answer the questions in a manner that aligns with best-practice recommendations
and the behavior analyst code of conduct. Nevertheless, we can take away from this survey
study that although most respondents said they used competency-based evaluations based
on the BACB Task List when measuring interpersonal, communication, time management,
and organizational skills, there was much variability. There is a need for more research and
support for supervisors in this area.
Supervision is a time-consuming, complex skill, and there is much room for growth in
this area of research. An excellent supervisor supports various skills throughout the supervi-
sory process, some of which may not be captured via performance tools, graphs, surveys, or
archived data. In this chapter, we aim to provide some resources and encourage data-based
decisions about the effectiveness of supervision activities and the supervisory relationship.
However, we recognize that measurement may be indirect or very difficult if the supervisee’s
behavior is covert or infrequent. We encourage supervisors and supervisees to work on mea-
surement, recording, and data-based decisions together and be willing to explore and learn
new strategies to capture progress.

BUILDING RESOURCES TO SUPPORT TRANSITIONING TO THE ROLE OF A

BEHAVIOR ANALYST

Navigating the job requirements as a new behavior analyst and finding work-life balance is
challenging. Having resources to reference may lift some of the burden and reduce the time
spent on work. During supervision, it is very likely that the supervisee develops several
iterations of each of the documents they will need as a behavior analyst, including but not
limited to operational definitions of target behaviors, statements of various goals, datasheets
for skill acquisition and behavior reduction programs, Excel templates for generating dif-
ferent types of graphs, example graphs summarizing data, and intervention protocols. Using
portfolios to keep track of progress during supervision will allow the supervisees to gather
resources they may need when working as behavior analysts. Portfolios also enhance the
learning experience. Research evidence suggests that portfolios evoke reflection on learning
experiences in addition to being a collection of achievements (MacDonald et al., 2004). We
suggest electronic portfolios because they can be easily accessed by the supervisee or shared
with anyone, such as a future employer. Developing a portfolio of the work completed in
64 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

supervision enables the supervisee and supervisor to evaluate progress, document outcomes,
reflect on the experiences, and have a collection of resources to return to.

CONCLUDING FORMAL SUPERVISION AND RECRUITING

CONTINUED MENTORSHIP

Formal supervision refers to the contractual agreement between the supervisor and supervisee
and concludes upon the supervisee meeting the contract’s requirements. For example, formal
supervision may end when the supervisee has met all the expected competencies and accrued
the required supervised experience hours. However, rarely does the supervisory relationship
end when formal supervision is concluded. In most cases, the supervisee and supervisor can
continue to check in with each other, recruit advice, request support, and gain mentorship. In
fact, a strong behavior analyst is likely to mentor individuals and receive mentorship from
others throughout their professional career.

CONCLUSION

Data-based decisions and outcome measurement are essential components of effective and
evidence-based supervision. They promote ethical practice, support the utilization of a be-
havioral approach for evaluating and intervening with behaviors, enhance supervisee growth
and development, promote evidence-based practices, strengthen supervisory relationships,
ensure accountability and quality assurance, and advance supervision practices and the field
of behavior analysis. As healthcare organizations increasingly recognize the importance of
data-based decision-making, it is evident that integrating data and outcome measurement
in supervision at organizational, supervisory, and supervisee levels will play a crucial role
in delivering high-quality supervised experience and client care.

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCES

Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2020). Ethics code for behavior analysts. [Link]
/wp-content/ethics-code-for-behavior-analysts/
Brand, D., Sellers, T. P., Wilder, D. A., & Carr, J. E. (2022). The performance diagnostic checklist—human
services: Guidance for assessment administration. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 15(3), 951–957.
[Link]
Carr, J. E., Wilder, D. A., Majdalany, L., Mathison, D., & Strain, L.A. (2013). An assessment-based solution
to a human-service employee problem: An initial evaluation of the performance diagnostic checklist—
human services. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 6(1), 16–32. [Link]
Garza, K. L., McGee, H. M., Schenk, Y. A., & Wiskirchen, R. R. (2018). Some tools for carrying out
a proposed process for supervising experience hours for aspiring Board Certified Behavior
Analysts. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 11(1), 62–70. [Link]
Hersch, J., Aghajanian, Z., Kazemi, E. (under review). Supervision outcomes: A systematic review and
suggestions.
MacDonald, L., Liu, P., Lowell, K., Tsai, H., & Lohr, L. (2004). Part One Graduate student perspectives on
the development of electronic portfolios. TechTrends, 48(3), 52–55. [Link]
 6 Making Data-Based Decisions in Supervision 65

Parsons, M. B., Rollyson, J. H., & Reid, D. H. (2012). Evidence-based staff training: A guide for
practitioners. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5(2), 2–11. [Link]
Reid, D. H., Parsons, M. B., & Green, C. W. (2012). Supervisor’s guidebook: Evidence-based strategies for
promoting work quality and enjoyment among human service staff (pp. 81–108). Habilitative Management
Consultants.
Sellers, T. P., Alai-Rosales, S., & MacDonald, R. P. (2016). Taking full responsibility: The ethics of
supervision in behavior analytic practice. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9(4), 299–308.
[Link]
Sellers, T. P., Valentino, A. L., Landon, T. J., & Aiello, S. (2019). Board certified behavior analysts’
supervisory practices of trainees: Survey results and recommendations. Behavior Analysis in
Practice, 12(3), 536–546. [Link]
Turner, L. B., Fischer, A. J., & Luiselli, J. K. (2016). Towards a competency-based, ethical, and socially valid
approach to the supervision of applied behavior analytic trainees. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9(4),
287–298. [Link]
 7
GETTING THE MOST FROM
THE SUPERVISION EXPERIENCE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

• State the importance of using supervision time efficiently

• State strategies for optimizing opportunities for learning during supervision

• Explain how a supervisee can gain the most from the supervision experience

INTRODUCTION

Practica coursework and fieldwork involve the experiences you gain from working directly
with families and clients and the experiences you cultivate. In many ways, the trajectory
of supervision is what the supervisee makes of it. The supervisees who spend time pre-
paring for supervision, putting their behaviors out there, and seeking feedback from their
supervisors to shape those behaviors gain the most from supervised experiences. There
are fundamental differences between the supervisees who gain the most from supervision
and those who meet the minimum criteria. This chapter provides some tips to maximize
gains from supervised experience based on the literature on supervision and some of the
behaviors we have seen across our supervisees who have gained the most from their su-
pervision experiences with us.

USING SUPERVISION TIME EFFICIENTLY

To gain the most from supervision, we strongly recommend planning how to use the supervisor’s
time maximally. When professionals obtain consultation for clinical or organizational work,
each moment of the consultation may cost hundreds of dollars. Like consultants, lawyers’
fees are time-based because their time to listen, review material, and provide expert advice

66
 7 Getting the Most from the Supervision Experience 67

is valuable in that it saves money and time in the long run. A supervisor’s time is equally
valuable in the short- and long-term impact supervision has on the supervisee’s professional
growth and development. Therefore, treating the supervisor’s time with the same respect
as time-based professionals makes sense, even though the supervisee often does not pay for
supervision time out of pocket. Treating time as valuable during supervision increases the
chances of receiving more productive supervision. The following recommendations outline
ways to cultivate and take advantage of all supervision opportunities.

BUILDING FLUENCY WITH FOUNDATIONAL KNOWLEDGE IN

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

Most licensing and certification boards allow supervisees to accrue supervision hours after
beginning the appropriate coursework because the ideal supervision experience involves
applying what is learned in classes in the clinical setting. To apply material from coursework
requires a strong conceptual foundation. Lack of a strong foundation in principles and beha-
vior measurement, for example, may function as a barrier in connecting information learned
in coursework to fieldwork. Read Case Scenario 7.1 and determine the variable(s) that affected
Sally’s and Cris’s problem-solving skills and supervision experience.

CASE SCENARIO 7.1

Sally and Cris, both supervised by Nicole, work with a 12-year-old boy with autism. Both re-
cently finished their first graduate-level behavior analysis course, Principles of Applied Behavior
Analysis. Sally excelled in the class, whereas Cris struggled but passed. During a session,
right after a break and immediately before working on tasks, the client has been asking many
questions that sometimes relate to the task and sometimes do not. Nicole has noticed that
the client is not meeting his goals during these sessions, and things are running longer than
expected. After determining the function of the observed behavior, Nicole met with Sally and
Cris separately and asked both to generate a hypothesis about the function of the behavior
and describe how differential reinforcement would be used to address the target behavior.
Sally provided a clear rationale that the problem behavior was likely maintained by negative
reinforcement and not attention by considering both attention and negative reinforcement as
possible functions. Sally also suggested reducing the reinforcing value of escape from the task
by reducing the work requirement and reinforcing asking for help. On the other hand, Cris only
considered attention as a primary function of the behavior, and his solution was to provide little
attention when the client asked questions and redirect back to work. Nicole had to spend the
remaining valuable supervision time with Cris, going over the basic concepts that needed to be
applied to pinpoint the variables that evoked and maintained the problem behavior. Meanwhile,
Nicole spent the remaining supervision time with Sally, incorporating recommendations into
a treatment plan.

The level of fluency with foundational knowledge is the main barrier that resulted in
Cris and Sally having completely different supervision experiences. Although Cris’s time
with Nicole was spent reviewing information, he should have known Sally’s time was spent
learning how to integrate procedures into treatment plans. In this case, Sally’s supervision
experience differed from Cris’s, even though they had the same client and the same supervisor.
Sally had the advantage in this case because she put in the preparation time to build strong
foundational knowledge of basic principles that affect behaviors. In short, Cris’s supervision
experience is likely to move slower unless he uses the recommendation provided in Quick
68 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

Reference 7.1: spending some time reviewing his notes from the course material, looking up
additional examples on the internet, and reviewing new examples in a few books to work
on his foundational knowledge. It is strongly recommend that supervisees who struggle
with specific concepts reach out to their supervisors and ask for additional examples and
applications of that foundational concept. Case Scenario 7.1 illustrates the different content
that supervision may cover and the importance of mastering the foundational concepts.
Falling behind in coursework may result in supervision focusing more on building founda-
tional skills than their practical applications, thus leading to fewer learning opportunities.

QUICK REFERENCE 7.1. IMPROVING YOUR FOUNDATIONAL SKILLS

• Conduct a self-assessment.
• Review the relevant competency being targeted.
• Break up the items that have multiple concepts.
○ For example, a competency may have these three concepts: behavior, response, and
response class.
• Evaluate whether you can define and provide at least two examples of the item coherently
and confidently, exclusively out loud, within two to five seconds of seeing the term.
○ For example, the competency requires you to define behavior (if you said behavior is
the activity of a living organism that is sensitive to reinforcement, you are correct). Then,
provide at least two examples of behavior.
• Study the terms.
• For concepts you could not define accurately or fluently (rapid fashion), we recommend
using SAFMEDS, Say All Fast, Minute Each Day, Shuffled (Graf & Auman, 2005).
• After practicing using SAFMEDS, put yourself in a position to try to teach someone else
about the concept. This is one of the best ways to learn the concept well and evaluate
whether you can explain it accurately.
• Don’t shortchange yourself; fluency with the concepts requires hours of independent study,
repeated trials saying definitions out loud to yourself, and rehearsal in different contexts.
Your peers and supervisor cannot help you gain fluency. They can, however, serve as
evaluators by timing your responses.
• Recruit feedback.
• Ask your supervisor if they would be willing to provide you with feedback if you defined
and explained the term.
• Ask for feedback on the examples and non-examples you come up with.
• Remember that practice makes permanent, so practice with high fidelity/accuracy.

In summary, to gain the most from supervision, we strongly recommend staying on

top of course material and building mastery of foundational knowledge by following our
recommendations in Quick Reference 7.1. Strong foundational knowledge will likely result
in more learning opportunities during supervision rather than using that valuable time for
tutoring sessions.

SHOWING APPRECIATION FOR OPPORTUNITIES TO LEARN

Just as our behaviors can increase or decrease certain aspects of the client’s behaviors,
supervisees’ responses can also increase or decrease the supervisor’s behaviors. Matey
et al. (2021) found that negative reactions to feedback decreased an observer’s accuracy
in recording the correctness of performance and decreased feedback giving. This study
 7 Getting the Most from the Supervision Experience 69

demonstrates the impact of the supervisee’s reactions on how the supervisor provides
feedback in the future. We recommend that supervisees consider their reactions to feed-
back carefully and recognize that as a consequence to feedback their reactions can increase
or decrease the likelihood of receiving feedback. We provided information about ways to
receive feedback well in Chapter 3.
Another way supervisors may evaluate the value of feedback they provide is through
changes in supervisees’ related behaviors. These changes after feedback from the super-
visor will most likely increase the probability of similar feedback from the supervisor
in the future. For example, in Case Scenario 6.1, the supervisor dedicated the time to
allow them to problem-solve an issue. Cris and Sally can react to this opportunity in
two ways. First, they could recognize it as an opportunity contrived by their supervisor
to teach them a higher-level skill. Sally and Cris can thank Nicole for her time and pro-
vide specific examples of what they gained from their time with Nicole. Cris can make
an effort to demonstrate increased knowledge of basic concepts. Alternatively, Cris can
respond defensively and justify his position. Or, Cris can receive Nicole’s feedback but
come to the next supervision meeting without doing additional work on learning basic
concepts. Defensive or dismissive responses to feedback will likely decrease receiving
feedback. Ultimately, the supervisee is a partner in the supervision experience, and no
perfect supervisor is unaffected by the supervisee’s behaviors. If every moment of su-
pervision is viewed as an opportunity to rise to the occasion and learn, much will be
gained from supervision.

TAKING ADVANTAGE OF OPPORTUNITIES THAT ARISE

It is unfortunate, but some individuals do not take advantage of all the great opportunities
during their fieldwork. Many prominent figures in behavior analysis established themselves
by agreeing to put time and effort when and however they could. Usually, their volunteer
efforts provided them with opportunities to learn and develop relationships that empowered
them over time. Completing fieldwork is the ideal time to seek out opportunities to work
with supervisors who would support developing strong clinical skills, given that graduate
programs may provide access to various individuals and fieldwork sites. Supervised expe-
rience time is an investment in the supervisee’s future as a professional, not just a time to
meet the minimum standards.
In catching up with a former student, he shared that he regrets how he spent his fieldwork
experience at California State University, Northridge (CSUN). He explained that he had the
opportunity to work at an unpaid internship site that focused on applying behavior analysis
at schools and academic fluency for underprivileged individuals, his primary area of interest.
Instead of taking that opportunity, he chose to work at an in-home service agency working
with children with autism because it was a paid position. Although both experiences would
have provided him with the opportunities to meet his competencies and needed the income,
he regretted choosing the paid opportunity because it led him down a career path outside his
primary interest. In retrospect, he wished he had found other means of generating income
and interned in the area he desired to pursue after graduation.
We share this story to encourage supervisees to pursue their interests and not miss out
on opportunities or relationships. Although time and money are realistic barriers that may
limit choices, we advise seeking assistance with decisions to forego opportunities whenever
possible. Sometimes, a choice is unavoidable. We encourage supervisees to consider their
options and recruit help, but we also recognize that individual circumstances are different,
and not everyone can take advantage of all opportunities that arise.
70 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TAKING RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE EXPERIENCE

We developed this handbook for the supervisee and the supervisor, but our focus in this
chapter is on the supervisee instead of the supervisor because the best supervision experiences
stem from the supervisee asking, or nudging, for more from the supervisor. In addition, as
with any partnership, the supervisor-supervisee relationship takes work from both part-
ners involved, not just the supervisor. Both individuals must commit to the relationship,
open communication, and give each other the benefit of the doubt for the relationship to
work. Therefore, we recommend that supervisees take responsibility for their experience
and view themselves as collaborators with supervisors for more comprehensive learning
experiences. Supervisees often need to communicate between supervisors and between the
university and fieldwork sites. Taking charge of fieldwork experience will help supervisees
see all the parties involved in their supervision as team members who are on their team to
make their experiential learning as rich and memorable as possible. As a supervisee, look for
additional opportunities or experiences (e.g., helping out with an unusual assessment or a
complicated case) and bring them to the supervisor’s attention to discuss how to be part of
those experiences. Medical residents, for example, are assigned daily activities during their
residency and gain general practice skills by dealing with the most common reasons patients
attend their residency. However, residents are always on the lookout for exceptional or tough
cases, even though they must volunteer time to do those in addition to their general activities.
The residency model places the responsibility of gaining more than mediocre residency in the
hands of the medical residents, who are often enrolled in rigorous medical school programs
and juggling residency with their academic curriculum. In many ways, the cumulative fre-
quency of accessing exceptional cases during residency differentiates physician’s career path.

CONCLUSION

In this chapter, we discussed some of the benefits of supervision and provided the supervisees
and supervisors with some tips that can be used to make supervision more efficient and pro-
ductive. The following two tips can help maximize supervision experience for supervisees and
supervisors. First, use active communication about supervision experience and how super-
vision is progressing for the supervisee and supervisor. Second, supervisors and supervisees
should approach every event, expecting it to provide potential learning opportunities. We
strongly recommend that supervisees take responsibility for their experiences to make the
most of supervised fieldwork experience.

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCES

Graf, S. A., & Auman, J. (2005). SAFMEDS: A tool to build fluency. Graf Implements.
Matey, N., Sleiman, A., Nastasi, J., Richard, E., & Gravina, N. (2021). Varying reactions to feedback and
their effects on observer accuracy and feedback omission. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 54(3),
1188–1198. [Link]
 8
FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT
AND GROWTH IN DIFFERENT
MODES OF SUPERVISION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

• Describe the pros and cons of remote supervision

• Explain how to gain the most from in-person supervision

• State the difference between practicum versus fieldwork supervision

• Discuss multiple ways to make every moment of supervision meetings count

INTRODUCTION

The function of supervision is to gain the skills needed to become an ethical, compassionate,
and competent behavior analyst. The supervision interaction may occur in person or remotely
within the context of individual and group meetings with the supervisor. Most credentialing
boards have specific requirements for how many hours of individual versus group supervi-
sion a supervisee can receive to ensure that an adequate portion of supervision is individu-
alized. In the following chapter, we will discuss different types of supervision formats and
the strengths and weaknesses of each.

IN-PERSON SUPERVISION

In-person supervision involves meeting with the supervisor face-to-face while working with
clients or holding individual or group meetings with the supervisor without client contact.
One of the roles of the supervisor is to support learning by using Behavior Skills Training
(BST), which includes modeling, role-play, and performance feedback (Parsons et al., 2012).

71
72 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

In-person supervision is the best format for shaping skills using BST. In-person supervision
also provides opportunities for in vivo feedback and allows the supervisees to observe the
supervisor interact with caregivers and teachers in person. In-person supervision should be
used as the primary format of conducting supervision whenever possible.

REMOTE SUPERVISION

Remote or virtual supervision is new in the field of behavior analysis. The shortage of cre-
dentialed behavior analysts and the growth of individuals seeking to become credentialed in
areas with a very limited number of experienced behavior analysts may have influenced the
use of remote supervision in applied behavior analysis (Simmons et al., 2021). Additionally,
the COVID-19 pandemic functioned as a catalyst for the rapid growth of remote services,
including supervision. Studies have shown that remote supervision has been used to provide
adequate supervision in counseling and psychotherapy (Simmons et al., 2021). It should be
noted that the practice of behavior analysis is different from the practices of counseling and
psychotherapy. Although most interventions in counseling and psychotherapy involve vocal
behaviors and can be practiced using vocal models vocally guiding someone in behavior
analysis on how to conduct functional analyses, preference assessments, or how to shape
and chain a behavior will be much more difficult without modeling the procedures first.
Remote supervision has some advantages, such as increased flexibility in scheduling
supervision meetings or observations, access to supervision in remote areas, lower costs as-
sociated with supervision, and decreased reactivity of clients (Simmons et al., 2021). Using
remote supervision, supervisors can observe sessions in remote areas, in time frames they
typically would not be able to accomplish due to travel constraints, and conduct observations
of supervisees with clients more often.
Despite the listed benefits, remote supervision comes with specific challenges. First,
when using this method, there are various Health Insurance Portability and Accountability
Act (HIPPA) issues to consider to protect the confidentiality of clients and supervisees.
Second, technical difficulties can interrupt supervision sessions and require follow-up
meetings or discussions to salvage what may have been lost in communication when the
interruptions occurred. Third, without sophisticated video technology, it is hard for a su-
pervisor to see the full context or the physical environment in which services are delivered.
Fourth, providing in vivo models for specific procedures via remote supervision is very
difficult. It is difficult for a supervisor to be effective if they cannot observe and evaluate all
the variables in place when certain behaviors occur and provide models of targeted skills.
Last, during a high-risk situation, a supervisor cannot jump in and help to de-escalate the
situation (Florell, 2016).
Although in-person supervision is the gold standard for clinical supervision, there are
a few steps that the supervisor and supervisee can take to obtain a quality supervised ex-
perience via remote supervision. Before utilizing remote supervision, the supervisor should
ensure that all necessary steps are taken to avoid HIPPA violations. Supervision should occur
with HIPPA-compliant video conference software, and the supervisor should be in a location
where no accidental divulgement of identifying information can occur. The supervisee should
use headphones and place the video device in a location that shows a full view of the training
environment. Using headphones may prevent the client’s reaction to the supervisor’s feedback
and allow the supervisor to provide feedback to the supervisee immediately. If possible, the
video device should be situated similarly to a body camera, allowing the supervisor to view
the session from the supervisee’s perspective. For example, attaching a webcam to the front
of the supervisee’s shirt or sweater will function as a body cam and allow the supervisor to
observe the session from the supervisee’s point of view.
 8 Facilitating Engagement and Growth in Different Modes of Supervision  73

As with in-person supervision, the supervisor’s full attention should be directed at the
supervisee’s performance to allow for the highest possible quality of feedback. By setting
up the session in this manner, the supervisor can adequately view all aspects of the session
and provide immediate feedback that only the supervisee can hear. Last, videos can be used
to model specific procedures for supervisees. Supervisors and supervisees should develop
and practice a crisis plan for proceeding in the case of a high risk or emergency. Because the
supervisor is not physically present to assist, a protocol should be in place to protect both
the client and the supervisee. For a discussion of barriers experienced while providing su-
pervision remotely and how to address them, please see Sipila-Thomas and Brodhead (2024).
Also, for more informationinformation on remote supervision please see Rios et al. (2018)
and Simmons et al. (2021).

PRACTICUM VERSUS FIELDWORK SUPERVISION

Depending on your graduate program, enrollment in a practica course may be presented as

mandatory, optional, or not available. Although all supervisors are likely to work on similar
skills, specific differences may emerge depending on your experience setting. For example, if
you are enrolled in a practicum, your supervision contract will likely be the course syllabus
provided. In these situations, your instructor may ask that you review and sign the syllabus at
the beginning of each practicum course. On the other hand, fieldwork sites typically provide
you with a standard contract related specifically to supervision at the site. Another example of
how practica meetings may differ from fieldwork meetings is that practica will likely restrict
activities to supervisory discussions of specific skills, role-plays, and peer work samples with
little to no observation of in-field interactions or skills. On the other hand, fieldwork supervi-
sion most often balances supervisory discussion with in-field observations of your work with
clients. Last, the purpose of supervision in a practica versus fieldwork site may differ slightly.
Practica meetings will likely focus primarily on acquiring behavior analytic skills and assessing
supervisee competency in each targeted skill area. Fieldwork supervision, however, will likely
place more time and emphasis on specific case discussions and the provision of client services.
Because of this emphasis on providing adequate services to clients, less time may be allocated
to targeting specific competencies that are not directly related to client outcomes.

MAKING EVERY MOMENT OF SUPERVISION MEETINGS COUNT

Activities during individual and group supervision meetings are likely to be similar. The goal
of these meetings is to help improve a supervisee’s skills to become an ethical, professional,
and competent behavior analyst. In general, activities in group meetings include discussion
of basic concepts related to group meeting agendas, use of behavior skills training to teach
specific skills, and case discussions that include giving and receiving feedback from peers.
In the later chapters covering competencies, we provide specific group meeting activities
for each competency that can be used to build and maintain basic and intermediate skills. In
the sections that follow here we have outlined some other ways supervisors can incorporate
activities that would allow them to maximize every moment of supervision meetings.

Audio or Video Recordings

In some situations, a supervisee may bring work samples into supervision meetings to display
progress, receive feedback, or obtain guidance on the future direction for a specific client.
In most cases, information regarding the referral problem, case history, and any assessment
74 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

or treatment outcome data that is available will accompany this discussion. In situations
where audio or video recordings are utilized because direct observation is not possible, it is
recommended that both the supervisor and supervisee review the materials together. In this
format, the supervisor may provide direct performance feedback or request the supervisee
to reflect and comment on their performance during the observed interactions.

Clinical Records

Supervisors may request samples of specific clinical records such as data sheets, graphs, pro-
gress reports, intervention protocols, or assessment reports to be evaluated in the context of
supervision meetings. When reviewing the work products, feedback will likely focus on the
validity and accuracy of data, case conceptualizations, problem-solving about outcomes, the
protocols for the interventions or assessments, or multiple other aspects of the work product.
The supervisor may provide written or vocal feedback and request that the changes be dem-
onstrated in a follow-up meeting.

Role-Play

Role-playing during supervision interactions allows for practice opportunities of skills in a

controlled, low-stakes environment. For example, as part of obtaining informed consent, a
supervisor may act out the role of a caregiver and ask a supervisee to explain and justify a
proposed treatment for a specific target behavior. During such a role-play, the supervisor will
observe and evaluate the interaction and provide feedback on the supervisee’s performance.
Although potentially stressful, this type of practice opportunity allows the supervisee to iden-
tify errors with a trusted mentor and then implement feedback prior to having the opportunity
to engage in the skill with a client. In some situations, the role-play may not occur between
the supervisor and supervisee but will be conducted between peers in a group supervision
setting. In this instance, feedback may be provided by the supervisor, peers, or both.

Professional and Personal Support

Supervision is not solely limited to the completion of clinical competencies or specific technical
skills. Supervision should also include check-in opportunities to make sure the supervisee is
progressing in professional and interpersonal goals, and generally is in a good place with the
supervision process. Supervision interactions can focus on rapport building with clients, family,
staff, and co-workers and in obtaining guidance in situations where difficulties arise in these
areas. Supervision may also address personal matters such as work-life balance, future goals, or
health-related concerns as they can impact the fieldwork experience. As previously mentioned,
the supervision process is a relationship between two individuals, and as such discussions
regarding factors that impact the efficacy of that relationship can and should be addressed.

GROUP SUPERVISION

Bernard and Goodyear (2009) defined group supervision as the regular meeting of a group
of supervisees with a designated supervisor or supervisors to monitor the quality of their
work. Group supervision can be an efficient way of teaching and practicing specific skills with
supervisees simultaneously. For example, group supervision can be useful for working on
basic and intermediate skills included in recommended competencies. In addition, supervisees
benefit from observing peers engaging in the target behaviors and hearing the feedback pro-
vided to others during the interactions.
 8 Facilitating Engagement and Growth in Different Modes of Supervision  75

The Focus

Group supervision has additional benefits beyond those that primarily benefit the organi-
zation (e.g., time, money, and efficiency). Group supervision allows supervisees to receive
peer feedback and learn how to provide feedback to each other as colleagues, build social
networks with peers, engage in observational learning by observing peer performance and
vocal behaviors as models, and practice public speaking, active listening, and bedside man-
ners (Valentino et al., 2016). Additionally, if group members are working within different
contexts, the supervisees are more likely to be exposed to a greater breadth of experiences
of development and use of treatments in different contexts (e.g., school versus home), client
characteristics (e.g., culture, gender, and diagnosis), caregiver and family dynamics (e.g.,
sibling relations), and direct staff behaviors. Group supervision can make the group environ-
ment familiar with situations when they may work with teams of professionals on cases and
depend on colleagues’ for support, consultation, and professional networking. Often, in our
experience, supervisees will continue to rely on their group supervision members throughout
their career due to the interactions and relationships built in group meetings.
Group meetings also provide case presentation opportunities during which supervisees
can evaluate their skills to provide appropriate context details, answer questions posed by
peers, and learn to receive and use feedback and recommendations from peers. Questions
asked by peers may demonstrate a need for further growth in communicating necessary
information or may serve as feedback for items to include in the future. The group super-
vision meetings offer a great forum for the improvement of public speaking and a safe en-
vironment where supervisees can access feedback from multiple sources. Feedback giving
and receiving from peers can be very valuable as it helps to gain a range of skills important
to the development of the supervisee, specifically through the professional interactions with
peers, offering greater exposure to ideas and new perspectives (for peer review and written
work see Lundstrom & Baker, 2009). Group supervision where feedback to others is both
encouraged and monitored can result in an improvement in this key area.
The group supervision process can provide exposure to perspectives and learning his-
tories that are different for each individual. Diversity in gender identity, ethnicity, race, age,
and disability can enhance the group experience when given the opportunity to be openly
discussed and incorporated into the learning environment. The group setting may serve as
an opportunity to evaluate biases, engage in self-awareness exercises, and practice hearing
and responding to other perspectives that differ from your own.

Group Dynamics and Rules

Group supervision can have different structures and formats, depending on the supervisor and
their preferences for the meetings. Valentino et al. (2016) provided several recommendations to
enhance the supervisees experience in a group format and the overall supervision experience
is positive. Supervisors leading groups should (1) develop clear objectives for each meeting;
(2) prepare an agenda and send it ahead of time; (3) start and end the meetings on time; (4)
observe body language during meetings and make adjustments to activities as needed; and
(5) discourage distractions (Valentino et al., 2016). The group activities provided in the com-
petency chapters of this book do address many of the recommendations and will support
the group supervisors to enhance group supervision experience. In Quick Reference 8.1, we
provide an example of some rules for the group.
We recommend that groups adhere to the following guidelines when providing feed-
back to peers. Peer feedback should be focused on concrete behaviors, be descriptive rather
than judgmental, focused on behaviors and not personal characteristics, and balanced be-
tween behaviors to keep and those to discard. In addition, when giving feedback to peers it
76 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

is important to prioritize and select items that will make the largest impact for the individual
rather than providing a laundry list of items. We also recommend practicing active listening
and “I” statements when providing feedback. For example, instead of “You said that the client,”
say “Based on what I am understanding, the client …, is that the case?” In another example of
providing feedback that communicates respect for peer’s skills, say “What do you think about
including this intervention into the treatment package?” instead of “I think you should do this,
because it is clear that what you have been doing is not working.” This change in phrasing
may seem minor but has the potential to encourage the peer to provide more information and
foster a more inclusive group setting.

QUICK REFERENCE 8.1. RULES TO ENCOURAGE SAFE AND PRODUCTIVE

GROUP MEETINGS

 Arrive at least 5–10 minutes before the meeting time.

 Complete assignments on time and prepare to share your work with peers before the meeting.
 Be open to hearing different viewpoints and show respect for differences.
 Own your own opinions and avoid advice giving.
 Keep information about your peers and their work confidential and within the group.
 Participate actively by asking questions, adding to comments that are shared during a dis-
cussion, or answering questions to show engagement, and be open to sharing information.
 Attend and listen to all peers when they speak and not just information that seems immedi-
ately important to you.
 Avoid talking over other individuals by waiting your turn to speak, raising your hand, or looking
for a period of silence.
 Avoid distractions by staying on topic and save new items for discussion as future agenda
items.
 Assign a timekeeper to help members stick to a predetermined allocation of time based on
the group’s agenda.
 Assign a notetaker for each meeting to record major tasks, decisions, action items, and
activities. This will help avoid discussing the same things repeatedly, and your action items
create accountability.
 If you agree with something said during the meeting, state that you do because lack of
disagreement is not the same thing as group agreement or cohesion.

For supervisor’s, team development and enhancing the group’s ability to work together
represent initial goals. The supervision group is likely to undergo certain states as the members
become acclimated with one another. Tuckman first proposed stages of group development
in the late 1960s, which has since become the most widely recognized model of group dy-
namics in the organizational literature (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). Although the empirical
literature to support the model lags, the model provides a simple means of discussing team
dynamics. We have illustrated the key components of each stage so that you can get a sense
of your group dynamics in Figure 8.1.
According to Tuckman’s model, the first stage of the team development process is called
Forming. In this stage the team members are getting to know each other, exploring, and be-
coming oriented to the group as a whole. This initial stage can be stressful as members attempt
to learn more about each other and what is expected of them, as well as what their role will be
in the group. The second stage of team development is Storming, during which group members
attempt to delineate exactly what each member’s specific role will be. In this stage, Tuckman
explained, members worry they may not be heard and there is conflict as members assert their
 8 Facilitating Engagement and Growth in Different Modes of Supervision  77

FIGURE 8.1 Tuckman’s model of group dynamics.

Storming Performing
• Task
• Introductions • Clear roles and
• Delineations • Delegation completion
• Unclear responsibilities
• Conflict • Productivity • Recognition
purpose • Agreement
• Goodbyes
Forming
Norming
Adjourning

different roles on the team. Norming is the third stage of the development and characterized
by agreement among the team members. During this stage, the members have figured out
each other’s roles and feel heard by other members on the team. Performing is the fourth stage
of team development and characterized by solving organizational problems and meeting the
tasks assigned. Tucker noted that this is the stage at which the group becomes productive
and begins to access reinforcers for their productivity. By the last stage, Adjourning, the team
has met all its goals and is moving toward saying goodbyes. Team members may feel a sense
of loss as membership on a team is often rewarding after the initial stages of ambivalence.

INDIVIDUAL SUPERVISION

The Focus

Individual supervision should make up the majority of the total accrued supervised experience.
It involves one-on-one meetings with a supervisor in person or remotely, or a combination of
both. In some cases it may serve as the primary method of supervision. Individual supervision
may allow for the expanding of the supervisory relationship through in-depth discussions
of not only case-related information but also the supervisor’s personal experiences. Because
individual access to the supervisor may create a private and safe space to address errors in
performance, we recommend that supervisees focus on putting their behavior out there in
the interactions. The term “putting your behavior out there” refers to an individual putting
in their best effort to engage in a behavior without worrying about being incorrect. When a
supervisee engages in behaviors without worrying about making errors, it is much easier for
the supervisor to provide accurate and relevant feedback on the supervisee’s performance.
For instance, if a supervisor assigns a progress report, it is in the supervisee’s best interest to
develop several versions of tables and graphs to summarize data. By doing so, the supervisor
can (a) see how specific skills have been gained and applied, (b) provide feedback on the best
way to represent the data, and (c) get a better idea of what type of work can be produced
independently. The production of only one exemplar in this situation makes it more difficult
for a supervisor to identify the effort put into the assignment, the decision-making process
being followed, and how much the work product reflects the current skill set of the supervisee.
Individual supervision allows for space to not only review the work product but also to deter-
mine the appropriate next steps based on the information presented and the feedback delivered.

Observation and Performance Feedback

A large portion of individual supervision meetings will involve the supervisor conducting
observations of work done directly with clients. For these observation periods, we recom-
mend that both parties confirm the date, time, and location of the session at least 24 hours in
78 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

advance. In situations where this confirmation does not occur, the supervisee should prepare
any items to be addressed in advance of the session time. Questions regarding participant or
supervision specific items (e.g., about the intervention plan, structure of supervision for that
day, the tools to be utilized by the supervisor during the observation) should be delivered
prior to the start of the observation session.
It is important to note that, especially at the start of the supervision relationship, feeling ner-
vous or uncertain about being observed by supervisor is a completely normal response. Increased
exposure to supervisor observations as well as benefiting from the feedback delivered will likely
increase the level of trust between the supervisee and supervisor, and reduce the presence of
nervous behaviors over time (for some recommended practices for the individual supervision of
aspiring behavior analysts, see Sellers et al., 2016). If the supervisee wants to access the highest
benefit from one-on-one interactions with the supervisor, the supervisee should actively review
the feedback provided, practice or rehearse the suggestions with the supervisor, ask clarifying
questions, and focus on implementing the feedback in vivo. We strongly recommend that both
the supervisor and supervisee also complete a written record of the feedback delivered during
the interaction. For the supervisor, this would likely consist of keeping a running log of notes
taken during the interactions to track the feedback delivered. The supervisee would then come
along and review and add other relevant notes regarding the interaction.

Individual Meetings

As noted in previous chapters, preparation for all aspects of the supervision experience is
paramount. Both the supervisor and supervisee should prioritize these individual meetings
and, if possible, set aside specific, recurring meeting days and times. For the supervisee, prep-
aration for these meetings should include collecting questions regarding client performance
and programming, areas of coursework where they are struggling, review of any assignments
or projects assigned, and any other areas of need or where guidance would be beneficial. The
supervisor should be prepared for supervisee questions and ready to engage in instruction
on competence areas where the supervisee has not yet achieved mastery. In both cases, prep-
aration will allow for a smoother and more productive use of time in these meetings. The
group activities provided in competency chapters can be used during individual supervision
meetings as well to build and maintain basic and intermediate skills. Quick Reference 8.2
provides additional preparation tips for individual supervision meetings.

QUICK REFERENCE 8.2. TIPS FOR HOLDING EFFECTIVE INDIVIDUAL

SUPERVISION MEETINGS OUTSIDE OF SESSIONS

• Before your meetings (usually 24 hours before would be best):

• Confirm meeting time and location (email or, ideally, send a calendar invite)
• Send your agenda for the meeting
○ Agenda should contain specific updates and work you are going to show to solicit feed-
back or if you faced an ethical or professional issue you’d like to discuss
○ Prioritize your agenda items to begin with the quickest things first
○ Consider the duration that each agenda topic will take and provide an estimated time
next to each agenda item so that you have an agenda that can be accomplished within
the supervision meeting time frame
• Include the documents that you plan to review during the meeting when you send the
agenda to save time during the supervision session

(continued)
 8 Facilitating Engagement and Growth in Different Modes of Supervision  79

QUICK REFERENCE 8.2. TIPS FOR HOLDING EFFECTIVE INDIVIDUAL

SUPERVISION MEETINGS OUTSIDE OF SESSIONS (continued)

• During the individual meeting:

• Set a timer for yourself so you can end your meeting 5 minutes before the individual meeting
time is up.
• Begin supervision meeting by giving a quick summary of your agenda items
• State the agenda item and the estimated time as you tackle each during the meeting
○ For example, “I’d love to give you an update regarding X; I estimated 5 minutes for this
today.”
• Make a note to yourself of the time it took to have each discussion to help you develop
future agendas more realistically (or to prioritize better)
• End supervision meeting by confirming your action items or “To Do” activities and deadlines,
based on the meeting
• Have the supervision tracking document ready for notes and documentation of the
interaction

CONCLUSION

In this chapter, we discussed some of the benefits and limitations of in-person or remote
group and individual supervision. We also provided recommendations on how to max-
imize learning opportunities in group and individual supervision formats. To maximize
benefits of supervision for group or individual provided in-person or remotely, we encourage
supervisors and supervisees to engage in active listening to communicate about supervised
experience and progress toward developing the skills listed in each competency. Supervisee
and supervisors should consider that every event provides potential learning opportunities
for both the supervisee and supervisor.

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCES

Bernard, J. M. and Goodyear, R. K. (2009). Fundamentals of Clinical Supervision (14th ed.). Pearson.
Florell, D. (2016). Web-based training and supervision. In J. K. Luiselli & A.J. Fischer (Eds.), Computer-
assisted and web-based innovations in psychology, special education, and health. Academic Press/Elsevier.
Lundstrom, K., & Baker, W. (2009). To give is better than to receive: The benefits of peer review to the
reviewer’s own writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 18(1), 30–43. [Link]
/[Link].2008.06.002
Parsons, M. B., Rollyson, J. H., & Reid, D. H. (2012). Evidence-based staff training: A guide for
practitioners. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5(2), 2–11. [Link]
Rios, D., Kazemi, E., & Peterson, S. M. (2018). Best practices and considerations for effective service
provision via remote technology. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, 18(3), 277.
Sellers, T. P., Valentino, A. L., & LeBlanc, L. A. (2016). Recommended practices for individual supervision
of aspiring behavior analysts. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9(4), 274–286. [Link]
/s40617-016-0110-7
80 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

Simmons, C. A., Ford, K. R., Salvatore, G. L., & Moretti, A. E. (2021). Acceptability and feasibility of virtual
behavior analysis supervision. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 14, 927–943.
Sipila-Thomas, E. S., & Brodhead, M. T. (2024). A survey of barriers experienced while providing
supervision via telehealth: implications for future research and practice. Behavior Analysis in Practice,
17(1), 70–86.
Tuckman, B. W., & Jensen, M. A. (1977). Stages of small-group development revisited. Group & Organization
Studies, 2(4), 419–427. [Link]
Valentino, A. L., LeBlanc, L. A., & Sellers, T. P. (2016). The benefits of group supervision and a
recommended structure for implementation. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9, 320–328.
 9
BUILDING PIVOTAL SKILLS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, readers will be able to:

• Provide examples of essential skills for behavior analysts that go beyond technical aspects of assess-
ment and treatment delivery

• Explain how to target and improve skills in the areas discussed in this chapter

INTRODUCTION

Working as a human service provider involves collaborating with caregivers and other
professionals on multidisciiplinary teams. Thus, one of the most challenging aspects of profes-
sional training in human service professions is developing skills supervisees need to become
competent professionals that extend beyond understanding the core principles, the science, and
the technical procedures for practice. In addition to the skills required to perform as a compe-
tent behavior analyst, A successful behavior analyst has broader skills to provide collaborative,
trans-disciplinary, compassionate, trauma-informed, and culturally humble care. A successful
behavior analyst also manages their time well, and knows how to approach and resolve con-
flict, collaborate with others to problem-solve, and combat burnout by practicing occupational
wellness. The skills outlined in this chapter are also among the top-rated qualities of exemplary
behavior analysts (Zayac et al., 2023). Although these skills are pivotal for a behavior analyst,
they are usually not part of university coursework and are rarely directly taught (Friman, 2015).
These pivotal skills pervade all the competencies outlined in Chapters 11–21. That is
why we have incorporated them within each competency. However, we wanted to devote a
chapter to highlight the importance of each skill and provide guidance and resources to de-
velop these skills. We encourage supervisors to assign the readings cited here and schedule
time to discuss the reading for each skill with the supervisee. Most of the skills mentioned
in this chapter require self-reflection and a commitment to lifelong learning in the area. We
encourage the supervisor and supervisee to assess the skills discussed in this chapter on a
continuum and self-report on having the skills using rating scales (e.g., 1 = not at all profi-
cient, 10 = highly proficient) at the onset of supervision as the baseline level of performance.

81
82 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

If skills need to be addressed, the supervisor and supervisee can develop a means of mea-
suring and establishing the targeted skills. We also encourage supervisors to discuss and
model explicitly how the supervisee can apply these skills within each competency.

COMPASSIONATE CARE

Compassion is to act to alleviate the discomfort of another. Although empathy is taking

perspective and recognizing that the other person may be hurting or suffering, compassion
“converts empathy into an act aimed at the alleviation of suffering” (Taylor et al., 2018,
p. 2). Researchers have found that compassionate care, developing strong therapeutic
relationships, and a family- or client-centered approach to treatment result in better client
outcomes. As a compassionate care service provider, a behavior analyst must collaborate
with the family at all levels of programming, build trust, foster a therapeutic alliance,
validate the family’s concerns, honor the family’s values and beliefs, and be responsive
to the family’s needs. Rohrer et al. (2021) provided a checklist as a tool for self-evaluation
and procedural fidelity for collaborative and compassionate care. We recommend that the
supervisee review the Rohrer et al. (2021) questionnaire in Table 9.1 and discuss how to
integrate it into their supervision.
Compassionate care skills involve active listening, demonstrating genuine care and
concern, and showing a commitment to alleviating suffering. To target and teach compas-
sion skills, we recommend that supervisors see Rohrer and Weiss (2023) and review the list
of skills with the supervisee. Table 9.2 includes a description of the component skills and
definitions for each skill. Rohrer and Weiss used these definitions to develop a performance
monitoring tool and target skills for training. They successfully taught compassion skills to
four participants in a master’s program in behavior analysis.

TRAUMA-INFORMED CARE

A large portion of clients seeking human care services have experienced trauma. This is
particularly true for families of individuals with disabilities. Trauma involves exposure to
something that adversely affects the individual’s functioning and well-being. Examples of
such trauma include getting into an accident, sexual assault, being a victim of or witnessing
physical abuse, and natural disasters. There are four features specific to trauma-informed
care: (1) acknowledging that there was trauma and its potential impact on the individual, (2)
ensuring safety and trust, (3) promoting choice and shared governance, and (4) emphasizing
skill development. Clinicians with trauma-informed care skills are compassionate but also
know how to create a safe and supportive learning environment, avoid re-traumatization, and
provide care in a manner that promotes healing. Rajaraman et al. (2022) provide a behavioral
count of the core features of trauma-informed care and examples of how trauma-informed
care can be incorporated into behavior-analytic practice.
According to Rajaraman et al. (2022), a trauma-informed approach to care would first begin
with client assent independent of language abilities. Second, behavior analysts would explicitly
avoid programming anything that might occasion trauma to establish trust and ensure safety.
Third, they would monitor any adverse reactions to features of the therapy and adjust quickly
if they observe any negative emotional responses. Some of these adjustments to treatment in-
clude utilizing an “enhanced choice model,” which involves providing the ongoing option to
clients to partake in skill-based treatment alongside the option to have noncontingent access
to reinforcers or to leave the treatment setting. Additionally, the client is provided with clear
expectations of treatment procedures and the choice between which challenging situations
 9 Building Pivotal Skills  83

TABLE 9.1 Rohrer’s Compassionate Collaboration Tool

Please respond to the following questions using a three-point rating scale:
1– Not demonstrated/not observed
2 – Sometimes demonstrated/some missed opportunities
3 – Consistently demonstrated/observed during all opportunities
Collaborative Approaches
Did the clinician incorporate family/individual client input when identifying objectives/
instructional targets or procedures?
Actively solicited input from the family about preferences/priorities 1 2 3
for targets (“What is important to you to teach?”)
Actively solicited input from the family about preferences/priorities 1 2 3
for teaching procedures (“How comfortable are you with the
procedures we’ve discussed?”)
Discussed the rationale for selected targets 1 2 3
Ensured the rationale is aligned with the family’s input 1 2 3
Asked questions about the family’s values relating to 1 2 3
independence (self-feeding, dressing, staying home alone)
Did the clinician incorporate family/individual client input when identifying behavior
reduction targets or interventions?
Actively solicited input from the family about preferences/priorities 1 2 3
for targets (“What is important to you to change?”)
Actively solicited input from the family about preferences/priorities 1 2 3
for behavior-change procedures (“Which intervention are you
most comfortable with?”)
Discussed the rationale for selected targets 1 2 3
Ensured the rationale is aligned with the family’s input 1 2 3
Language and Communication
Did the clinician use accessible language when interacting with the family/individual client?
Used precise, everyday language (described concepts precisely 1 2 3
without the use of jargon)
Defined and explained behavior-analytic jargon (if used) 1 2 3
Avoided terms that may have negative connotations such as 1 2 3
“extinction” or “discrimination”
Used vocabulary that is matched to the family’s/individual’s repertoire 1 2 3
Did the clinician use verbal communication strategies associated with positive interactions
and client satisfaction?
Asked questions about general family functioning and individual 1 2 3
members of the family
Discussed information unrelated to the client before beginning 1 2 3
clinical work (used small talk to establish rapport)
Asked about the family’s/individual client’s experience of the 1 2 3
challenging situation for which support is sought
Engaged in framing/sign posting (“Let me see if I have this right. . .” 1 2 3
“Sounds like. . .”)
(continued)
84 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 9.1 Rohrer’s Compassionate Collaboration Tool (continued)

Reflected the content (“It sounds like you are worried that Billy 1 2 3
can’t express himself.”)
Identified and calibrated the emotion (“I’m hearing that you don’t 1 2 3
know what to do when you’re in public and he acts up.”)
Requested and accepted correction (“Did I leave anything out/miss 1 2 3
anything?”)
Solicited questions 1 2 3
Used “do” instead of “do not” statements 1 2 3
Provided hope to the family/individual through discussion of 1 2 3
potential positive outcomes
Did the clinician use empathic behaviors that communicate prioritization of the family’s/
individual client’s perspective?
Used nonvocal behavior that is matched to the family’s/individual’s 1 2 3
interactions, personal space, and eye contact
Engaged in active/attentive listening (nonverbal and paralanguage 1 2 3
skills, “mm-hmm,” nodding, mirroring facial expressions,
appropriate body language)
Refrained from interrupting 1 2 3
Oriented toward the speaker (face-to-face orientation as opposed 1 2 3
to a 45 or 90 degree angle)
Maintained open body posture (uncrossed arms, leaning forward 1 2 3
as opposed to back)
Source: Reprinted with permission from Rohrer, J. L., Marshall, K. B., Suzio, C., & Weiss, M. J. (2021). Soft skills:
The case for compassionate approaches or how behavior analysis keeps finding its heart. Behavior Analysis in
Practice, 14(4), 1135–1143. [Link]

to approach and explore. We recommend that the supervisee read Rajaraman et al. (2022) and
discuss examples and applications of this approach with their supervisor.

CULTURAL HUMILITY

Cultural humility refers to the skill to take another person’s perspective, specifically about
how someone else views the world, their values, and how their cultural identity has devel-
oped through their lifelong experiences. Viewing the world from another person’s perspective
is different from showing empathy. Although people who engage in empathetic responses
themselves—”What would I feel, want, or need if this situation happened to me?”—people
who practice cultural humility ask, “What does the individual feel, want, or need under these
situations, based on their cultural identity and what seems most important to them?” The lit-
erature has moved away from cultural competence because the word competence means that
a skill is learned and mastered. Applying the term to culture would mean that the goal of the
skill is to learn or master the cultural perspectives of others. Instead, with cultural humility,
the practitioners engage in lifelong learning. Cultural humility begins with self-reflection
and safe, open discussions between the supervisor and supervisee about how much their
backgrounds and culture shape their worldview. Other important discussions include the
supervisee’s initial reactions to a client with a different background and culture from their own
and the selection of treatment methods to provide culturally humble care. As a professional
providing care to individuals from diverse cultures, races, backgrounds, socioeconomic status
 9 Building Pivotal Skills  85

TABLE 9.2 List of Skills Trained by Rohrer and Weiss

Description and rationale provided
Skill to participant Operational definition of skill

Basic Skills
1 Tell the Let the parent know that you will Example: After asking the first
caregiver take notes while you meet. Say question (tell me a little about
you are something like, “I’m going to take [child]), the participant says,
taking some notes while we talk if that’s “Just so you know, I’m going to
notes okay.” This will let them know that be taking some notes….”
you are attentive, even if you are Nonexample: At the end of the
sometimes looking down from interview, participant says, “I
the camera. This is important in was writing things down the
telehealth since eye contact is whole time, that’s why I was
harder to gauge, and the person looking away.”
cannot see your whole body or
what you are doing.
2 Nodding This shows you are approachable, Example: Participant nods their
listening, and engaged. head up and down.
Nonexample: Head nod is
imperceptible (if you ask
yourself, “Was that a nod?” it
probably was not).
3 Backchannel For example, “Mm-hmm,” “Okay,” Example: Any instance of the
“Yeah,” “Sure,” “Right,” participant stating a minimal
“Perfect,” “Got it.” This shows expression as part of a back
you are listening, which can and forth conversation (okay,
be especially important when mm-hmm, yeah, sure, right,
meeting with people via perfect, got it).
telehealth. Nonexample: Participant
immediately asks the next
question after parent says, “I’m
looking for some help with all
the whining she is doing.”
4 Positive Positive introduction (“Hi, nice to Example: Participant says “Hi,”
introduction meet you, thanks for meeting “Hello,” and/or any statements
today!” with a smile). This sets such as: “It’s nice to meet you,”
the stage for a positive and “How are you today,” “I’m [name]
friendly interaction. and I’ll be working with you.”
Nonexample: Does not greet
parent, begins interview
without a formal greeting (e.g.,
“Let’s get started,” or “Okay,
first question….”)
Interest in Family
5 Acknowledge Acknowledging abilities or efforts Example: “That’s great! I love to
abilities or of the child (“Good for him for hear that he is showing interest
efforts telling you what he wants!” “So in his siblings.”
he’s been able to figure out a Nonexample: “Oh that’s great”
way to….”). This helps show we (without specification of what is
are getting to know the child great, or that child is trying/has
and are starting to understand a strength).
who they are as a person and
their strengths.
(continued)
86 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 9.2 List of Skills Trained by Rohrer and Weiss (continued)

Description and rationale provided
Skill to participant Operational definition of skill

6 Ask about Asking the parent about their Example: “What are some things
interests child’s interests (“What other that [child] likes to do?” “Tell
things does [child] like to do?” me about some things that
or “What makes him happy?”). really make him smile/get him
This shows you are interested excited.”
in getting to know the client Nonexample: “Tell me about
and family. Ask about this in an [child]” “What about his social
explicit way that lets them know skills? Does he play well with
you are interested in getting to others?”
know the child (“What makes
him excited?” versus “Which
toys does he like?”).
7 Ask about You will probably think of things Example: “What are some of your
caregiver that you feel are important, main priorities?” “What would
preferences but it is important to ask the you like to focus on most?”
and family about what sorts of Nonexample: “Can you tell
priorities things would make their life me about his challenging
better. This helps build rapport behavior?” “What do you do
and create a therapeutic when that happens?”
relationship.
8 Reflect and Reflect and incorporate the parent Example: “Based on what you’ve
incorporate priorities into the targets you said,” “Looking back at my
priorities select (“So based on what notes,” “To summarize….”
you’ve told me, it sounds like Nonexample: “What we will focus
we should focus on….”) This on is….” (without saying that
shows you are taking into it is based on what the parent
account what the caregiver’s has said) “We will need to
priorities are. target….”
Joining with Family
9 Empathy Statement of trying to “put Example: “That must be very
statement yourself in their shoes.” For challenging,” “I can only
example, “Wow that sounds imagine how difficult that must
really hard,” “I can imagine be.”
that is difficult.” This shows Nonexample: “I feel bad for you,”
you care about the caregiver’s “Aw, that’s too bad,” “That
experience and acknowledge stinks.”
their challenges.
10 Normalizing Normalizing that their experience Example: “We see that a lot here”
may be shared by others “It’s really common for kids to
(“That’s common for kids on the have those challenges.”
spectrum,” “That sounds like a Nonexample: “Every kid does
teenager!”) This helps us show that,” “Don’t worry about that.”
we understand that others
might have similar experiences.
(continued)
 9 Building Pivotal Skills  87

TABLE 9.2 List of Skills Trained by Rohrer and Weiss (continued)

Description and rationale provided
Skill to participant Operational definition of skill

11 Partnering Partnering with parent (“We’ll Example: “That is definitely

work on this together” “This is something we can help with,”
going to be a very collaborative “That is something we can
effort”). This shows you are work on together.”
supportive, collaborative, want Nonexample: “We can work on
to help, and will work as a that,” “That’s something we
team. can address in treatment.”
Source: Reprinted with permission from Rohrer, J. L., & Weiss, M. J. (2023). Teaching compassion skills to
students of behavior analysis: A preliminary investigation. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 16(3), 1–20. [Link]
.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00748-y

(SES), gender identities, disabilities, and religions, learning to provide services with cultural
humility is the first step to combat years of inequality, power imbalance, and disparity in care.
For some self-reflective questions and a more in-depth discussion of this topic, we encourage
the supervisee and supervisor to review Wright (2019) and set aside supervision time to dis-
cuss how cultural humility can be incorporated into the supervisee’s practice. The questions
included in Table 9.3 will be helpful for self-reflection. Additionally, there are institutional-level
questions that supervisors can use to evaluate their organizational commitment to equity.

TIME MANAGEMENT SKILLS

The fast-paced nature of human care services and working with multiple clients demands
effective time management skills. Behavior analysts must juggle multiple responsibilities,
including the care for multiple clients, documentation of treatment progress and data-based
decision-making, onboarding new clients, training staff, reporting utilized time and resources
for care, coordinating with other care professionals, and much more. Rarely does the work
of a behavior analyst fall within a nine-to-five workday, and professionals must daily juggle
attending sessions, drive time, writing reports, and communicating with other professionals.
Poor time management can lead to prioritizing one task over another, missing deadlines,
submitting things late, or using dedicated time off to catch up on missed work.
Effective time management involves recognizing that all the tasks will not be accomplished
at once and creating daily, weekly, and monthly to-do lists. When dedicating time to each
task, professionals must plan so workflow for each task includes time for review, questions,
unexpected challenges, and self-editing. Individuals with poor time management carve out
blocks of time or designate large portions of time to the task with the upcoming deadline.
For example, consider Case Scenarios 9.1, 9.2, and 9.3.

CASE SCENARIO 9.1

Janti is a graduate student obtaining a master’s degree in education with an emphasis in behavior
analysis. Janti is also working at a local elementary school under the supervision of a Board Certified
Behavior Analyst to obtain supervised experience. As the final exam week approaches, Janti begins
to feel nervous about performing well in school and decides to devote blocks of time to studying for
the final exams the week before finals. On Tuesday of that week, one of Janti’s students engaged in
self-injury, which required contacting the crisis management team, documenting the event, and com-
municating with everyone involved about the event. Janti’s stress increased because the time to manage
the issue trumped the time designated for studying, and, ultimately, Janti did poorly on the final exams.
88 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 9.3 Questions at the Individual and Organizational Level to Move Toward Culturally
Humble Care
Essential Questions for Critical Essential Questions to Address Power
Self-reflection Imbalances

• What are my cultural identities? • What social and economic barriers

• How do my cultural identities affect a client’s ability to receive
shape my world view? effective care?
• How does my own background • What specific experiences are my
help or hinder my connection to clients having that are related to
clients/communities? oppression and/or large systemic
• What are my initial reactions to issues?
clients, specifically to those that • How do my practice behaviors
Individual
are culturally different than me? actively challenge power
level
• How much do I value input from imbalances and involve marginalized
my clients? communities?
• How do I make space in my • How do I extend my responsibility
practice for clients to name beyond individual clients and
their own identities? advocate for changes in local, state,
• What do I learn about myself and national policies and practices?
through listening to clients who
are different than me?
• How do we organizationally • How do we actively address
define culture? Diversity? inequalities both internally (i.e.,
• Does our organization’s policies and procedures) and
culture encourage respectful, externally (i.e., legislative advocacy)?
substantive discussions about • How do we define and live out the
difference, oppression, and core social work value of social
inclusion? justice?
• How does our hiring process • What are the organizational
reflect a commitment to a structures we have that encourage
Institutional
diverse staff and leadership? action to address inequalities?
level
• Do we monitor hiring practices • What training and professional
to ensure active recruitment, development opportunities do we
hiring, and retention of diverse offer that address inequalities and
staff? encourage active self-reflection
• Does our staff reflect the about power and privilege?
communities we serve? • How do we engage with the larger
• Is our leadership reflective of community to ensure community
the population/ communities we voice in our work? What organizations
serve? are already doing this well?
Source: Reprinted from Fisher-Borne, M., Cain, J. M., & Martin, S. L. (2015). Mastery to accountability: Cultural
humility as an alternative to cultural competence. Social Work Education, 34(2), 176. [Link]
15479.2014.977244

CASE SCENARIO 9.2

Mark is a graduate student obtaining a master’s degree in behavior analysis. Mark works with
three clients, ages 7, 9, and 10, and provides care in the client’s homes after school hours.
Mark’s practica instructor assigns a large project that requires Mark to collect data, graph the
data, and write up the interpretation of the results that match the graphic display. Two nights
before the assignment is due, Mark cancels his session to meet his deadline.
 9 Building Pivotal Skills  89

CASE SCENARIO 9.3

Ling is an adjunct faculty member at a local university and a full-time clinical supervisor at an
Applied Behavior Analysis organization. Ling has gained much expertise in providing pediatric
feeding care and has recently become more interested in the topic. She has committed to
writing several manuals and programs for her boss and has agreed to teach several classes
at the university. One of Ling’s colleagues, who has published several articles on pediatric
feeding disorders, is invited to write a chapter in an edited book and decides to invite Ling to
collaborate and co-author. Ling’s to-do list is very long, but she cannot pass on the opportu-
nity to publish. As the deadline for the chapter approaches, Ling struggles with meeting her
self-imposed writing deadlines and reviewing recent publications on the topic. She submits
her written portions to her colleague, but her submission is filled with spelling and grammatical
errors and poor quality. It is unlikely that the colleague will ask her to collaborate and contribute
as a co-author in the future.

The individuals in Case Scenarios 9.1, 9.2, and 9.3 struggle with time management
and, as a result, either miss an important deadline, cancel with their clients, or produce
poor work. In Case Scenario 9.1, Janti needed to schedule weekly study time for the final
exam a few weeks before the exam, which would have allowed Janti to be prepared for
unexpected events during the final week. In Case Scenario 9.2, Mark needed to tackle the
assignment as soon as it was provided and create daily to-do lists to complete parts of the
given task. Creating a daily to-do list as soon as the assignment was given and completing
the tasks on the to-do list daily would have prevented engaging in canceling sessions. In
Case Scenario 9.3, Ling needed to forgo the opportunity to co-write the chapter if she could
not reduce her teaching or clinical work alongside writing the chapter. The poor quality
of her work represents her professionally and may cost her more than the co-authorship
opportunity would provide.
Proficiency with time management involves planning and prioritizing tasks, creating
daily to-do lists, using behavior momentum to start working on the to-do list by completing
tasks that would need the least effort and time, checking to-do lists daily, working backward
from deadlines, chunking assignments and tasks, and blocking buffers to leave room for
unexpected events. They also involve learning to say no.
In our collective experience, a supervisee’s timely submission of course assignments and
the quality of their classwork are correlated with their timely submission of clinical reports
and the quality of their clinical work. Although not an explicit part of the competencies or
the Behavior Analyst Certification Board exam content list, a behavior analyst’s success in
graduate programs, fieldwork, and professional settings hinges on managing the various
requirements of the position(s). When the supervisee lacks a method for selecting, organizing,
and ordering tasks to meet deadlines, the supervisor and supervisee can work together to
develop a self-management plan for the supervisee to learn time management skills.

Planner

One component of time management skills is using a planner efficiently. Excellent time man-
agers carve out time—for example, 7:00 a.m. every Monday morning—to plan deadlines and
prioritize daily and weekly activities. To do this, the supervisee must invest in a calendar
or a planner that works for them. If they have adopted planners but stopped using them
after a few months, they should consider getting a different type of planner. There could be
two reasons why the use of the planner may decrease over time. First, tasks placed on the
90 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

planner included prompts from others to work on the task (e.g., peers reminding them of
the date or the supervisor sending them reminders), which may make the planner less val-
uable. Second, using a planner that is not easy to access inside and outside of one’s home
would make it difficult to adjust or add new tasks to the list. This may decrease the value
of having a planner and decrease its use. Using a planner for larger tasks (e.g., applying for
fellowships or scholarships) without clearly breaking down the tasks into smaller units and
having due dates for each unit would decrease the value of the planner time because due
dates would have been missed.
Great time managers prioritize what they place in their planners and color-code things
to ensure important deadlines are salient and differentiated. Finally, the planner is only
effective when the user starts the day by checking the planner and begins with the tasks
that require the least effort and time. For example, suppose the supervisee plans to attend
a symposium on a topic of interest that is offered in a different city. The supervisee should
place in the planner the date of the symposium as well as the registration deadline and the
date to register, the date for reserving the hotel or travel, the date for informing the workplace
to ask for time off, and dates for any other tasks that need to be completed for attending the
symposium (e.g., travel arrangements). If all these tasks are placed in the planner with clear
due dates and blocked time to do them, the supervisee is much more likely to be prepared
and able to attend the symposium without interrupting client services. As a rule of thumb,
for every hard deadline for written work (e.g., Functional Behavior Asessment reports, pro-
gress reports, or school papers), placing a deadline for submitting the best draft for review
two weeks before it is due will provide time for feedback and revision and submission of
the final product on schedule. The daily activities related to the written work should be
broken down into smaller units related to the task (e.g., scoring protocols, graphing data)
and placed on a planner with due dates.
At its essence, time management is an exercise in prioritization and sacrifice.
There is research evidence that improving time management skills reduces stress.
Taking the time and effort to assign deadlines will highlight what one must sac-
rifice to meet goals and may provoke anxiety upfront. However, once the person
becomes more proficient at the skill, the overall stress is reduced, and the quality of
work is improved. For more tips about good time management skills, we recommend
Nicole Gravina’s blog on time management ([Link]/2020/10/26/
time-management-a-leadership-imperative/).

CONFLICT RESOLUTION SKILLS

In collaborative environments, conflicts are inevitable. Behavior analysts need to navi-

gate disagreements with colleagues, supervisors, clients, families, and school personnel
in a manner that nurtures the relationship and fosters transparency and collaboration.
Proficient conflict resolution fosters a positive work environment, enhances teamwork,
and improves client outcomes by ensuring that conflicts do not interrupt or impede care
delivery. However, most behavior analysts have not been formally trained to resolve con-
flict effectively.
Kazemi et al. (2022) surveyed behavior analysts and found that the majority reported
facing conflict daily or weekly. Many behavior analysts reported losing cases and wanting
to leave their jobs because of workplace conflict. They also found that most respondents did
not feel they had the training they needed to resolve workplace conflict. We have outlined
some of the key features of effective conflict resolution in Figure 9.1 but urge supervisors
and supervisees to seek further training.
 9 Building Pivotal Skills  91

FIGURE 9.1 The five essential components of conflict resolution.

1. Detect and Approach to

Confirm Conflict

2. Determine Appropriate Time

and Place to Resolve Conflict

3. Actively Listen and Determine

Common Ground

4. Collaborate to Propose
Feasible Solutions

5. Create an Action Plan,

Implement, and Follow Up

Source: Reprinted with permission from Kazemi, E., Carter, C., & Davies, M. S. (2022). Workplace conflict
in applied behavior analysis: Prevalence, impact, and training. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 15(2), 616.
[Link]

One of the key features of effective conflict resolution is approaching instead of avoiding
conflict. It is natural to avoid conflict as an aversive event that elevates emotions, particularly
if resolution has not been achieved often in the person’s history. However, the more anyone
avoids conflict, the more difficult it becomes to resolve it. It is not conflict that destroys
relationships; it is how individuals resolve them. The first step in successful conflict resolu-
tion is identifying the existence of a conflict and approaching the person who is involved in
the conflict. During the approach, it is best to state the observation of what has occurred and
confirm if there is a conflict to resolve. The conversation can start by stating, “I noticed you
shut your door to your office, and usually you leave it open. Are you upset about something
I did?” The second step to effective conflict resolution is to set a time and place to discuss
the conflict. A typical conversation involving a perceived conflict begins with denial and
accusations; the conversation becomes heated as individuals share their perspectives, and if
conflict resolution skills are used, the emotional heat de-escalates. Therefore, leaving enough
time for a complete discussion free of interruptions and in a private space is imperative. We
recommend selecting a date and setting aside a full hour. The third step is to engage in ac-
tive listening. The act of listening to another person in a manner that is free of judgment and
making them feel heard is more complex than it sounds and requires practice. Active listening
requires that the listener states back to the speaker, using “I” statements, what was said to
demonstrate that the speaker was heard (e.g., “What I am hearing is that ...”). These skills
can be practiced during supervision meetings. The fourth and fifth steps require problem-
solving, collaborating to come to a mutual solution, and creating a plan for follow-up. In
our experience, behavior skills training is needed to teach and engage in conflict resolution
successfully (see Figure 9.1).
92 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

OCCUPATIONAL WELLNESS AND SELF-CARE SKILLS

Like time management, self-care is a pivotal skill every professional needs to succeed in, espe-
cially individuals in human care services. Helping professionals such as teachers, physicians,
nurses, social workers, and behavior analysts work in highly demanding fields and deal with
many challenges daily. Therefore, these professionals are at greater risk for burnout, fatigue,
and stress-related health problems. Typically, individuals drawn to these professions wish
to help people, but their desire to be helpful sometimes results in them attending to their
client’s well-being more than their own. Therefore, professionals in the helping professions
need to learn to balance attending to their own needs with the needs of their clients. Learning
and using strategies to combat burnout will increase the professional’s quality of life and
help extend careers in human service delivery. We highly recommend reading The Resilient
Practitioner: Burnout and Compassion Fatigue Prevention and Self-Care Strategies for the Helping
Professions (Skovholt & Trotter-Mathison, 2016), where the authors have provided great case
examples and practical strategies. Supervisors should incorporate the recommended strate-
gies into their day-to-day activities and support the supervisees in acquiring and using the
same strategies. Self-care refers to activities and strategies supporting a professional’s overall
well-being, health, and happiness while committing to helping others. Some primary self-care
activities include having a well-balanced diet, getting an average of 8 hours of sleep, staying
hydrated, and exercising regularly. Also, research shows that spending some leisure time (as
few as 10 minutes a day) on activities that enable one to relax and not think about stressful
things (e.g., daily meditation) can reduce overall feelings of stress.
Covey (1991), the author of The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, provides some great
examples of how people get into vicious life cycles that cause their health and well-being to
deteriorate over time, which chips away at their overall goals and happiness. For example,
he tells the story of two woodcutters hired to cut down an impressive number of trees daily.
Both are highly committed to doing an excellent job. One woodcutter cuts wood nonstop to
get the job done. From the corner of his eyes, he can see that the other woodcutter sits down
occasionally, wipes his brow, drinks water, and sharpens his saw. The first woodcutter scuffs
and judges the second woodcutter for taking too many breaks. In the beginning, the first
woodcutter cuts down more trees, but as time passes, instead of maintaining his impressive
numbers, he begins slowing down, feels tired, and must put in more effort because his saw
is dull. The second woodcutter ends up cutting many more trees. This story elucidates the
importance of taking care of one’s needs and tools used to perform a job, which in the case
of behavior analysts is their body and mental health. Think of an emergency procedure in
an airplane, when during cabin pressure loss the parent must put on an oxygen mask before
assisting children to wear the mask. A burned-out clinician cannot help clients, colleagues,
or family members. Quick Reference 9.1 is a checklist that can used to monitor if a profes-
sional is engaging in self-care.

QUICK REFERENCE 9.1. SELF-CARE CHECKLIST

Your environment
 Remove all distracting items from the site (e.g., television, tablets, smartphones) when
you work
 Keep your workspace clean
 Make your workspace safe and comfortable
 Organize your workspace to work for you

(continued)
 9 Building Pivotal Skills  93

QUICK REFERENCE 9.1. SELF-CARE CHECKLIST (continued)

Your rewards
 Review the rewards of your profession
 Identify new, more immediate rewards to gain through the completion of work
 Engage in a few tasks that will access rewards quickly, and simultaneously engage in tasks
that will pay off much later
 Identify a few people you trust and nurture your support system so that you can depend on
them in the times you feel stressed or confused
 Select a performance manager
Your body
 Identify the tasks causing you stress; instead of avoiding them, arrange to access
rewards right after you approach the task for short periods
 Take breaks that involve activities unrelated to your work and away from your workspace on
a fixed schedule
 Keep water and healthy snacks nearby, in your bag, at work, and in other areas that make
them accessible to you
 Ask for help long before you find you are in trouble to prevent big fires for yourself
 No matter how much you have on your plate, get enough sleep and physical activity

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Written Communication

We frequently host a professional panel of clinical directors and employers for our grad-
uate students and alums at California State University, Northridge (CSUN). When we ask
employers which pivotal skills they need a professional behavior analyst to possess, they say
better writing and time-management skills. We mention this because these two skills are inter-
related: Good writing involves editing, which requires time management to leave room for
editing. However, in addition to having time to edit to avoid spelling or grammatical errors,
learning to write more clearly and with brevity is a skill that all behavior analysts should
have. The best way to do this is to solicit feedback from supervisors on written work as much
as possible and apply the feedback to edit the written work. For example, when working on
Functional Behavior Assessment, complete background information and reach out to the su-
pervisor to set up a meeting to review the written work. Revise the information in the report
after feedback, and apply the feedback to the following report. The exact process can improve
the clarity of intervention plans and progress reports. Given technological advancements,
soliciting feedback for written work can be done via teleconferencing software. Sharing the
screen and reviewing changes on the screen while hearing the feedback about the changes
may make the feedback salient and meaningful. Shared documents, such as Google Docs,
can also meet this function. When producing written work in graduate school, we encourage
using software that helps identify grammatical errors.

Oral Communication

Albert Einstein was to have once said, “If you cannot explain it simply, you do not understand
it well enough.” In the human care professions, the skills of communicating with clients about
treatment plans, progress, and reasons why specific behaviors occur—sometimes referred
94 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

to as your bedside manner—are extremely important. For example, the manner in which
the intervention plan is explained to caregivers can put families at ease when their child’s
problem behavior has caused them a great deal of difficulty. Similarly, explaining the assess-
ment and treatment plans to teachers who feel they have tried every possible intervention
in their repertoires in a manner that is easily understood can increase buy-in and establish
collaborative working relationships. To explain what one knows to others first requires a
strong understanding of the concepts and procedures being used. Second, clear communica-
tion with others requires practice. To help guide building bedside manners we have included
exercises that can be used to practice using role-play with supervisors, explaining interventions,
obtaining informed consent, and discussing progress with clients and caregivers. With practice
and feedback, oral communication can be shaped into short interactions that would provide
clear and conceptually systematic information to others using language easily understood.

CONCLUSION

In this chapter, we discussed some of the pivotal skills all professionals need to succeed
in practicing their craft. Reviewing the tips outlined in this chapter is a great place to start
to improve the skills needed to have a long and successful career as a behavior analyst.
Furthermore, we encourage the reader to target these skills during the supervision experi-
ence and solicit feedback to grow as a professional. Many of these skills take a long time to
shape and require a lifelong commitment to maintain them. Shaping these skills during the
supervision experience, when safe and honest feedback from a supervisor is available, may
be the main ingredient in professional success.

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCES

Covey, S. R. (1991). The 7 habits of highly effective people. Simon & Schuster.
Friman, P. C. (2015). My heroes have always been cowboys. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 8(2), 138–139.
[Link]
Kazemi, E., Carter, C., & Davies, M. S. (2022). Workplace conflict in applied behavior analysis: Prevalence,
impact, and training. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 15(2), 608–618. [Link]
-00649-6
Rajaraman, A., Austin, J. L., Gover, H. C., Cammilleri, A. P., Donnelly, D. R., & Hanley, G. P. (2022). Toward
trauma-informed applications of behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 55(1), 40–61.
[Link]
Rohrer, J. L., Marshall, K. B., Suzio, C., & Weiss, M. J. (2021). Soft skills: The case for compassionate
approaches or how behavior analysis keeps finding its heart. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 14(4),
1135–1143. [Link]
Rohrer, J. L., & Weiss, M. J. (2023). Teaching compassion skills to students of behavior analysis: A
preliminary investigation. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 16(3), 763–782. [Link]
-022-00748-y
Skovholt, T. M., & Trotter-Mathison, M. (2016). The resilient practitioner: Burnout and compassion fatigue
prevention and self-care strategies for the helping professions. Routledge.
Taylor, B. A., LeBlanc, L. A., & Nosik, M. R. (2018). Compassionate care in behavior analytic treatment: Can
outcomes be enhanced by attending to relationships with caregivers? Behavior Analysis in Practice, 12(3),
654–666. [Link]
 9 Building Pivotal Skills  95

Wright, P. I. (2019). Cultural humility in the practice of applied behavior analysis. Behavior Analysis in
Practice, 12(4), 805–809. [Link]
Zayac, R. M., Van Stratton, J. E., & Paulk, A. L. (2023). An assessment of the qualities and behaviors
of exemplary practitioners: Perspectives from international and award-winning behavior analysts.
European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 24(1–2), 170–189. [Link]
 10
ACHIEVING COMPETENCIES
IN BEHAVIOR-ANALYTIC PRACTICE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

• Explain how the competencies were selected for this book

• Explain how the competencies align with the latest Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) Exam
Content List

• Explain how to use the competency chapters to teach basic, intermediate, and advanced skills for
each competency

• Explain how to determine when a competency has been met

INTRODUCTION

Competence means the skills to do something successfully. A competent behavior analyst

has the skills to carry out the roles and duties of a behavior analyst successfully. A compe-
tent behavior analyst, at a minimum, should perform the skills outlined in the upcoming
chapters. Chapters 11–21 cover specific competencies and provide activities for supervisees
and supervisors to use to improve a supervisee’s performance.
Competency-based training involves using Behavior Skills Training (BST; Sarokoff &
Sturmey, 2004) and training a supervisee to perform a skill at a level the trainer deems com-
petent (Parsons et al., 2012). Each listed competency in the upcoming chapters has specific
recommended criteria that supervisees must meet to acquire the skill. Each general compe-
tency also includes recommended generality criteria. A competency is considered mastered
when the supervisee meets the recommended generality criteria.
The activities we provided to teach the competencies require behavior skills training,
which includes instruction, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback. This approach to training
involves data-based decision-making as the trainer provides the trainee with opportunities
to practice (i.e., rehearse or role-play) the targeted skills and provides performance feedback
to help improve trainees’ performance.

96
 10 Achieving Competencies in Behavior-Analytic Practice 97

TABLE 10.1 Alignment of Chapters on Competencies and BCBA Sixth Edition Test Content
Chapters and Competencies Included In This
BCBA Sixth Edition Test Content Book

A. Behaviorism and Philosophical Included as basic skills in chapter

Foundations competencies
B. Concepts and Principles Included as basic skills in all chapters
C. Measurement, Data Display, and Chapters 11, 12, 13
Interpretation
D. Experimental Design Chapters 12, 13, 14
E. Ethical and Professional Issues Included in all chapters
F. Behavior Assessment Chapters 11, 15, 16, 17
G. Behavior-Change Procedures
Chapters 18, 19
H. Selecting and Implementing Interventions
I. Personnel Supervision and Management Chapters 20, 21
BCBA, Board Certified Behavior Analyst

SELECTING THE COMPETENCIES

Dr. Kazemi and Dr. Adzhyan selected the competencies listed in Chapters 11–21 by interviewing
potential employers at large behavior analysis organizations, experienced clinicians pro-
viding supervision, and leadership at schools hiring behavior analysts. That was before the
BACB had established its Task List by sending out surveys to experienced behavior analysts.
Unsurprisingly, the results of the large-scale survey the BACB conducted were similar to what
employers and experienced clinicians in Southern California had reported qualitatively. After
all, the core competencies for becoming a successful behavior analyst should be something
everyone can agree on. See Table 10.1 for how the competencies align with the Board Certified
Behavior Analyst (BCBA) Test Content Outline (Sixth Edition).
Undoubtedly, additional competencies must be met to provide specific clinical services
or populations (e.g., adults with brain injury). However, we selected the minimum core com-
petencies that appeared reliably across sources for this book and divided the skills into basic,
intermediate, and advanced levels. Each skill level within the competency includes core com-
ponent skills, and we provided recommended criteria that must be met before moving to the
next level (see Table 11.1 for reference). For example, intermediate skills for the competency that
addresses selecting and defining target behaviors include component skills such as selecting
behaviors that may be targeted for reduction using worksheets and practicing operationally
defining most observed behaviors (e.g., crying, aggression). Recommended competency cri-
teria for each skill level must be met before the supervisee can move on to component skills
in the next level. For example, after meeting the recommended criteria for intermediate skills
for selecting and defining behaviors, the supervisee may be given opportunities to work on
advanced skills. Each competency also has recommended criteria for generality. When the
generality criteria are met, the competency can be considered mastered.
The competencies are listed chronologically in the order of the service delivery pro-
cess. We begin with the initial referral process for services. In practice, when a new client
is referred for intervention, the intake process starts with an assessment, which includes
selecting and defining behaviors, accurately and reliably measuring the selected behaviors,
identifying the function of the selected behaviors, conducting skills assessment as part of the
assessment, completing assessment reports that include generating graphs, selecting skills to
98 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

teach, and developing goals and treatment plans. Staff and parent training and data-based
decision-making follow the assessment process. Following the steps for assessment and treat-
ment implementation and monitoring, we recommend starting the training from Chapter
11 (selecting and defining target behaviors) and from there follow the order of the chapters.
For supervision interactions in an office or classroom setting, we recommend addressing
each chapter’s basic and intermediate skills in the order they appear. After completing the
basic and intermediate skills, supervision can address the advanced skills as appropriate.
In field-based supervision interactions, addressing each competency in the order presented
may not be feasible. Depending on client needs, organizational requirements, and the duties
of an individual, it may be necessary to address items outside of the order presented. For
example, a supervisee may be placed with a fourth-grade student engaging in self-injurious
behavior after completing a functional behavior assessment. In this situation, working with
the supervisee on defining that behavior, taking a baseline, assessing the behavior, and then
introducing an intervention would not be in the child’s best interest. Instead, the supervisor
will likely focus on implementing the intervention with the supervisee to ensure high fidelity
and data collection and use other time periods to address behavioral definitions and the like.
During these situations, the supervisor will need to show discretion and care when initially
deciding which competencies to target.

ETHICAL PRACTICE AND CULTURAL HUMILITY SKILLS

ACROSS COMPETENCIES

Ethics and cultural competence are part of each competency. Each competency has a specific
skill related to ethical guidelines for the given competency and skill building involving cultural
humility. For example, when supervisors develop case scenarios, they are encouraged to include
clients from different backgrounds. Across each competency chapter, supervisors are provided
with activities to help integrate ethical and cultural considerations into the skill-building
activities. The practice of ethical behavior and culturally sensitive decision-making pervade
the practice of behavior analysis and, as such, can be found throughout each competency.

COMPASSIONATE CARE SKILLS ACROSS COMPETENCIES

Compassionate care and responsiveness to clients’ and caregivers’ needs support building
therapeutic relationships with families and clients. Compassionate care requires skills such
as active listening, collaboration, use of non-technical language, empathy, and management
of emotional responses (Gatzunis et al., 2023). The competencies listed in each chapter ad-
dress compassionate care within each skill. For example, as an intermediate skill in compe-
tency addressing behavior assessments, the supervisors are provided with activities that
use behavior skills training and establish conducting open-ended interviews while using
active listening and non-technical language. Chapter 20 addresses disseminating behavior
analysis to individuals unfamiliar with the field. The exercises provided for that competency
include engaging in active listening, using non-technical language, showing empathy, and
using proper bedside manner when discussing treatment options with families and clients.

RESOURCES FOR ESTABLISHING AND EVALUATING COMPETENCIES

Each competency includes a diagram that lists component skills for basic, intermediate, and
advanced skills. To ensure that the supervisee has the required foundational skills to work
 10 Achieving Competencies in Behavior-Analytic Practice 99

a competency, competencies include prerequisite skills in which the supervisee must show
competency before working on a new skill. For example, to start working on data collection,
the supervisee must show competency in selecting and defining behavior and foundational
knowledge in data collection methods and measures of behaviors. To make the tracking of
skill acquisition clearer for supervisees and supervisors, each diagram includes space for
the supervisor’s initials as an indication that the supervisee met the set criteria for a given
component skill. Ethical guidelines related to competencies are part of the diagrams and
are listed as basic component skills. The recommended activities require the supervisors to
cover ethical guidelines when starting to work on a competency. At the end of each chapter
are resources for supervisors and supervisees. The resources include additional readings re-
lated to the competency and sample tools for supervisors. Collaboration between different
supervisors is also highly emphasized for each competency.

Group Supervision

One of the initial purposes of this book was to provide the supervisees with clear guidance on
receiving evidence-based and effective supervision and support the supervisees in advocating
for themselves. With this new edition of the book, we also included resources for supervisors to
support the acquisition of competencies. All competencies include group supervision activities.
All activities are divided into individual group meetings, including step-by-step directions
on preparing for the group meetings and teaching component skills for each competency.
Group meetings include a clear agenda that can be used as learning objectives and activities
to provide opportunities for supervisees to engage in unrestricted independent experience.

Individual Supervision

Not all supervisees will have the opportunity to be part of group supervision. Although
group supervision has many advantages, the competencies can be completed solely through
individual supervision. The group activities provided for supervisors can be used as part of
one-to-one meetings with supervisees. For example, the supervisor can use a group activity,
such as defining severe problem behaviors (e.g., aggression), and apply the same activity when
meeting one-on-one with a supervisee. All advanced skills included in each competency are
designed to be acquired through individual supervision. At the end of each chapter, there
are sample resources for supervisors to have as a guide.
Before initiating work on a specific skill within a competency, we recommend that
supervisors conduct a baseline evaluation of that skill using Performance Monitoring
Checklists (PMC), sometimes called Performance Monitoring Tools (PMT). The baseline
involves collecting data before the intervention, allowing the supervisor to identify areas of
need and allocate time and resources to them. For example, when working on competencies
on data collection, if the supervisee independently completes 100% of the steps for using event
recording to collect data on the occurrence of behavior but only accurately completes 50% of
the steps for using partial interval recording, the supervisor can provide more opportunities
to the supervisee to practice partial interval recording while monitoring the generality and
maintenance of event recording.
Supervisors must put in the time and effort to prepare for the presentation of a com-
petency to get the most from the experience. For the supervisor, this means reviewing the
competency and preparing the information and materials needed to teach specific skills.
Each group activity includes guidelines that supervisors can follow within each competency.
Supervisors should take the time to evaluate the activities themselves and how they can best
be addressed in their supervision interactions.
100 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

Meeting the criteria for competence for a specific skill represents a significant step but does
not set the occasion to end the learning process. Supervisors must also address the generality
(engaging in the given skill in various contexts or completing the skill in different formats) and
maintenance of the established skills over time. Once the competency criteria have been met, we
recommend that the supervisor create a schedule to evaluate generality and skill maintenance.
For some supervisees, the acquisition of new skills can result in the forgetting of previously
learned material. We recommend generality probes right after acquisition criteria are met for
given skills and evaluation of maintenance of the skills across periods of one month, three months,
six months, and one year. If an individual misses meeting the criteria at any time, additional in-
struction on the skill should be provided, and the maintenance schedule should be re-instituted.

Supervisee Preparation

All competencies include specific activities for supervisees to engage in as they learn basic,
intermediate, and advanced skills. Utilizing the information in previous chapters, such as
learning how to build collaborative working relationships with a supervisor, is critical in
maximizing specific recommended activities for supervisees to build and maintain basic in-
termediate and advanced skills. Following recommended basic, intermediate, and advanced
skill-building activities is highly encouraged.
Before leaping into a competency, we recommend that supervisees take the time to re-
view and conduct a thorough self-evaluation of their skill level and comfort with each of
the skills listed in the competency (i.e., all skills in the basic, intermediate, and advanced
competencies). Garza et al. (2018) stated that self-assessment includes supervisees rating their
knowledge and skill level for skills needed to perform a job competently. Even though many
behavior analysts may be reluctant to use self-reporting, this approach can significantly
benefit the supervision process. For instance, when a supervisee reports no experience or
limited confidence in a skill, the supervisor can proceed with training immediately rather
than conducting a complete baseline evaluation, thereby saving significant time based on
the supervisee’s report. A person’s self-report of their belief in their capacity to execute tasks
is called “self-efficacy” in the social psychology literature (see Bandura, 1997). Sometimes a
supervisee’s self-report of how well they can accomplish something is inaccurate. Therefore,
the exercise of self-reflection may also increase a supervisee’s ability to identify their strengths
and weaknesses more accurately in the future. By working on this skill, the supervisee may
independently and accurately identify gaps in competence without relying solely on the ex-
pertise of an authority (the supervisor, in this case).
Self-reflection and assessment can take many forms. For example, the supervisee may
review the core skills and provide a qualitative response with a rationale for their self-rating.
The supervisee may complete the self-evaluation independently or in an interview format
with the supervisor, walking through each competency area. We recommend the following
steps for completing self-evaluations. First, the supervisee must review the competency. Use
a simple Likert scale (1–5) and independently rate performance for each skill listed in the
competency. It will be beneficial if supervisees rate themselves across all areas at four specific
times: before starting work on a specific competency, after completing basic and interme-
diate skills, after completing advanced skills, and after showing the generality of the skill.

CONCLUSION

In summary, acquiring competency as a behavior analyst is an important and necessary step

but insufficient on its own. The activities for supervisors and supervisees are intended to
address each competency and to facilitate supervisor-supervisee relationship building. As
 10 Achieving Competencies in Behavior-Analytic Practice 101

previously noted, the following chapters are not rules that must be followed precisely but are
guidelines to create the best supervisory experience for each supervisee. Supervision is not
a one-size-fits-all approach; the supervision team must work together to establish the most
effective methods to reach competency. The activities presented in the upcoming chapters
lend themselves to various supervision styles and can be individualized to meet the needs
of a diverse population of budding behavior analysts.

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCES

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Garza, K. L., McGee, H. M., Schenk, Y. A., & Wiskirchen, R. R. (2018). Some tools for carrying out a
proposed process for supervising experience hours for aspiring board certified behavior analysts.
Behavior Analyst in Practice, 11(1), 62–70. [Link]
Gatzunis, K. S., Weiss, M. J., Ala’i-Rosales, S., Fahmie, T. A., & Syed, N. Y. (2023). Using behavioral skills
training to teach functional assessment interviewing, cultural responsiveness, and empathic and
compassionate care to students of applied behavior analysis. Behavior Analysis in Practice. [Link]
/10.1007/s40617-023-00794-0
Parsons, M. B., Rollyson, J. H., & Reid, D. H. (2012). Evidence-based staff training: A guide for
practitioners. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5(2), 2–11. [Link]
Sarokoff, R. A., & Sturmey, P. (2004). The effects of behavioral skills training on staff implementation of
discrete-trial teaching. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37(4), 535–538. [Link]
.2004.37-535
 11
COMPETENCY 1: IDENTIFY AND
OPERATIONALLY DEFINE PROBLEM AND
SOCIALLY APPROPRIATE BEHAVIORS

PREREQUISITE SKILLS

• Foundational knowledge of defining behavior and response

• Providing examples of behavior and response

This competency makes behavior analysis distinguishable from other disciplines interested in
behavior because of its emphasis on direct observation and measurement of behavior. Before
any behavior can be measured, graphed, and analyzed, it must be operationally defined clearly,
objectively, and concisely (Cooper et al., 2020). Thus, learning to define behaviors operation-
ally is essential for all behavior analysts to be competent. Table 11.1 provides benchmarks to
gauge skill development for this competency.
The basic skills for this competency emphasize conceptual understanding of terms and
processes correlated with specific skills. For example, defining and providing examples of
behavior and response, discriminating between functional and topographical definitions
of behavior, and stating the main components of an operational definition of behavior are
part of essential skills, and supervisees must show competent knowledge of these terms
before opportunities to engage in intermediate skills can be provided. While the interme-
diate skills are like the advanced skills, they are designed to allow the supervisee to practice
the skills in a training environment to a set level of competence before allowing the skill
to be performed with the actual client as an advanced skill. For example, as an interme-
diate skill, the supervisee practices selecting behaviors that may be targeted for reduction
using worksheets and practicing operationally defining the most observed behaviors (e.g.,
crying, aggression). Table 9.2 in Chapter 9 lists examples of behaviors the supervisees are
encouraged to practice defining as intermediate skills and creating operational defini-
tion lists for use in the field. Advanced skills are designed to provide supervisees with
opportunities to identify, prioritize, and define behaviors of actual clients. For example,

102
11 Competency 1: Identify and Operationally Define Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  103

TABLE 11.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 1

Competency: Select, prioritize, and operationally define problem and socially
appropriate target behaviors
Supervisor’s
Basic Skills Initials

• Define behavior, response, and response class

• Provide a rationale for why it is important to have well-written operational
definitions of behaviors
• State the main components of an operational definition of behavior (objective
[observable], measurable, clear and complete)
• Define and provide examples of function and topography-based operational
definitions of behaviors
• List three characteristics of a good operational definition of a behavior
• Discriminate between observable versus nonobservable operational
definitions by applying the dead man’s test


Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• Practice using a worksheet for prioritizing potential target behaviors to select

behaviors for change
• Practice developing topographical or functional operational definitions
by making decisions to define listed behaviors topographically versus
functionally
• Aggressive behaviors (e.g., hitting with and without objects, kicking, biting,
scratching)
• Self-injurious behaviors (e.g., head-hitting, head-banging, self-biting)
• Property destruction
• Crying/tantrums
• Screaming/yelling
• Elopement from various locations and caregivers
• Off-task behaviors
• Repetitive motor behaviors (e.g., hand flapping, jumping, spinning,
ordering and arranging)
• Repetitive and appropriate vocalizations
• Play and leisure skills (e.g., functional and pretend play, use of technology)
• Following directions (instructional and daily living tasks)
• On-task behaviors during independent and teacher-led instructions
• Food acceptance
• Create a Word document with all defined socially inappropriate and
appropriate behaviors


(continued)
104 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 11.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 1 (continued)
Advanced Skills Supervisor’s Initials
Across three different clients Client 1 Client 2 Client 3

• Use worksheets for prioritizing socially

significant and problem behaviors to pinpoint
behaviors that will be targeted for reduction
and increase based on information obtained
through indirect and direct data collection
• Make decisions regarding when to use
topographical versus functional definitions
of behaviors and select the best type of
operational definition for targeted behaviors
• Develop objective (observable), measurable,
clear and complete operational definitions
for behaviors targeted for decreases and
increase as part of behavior assessments and
case management


Shows generalized advanced skills to
pinpoint behaviors to be decreased Supervisor’s signature Date
and increased and develop objective,
measurable, clear and complete operational
definitions of selected behaviors across at
least two novel clients

after meeting the criteria for intermediate skills (e.g., prioritizing and defining behaviors
in the training environment), the supervisee may be allowed to use that skill, under the
guidance from a supervisor, with actual clients. Finally, the competency includes a gen-
erality criteria to support the supervisors in making decisions about the readiness of the
supervisees to perform the skills in each competency accurately and independently. The
competency may be mastered when the supervisee meets the generality criteria for that
competency. For example, to consider the supervisee showing competence in identifying,
prioritizing, and defining behaviors, the supervisee must independently pinpoint behaviors
to be decreased and increased and develop objective, measurable, and clear and complete
operational definitions of selected behaviors across at least two novel clients.
When each component listed in the competency is met, the supervisors are encouraged
to sign off on the skill by signing their initials next to that skill. For example, when working
on basic skills, as soon as the supervisee independently defines a behavior, response, and
response class and provides original examples of each, the supervisor may sign their initials
to indicate that the supervisee met the criteria for that specific basic skill. Sometimes, the
completion of a component skill requires meeting multiple criteria. For example, to consider
the criteria for practicing to define behaviors as an intermediate skill to be met operationally,
the supervisee must develop operational definitions for all behaviors listed under interme-
diate skills in Table 11.1.
We have provided the supervisees and supervisors with individual and group learning
activities and strategies to support learning and showing competency in skills listed in
Table 11.1. The group activities offered to supervisors can also be used as part of one-to-one
meetings with supervisees. For example, the supervisor can use a group activity, such as de-
fining severe problem behaviors (e.g., aggression), and apply the same activity when meeting
11 Competency 1: Identify and Operationally Define Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  105

one-on-one with a supervisee. Recommended activities and procedures are aligned with
establishing competencies in basic, intermediate, and advanced skills.

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH BASIC SKILLS

• To build and maintain basic skills related to identifying and defining behaviors,
supervisees are encouraged to:
• Review notes from classes that discussed terms and concepts related to behavior,
response, and operationally defining behaviors
• Build fluency with the concepts listed under basic skills using Say All Fast, Minute
Each Day, Shuffled (SAFMED
• Develop at least two original examples of each term or concept
• If struggling with discrimination of terms or concepts, reach out to supervisors for
support
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain initials on Competency Skills List 1 (Table 11.1)
for each completed basic skill

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• To build and maintain intermediate skills related to identifying and defining

behaviors, supervisees are encouraged to:
• Complete assigned work within given timelines
• Actively participate in group meetings
• Ask questions and for feedback on completed work
• Apply given feedback to assigned work and ask for more opportunities to practice
the skill if needed
• Have open and clear communication with the group and field supervisor and ask
for more opportunities to practice developing operational definitions of behaviors
○ Example: Obtain permission from supervisor to operationally define the behaviors
exhibited by clients and ask for feedback from supervisor(s)
• Search YouTube for videos of different behaviors and apply the skills learned during
supervision to identify and define these behaviors. During supervision meetings,
ask the supervisor to review the definitions.
• Use the additional reading and resources provided at the end of each competency
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain initials on the Competency Skills List 1
(Table 11.1) for each completed intermediate skill and complete the Excel profile
for met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• To build and maintain advanced skills related to identifying and defining behaviors,
supervisees are encouraged to:
• Provide evidence to supervisors overseeing the development of advanced skills of
readiness to apply the skills learned in a training environment with actual clients
106 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Example: Presenting the Competency Skills List 1 (Table 11.1) with the group
supervisor’s initials for listed basic and intermediate skills can function as evi-
dence for readiness to apply the skills with the clients
• Establish open and clear communication with supervisors overseeing the develop-
ment of advanced skills
○ Seek and ask for opportunities to apply advanced skills with different clients
○ Ask for opportunities to help with behavior assessments
○ Ask to be evaluated on the use of advanced skills as often as possible
• Complete given work before established timelines
• Seek supervision and feedback as often as possible
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain initials on the Competency Skills List 1
(Table 11.1) for each completed advanced skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH BASIC AND

INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• Competence: Identify, prioritize, and operationally define problem and socially

appropriate behaviors
• Skill level: Basic and Intermediate
• Number of meetings: 3
• Duration of each meeting: 3 hours
• Group supervision objectives:
○ Establish competence in basic concepts related to operational definitions of
behaviors
■ Define and provide examples of behavior and response
■ Provide a rationale for why it is important to have well-written operational
definitions of behaviors
■ State the main components of an operational definition of behavior
- Objective (observable), measurable, clear and complete
■ Define and provide examples of functional and topographical operational
definitions of behaviors
■ Explain the dead man’s test and apply it to discriminate between observable
versus non-observable operational definitions
○ Establish competence in intermediate skills related to operational definitions
of behaviors
■ Use information obtained from indirect and direct assessment results and
identify socially significant problems and appropriate behaviors that could be
targeted for change
■ Use worksheets for prioritizing potential socially significant target behaviors
and pinpoint the problem and appropriate behaviors that should be targeted
for change
11 Competency 1: Identify and Operationally Define Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  107

■ Develop objective, measurable, clear and complete topographical or functional

operational definitions of the following problem behaviors:
- Severe problem behaviors (physical aggression, self-injury, property destruc-
tion, verbal treats)
- Elopement from designated areas, caregivers, home/classroom
- Screaming/yelling, crying, flopping onto the floor/ground
- Off-task behaviors
- Repetitive motor movements (e.g., hand flapping)
- Repetitive vocalization (e.g., repetitive use of phrases from favorite shows)
- Appropriate vocalizations
■ Develop objective, measurable, clear and complete topographical or functional
operational definitions of the following socially appropriate behaviors
- Appropriate vocalizations
- Play and leisure skills (e.g., functional and pretend play, use of technology)
- Following directions (instructional tasks and daily living tasks)
- On-task behaviors during independent and teacher-led instructions
- Food acceptance
■ Select between using topographical or functional definitions of behaviors as
the most appropriate and pragmatic

GROUP MEETING 1

• Skill Level: Basic

• Purpose: Build fluency with basic concepts related to operational definitions of
behavior
• Agenda
○ Review basic concepts related to operational definitions of behavior
○ Discuss the importance of developing operational definitions
○ Discuss how to prioritize the selection of behaviors to be targeted for change
○ Review the main components of an operational definition of behavior (Objective
[observable], measurable, clear and complete)
○ Review the definitions of functional and topographical operational definitions of
behaviors
○ Apply the dead man’s test to discriminate between observable and non-observable
operational definitions
○ Operationally define behaviors using topographical and functional definitions
• GROUP MEETING 1: PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform the supervisees to:
■ Review, and be prepared to discuss and give examples of, all basic skills listed
in competency benchmarks for establishing operational definitions of behavior
108 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Review Competency 1 benchmarks for establishing operational definitions of

behavior (see Table 11.1)
■ Read Lindsley (1991), “From Technical Jargon to Plain English for Application”

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To review basic skills related to operational definitions of behaviors, prepare
materials, and create PowerPoint slides that may include:
○ Definition of behavior and response and two examples for each basic skill
■ Example: Definition of behavior and two examples of behavior
○ Rationale why it is important to have well-written operational definitions of behaviors
○ Two examples that show how poorly written operational definitions could result
in unreliable data collection
○ The main components of an operational definition of behaviors (Objective [ob-
servable], measurable, clear and complete) (see Cooper et al., 2020, p. 70)
○ Three to five examples of operational definitions of problem behaviors that in-
clude all three necessary components of an operational definition (no more than
two examples per page)
■ Use redundancy cues by highlighting each component in a different color
- Example: The objective portion of the definition can be highlighted in yellow,
while the precise and complete part can be highlighted in light blue
○ Definition of dead man’s test and two examples of operational definitions that
pass the test and two that fail the test
■ Example: Behavior: Non-compliance
- Pass the dead man’s test—responses that show movement and can be observed
- Example: Any of the following vocalizations: “No,” “I don’t want to,” or
“Leave me alone”
- Fail the dead man’s test—any behavior that “dead man can do”
- Example: Refusing to follow directions, refusing to complete any work
(dead people refuse to follow directions in 100% of opportunities)
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the meeting agenda:
○ Review basic concepts that relate to operational definitions of behavior listed in
Competency 1
○ Discuss the importance of developing operational definitions
○ Review the main components of an operational definition of behavior (Objective
[observable], measurable, clear and complete)
○ Review the definitions of functional and topographical operational definitions of
behaviors
11 Competency 1: Identify and Operationally Define Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  109

○ Apply the dead man’s test to discriminate between observable and non-observable
operational definitions
○ After all, supervisees show competence in basic skills related to operational
definitions, watch videos, and practice operationally defining behaviors using
topographical and functional definitions
• After going over the group meeting 1 agenda, begin activity 1:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, write down names and skills and select a supervisee
and basic skill (e.g., behavior) and have the supervisee define and give examples
of the skill
○ Use information on the PowerPoint slides to provide feedback and use multiple
exemplar training to provide sufficient examples of each basic skill. Repeat untill
everyone in the group has defined a skill.
■ Example 1: After each supervisee defines and gives an example of a behavior,
display the definition of behavior and examples of behavior while providing
feedback to the group
○ Pinpoint main components of operational definitions:
■ Display the main components of an operational definition of behavior
■ Display one example at a time and ask the supervisees to pinpoint each com-
ponent in the example
■ Provide feedback to the group by breaking down the examples to show how
each operational definition is:
- Objective (apply dead man’s test)
- Display the definition of dead man’s test and examples of behaviors that
pass and fail the test when providing feedback to the group
- Measurable
- Clear and complete (has clear boundaries)
○ Answer all questions about the operational definition of behaviors and end the
activity

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice prioritizing the selection of target behaviors, create PowerPoint slides
that may include:
○ Three to four scenarios (two for teaching and two for generality probes) or find
three to four videos that include individuals engaging in multiple problem
behaviors
■ If creating scenarios, the scenarios must be included on the PowerPoint slides
and contain the following information:
- At least three to four different behaviors
110 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

- Two of the behaviors must pose a danger to the client or others (e.g., aggres-
sion or self-injury), one of the behaviors can be crying or screaming, and one
can be a repetitive behavior (e.g., repetitive hand movements)
- Information on the occurrence of each behavior and the impact of each be-
havior on learning and social interactions
- Example of an individual engaging in multiple behaviors: John is 4 years
old. During the assessment, it was observed that John screamed, cried, hit,
and bit his father and rocked back and forth while repetitively vocalizing
sounds. During the interview, parents indicated that screaming occurs about
30 times a week on average, while crying happens about 20 times a week
on average. The duration of crying ranges from 3 to 20 minutes. Hitting and
biting occur on average 10 times a week. John rocks back and forth while re-
petitively vocalizing sounds every day as he watches TV shows. Per parents,
he swings and vocalizes sounds almost the entire time while watching TV
shows. While screaming, crying, rocking, and vocalizations have been pre-
sent since age 2, hitting and biting have been present since age 3.
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• To practice how to prioritize the selection of behaviors to be targeted for
change
○ Have supervisees review the worksheet for prioritizing potential target behaviors
in Cooper et al. (2020, p. 66)
○ Provide the supervisees with one of the scenarios or play one of the videos that
includes an individual who engages in multiple problem behaviors
■ Example scenario: John is 4 years old. During the assessment, it was observed
that John screamed, cried, hit, and bit his father and rocked back and forth while
repetitively vocalizing sounds. During the interview, parents indicated that
screaming occurs about 30 times a week on average, while crying occurs about
20 times a week on average. The duration of crying ranges from 3 to 20 minutes.
Hitting and biting occur on average 10 times a week. John rocks back and forth
while repetitively vocalizing sounds every day as he watches TV shows. Per
the parent report, he rocks and vocalizes sounds almost the entire time while
watching TV shows. While screaming, crying, rocking, and vocalizations have
been present since age 2, hitting and biting have been present since age 3.
○ Ask the supervisees to identify the behaviors in the scenario or video
■ Provide feedback as needed to make sure all behaviors in the scenario or video
are identified
- For example, in John’s case, the supervisees must pinpoint the following
behaviors:
- Screaming, crying, hitting, biting, rocking back and forth, repetitive vo-
calization of sounds
○ After all behaviors have been identified for the specific scenario or video:
■ Guide the supervisees to use the worksheet for prioritizing potential target
behaviors (see Cooper et al., 2020, p. 66) to select behaviors that need to be
targeted for change
- Example: In John’s case, hitting, biting, crying, and screaming would be
prioritized over repetitive rocking and vocalizations
11 Competency 1: Identify and Operationally Define Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  111

○ Provide the supervisees with the rest of the scenarios or videos one at a time, and
for each scenario or video have them:
■ Identify the behaviors in the scenario
■ Use the worksheet for prioritizing potential target behaviors to select behaviors
that need to be targeted for change
■ Ask each supervisee to share their work and explain why specific behaviors
were targeted for change
■ Provide feedback to each supervisee and use more examples until all supervisees
pinpoint and select target behaviors for change using the information obtained
from the worksheets with 100% accuracy across two novel examples
○ Answer all questions and end the activity

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To discriminate between topographical and functional definitions, prepare
PowerPoint slides that may include:
○ Two to three examples of behaviors that are operationally defined topographically
and functionally
■ Example: Behavior: Biting
- Topographical definition: Any instance of open mouth contacting any part
of another person’s body without permission (exception: kissing another
person)
- Functional definition: Any teeth marks on any part of another person’s
body
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP
• To practice discriminating between functional and topographical operational
definitions of behaviors
○ Present the examples of behaviors that are defined topographically and function-
ally one at a time
○ Ask the group to identify topographical and functional definitions and provide
a rationale for their answers
○ Give the supervisees a few minutes to develop their answers
○ Randomly select three supervisees and have them answer the question and pro-
vide a rationale for their answers
■ Correct rationale for topographical definition must indicate that the definition
describes what the behavior looks like or its form
■ Correct rationale for functional definition must indicate that the definition
shows the impact of the behavior on the environment (e.g., teeth marks left on
the person’s arm from biting)
○ Continue with the exercise untill supervisees show clear discrimination between
functional and topographical definitions
○ Answer all questions and end the activity
112 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 4

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 4—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing topographical and functional definitions, create PowerPoint
slides that may include:
○ Two to three behaviors that can operationally defined topographically and
functionally
■ Examples: Texting, running, self-injury in the form of picking on scabs, screaming
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 4—MEETING AS A GROUP
• To practice defining behaviors topographically and functionally
○ Present one behavior at a time and have the group members define the behavior
topographically and functionally
■ Example: Ask them to define:
- Texting topographically and functionally
- Running topographically and functionally
- Self-injury in the form of picking on scabs
■ Allow 5 minutes to write both operational definitions for a given behavior
■ Have each supervisee read both definitions
■ Provide feedback to the supervisee by pinpointing if the definitions were:
- Objective (apply dead man’s test)
- Measurable
- Clear and complete (has clear boundaries)
○ Have the supervisee make any needed corrections
○ Move to the next supervisee until each one has had the opportunity to share the
developed definitions
○ Answer all questions about the operational definition of behaviors and end
activity
• GROUP MEETING 1—ENDING THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER
ACTIVITY 4
• End group meeting 1 by providing the supervisees with independent work oppor-
tunities to practice the skills learned in practica
○ Instruct the supervisees to review the operational definitions of targeted behaviors
for clients they work with and complete the following:
■ Analyze each behavior and pinpoint if the definitions:
- Are topographical or functional
- Are objective (observable), measurable, clear and complete
- Pass the dead man’s test
■ Use the worksheet for prioritizing potential target behaviors and prioritize all
the behaviors exhibited by the client(s) they are assigned to work with
■ Compare their results with the behaviors selected to be targeted by the case
supervisor
11 Competency 1: Identify and Operationally Define Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  113

■ Prepare the independent work for case presentations during supervision

meetings by creating a Word document that includes the following:
- Operational definitions of targeted behaviors that are used for clients they
work with
- Analysis of operational definitions of each behavior
- Are topographical or functional
- Are objective (observable), measurable, clear and complete
- Pass the dead man’s test
- Completed worksheets for prioritizing potential target behaviors, showing the
use of the worksheet for all the behaviors exhibited by the selected client(s)

GROUP MEETING 2

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Operationally define severe problem behaviors
• Agenda
○ Operationally define severe problem behaviors using topographical or functional
definitions
■ Aggressive behaviors (e.g., hitting with and without objects, kicking, biting,
scratching, hairpulling)
■ Self-injurious behaviors (e.g., head-hitting, head-banging, self-biting)
■ Property destruction
■ Elopement from caregiver in the community
■ Elopement from designated areas
• GROUP MEETING 2: PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Two days prior to group meeting 2, the individual leading the group should inform
the supervisees to review all basic skills discussed in group meeting 1
• Prepare materials for group meeting 2 activities by using specific guidelines for each
group meeting 2 activity

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To review and provide feedback on unrestricted independent work assigned in
group meeting 1, two days prior to group meeting 2 inform the supervisees:
○ To bring to the supervision meeting the Word document that includes the results
of the independent unrestricted activity assigned during group meeting 1 (see
the group meeting 1 independent unrestricted work requirements)
○ To be prepared to discuss the independent unrestricted work during a group
meeting
114 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP

• After greetings, go over the meeting agenda:
○ Review basic concepts related to operational definitions of behavior by completing
activity 1 from group meeting 1.
○ Discuss and provide feedback on unrestricted independent work activity
○ Operationally define severe problem behaviors using topographical or functional
definitions
■ Aggressive behaviors (e.g., hitting with and without objects, kicking, biting,
scratching, hairpulling)
■ Self-injurious behaviors (e.g., head-hitting, head-banging, self-biting)
■ Property destruction
■ Elopement from caregiver in the community
■ Elopement from designated areas
• After going over the agenda, review and provide feedback on unrestricted inde-
pendent work
○ Inform the group that each group member will provide feedback on the work
completed by a partner on the following:
■ Analysis of operational definitions of each behavior
- Are topographical or functional
- Are objective (observable), measurable, clear and complete
- Pass the dead man’s test
■ Correct completion of worksheets for prioritizing potential target behaviors
■ Correct selection of behaviors to be prioritized
○ After receiving feedback from each other, feedback will be provided by the
supervisor
○ Pair up group members and inform the pairs to share their work with each
other
○ Allow 10 minutes to have each member of the pair review the peer’s work and
write down feedback on a separate paper
○ After the timer goes off, select a pair and have each member of the pair provide
feedback to the peer
○ As the feedback is being provided:
■ If the feedback is accurate and complete:
- Provide praise and move on to the next group member
■ If feedback is not accurate or is incomplete:
- Provide feedback by pinpointing the errors and areas that were missed
- Move on to the next group member
○ Continue with the activity until every member has received feedback from each
other and the supervisor
○ Answer all questions and end the activity
11 Competency 1: Identify and Operationally Define Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  115

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing operational definitions for aggressive behaviors, create
PowerPoint slides that may include:
○ Links to the videos or videos in which children or adolescents engage in aggres-
sive behaviors
■ Hitting with and without objects, kicking, biting, scratching, hairpulling
○ If videos are not available, describe five scenarios displaying aggressive behaviors
(e.g., hitting with and without objects, kicking, biting, scratching, hairpulling)
without providing too much detail on the topography
■ Example: Hitting parent: John makes a fist and hits his mother on the arm. An
hour later, he slaps dad in the face.
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Practice developing operational definitions for aggressive behaviors
○ Play one video at a time or provide one scenario at a time in which children and
adolescents engage in aggressive behaviors (e.g., hitting with and without objects,
kicking, biting, scratching, hairpulling) and complete the following for each video
or scenario:
1. Ask the supervisees to define the target behavior topographically and
functionally
2. Give supervisees 5 minutes to work independently
3. After 5 minutes, ask each supervisee to read both definitions
4. After all supervisees have read their definitions, provide feedback on the op-
erational definitions making sure they include all three components (objective
[observable], measurable, clear and complete)
5. After revising the topographical and functional definitions to meet the set
standards, have the supervisees select between using topographical or func-
tional definitions of defined behaviors by providing a rationale for the selection
■ Example: Using topographical definition will provide more accurate and
reliable results than functional for hitting because it will be difficult and not
practical to look for bruises on the person’s body
○ Follow steps 1–5 for all remaining videos or scenarios for aggressive behaviors
○ Answer all questions and end the activity

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing operational definitions for self-injurious behaviors, create
PowerPoint slides that may include:
○ Links to the videos or videos in which children or adolescents engage in self-
injurious behaviors
116 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Example: Hitting self with objects and own hand, hitting own head into solid
surfaces, biting self, pulling own hair, picking on scab
○ If videos are not available, develop scenarios that describe the behavior without
giving too much detail on the topography and include them on the PowerPoint
slides
■ Example: Hitting self with objects scenario: John picks up a book and hits his
head with the book
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Practice developing operational definitions for self-injurious behaviors
○ Play one video or provide one scenario at a time in which children and adolescents
engage in self-injurious behaviors (e.g., hitting self with objects, hitting self with
their hands, banging their heads into hard surfaces, biting their hands) and com-
plete the following for each video or scenario:
1. Ask the supervisees to define the target behavior topographically and
functionally
2. Give supervisees 5 minutes to work independently
3. After 5 minutes, ask each supervisee to read both definitions
4. After all supervisees have read their definitions, provide feedback on the op-
erational definitions making sure they include all three components (objective
[observable], measurable, clear and complete)
5. After revising the topographical and functional definitions to meet the set
standards, have the supervisees select between using topographical or func-
tional definitions of defined behaviors by providing a rationale for the selection
■ Example: Using topographical definition will provide more accurate and
reliable results than functional for hitting own head with own hand because
it will be challenging to look for bruises on the client’s head
○ Follow steps 1–5 for all remaining videos or scenarios for self-injurious behaviors
○ Answer all questions and end the activity

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 4

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 4—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing operational definitions for behaviors that result in pro-
perty damage (e.g., damage to a toy), create PowerPoint slides that may include:
○ Videos or the link to them in which children or adolescents engage in behaviors
that result in property damage (e.g., damage to a toy)
■ Damage to toys, electronic devices, walls, doors, broken windows, classroom
desks, chairs, damage to school supplies (e.g., broken pencil or ripped book pages)
○ If videos are not available, develop scenarios and add them to PowerPoint slides
to describe the behavior without giving too much detail on the topography
■ Example 1: John picks up his math textbook, tears the pages from the book,
and throws them onto the floor.
■ Example 2: A 7-year-old child is playing with a phone. After losing a game, the
child yells and throws the phone onto the ground, cracking the screen.
11 Competency 1: Identify and Operationally Define Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  117

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 4—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Practice developing operational definitions for property destruction
○ Play one video or provide one scenario at a time in which children or adolescents
engage in property destruction (e.g., breaking furniture or electronic devices, ripping
books, damaging school supplies) and complete the following with each video:
1. Ask the supervisees to define the target behavior topographically and
functionally
2. Give supervisees 5 minutes to work independently
3. After 5 minutes, ask each supervisee to read both definitions
4. After all the supervisees have read their definitions, provide feedback on the
operational definitions, making sure they include all three components (ob-
jective [observable], measurable, clear and complete)
5. After revising the topographical and functional definitions to meet the set
standards, have the supervisees select between using topographical or func-
tional definitions of defined behaviors by providing a rationale for the selection
○ Follow steps 1–5 for all remaining videos or scenarios for self-injurious behaviors
○ Answer all questions and end the activity

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 5

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 5—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing operational definitions for elopement, create PowerPoint
slides that may include:
○ Videos or links to them in which children or adolescents engage in
■ Elopement from caregiver in the community
■ Elopement from house or classroom
■ Elopement from designated areas (e.g., classroom desk, carpet, instructional
table at home, play area, designated play area in the school yard)
○ If videos are not available, develop scenarios and include them on PowerPoint
slides describing the behavior without giving too much detail on the topography
■ Example: John was in the living room of his family’s apartment. His om walks
into the kitchen, and John runs to the apartment door, opens the lock, and runs
out of the apartment. His mom chases after him and gets hold of John before
he can leave the premises of the apartment building.
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 5—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Practice developing operational definitions for elopement
○ Play one video or provide a scenario at a time in which children or adolescents engage
in elopement (e.g., play a video of a child running away from a caregiver in the com-
munity without permission) and complete the following after each video or scenario:
1. Ask the supervisees to define the target behavior topographically and
functionally
2. Give supervisees 5 minutes to work independently
3. After 5 minutes, ask each supervisee to read both definitions
118 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

4. After all the supervisees have read their definitions, provide feedback on the
operational definitions, making sure they include all three components (ob-
jective [observable], measurable, clear and complete)
5. After revising the topographical and functional definitions to meet the set
standards, have the supervisees select between using topographical or func-
tional definitions of defined behaviors by providing a rationale for the selection
○ Follow steps 1–5 for all remaining videos or scenarios for self-injurious behaviors
○ Answer all questions and end the activity
• GROUP MEETING 2: ENDING THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER
ACTIVITY 5
• End group meeting 2 by informing the supervisees that during the next group
meeting the focus will be on disruptive behaviors such as tantrums and screaming
• No independent unrestricted activity is assigned

GROUP MEETING 3

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Operationally defining problem and socially appropriate behaviors
• Agenda
○ Using topographical or functional definitions, operationally define the following
problem behaviors:
■ Screaming
■ Tantrums
■ Off-task behaviors during academic instruction
■ Repetitive motor behaviors (e.g., hand flapping, jumping, spinning, ordering
and arranging)
■ Repetitive vocalizations
○ Using topographical or functional definitions, operationally define the following
socially appropriate behaviors:
■ Appropriate vocalizations
■ Cause-and-effect toy play, functional play, and pretend play (make-believe play)
■ Following directions related to instructional tasks
■ Following directions related to completion of chores and daily living skills
■ On-task behaviors
■ Food acceptance
• GROUP MEETING 3: PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 3, the individual leading the group should inform the
supervisees:
○ To continue to review all basic skills discussed in group meeting 1
○ To make all needed changes to operational definitions developed during group
meeting 2
11 Competency 1: Identify and Operationally Define Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  119

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice operationally defining screaming/yelling and tantrums, create PowerPoint
slides that may include:
○ Videos or links to them in PowerPoint slides showing children or adolescents
engaging in:
■ Screaming, crying, flopping onto the floor, stomping feet while crying, or a
combination of all four behaviors
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the meeting agenda:
○ Using topographical or functional definitions, operationally define the following
problem behaviors:
■ Screaming, tantrums
■ Off-task behaviors during academic instruction
■ Repetitive motor behaviors (e.g., hand flapping, jumping, spinning, ordering
and arranging) and repetitive vocalizations
○ Using topographical or functional definitions, operationally define the following
socially appropriate behaviors
■ Appropriate vocalizations
■ Cause-and-effect toy play, functional play, pretend play (make-believe play)
■ Following directions related to instructional tasks and chores and daily living
skills
■ On-task behaviors
■ Food acceptance
• After going over the agenda, start working on operational definitions for screaming/
yelling and tantrums
○ Show videos or present scenarios, one at a time, in which children and adolescents
engage in crying, screaming, flopping to the floor, or stomping feet and in combi-
nation with two or more of the listed behaviors and complete the following after
each video or scenario:
1. Ask the supervisees to define the target behavior topographically or
functionally
2. Give supervisees 5 minutes to work independently
3. After 5 minutes, ask each supervisee to read the operational definition
4. After all the supervisees have read their definitions, provide feedback on the
operational definitions making sure they include all three components (ob-
jective [observable], measurable, clear and complete)
5. Have the supervisees provide a rationale for selecting to use the topographical
or functional definitions for each problem behavior
○ Follow steps 1–5 for all remaining videos or scenarios for self-injurious behaviors
○ Answer all questions and end the activity
120 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing operational definitions for repetitive behaviors, create
PowerPoint slides that may include:
○ Videos or links to them in PowerPoint slides in which children or adolescents
engage in:
■ Repetitive behaviors (Hand flapping, jumping, spinning, ordering and arranging)
■ Repetitive vocalizations and appropriate vocalizations (e.g., hitting self with
objects, hitting self with own hand, banging own head into hard surfaces, biting
own hand)
○ If videos are not available, develop scenarios that describe the behaviors without
giving too much detail on the topography
■ Example 1: John flaps his hands up and down every time he watches a favorite
TV show
■ Example 2: John, during recess and lunch, repeats scripts from a favorite TV show
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Practice defining repetitive behaviors
○ Show videos or provide scenarios, one at a time, in which children and adolescents
engage in:
■ Repetitive motor behaviors (e.g., hand flapping, jumping, spinning, ordering
and arranging)
■ Repetitive vocalizations (e.g., repeating lines from TV shows out of context,
repeating the same sound repeatedly)
■ Appropriate vocalizations
○ For each video or scenario, have the supervisees complete the following:
1. Ask the supervisees to define the target behavior topographically or functionally
2. Give supervisees 5 minutes to work independently
3. After 5 minutes, ask each supervisee to read their operational definition
4. After all the supervisees have read their definitions, provide feedback on the
operational definitions, making sure they include all three components (ob-
jective [observable], measurable, clear and complete)
5. Have the supervisees provide a rationale for the selecting to use the topo-
graphical or functional definitions for each problem behavior
○ Follow steps 1–5 for all remaining videos or scenarios for self-injurious behaviors
○ Answer all questions and end the activity

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing operational definitions for off- and on-task behaviors,
compliance, and food acceptance, create PowerPoint slides that may include:
11 Competency 1: Identify and Operationally Define Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  121

○ Videos or links to them in which children or adolescents engage in:

■ On- and off-task behaviors during academic instruction
■ Following directions related to the instructional task (e.g., starting and com-
pleting given instructional task), chores (e.g., cleaning own room), or daily
living skills (e.g., washing hands)
■ Food acceptance (to be used with clients who have food selectivity)
○ If videos are not available, develop scenarios that describe the behavior without
giving too much detail on the topography
■ Example 1: Off-task behavior: John’s teacher tells him to take out his math book
and do problems 5–10 on page 26. Instead of taking out his math book, John
takes out his language arts book and begins reading a story.
■ Example 2: Compliance: John’s teacher tells him to take out his writing journal
and write three things he did over the weekend. John takes out his writing journal
within 5 seconds from the time the teacher provided the directions and begins
to write in his journal. After 10 minutes, the teacher asked the students to stop
writing and share their written work. Observation of John’s journal shows that he
wrote four complete sentences describing three things he did over the weekend.
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Practice defining off- and on-task behaviors, following directions, and food
acceptance
○ Play one video or present one scenario at a time in which children or adolescents
engage in off- and on-task behaviors, follow directions, and accept food, and have
supervisees complete the following for each video or scenario:
1. Ask the supervisees to define the observed behavior(s) topographically or
functionally
2. Give supervisees 5 minutes to work independently
3. After 5 minutes, ask each supervisee to read the definition
4. Provide feedback to each supervisee on their operational definitions, making
sure they include all three components (objective [observable], measurable,
clear and complete)
○ Follow steps 1–4 for all remaining videos or scenarios for target behaviors
○ Answer all questions and end the activity

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 4

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 4—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing operational definitions for appropriate play skills, create
PowerPoint slides that may include:
○ Videos or links to them in which children or adolescents engage in
■ Cause-and-effect toy play
■ Functional play
■ Pretend play (make-believe play)
■ Playing board games
122 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Action games (e.g., hide and seek)

■ Team sports games (e.g., soccer or basketball)
○ If videos are not available, develop scenarios that describe the behavior without
giving too much detail on the topography
■ Example 1: John, during recess, is riding a bike.
■ Example 2: John, during free play, is building a bridge with LEGOs.
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 4—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Practice defining appropriate play skills
○ Play one video or present one scenario at a time in which children or adolescents
engage in a variety of play activities (e.g., play video of a child building a tower
with blocks, children engaged in pretend play, children playing chase) and com-
plete the following after each video or scenario:
1. Ask the supervisees to define the observed behavior(s) topographically or
functionally
2. Give supervisees 5 minutes to work independently
3. After 5 minutes, ask each supervisee to read the definition
4. Provide feedback to each supervisee on their operational definitions, making
sure they include all three components (objective [observable], measurable,
clear and complete)
○ Follow steps 1–4 for all remaining videos or scenarios for target behaviors
○ Answer all questions and end the activity
• GROUP MEETING 3—ENDING THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 4
• After completion of activity 4, end group meeting 3 by providing the supervisees
with independent work opportunities to practice the skills learned during group
meetings 2 and 3
○ Instruct the supervisees to select behaviors that the client(s) they are working
with engage(s) in and for each selected behavior:
■ Redefine the existing operational definitions to meet the set criteria practiced
in group meetings 2 and 3
■ Develop operational definitions for appropriate and problem behaviors the
client is engaging in that have not been defined by the supervisor
■ Set up individual meetings with the field supervisor to review the definitions
during a one-to-one individual meeting
■ Make revisions to independent work based on feedback from the supervisor

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Competence: Identify, prioritize, and operationally define problem and socially

appropriate behaviors
• Skill level: Support Advanced Skills
11 Competency 1: Identify and Operationally Define Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  123

• Type of Supervision: Individual

• Duration of each meeting: 1–2 hours
• Supervision objectives:
○ Establish competence in advanced skills related to operational definitions of
behaviors across three different clients
■ Use information obtained from indirect and direct assessment results and
identify socially significant problems and appropriate behaviors that could be
targeted for change
■ Use worksheets for prioritizing potential socially significant target behaviors
and pinpoint the problem and appropriate behaviors that should be targeted
for change
■ Make decisions regarding when to use topographical versus functional
definitions of behaviors and select the best type of operational definition for
targeted behaviors
■ Develop objective (observable), measurable, clear and complete operational
definitions for behaviors targeted for decreases and increase as part of behavior
assessments and case management

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Suggested activities for supervisors(s) overseeing the development of advanced

skills and application of skills with clients
• After the supervisee meets the required criteria to begin developing advanced
skills, provide opportunities to prioritize behaviors and operationally define
them by:
○ Having the supervisee help out with assessments is a great opportunity to prac-
tice advanced skills
○ Allowing supervisees to operationally define any new behavior(s) exhibited by
different clients that have not been defined
○ Providing opportunities to select and define behavior listed under intermediate
skills with actual clients
• Use Performance Monitoring Checklists (see Table 11.2) to evaluate a supervisee’s
performance on at least a bi-weekly basis until acquisition criteria for each skill are
met
• Provide feedback and more opportunities to practice the skill if needed
○ If needed, set achievable goals related to a skill the supervisee is having difficulty
applying
• Document the competition of each skill by placing initials on the Competency Skills
List 1 (Table 11.1)
124 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 11.2 Sample Performance Monitoring Checklist/Tool for Operationally Defining Behaviors
Performance Monitoring Checklist for Operationally Defining Behaviors

Show The topographical definitions  Met the criterion Given on

competency- of behaviors were: (definition included / /
defining Observable (passed the all the components
behavior dead man’s test) described in the
topographically Measurable (includes the criterion for this
correct measurable competency)
dimension of the behavior)  Did not meet the
Clear (passes a stranger test) criterion (definition
• If necessary, include lacked one or more
exclusionary factors (e.g., of the components
a student leaves their seat described in the
with permission) criterion for this
competency)
B. The topographical definitions  Met the criterion Given on
Show of behaviors were: (definition included / /
competency- Observable (passed the all the components
defining dead man’s test) described in the
behavior Measurable (includes the criterion for this
functionally correct measurable competency)
dimension of the behavior)  Did not meet the
Clear (passes a stranger test) criterion (definition
• If necessary, include did not include
exclusionary factors (e.g., one or more of
a student is away from a the components
seat with permission) described in the
criterion for this
competency)

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCES

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis, (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ:
Pearson.
Lindsley, O. R. (1991). From technical jargon to plain English for application. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analaysis, 24. (3), 449–458. [Link]
 12
COMPETENCY 2: MEASURING PROBLEM
AND SOCIALLY APPROPRIATE BEHAVIORS

PREREQUISITE SKILLS

• Operationally defining behaviors

• Foundational knowledge in data collection methods and measures of behaviors

Accurate and reliable behavior measurement are essential skills all behavior analysts should
have. With accurate and reliable measurement of the behaviors selected for change, it will
be possible to make effective decisions about treatment selection and progress monitoring
(Cooper et al., 2020). Thus, developing competency in selecting appropriate data collection
methods to measure various dimensions of behaviors is a skill that must be worked on and
mastered by all behavior analysts. In Table 12.1, we provide the reader with benchmarks to
gauge skill development for this competency.
The basic skills for this competency emphasize ethical guidelines related to the measure-
ment of behavior, conceptual understanding of measurement, rationale for measurement,
discrimination between different types of measurements and data collection methods, and
recognizing behaviors of data collectors that would affect accurate data collection (e.g., re-
activity). The basic skills also address knowing the processes of different data collection
methods to measure all three different dimensions of behavior (repeatability, temporal extent,
and temporal locus). For example, as a basic skill, the supervisees are required to define fre-
quency, state the formula for obtaining frequency information, and state the appropriate data
collection method that can be used to obtain frequency data. From our experience, requiring
the supervisees to show fluency in basic skills can support the development of intermediate
measurement skills. Supervisees must show competent knowledge of the basic skills before
being given opportunities to engage in intermediate skills.
Although the intermediate skills are similar to the advanced skills, they are designed
to enable the supervisee to practice using various data collection methods to measure dif-
ferent dimensions of behaviors in a training environment to set criteria of competence before
allowing the skill to be performed with actual clients as an advanced skill. The intermediate

125
126 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 12.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 2

Measuring behaviors selected for decrease and increase
Supervisor’s
Basic Skills Initials

• Review professional and ethical compliance codes related to data

collection and data-based decision-making
• Define measurement
• State at least four reasons to measure a behavior (Why measure a behavior?)
• State all measurable dimensions of behavior, define and provide an
example of each dimension
• State two derivative measures
• State all of the time sampling methods
• Define and give examples of direct, indirect, and product measures of
behavior
• State data collection methods to obtain data for frequency/rate, duration,
latency, interresponse time, and percent
• Define and give examples of reactivity and observer drift
• Define frequency/rate as a measure of occurrence and state the formula
for obtaining frequency/rate
• Define duration as a measure of temporal extent and describe the
procedure for measuring total duration per session and duration per
occurrence
• Define latency as a measure of temporal locus and describe the procedure
for measuring latency
• Define IRT as a measure of temporal locus and describe the procedure for
measuring IRT
• Define percent as a measure of behavior and state the formula for
converting data into percent
• Define trials to criterion as a measure of a behavior and state data
collection method to be used to obtain trials to criterion data
• Describe how to collect data using:
Partial interval recording
Whole interval recording
Momentary time sampling
Planned activity check
• Describe the procedure for obtaining data using the permanent product
• Define magnitude (strength) of a behavior and state when to measure the
magnitude of a behavior


(continued)
 12 Competency 2: Measuring Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  127

TABLE 12.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 2 (continued)
Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• Practice selecting the most appropriate data collection method (e.g.,

event recording, timing) for a given dimension of behavior (repeatability,
temporal extent, and temporal locus) across two novel behaviors per
measurable dimension
• Practice developing data sheets for selected data collection methods
and collect data on the following with at least 90% IOA across three
behaviors per measure
Frequency/rate
Total duration
Duration per occurrence
Latency
IRT
Percent of occurrence
Trials to criterion
Magnitude of a behavior
• Practice selecting the most appropriate time sampling method for a
given behavior across two novel behaviors time sampling method
• Practice developing data sheets for selected time sampling methods and
collect data using the following time sampling methods with at least 90%
interval-by-interval IOA across two behaviors per data collection method
Partial interval recording
Whole interval recording
Momentary time sampling
Planned activity check


Supervisor’s Initials
Advanced Skills Client 1 Client 2 Client 3

• Select the most appropriate data collection method

and measures for pinpointed socially significant and
problem behaviors based on information obtained
through direct observations during assessments and
ongoing services across three different clients and
three different dimensions of behavior
• Design data sheets to collect data using the
selected data collection methods across three
different clients and three different dimensions of
behavior
• Use the most appropriate data collection method for
targeted behaviors and collect accurate data during
behavior assessments across three different clients
(continued)
128 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 12.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 2 (continued)
Supervisor’s Initials
• Use BST to teach three direct staff how to measure Staff 1 Staff 2 Staff 3

Frequency/Rate
Total duration and duration per occurrence
Latency
Percent of occurrence
Trial to criterion
Magnitude of a behavior
• Use BST to teach three direct staff how to collect
data using
Permanent product
Partial interval recording
Whole interval recording
Momentary time sampling


Given the dimensions of behavior and the logistics
of observing and recording, it shows generalized Supervisor’s Date
advanced skills to: signature
• Select the most appropriate measures and data
collection methods across at least five different
behaviors and two novel clients
• Design data sheets for selected measures and data
collection methods across at least five different
behaviors and two novel clients
• Collect accurate data using the selected data
collection methods and report correct measures
for the targeted behaviors across five different
behaviors and two novel clients
• Use BST to teach direct staff how to collect accurate
data using provided data sheets and selected data
collection methods across three different staff
BST, behavioral skills training; IOA, interobserver agreement; IRT, interresponse time

skills can also be worked on when providing direct services to clients at various fieldwork
placements. For example, as an intermediate skill, the supervisee may use event recording
to collect data on the frequency of aggression and use timing to measure the duration per
occurrence of behaviors exhibited by a client. In Table 12.1, we have provided a list of meas-
ures we recommend supervisees develop competence in when providing direct services
to clients.
Advanced skills are designed to provide supervisees with opportunities to select appro-
priate data collection methods for various behaviors during behavior assessments, develop
data sheets, and train others to collect data on various behaviors. For example, after meeting
the criteria for intermediate skills (e.g., selecting appropriate data collection methods in the
training environment), the supervisee may be given the opportunity to use that skill, under
 12 Competency 2: Measuring Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  129

the guidance of a supervisor, to choose a data collection method for a novel behavior exhibited
by a client. Similarly, after the supervisee shows competence in using all data collection
methods listed under intermediate skills, the supervisee might be given the opportunity to
train new staff on using different data collection methods.
Finally, the competency includes generality criteria to support the supervisors in
making decisions about the readiness of the supervisees to perform the advanced skills
in each competency accurately and independently. The competency may be considered
mastered when the supervisee meets the generality criteria for that competency. For ex-
ample, to consider the supervisee showing competence in the measurement of behaviors,
the supervisee must independently select the most appropriate data collection methods for
given behaviors, design data sheets for selected data collection methods, and use Behavioral
Skills Training (BST) to teach direct staff how to collect accurate data using provided data
sheets and selected data collection methods.
When each component listed in the competency is met, the supervisors are encour-
aged to sign off on the skill by signing their initials next to that skill. For example, when
working on intermediate skills, as soon as the supervisee meets the criteria for selecting
appropriate data collection methods for a given behavior (i.e., across two novel behaviors
per measurable dimension), the supervisor may sign initials to indicate that the supervisee
met the criteria for that specific intermediate skill. Sometimes, the completion of a compo-
nent skill requires meeting multiple criteria. For example, to consider the criteria for using
BST to train staff on various time sampling methods as an advanced skill to be met, the
supervisee must train staff to collect data using all time sampling methods listed under
advanced skills in Table 12.1.
To support learning and showing competency in the measurement of behavior (see
competencies in Table 12.1), we have included individual and group learning activities
and strategies for supervisees and supervisors to utilize. The group activities provided
for supervisors can also be used as part of one-to-one meetings with supervisees. For ex-
ample, the supervisor can use a group activity such as selecting data collection methods
and apply the same activity when meeting one-on-one with a supervisee. Recommended
activities and procedures are aligned with establishing competencies in basic, intermediate,
and advanced skills.

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH BASIC SKILLS

• To build and maintain basic skills related to the measurement of behaviors,

supervisees are encouraged to:
• Review notes from classes that discussed terms and concepts
• Read ethical guidelines related to data collection and reporting
• Build fluency with the concepts using Say All Fast, Minute Each Day, Shuffled
(SAFMEDS; Quigley et al., 2018)
• Complete the Behavior Measurement Worksheet (Table 12.2) provided by the
supervisor
• If struggling with discrimination of measurements or data collection methods, reach
out to supervisors for support and more opportunities to practice the concept
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain initials on the Competency 2 Skills List
(Table 12.1) for each completed basic skill
TABLE 12.2 Sample Table of Measurement Methods and Uses
Basic Skills: Behavior Measurement Worksheet
List three
When examples of
Measurable Data Data graphing, the Advantages Disadvantages When to behaviors
dimension of collection collection y-axis should for using the for using the use the for each
Measure behavior method procedure be labeled… measure measure measure measure

Frequency/rate
Duration per
session/day
Duration per
occurrence
Latency
Interresponse time
Percent occurrence
Trial to criterion
Magnitude
List three
When examples of
graphing, the Advantages Disadvantages When to behaviors
y-axis should for using the for using the use the for each
Time Sampling Methods Data collection procedure be labeled…. measure measure measure measure
130 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

Whole interval
recording
Partial interval
recording
Momentary time
sampling
Planned activity
check
Permanent product
 12 Competency 2: Measuring Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  131

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• To build and maintain intermediate skills related to measuring behaviors, supervisees

are encouraged to:
• Complete assigned work within given timelines
• Actively participate in group or individual meetings
• Ask questions and ask for feedback on completed work
• Apply given feedback to assigned work and ask for more opportunities to practice
the skill if needed
• Have open and clear communication with the group or field supervisor and ask for
opportunities to practice the skills in Table 12.1
○ Example 1: Obtain permission from the supervisor to select data collection methods
and develop a data sheet for novel behaviors exhibited by clients and ask for
feedback from supervisor(s)
○ Example 2: Reach out to field supervisor(s) and request to be evaluated on the
use of different time sampling data collection methods
• Use the additional reading and resources provided at the end of each competency
• Search for videos on YouTube of different behaviors and apply the skills learned
during supervision to identify, define, and collect data on the behaviors using the
appropriate data collection methods. During supervision meetings, ask the super-
visor to review and provide feedback on independent work.
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain initials on the Competency 2 Skills List
(Table 12.1) for each completed intermediate skill and complete the Excel profile
for met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• To build and maintain advanced skills related to measuring behaviors, supervisees

are encouraged to:
• Provide evidence to supervisors, overseeing the development of advanced skills of
readiness to apply the skills learned in a training environment with actual clients
○ Example: Presenting the Competency 2 Skills List (Table 12.1) with the group
supervisor’s initials for listed basic and intermediate skills can function as evi-
dence for readiness to apply the skills with the clients
• Establish open and clear communication with supervisors overseeing the develop-
ment of advanced skills by:
○ Seeking and asking for opportunities to apply advanced skills with different
clients
○ Asking for opportunities to help with behavior assessments
○ Asking to be evaluated on the use of advanced skills as often as possible
• Seek out supervision and request feedback as often as possible
• Complete given work before established timelines
132 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Follow up with supervisors and obtain initials on the Competency 2 Skills List
(Table 12.1) for each completed advanced skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH BASIC AND

INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• Competence: Measuring problem and socially appropriate behaviors

• Skill level: Basic and Intermediate
• Number of meetings: 3
• Duration of each meeting: 3 hours
• Group supervision objectives:
○ Establish competence in basic concepts related to measuring behaviors
■ Define measurement
■ State four reasons to support the need to measure a behavior (Why measure a
behavior?)
■ Define and discriminate between direct, indirect, and product measures of
behavior
■ State and define:
- Measurable dimensions of behavior
- Time sampling methods
- Derived measures
■ Discriminate between data collection methods and measures of behavior
■ State data collection methods to measure frequency/rate, duration, latency,
interresponse time (IRT)
■ Describe the data collection procedure when measuring:
- Frequency/rate, duration, latency, IRT
■ Describe the data collection procedure when using:
- Partial interval recording
- Whole interval recording
- Momentary time sampling
- Planned activity check
- Permanent product
○ Establish competence in intermediate skills related to measuring behaviors
■ Given a behavior and observer resources, select appropriate data collection
method(s) to measure the targeted behaviors
■ Design data sheets and collect data using the most appropriate data collection
method (e.g., event recording versus timing) for targeted behaviors to measure
- Frequency/rate
- Duration
 12 Competency 2: Measuring Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  133

- Latency
- IRT
- Percent
- Trials to criterion
- Permanent product
■ Create data sheets and collect data using the most appropriate time sampling
method for targeted behaviors
- Partial interval recording
- Whole interval recording
- Momentary time sampling
- Planned activity check

GROUP MEETING 1

• SKILL LEVEL: BASIC

• Purpose: Build fluency with basic concepts related to measurement of behavior
• Agenda:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to measurement and data-based decision-making
○ Review basic concepts that relate to measuring target behaviors
○ Discuss the importance of measuring behaviors
○ Practice selection of the most appropriate data collection methods for targeted
behaviors
○ Complete the Behavior Measurement Worksheet (Table 12.2)
• GROUP MEETING 1: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform the supervisees (group members):
■ To review and be prepared to discuss and give examples of all basic skills listed
in competency benchmarks for establishing operational definitions of behavior
■ By randomly selecting names, each supervisee will discuss and give examples
of basic skills related to the operational definition of behaviors.
■ To review basic concepts listed under Basic Skills in Competency 2 Skills List
(Table 12.1) using class notes and chapters from the text used for class (example:
if research methods class used Cooper et al. (2020), then the supervisee may
read Chapter 4 from the text)
■ To review Competency 2 Skills List (Table 12.1) benchmarks for measuring
behaviors
■ To review and be prepared to complete the Behavior Measurement
Worksheet (Table 12.2) (to be completed in practica)
○ Prepare materials and create PowerPoint slides that may include:
■ Ethical guidelines related to measurement and data-based decision-making
134 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Information defining and explaining basic concepts listed in Competency 2

Skills List (Table 12.1) (e.g., the definition of measurement, four reasons for the
need to measure behavior, measurable dimensions of behavior and examples
of each, data collection methods to obtain data for frequency/rate, duration,
latency, IRT)
■ Behavior Measurement Worksheet (Table 12.2) to be completed during practica
meeting
○ To practice a selection of specific data collection methods (e.g., event recording
versus partial interval recording), search and download videos or include their
links on the PowerPoint slides showing:
■ Discrete behaviors: Behaviors that have an IRT of 5 seconds and duration of
fewer than 5 seconds (e.g., aggression, self-injury, throwing objects, property
destruction)
■ Continuous behaviors: Behaviors that have a minimum duration of 10 seconds
or more (e.g., crying with an average duration of at least 10 seconds in the
video)
■ Repetitive behaviors such as hand flapping, jumping, and spinning
• GROUP MEETING 1: MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to measurement and data-based decision-making
○ Review basic concepts that relate to measuring target behaviors
○ Discuss the importance of measuring behaviors
○ Practice selection of the most appropriate data collection methods for targeted
behaviors
○ Complete the Behavior Measurement Worksheet (Table 12.2)
• After going over the group meeting 1 agenda, begin activity 1
• Conduct a group discussion on basic skills related to the measurement of target
behaviors
○ Go over the ethical guidelines related to measurement and data-based
decision-making
○ Assess fluency with basic concepts listed in Competency 2 Skills List (Table 12.1)
related to measurement by:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and basic concept and have
them define and give examples of the selected basic skill
- Example:
- Supervisee 1 is asked to state four reasons to measure a behavior (Why
measure a behavior?)
- Supervisee 2 is asked to define measurable dimensions of behavior and
provide examples of each
■ Provide feedback and use multiple exemplar training to provide sufficient
examples of each basic skill
■ Continue until all basic skills are discussed and understood by all
○ After going over the basic concepts, present the Behavior Measurement Worksheet
 12 Competency 2: Measuring Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  135

■ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and a measure or time

sampling method from the worksheet aand have them respond and complete
all the boxes for the selected measure or time sampling method
- Example 1: When completing the worksheet for frequency/rate:
- Supervisee 1 will provide the answer for the following related to fre-
quency/rate: measurable dimension of behavior, data collection method,
data collection procedure, and so on.
- Example 2: When completing the worksheet for the duration:
- Supervisee 2 will provide the answers for the following related to du-
ration: measurable dimension of behavior, data collection method, data
collection procedure, and so on.
■ If the supervisee makes an error, ask peers to provide the correct response
■ Provide feedback and use multiple exemplar training to provide sufficient
examples of each basic skill
■ Continue until the entire worksheet is completed
■ If supervisees are struggling with discriminating when to select a specific
data collection method, use the videos of discrete, continuous, and repetitive
behaviors to provide clear examples for selected data collection methods
- Example 1: To help discriminate when to use event recording versus partial
interval recording, show videos that include a discrete behavior and a re-
petitive behavior (e.g., hand flapping)
- Example 2: To help them discriminate when to use event recording versus
timing, show videos that include a discrete behavior and a continuous be-
havior (e.g., crying or elopement)
■ Group meeting 1—Independent unrestricted activity: None

GROUP MEETING 2

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Practice selecting appropriate data collection methods and measure fre-
quency/rate, duration, latency, and IRT
• Agenda:
○ Practice selecting the most appropriate data collection methods to measure:
■ Frequency/rate, duration, latency, and IRT
○ Create a data sheet and collect data using the selected data collection methods to
measure:
■ Frequency/rate, duration, latency, and IRT
○ Report data as frequency/rate, duration, latency, and IRT
• GROUP MEETING 2: PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 2, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform the supervisees (group members):
136 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ To review basic concepts discussed in group meeting 1 and complete the

Behavior Measurement Worksheet
■ To bring a list of operational definitions compiled during group meetings to
establish competence in developing operational definitions
■ To review how to collect data using event recording and timing to measure
repeatability, temporal extent, and temporal locus and percent
■ To save all data collected during the group meetings to be used again when
discussing and using an interobserver agreement (IOA) to assess the reliability
of collected data
■ To ask field supervisors for assessment of data collection skills using event
recording and timing to measure:
- Frequency/rate, duration, latency, and IRT
■ To save the assessment results and show the results to the group supervisor

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using event recording to collect data on the frequency/rate of given
behaviors
○ Search and download or include the links to three to five videos onto PowerPoint
slides in which children, adolescents, or adults engage in discrete behaviors for
which frequency will be a valid measure (e.g., different forms of aggression with
IRT of more than 3 seconds, self-injury with IRT of more than 3 seconds, screaming,
property destruction)
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 2:
○ Watch videos and decide on the most appropriate data collection method to col-
lect data on discrete and continuous behaviors
○ Create a data sheet and collect data using the selected data collection methods to
measure frequency/rate, duration, latency, and IRT
○ Report collected data as frequency/rate
• After going over the group meeting 2 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Show one video at a time in which children, adolescents, or adults engage in dis-
crete behaviors for which frequency/rate will be a valid measure (e.g., different
forms of aggression, self-injury, screaming, property destruction)
○ Have the group select the operational definition for targeted behavior from the
list of operational definitions (the list should have been developed when opera-
tional definitions were discussed and practiced)
○ After defining the behavior, have the group members select a data collection
method appropriate for the behavior in the video and provide feedback
○ When the correct data collection method is selected, have them create a data sheet
that will be appropriate for the selected data collection method
 12 Competency 2: Measuring Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  137

○ Show the video again and have the group members use the data collection sheet to:
■ Collect data on the selected behavior
■ Convert the raw data to frequency/rate
○ Repeat these steps for all videos prepared for the activity
○ Provide feedback as needed after each data collection practice

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using timing to collect data on the duration of given behaviors
○ Search and download or include the links to three to five videos onto PowerPoint
slides in which children or adolescents engage in continuous behaviors for which
duration will be a valid measure (e.g., crying, elopement, on-task behaviors, play)
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• To practice using timing to collect data on the duration of given behaviors
○ Show one video at a time in which children, adolescents, or adults engage in
continuous behavior for which duration will be a valid measure (e.g., crying,
elopement, on-task behaviors, play)
○ Have the group operationally define the selected behavior in the video or select
the operational definition from the list of operational definitions (the list should
have been developed when operational definitions were discussed and practiced)
○ After defining the behavior, have the group select a data collection method ap-
propriate for the selected behavior and provide feedback
○ When the correct data collection method is selected, have the members create a
data sheet that correlates with the selected data collection method
○ Have the supervisees use the data collection sheet to:
■ Collect data on the duration per occurrence of target behavior
■ Convert the collected data to duration per occurrence and total duration
○ Repeat these steps for all videos prepared for the activity
○ Provide feedback as needed

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 2—ACTIVITY 3: PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using timing to collect data on latency of given behaviors
○ Search and download or include the links to three to five videos onto PowerPoint
slides in which children, adolescents, or adults engage in discrete and continuous
behaviors that show a clear antecedent event preceding the behaviors and also
multiple occurrences of the behaviors (e.g., hitting evoked by removal of tangible
and there are multiple instances of hitting in the same video, crying evoked by a
task demand and multiple occurrences of crying in the same video)
138 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP

• To practice using timing to collect data on latency of given behaviors
○ Show a video in which children, adolescents, or adults engage in discrete
and continuous behaviors that show a clear antecedent event preceding the
behaviors and also multiple occurrences of the behaviors (e.g., hitting evoked
by removal of tangible and there are multiple instances of hitting in the same
video, crying evoked by a task demand and multiple occurrences of crying in
the same video)
○ Have the supervisees operationally define the behavior in the video or select the
operational definition from the list of operational definitions
○ After defining the behavior, have the group members select a data collection
method appropriate for the behavior in the video and provide feedback
○ When the correct data collection method is selected, have the supervisees create
a data sheet that will correlate with the selected data collection method
○ Have them use the data collection sheet and collect data on latency of the target
behavior
○ Repeat these steps for all videos prepared for the activity and provide feedback
for each video

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 4

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 4—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using timing to collect data on IRT of given behaviors
○ The same videos used for measuring latency can also be used for this activity
○ If videos for measuring latency do not show multiple occurrences of a behavior,
search and select videos in which children, adolescents, or adults engage in dis-
crete and continuous behaviors that show multiple occurrences of the behaviors
(e.g., a video that shows multiple instances of hitting or crying)
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 4—MEETING AS A GROUP
• To practice using timing to collect data on IRT
○ Show one video at a time in which children, adolescents, or adults engage in dis-
crete and continuous behaviors multiple times in the same video (e.g., multiple
instances of hitting or crying in the same video)
○ Have the supervisees select the operational definition from the list of operational
definitions
○ After defining the behavior, have the group members select a data collection
method appropriate for the behavior in the video and provide feedback
○ When the correct data collection method is selected, have the supervisees create
a data sheet that correlates with the selected data collection method
○ Have them use the data collection sheet and collect data on the IRT of the selected
behavior
○ Repeat these steps for all videos prepared for the activity and provide feedback
to all group members
 12 Competency 2: Measuring Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  139

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 5

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 5—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice obtaining percent data using event recording
○ Search and download or include the links to three to five videos onto PowerPoint
slides in which children, adolescents, or adults engage in behaviors for which
percent will be appropriate (e.g., compliance with task demands or chores, com-
pletion of a chain, discrete trial instruction)
○ Create two data sets with no more than 10 trials per skill that show trial-by-trial
data for correct and incorrect responses for a specific skill
■ Example 1: Teaching manding using three-word utterances trial by trial data
Teaching Opportunities/Trials

Skill 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Manding using three - - + + + - + + - +
word utterances

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 5MEETING AS A GROUP

• Practice obtaining percent data
○ Show a video in which children or adolescents engage in behaviors for which
percent will be an appropriate measure (e.g., compliance with task demands or
chores, completion of a chain, discrete trial instruction)
○ Have the supervisees select the operational definitions from the list of operational
definitions
○ After defining the behavior, have the group create a data sheet that will allow
them to collect data for targeted behaviors (e.g., correct and incorrect responses
or compliance versus non-compliance)
○ Have the group members use the data collection sheet to:
■ Collect data on targeted behaviors
■ Convert the raw data into percent
○ Repeat these steps for all videos prepared for the activity
○ After the last video, present the group with the two data sets and have them con-
vert the raw data into percent
○ Review the work of each supervisee and provide feedback
• GROUP MEETING 2: ENDING THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER
ACTIVITY 5
• After completion of activity 5:
○ Remind supervisees to save all data collected during group meeting 2 to be used
again when discussing and using IOA to assess behavior measurements
○ Provide the supervisees with independent work opportunities to practice the
skills learned in group meeting 2, with permission from the field supervisor, to:
■ Select behaviors that the client(s) they are working with engage(s) in
140 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Operationally define each selected behavior

■ Select the most appropriate data collection method for the selected behaviors
■ Collect data on the selected behaviors using the data sheets created in practica
■ Share the operational definitions and obtained data with the field supervisor, and
bring the definitions and the received data to supervision meeting 3 for discussion

GROUP MEETING 3

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Practice selecting appropriate time sampling methods for given behaviors
and collect data using partial interval recording, whole interval recording, momen-
tary time sampling, and planned activity check
• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for the unrestricted activity that was assigned in
group meeting 2
○ Use videos and pinpoint target behaviors, operationally define the selected
behaviors, and select the most appropriate time sampling data collection method
to collect data on selected behaviors
○ Create a data sheet that correlates with the selected data collection method and
collect data
○ Report data collected using time sampling methods and trials to criterion
• GROUP MEETING 3: PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 3, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform the supervisees (group members):
■ To bring a list of operational definitions compiled during group meetings to
establish competence in developing operational definitions
■ To review class notes and text on how to collect data using partial interval
recording, whole interval recording, momentary time sampling, permanent
product, and planned activity check

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To review and provide feedback for unrestricted work, two to three days before
the meeting, remind the supervisees to:
○ Bring the completed unrestricted work to a group meeting 3 to be presented as
a case review
■ Case review presentation should include:
- Description of the target behavior(s)
- Operational definition of the targeted behavior
- Selected behavior measure and rationale for why the measure was selected
 12 Competency 2: Measuring Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  141

- Data collection method used and the rationale for why it was used
- Report on the occurrence of the behavior using the selected measurement
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 3:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Use videos and pinpoint target behaviors, operationally define the selected
behaviors, and select the most appropriate time sampling data collection method
to collect data on selected behaviors
○ Create a data sheet for the selected collection method and use the datasheet to
collect data on selected behaviors
○ Report data collected using time sampling methods
• After going over the group meeting 3 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Have each supervisee, one at a time, present the unrestricted work to the group
■ Case presentation should include:
- Description of the target behavior(s)
- Operational definition of the targeted behavior
- Selected behavior measure and rationale for why the measure was selected
- Data collection method used and the rationale for why it was used
- Report on the occurrence of the behavior using the selected measurement
○ Randomly select group members and ask them to provide feedback on each com-
ponent listed during case presentation
○ Provide feedback to the presenters and to group members who provided feedback
○ Repeat the process until all group members have presented their unrestricted work

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice measuring behaviors using partial interval recording
○ Search and download or include the links to three to five videos onto PowerPoint
slides in which children or adolescents engage in behaviors for which partial in-
terval recording will be a valid measure (e.g., repetitive motor movements such
as hand flapping, jumping, vocalizations, severe problem behaviors such as ag-
gression or self-injury behavior (SIB) that have IRT of less than 3 seconds between
the instances, talking to peers in the classroom)
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Practice measuring behavior using partial interval recording
○ Show one video at a time in which children or adolescents engage in behaviors
for which partial interval recording will be a valid measure (e.g., repetitive motor
movements such as hand flapping, jumping, vocalizations, severe problem
behaviors such as aggression or SIB that have IRT of less than 3 seconds between
the instances, talking to peers in the classroom)
○ Have the supervisees operationally define the behavior in the video or select the
operational definition from the list of operational definitions
142 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ After defining the behavior, have them select the correct observation intervals
for the selected time sampling method and provide feedback (review and use
recommendations listed in Cooper et al., 2020, pp. 91–92)
○ When the correct data collection method is selected, have the group members create
a data sheet that is appropriate for data collection using partial interval recording
○ Have the supervisees use the data collection sheet and collect data on the target
behavior
○ After data is collected, instruct the group to convert the raw data to percent and
report the data as stated in the Behavior Measurement Worksheet (e.g., percent
of intervals with target behavior or percent of intervals with hand flapping)
○ Repeat these steps for each video prepared for the activity and provide feedback

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice measuring behaviors using whole interval recording
○ Search and download or include the links to three to five videos onto PowerPoint
slides in which children or adolescents engage in behaviors for which whole in-
terval recording will be a valid measure (e.g., children engaging in play, sitting
on the carpet during instruction, remaining in designated area)
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Practice measuring behavior using whole interval recording
○ Show one video at a time in which children or adolescents engage in behaviors for
which whole interval recording will be a valid measure (e.g., children engaging
in play, sitting on the carpet during instruction, remaining in designated area)
○ Have the supervisees select the operational definition from the list of operational
definitions
○ After defining the behavior, have the group select the correct observation intervals
for the selected time sampling method and provide feedback (review and use
recommendations listed in Cooper et al., 2020, pp. 91–92)
○ When the correct data collection method is selected, have the group members
create a data sheet that will be appropriate for whole interval recording
○ Have the supervisees use the data collection sheet and collect data on the target
behavior
○ Instruct the group to convert the raw data to percent and report the data as stated
in the Behavior Measurement Worksheet (e.g., percent of intervals with target
behavior or percent of intervals with pretend play)
○ Repeat the above steps for each video prepared for the activity and provide feedback

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 4

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 4—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice measuring behaviors using momentary time sampling
○ Use the same videos complied for group meeting 3, activities 2 and 3
 12 Competency 2: Measuring Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  143

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 4—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Practice measuring behavior using momentary time sampling
○ Use two videos from activity 2 and three videos used in activity 3. Show one
videos at a time.
○ After selecting the behavior and operational definition for the behavior, have the
supervisees select the correct data collection method and observation intervals
for the selected time sampling method and provide feedback (review and use
recommendations listed in Cooper et al., 2020, pp. 91–92)
○ When the correct data collection method is selected, have the group members
create a data sheet that will be appropriate for momentary time sampling
○ Have the supervisees use the data collection sheet and collect data on the target
behavior
○ Instruct the group to convert the raw data to percent and report the data as stated
in the Behavior Measurement Worksheet (e.g., percent of intervals with target
behavior or percent of intervals with hand flapping)
○ Repeat these steps for each video prepared for the activity and provide feedback

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 5

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 5—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice measuring group behaviors using planned activity check
○ Search and download or include the links to three to five videos onto PowerPoint
slides in which children or adolescents engage in group behaviors in the classroom,
playground, or preschool setting (e.g., multiple children engaging in play, group
of children sitting on the carpet during instruction, group of students engaging
in independent academic activity)
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 5—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Practice measuring group behavior using planned activity check
○ Show a video in which children or adolescents engage in group behaviors in the
classroom, playground, or preschool setting (e.g., multiple children engaging in
play, group of children sitting on the carpet during instruction, group of students
engaging in independent academic activity)
○ Have the supervisees operationally define the group behavior in the video or select
the operational definition from the list of operational definitions (the list should
have been developed when operational definitions were discussed and practiced)
○ After defining the group behavior, have the supervisees select the correct obser-
vation intervals for the planned activity check and provide feedback
○ When correct observation intervals are selected, have the group members create
a data sheet that will be appropriate for data using the planned activity check
○ Have the supervisees use the data collection sheet and collect data on the target
group’s behavior
○ Instruct the group to convert the raw data to percent and report the data as stated
in the Behavior Measurement Worksheet
○ Repeat the above steps for each video prepared for the activity and provide feedback
144 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 6

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 6—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice obtaining trials to criterion data using event recording
○ Develop a hypothetical raw data set for at least five different behaviors that
show trial-by-trial data until the target skill meets the acquisition criteria (e.g.,
teaching manding, tacts, complex skills such as washing hands, imitation,
echoics). Make sure to provide the acquisition criteria for each skill, as shown
in Examples 1 and 2.
■ Example 1: Data set to practice calculating trials to criterion data for tacting
Skill Date Trial-by-Trial Data
• Daily acquisition criteria: independent responses in
90% of daily trials
• Goal acquisition criteria: independent responses
in 90% of session trials across three consecutive
sessions
Tacting 1/10 - - + + - + + - + +
“water”
1/11 - + + + + + + + + +
1/12 + + +
1/14 + + +

■ Example 2: Data set to practice calculating trials to criterion data for steps 3, 4,
and 5 for a complex skill
- Step acquisition criteria: independent response in three consecutive trials
across two successive opportunities to perform the skill
- Goal acquisition criteria: independently completing all steps across three
consecutive opportunities

Conducted Trials Per Month for

April 30th May June July August

Step BL Data 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
1 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
2 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
3 - - M M G G + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
4 - + + + + + + + + + + + + +
5 - + + + + + + + + + + + + +
6 - - M M G G G + + + + + +
7 - - M M G + +
8 - -
9 +
10 -
BL, baseline
 12 Competency 2: Measuring Problem and Socially Appropriate Behaviors  145

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 6—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Practice measuring the efficiency of teaching using trials to criterion data
○ Provide the supervisees the hypothetical raw data set one at a time that shows
trial-by-trial data until the target skill meets the acquisition criteria (e.g., teaching
manding, tacts, complex skills such as washing hands, imitation, echoics).
○ Provide the acquisition criteria for each skill for each session and also for the
goal
○ Have the supervisees calculate and report the trials to criterion data
○ Provide feedback
○ Repeat the these steps for all hypothetical raw data sets
• GROUP MEETING 3: ENDING THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER
ACTIVITY 6
• End group meeting 3 by reminding the supervisees to:
○ Save all data collected during the group meetings to be used again when discussing
and using IOA to assess behavior measurements
○ Collaborate with field supervisors and continue to request assessments for the
use of data collection methods listed in Competency 2 Skills List (Table 12.1), and
have the field supervisor sign off on each measure and data collection method
as set criteria are met (sample Performance Monitoring Checklists [PMC] are in-
cluded in supervisory activities to support advanced skills)

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Competence: Measuring problem and socially appropriate behaviors

• Skill level: Support Advanced Skills
• Type of Supervision: Individual
• Duration of each meeting: 1–2 hours
• Supervision objectives:
○ Establish competence in advanced skills related to the selection of data collection
methods, data sheet creation, and measuring different dimensions of targeted
behaviors
○ Select the most appropriate data collection method and measures for pinpointed
socially significant and problem behaviors based on information obtained through
direct observations during assessments and ongoing services
○ Select the most appropriate data collection method for targeted behaviors, design
a data collection sheet, and collect data for the following measures
○ Train others, using BST with feedback and reinforcement system, on how to col-
lect data using:
■ Event recording
■ Timing
■ Permanent product
■ Time sampling methods
146 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Suggested activities for supervisors(s) overseeing the development of advanced

skills and application of skills with clients
• After the supervisee meets the required criteria to begin developing advanced skills
○ While still in the process of earning a graduate degree, the supervisee may be
given opportunities to:
■ Assist with behavior assessments
■ Observe clients that engage in novel behaviors
■ Train direct staff on data collection
○ After earning a graduate degree and managing clients under supervision, the
supervisee may be asked to:
■ Continue assisting with behavior assessments
■ Make data collection and measurement decisions for all assigned clients
■ Train direct staff working with clients assigned to the supervisee on data col-
lection methods
■ Use PMCs (see samples in online student resources) to evaluate a supervisee’s
performance on at least a bi-weekly basis until acquisition criteria for each skill
are met
■ Provide feedback and more opportunities to practice the skill if needed
■ If needed, set achievable goals related to a skill the supervisee is having diffi-
culty applying
■ Document the competition of each skill by placing initials on the Competency
2 Skills List (Table 12.1)

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

RESOURCES FOR SUPERVISORS

Additional tables and checklists for this chapter are available at the end of this text, following the index.

REFERENCES

Cooper, J., Heron, T., & Heward, W. (2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.
Quigley, S. P., Peterson, S. M., Frieder, J. E., & Peck, K. M. (2018). A review of SAFMEDS: Evidence for
procedures, outcomes and directions for future research. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 41(1), 283–301.
[Link]
 13
COMPETENCY 3: ASSESSING
MEASUREMENT QUALITY USING
INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT

PREREQUISITE SKILLS

• Operationally define behaviors

• Select appropriate data collection methods and measurement of targeted behaviors

Accurate and reliable behavior measurement is critical in making decisions about treatment
selection and monitoring progress. Having clear and observable operational definitions and
selecting correct data collection methods are necessary for obtaining accurate and meaningful
data. However, they do not guarantee that the obtained data can be trusted. Many variables
can negatively impact the trustworthiness of data. For example, poorly defined operational
definitions may affect data reliability, and selecting incorrect measurement systems may affect
the validity of the obtained data. Inadequate observer training is another variable that may
affect getting data that cannot be trusted (Cooper et al., 2000). Deciding when to trust data
and when the data does not represent the true values of targeted behaviors is essential in
minimizing errors in decision-making and potentially causing harm to the client. Thus, devel-
oping competencies in evaluating the believability of obtained data, identifying variables that
might affect the validity and reliability of data, and conducting training to increase reliable
data collection are skills that all behavior analysts must master. In Table 13.1, we provide the
reader with benchmarks to gauge skill development for this competency.
The basic skills for this competency emphasize discriminating between validity and
reliability, discriminating between the accuracy of collected data and reliability of data,
and identifying variables that may affect the accuracy and reliability of obtained data. The
basic skills also address selecting the most appropriate method for calculating interobserver
agreement (IOA) for given data and using the correct formula for the selected measurement
methods. We provided a worksheet designed to include obtaining and calculating IOA for
different data collection methods (see Table 13.2). We hope the completed worksheet can be

147
148 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 13.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 3

Assessing measurement quality using IOA
Supervisor’s
Basic Skills Initials

• Define validity, reliability, accuracy, IOA, observer expectation, reactivity, and

observer drift
• Discriminate between accuracy and reliability
• State rationale for the importance of validity and reliability in relation to the
trustworthiness of the data
• State four threats to a valid measurement of targeted behaviors
• State three threats to the accurate and reliable measurement of targeted behaviors
• State three criteria that are critical in achieving high IOA
• State how often an IOA should be obtained
• State acceptable levels of an IOA and how an IOA should be reported
• State when to use a total count IOA and the calculation formula
• State when to use a mean count-per-interval IOA and the calculation formula
• State when to use an exact count-per-interval IOA and the calculation formula
• State when to use a trial-by-trial IOA and the calculation formula
• State when to use a total duration IOA and the calculation formula
• State when to use a mean-muration-per-occurrence IOA and the calculation formula
• State when to use a interval-by-interval IOA and the calculation formula
• State when to use a s interval IOA and the calculation formula
• State when to use an unscored interval IOA and the calculation formula


Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• Practice selecting the most appropriate method of calculating IOA for

obtained data (e.g., timing was used to obtain duration per occurrence data
on elopement from designated area by two observers) (across two different
behaviors per IOA method)
• Practice evaluating the reliability of measurement procedures using (across
two different behaviors per IOA method)
Data obtained by event Total count IOA
recording
Mean count-per-interval IOA
Exact count-per-interval IOA
Trial-by-trial IOA
Data obtained by timing Total duration IOA
Mean-duration-per-occurrence IOA
Data obtained by interval Interval-by-interval IOA
recording
Scored interval IOA
Unscored interval IOA
(continued)
 13 Competency 3: Assessing Measurement Quality Using Interobserver Agreement  149

TABLE 13.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 3 (continued)
Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• For data with unacceptable IOA, pinpoint variable(s) that could have affected
the reliability of the measurement and state the steps needed to be taken to
increase the reliability of the data collection


Supervisor’s Initials
Advanced Skills Staff 1 Staff 2 Staff 3
1. Use the same data collection sheets and methods
as staff do to evaluate the reliability of measurement
procedures used by staff working with clients (across
three different staff and three different behaviors)
2. Select the most appropriate method of calculating
IOA for obtained data and calculate IOA using the
correct formulas (across three different staff and three
different behaviors)
3. If IOA is below acceptable levels:
i. Identify variable(s) that could have contributed to
low IOA (e.g., operational definition is not clear)
ii. Address the variable(s) with staff (e.g., clarify the
operational definition)
iii. Collect IOA data again
iv. Repeat the processes above until IOA data is
within acceptable levels


Given the dimensions of behavior and data collection
methods, shows generalized advanced skills to: Supervisor’s Date
• Select most appropriate method of calculating IOA for obtained signature
data and calculate IOA using the correct formula across five
different data collection methods (event recording, timing to
measure duration, DTT data, time sampling data) across three
different staff
• Calculate IOA using the correct formula across five different data
collection methods (event recording, timing to measure duration,
DTT data, time sampling data) across three different staff
• Share IOA with staff, identify variable(s) that could have
contributed to low IOA and use BST to teach staff how to
collect accurate data till IOA is within acceptable level across
three different staff
BST, behavioral skills training; DTT, discrete trial teaching; IOA, interobserver agreement

used as a reference guide when working on intermediate and advanced skills. Supervisees
must show competent knowledge of the basic skills before being given opportunities to en-
gage in intermediate skills.
The intermediate skills are designed to provide the supervisee with opportunities to
practice selecting appropriate methods of obtaining IOA data for various data collection
methods in a training environment. Identifying variables affecting accurate and reliable
data collection is also part of intermediate skills. In Table 13.1, we provide a list of methods
to obtain IOA data that we recommend supervisees develop competence in when providing
direct services to clients.
150 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 13.2 Sample IOA Worksheet

Methods of Formula for When to use Advantages Disadvantages
Data Collection calculating calculating the selected for using for using
Method IOA IOA IOA the IOA the IOA

Event
recording
or
permanent
product
Trial data for
discrete
trails
Timing to
measure
duration
Time sampling

IOA, interobserver agreement

Advanced skills are designed to have supervisees, with supervisor oversight, select ap-
propriate methods of obtaining IOA data and conduct training with direct staff to improve
data collection. For example, after meeting the criteria for intermediate skills (e.g., selecting
appropriate methods of obtaining IOA information and correctly calculating all types of IOAs
listed under intermediate skills in the training environment), the supervisee may be given the
opportunity to use that skill, under the guidance of a supervisor, to obtain IOA data when
training others on data collection methods. Allowing the supervisee to work on advanced
skills related to data collection and getting IOA simultaneously may be an efficient practice
for supervisees who can multitask. Supervisees who struggle to teach others how to collect
data might require a sequential approach to training by allowing the application of skills to
obtain IOA data after they show competency in teaching data collection.
Finally, the competency includes generality criteria to support the supervisors in making
decisions about the readiness of the supervisees to perform the advanced skills accurately
and independently. The competency may be considered mastered when the supervisee
meets the generality criteria for that competency. For example, to consider the supervisee
showing competence in determining if the obtained data is believable, the supervisee must
independently select the most appropriate method of calculating IOA for a given data col-
lection method, calculate IOA, identify variables that might contribute to low IOA, and use
Behavioral Skills Training (BST) to teach direct staff how to address the identified variables.
When each component listed in the competency is met, the supervisors are encouraged
to sign off on the skill by placing initials next to that skill. For example, when working on
intermediate skills, as soon as the supervisee meets the criteria for selecting appropriate
methods of obtaining IOA data for a given data collection method, the supervisor may sign
their initials on the worksheet to indicate that the supervisee met the criteria for that specific
intermediate skill. Sometimes, the completion of a component skill requires meeting multiple
criteria. For example, to consider the criteria for evaluating the reliability of measurement
procedures for data obtained using event recording as an intermediate skill to be met, the
supervisee must accurately use total count IOA, mean count-per-interval IOA, exact count-
per-interval IOA and trial-by-trial IOA (see Table 13.1).
 13 Competency 3: Assessing Measurement Quality Using Interobserver Agreement  151

To support learning and showing competency in behavior measurement (see com-

petencies in Table 13.1), we have included individual and group learning activities and
strategies for supervisees and supervisors to utilize. The group activities provided for
supervisors can also be used as part of one-to-one meetings with supervisees. For ex-
ample, the supervisor can use a group activity designed to establish intermediate skills,
such as evaluating reliability of measurement procedures using interval-by-interval IOA,
and apply the same activity when meeting one-to-one with a supervisee. Recommended
activities and procedures are aligned with establishing competence in basic, intermediate,
and advanced skills.

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH BASIC SKILLS

• To build and maintain basic skills related to assessing measurement quality and
believability using IOA:
• Review notes from classes that discussed terms and concepts
• Read ethical guidelines related to data collection and reporting
• Build fluency with the concepts using Say All Fast, Minute Each Day, Shuffled
(SAFMEDS; Quigley et al., 2018)
• Complete IOA Worksheet (Table 13.2) provided by your supervisor
• If struggling with discrimination of measurements or data collection methods, reach
out to supervisors for support and more opportunities to practice the concept
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 3 Skills List
(Table 13.1) for each completed basic skill

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• To build and maintain intermediate skills related to assessing measurement quality

and believability using an IOA:
• Complete assigned work within given timelines
• Actively participate in group or individual meetings
• Ask questions and ask for feedback on completed work
• Use cover-copy-compare method of learning by utilizing the same exercises com-
pleted during group or individual supervision meetings. For example, during group
supervision the supervisor provided event recording data that included intervals
of data collection and had the group members use the most appropriate method of
calculating the IOA. After a few days, when at home, use the same data set, select
the appropriate IOA method, and calculate the IOA. Then, compare the results to
the work done in group practica.
• Apply given feedback to assigned work and ask for more opportunities to practice
the skill if needed
• Have open and clear communication with the field supervisor and ask for oppor-
tunities to practice the targeted skills in Table 13.1
○ Example 1: Obtain permission from the field supervisor to calculate IOA for data
simultaneously obtained by the supervisor during supervision visits
152 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Use the additional reading and resources provided at the end of each competency
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 3 Skills List
(Table 13.1) for each completed intermediate skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• To build and maintain advanced skills related to assessing measurement quality

and believability using an IOA:
• Provide evidence to supervisors overseeing the development of advanced skills of
readiness to apply the skills learned in a training environment with actual clients
○ Example: Presenting the Competency 3 Skills List (Table 13.1) with the group
supervisor’s initials for listed basic and intermediate skills can function as evi-
dence for readiness to apply the skills with the clients
• Establish open and clear communication with supervisors overseeing the develop-
ment of advanced skills:
○ By asking for opportunities to apply advanced skills as part of the staff training
process
■ When engaging in staff training practice selecting and using the most appro-
priate methods of calculating IOA
• Seek supervision for questions and feedback as often as possible
• Complete given work before established timelines
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 3 Skills List
(Table 13.1) for each completed advanced skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH BASIC AND

INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• Competence: Assessing measurement quality using an IOA

• Skill level: Basic and Intermediate
• Number of meetings: 2
• Duration of each meeting: 3 hours
• Group supervision objectives:
○ Establish competence in basic concepts related to measurement quality
■ Define validity, reliability, accuracy, IOA, observer expectation, reactivity, and
observer drift
■ Discriminate between accuracy and reliability
■ State rationale for the importance of validity and reliability about the trustwor-
thiness of the data
13 Competency 3: Assessing Measurement Quality Using Interobserver Agreement  153

■ State four threats to valid measurement of targeted behaviors

■ State three threats to accurate and reliable measurement of targeted behaviors
■ State three criteria that are critical in achieving high IOA
■ State how often IOA should be obtained, acceptable levels of IOA, and how
IOA should be reported
■ State when to use:
- Total count IOA and the calculation formula
- Mean count-per-interval IOA and the calculation formula
- Exact count-per-interval IOA and the calculation formula
- Trial-by-trial IOA and the calculation formula
- Total duration IOA and the calculation formula
- Mean-duration-per-occurrence IOA and the calculation formula
- Interval-by-interval IOA and the calculation formula
- Scored interval IOA and the calculation formula
- Unscored interval IOA and the calculation formula
○ Establish competence in intermediate skills related to assessing measurement
quality
■ Select the most appropriate method of calculating IOA for obtained data. (For
example, timing was used to obtain duration per occurrence data on elopement
from a designated area by two observers. Mean-duration-per-occurrence will
be a most appropriate method of calculating the IOA.)
■ Calculate IOA for data collected using event recording
- Total count IOA
- Mean count-per-interval IOA
- Exact count-per-interval IOA
- Trial-by-trial IOA
■ Calculate IOA for data collected using timing
- Total duration IOA
- Mean-duration-per-occurrence IOA
■ Calculate IOA for data collected using interval recording (e.g., partial interval
recording)
- Interval-by-interval IOA
- Scored interval IOA
- Unscored interval IOA
■ For data with unacceptable IOA, pinpoint variable(s) that could have affected
reliability of the measurement and state the steps to take to increase the relia-
bility of the data collection
- Example: Rule out variables such as poor operational definition of the be-
havior that was measured
154 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 1

• Skill level: Basic

• Purpose: Establish competence in basic skills related to measurement quality
• Agenda:
○ Review basic concepts related to assessing validity, reliability, and accuracy of
data
○ Discuss threats to the validity, reliability, and accuracy of behavior
measurement
○ Discuss how to obtain valid, reliable, and accurate measures of behavior
○ Discuss the importance of IOA and criteria that are critical in obtaining high
IOA
○ Discuss how often IOA data should be obtained and acceptable levels of IOA
○ Complete the IOA Worksheet
• GROUP MEETING 1: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should inform the
supervisees (group members) to:
○ Review and be prepared to discuss and give examples of all basic skills listed in
competency benchmarks related to assessing measurement quality
○ Bring the textbook used in a course covering measurement to practica to be used
when completing the IOA Worksheet
○ Provide supervisees with the following resources to support preparedness for
group meetings:
■ Competency 3 Skills List (Table 13.1) benchmark related to assessing measure-
ment quality
■ IOA Worksheet (Table 13.2) to be completed in practica
■ Reading chapters and pages from text books assigned by university programs
for courses that covered measurement quality
- Example: If supervisees used Cooper et al. (2020), have the supervisees read
Chapter 5 from the text.

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To review basic concepts related to measurement quality
○ Create PowerPoint slides for all basic concepts listed in Competency 3 Skills List
(Table 13.1)
■ Example 1: Include on the PowerPoint slide the definition of validity and
have it ready to share with the group if supervisees make errors with the
definitions
■ Example 2: Include on the PowerPoint slides methods of calculating IOAs for
data collected using event recording, timing, and interval recording
13 Competency 3: Assessing Measurement Quality Using Interobserver Agreement  155

■ Example 3: Include on the PowerPoint slides threats to the valid measurement

of targeted behaviors
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda:
○ Review basic concepts related to assessing validity, reliability, and accuracy of
data
○ Discuss threats to the validity, reliability, and accuracy of behavior measurement
○ Discuss how to obtain valid, reliable, and accurate measures of behavior
○ Discuss the importance of IOA and criteria that are critical in obtaining high
IOA
○ Discuss how often IOA data should be obtained and acceptable levels of IOA
○ Complete the IOA Worksheet
• After going over the agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a basic skill (e.g., validity) and a supervisee
and have them answer the question about the selected basic skill
○ Use the information on the PowerPoint slides to provide feedback and use mul-
tiple exemplar training to provide sufficient examples of each basic skill
○ Continue until all basic skills are discussed and understood by everyone

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice selecting the most appropriate methods of assessing measurement
quality
○ Review and include on a PowerPoint slide the IOA Worksheet completed during
group supervision meeting (if time permits, complete the worksheet to reference
when providing feedback during group meeting)
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• To practice selecting the most appropriate methods of assessing measurement
quality
○ Allow 5 minutes for supervisees to review the IOA Worksheet
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a method (e.g., behavior) and a supervisee
and have them use the textbook and provide an answer to the selected informa-
tion in the worksheet
■ Example: When completing the worksheet for methods of calculating IOA for
data collected using even recording:
- Supervisee 1 will provide the answer to the method of calculating IOA for
total occurrence of the target behavior
- Supervisee 2 will provide the answer to the method of calculating IOA for
a behavior that was counted using small counting intervals
○ Provide feedback and use multiple exemplar training to provide sufficient examples
during the completion of the worksheet
156 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 1: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING 1 AFTER ACTIVITY 2

• Independent unrestricted activity: None

GROUP MEETING 2

• Skill level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate related to measurement quality
• Agenda:
○ Select the most appropriate IOA for the given data collection method
○ Calculate IOAs for data obtained using event recording, timing, and time sam-
pling methods
○ Pinpoint variables that could be responsible for low IOA
○ Address the pinpointed variables and collect data again until an acceptable IOA
is achieved
• GROUP MEETING 2: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 2, the individual leading the group should inform the
supervisees (group members) to:
○ Bring to the group meeting all data sheets used during measurement exercises
○ Review basic concepts discussed in group meeting 1
○ Review the IOA Worksheet

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice calculating IOA for data obtained using event recording
○ Prepare the same three to five videos of discrete behaviors used during group
meetings for Competency 2 where frequency/rate was used as a measure (e.g.,
different form of aggression, self-injury, screaming, property destruction).
○ Two to three days before the meeting, remind supervisees to bring to the group
meeting the frequency/rate data collected in measurement group meetings
○ For practicing calculating trial-by-trial IOA, create three raw data sets that include
data collected on teaching a specific skill by two observers.
■ Example 1: The IOA will be calculated on correct recording of prompted and
unprompted responses

Skill: Tacting drinks Procedure: Discrete trials

Prompt codes: V, Vocal; G, Gesture; +, Independent response

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RBT V V + + V + V + + +
Supervisor V V + V V + V + V +
RBT, registered behavior technician
 13 Competency 3: Assessing Measurement Quality Using Interobserver Agreement  157

■ Example 2: The IOA will be calculated on correct recording of prompted and

unprompted responses

Skill: Manding using one-word utterances Procedure: Incidental teaching

Prompt codes: V, Vocal; G, Gesture; +, Independent response

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RBT + V + + + G + + V +
Supervisor + V + + G + + + V +

■ Example 3: The IOA will be calculated on the correct recording of prompted

and unprompted responses
Skill: Teaching step 3 of task analysis Procedure: Shaping across response
for washing hands topography with forward chaining

Prompt codes: M, Model; G, Gesture; +, Independent response

RBT Supervisor
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Step 1 + + + + + + + +
Step 2 + + + + + + + +
Step 3 M G G + M M G G

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP

• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 2:
○ Supervisees will pair up and select the most appropriate IOA for the given data
collection method
○ Calculate IOAs for data obtained using event recording, timing, and time sam-
pling methods
○ Pinpoint variables that could be responsible for low IOA
○ Address the pinpointed variables and collect data again until an acceptable IOA
is achieved
• After going over the group meeting 2 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Part 1: Use total count IOA
■ Ask supervisees to take out data collected using event recording during mea-
surement group meetings
■ Randomly pair up supervisees
■ Have each pair use the total count IOA
■ If the IOA is above 80%, the pair can wait until everyone else is done
■ If IOA is less than 80%, ask the paired supervisees to problem-solve and pin-
point variables that could have resulted in low IOA
■ After the variables are identified and addressed:
- Show the same video for the targeted behavior for which IOA was lower
than acceptable levels
- Have the pairs collect data again and re-calculate the IOA
158 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Repeat the process until all IOAs for all data collected using event recording
are in the acceptable ranges
■ Check their answers and provide feedback
○ Part 2: Use mean count-per-interval and exact count-per-interval IOA
■ Use the same videos of discrete behaviors used during group meetings for
measurement for Competency 2 where frequency/rate was used as a measure
(e.g., different form of aggression, self-injury, screaming, property destruction).
■ Show one video at a time and have the supervisees divide the total length of
each video into three to five intervals (e.g., if the video is 5 minutes in length,
supervisees will divide the 5 minutes into five one-minute intervals)
■ Have each pair of supervisees define the behavior and agree on the data col-
lection method
■ Play each video and have the pairs collect data for each interval
■ After data is collected, have them calculate IOA using mean count-per-interval
and exact count-per-interval methods
■ If IOA is less than 80%, ask the paired supervisees to problem-solve and pin-
point variables that could have resulted in low IOA
■ After the variables are identified and addressed:
- Show the same video for the targeted behavior for which IOA was lower
than acceptable levels
- Have the pairs collect data again and re-calculate the IOA
■ Repeat the process until all IOAs for all data collected using event recording
are in the acceptable ranges
■ Check their answers and provide feedback
○ Part 3: Use trial-by-trial IOA
■ Give each pair the prepared raw data sets that include data collected on teaching
a specific skill by two observers
■ Have each pair calculate IOA using the trial-by-trial method
■ Check their answers and provide feedback

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice calculating IOA for data obtained using timing
○ Prepare the same three to five videos of continuous behaviors during group
meetings for Competency 2 where frequency/rate was used as a measure (e.g.,
different form of aggression, self-injury, screaming, property destruction).
○ Two to three days before the group meeting, remind supervisees to bring the
duration per occurrence data obtained during measurement group activities
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Ask supervisees to take out data collected using timing during measurement group
meetings
• Randomly pair up supervisees
 13 Competency 3: Assessing Measurement Quality Using Interobserver Agreement  159

• Have the pairs pinpoint the method of calculating IOA and share their method with you
• After approving their method, have each pair calculate IOA using selected method
• Have each pair calculate IOA using total duration and mean-duration-per-occurrence
methods
• If a pair’s IOA is above 80%, they should wait until everyone else is done
• If IOA is less than 80%, ask the paired supervisees to problem-solve and pinpoint
variables that could have resulted in low IOA
• After the variables are identified and addressed:
○ Show the same video for the targeted behavior for which IOA was lower than
acceptable levels
• Have the pairs collect data again and re-calculate the IOA
• Repeat the process until all IOAs for all data collected using timing are in the ac-
ceptable ranges
• Check their answers and provide feedback

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3 - PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice calculating IOA for data obtained using time sampling methods
○ Prepare the same videos used during group meeting 2 for measurement, where
supervisees practiced data collection using partial and whole interval recording
and momentary time sampling.
○ Two to three days before the group meeting, remind supervisees to bring the data
obtained using time sampling methods during measurement group activities
○ To practice calculating scored and unscored IOAs, create three to four raw data sets that
include data collected using partial interval recording, whole interval recording, and
momentary time sampling that meet the criteria for use of scored and unscored IOAs
■ Example 1: Sample data set to be used to calculate scored IOA
Data collection method: Partial interval recording
Behavior: Repetitive hand flapping using 20-second intervals

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RBT - - + - - - - - - +
Supervisor - - + + - - + - - +

RBT, registered behavior technician

■ Example 2: Sample data set to be used to calculate unscored IOA

Behavior: Academic engagement Data collection method: Whole interval recording using
during teacher-led instruction 20-second intervals

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RBT + + + + - + + - + +
Supervisor + - + + + + + - + +
160 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Example 3: Sample data set to be used to calculate scored IOA

Data collection method: Momentary time sampling
Behavior: Functional play using 30-second intervals

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RBT - + - + - - + - - -
Supervisor - + - - - - + - - -

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Ask supervisees to take out data collected using time sampling methods during
measurement group meetings
• Randomly pair up supervisees, have them pinpoint the method of calculating IOA,
and then share the method with the supervisor
• After approving the method, have each pair calculate IOA using the selected method
• If a pair’s IOA is above 80%, have them wait until everyone else is done
• If IOA is less than 80%, ask the paired supervisees to problem-solve and pinpoint
variables that could have resulted in low IOA
• After the variables are identified and addressed:
○ Show the same video for the targeted behavior for which IOA was lower than
acceptable levels
○ Have the pairs collect data again and re-calculate the IOA
• Repeat the process until all IOAs for all data collected using timing are in the ac-
ceptable ranges
• Check their answers and provide feedback
• If there is no opportunity to use scored and unscored methods of calculating IOA
for raw data in their possessions:
○ Give each pair the prepared raw data sets that include data collected using partial
and whole intervals and momentary time sampling
○ Have each pair determine the appropriate method of calculating IOA (scored or
unscored) for a given data set
○ Have each pair calculate IOA using the selected method
○ Check their answers and provide feedback
• GROUP MEETING 2: ENDING THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER
ACTIVITY 3
• After completion of activity 3, provide the supervisees with an independent work
opportunity to practice the skills learned in group meeting 2
○ Instruct the supervisees:
■ To ask their field supervisor to use the same data sheet and operational definitions
to collect data simultaneously with the supervisee during a session
■ To select the most appropriate method of calculating IOA and inform the
supervisor
■ To calculate the IOA after the supervisor agrees with the selected method
 13 Competency 3: Assessing Measurement Quality Using Interobserver Agreement  161

■ That if the IOA is below acceptable levels, the supervisee needs to problem-solve
with the supervisor and repeat the data collection process until an acceptable
IOA is achieved

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Suggested activities for supervisors(s) overseeing the development of advanced

skills and application of skills during staff training or supporting direct staff in
the field
• After the supervisee meets the required criteria to begin developing advanced skills,
provide opportunities to engage in staff training that involves data collection:
○ Have the supervisee help out with staff training while the staff works with clients
is an excellent opportunity to practice the advanced skills
• Use the Performance Monitoring Checklists (see samples in online student resources)
to evaluate a supervisee’s performance on at least a bi-weekly basis until acquisition
criteria for each skill are met
• Provide feedback and more opportunities to practice the skill if needed
• If needed, set achievable goals related to a skill the supervisee is having difficulty
applying
• Document completion of each skill by placing initials on the Competency Skills List
3 (Table 13.1)

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

RESOURCES FOR SUPERVISORS

Additional tables and checklists for this chapter are available at the end of this text, following the index.

REFERENCES

Cooper, J., Heron, T., & Heward, W. (2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.
Quigley, S. P., Peterson, S. M., Frieder, J. E., & Peck, K. M. (2018). A review of SAFMEDS: Evidence for
procedures, outcomes and directions for future research. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 41(1), 283–301.
[Link]
 14
COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO
COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE
RELATIONS AND INTERPRETING THE
VISUALLY DISPLAYED DATA

PREREQUISITE SKILLS

• Knowledge of Microsoft Excel user skills

• Competence in data collection and measurement of behavior

• Knowledge of components of graphs

• Knowledge of experimental designs

Making valid and reliable decisions using raw data without graphing that data may be
challenging (Cooper et al., 2000). Behavior analysts rarely use statistical analysis to make
treatment decisions; instead, they heavily rely on single-subject designs. The graphic display
of raw data allows behavior analysts to observe changes in behavior easily, determine the
significance of the change, and notice variable responding, which in turn supports the deci-
sion-making process (Cooper et al., 2000). The graphic display of data can also be a handy
visual aid when communicating client progress with caregivers or teachers. Advancements
in software such as Excel or Prism have created opportunities for practitioners to generate
high-quality graphs. Multiple publications in various behavior analytic journals have pro-
vided step-by-step guides for generating detailed graphs to support learning how to use
Excel to create graphs (Deochand, 2017; Dixon et al., 2007). All behavior analysts must master
selecting appropriate graphs for given data and graphing the data using line graphs, cumula-
tive records, bar graphs, scatter plots, and, in some cases, Standard Celeration Charts (SCC).
While graphing is a prerequisite to data-based decision-making, making treatment decisions
by analyzing graphed data is another skill all behavior analysts must have in their repertoires.
Making data-based decisions requires an understanding of functional relationships and effect
size, how to determine effect size through visual analysis of graphed data, discriminating

162
 14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 163

between variable and stable data paths, knowing when to use level and median as the central
tendency of a given data set, and differentiating between level and trend of data sets. While
skills required for graphing and decision-making are taught as coursework in all graduate
programs training behavior analysts, in our experience more than coursework is needed to
establish competency in graphing and data-based decision-making. Building competency in
the graphical display of data and data-based decision-making requires rigorous practice and
supervised application of the skills with clients. In Table 14.1, we provide the reader with
benchmarks to gauge skill development for this competency to support building competency
for graphing and data-based decisions.
The basic skills for this competency are divided into two main groups. The first set of
basic skills emphasizes a review of ethical practices regarding graphing and the knowledge
base that is needed in data-based decision-making, such as frequency of data analysis, dis-
criminating between variable and stable data paths, differentiating between level and trend,
discriminating between mean and median and when to use each, and using visual inspec-
tion to determine the effectiveness of intervention (effect size) and presence of functional
relationships between independent and dependent variables. The second set of basic skills
addresses graphing of raw data, such as discriminating between different type of graphs (e.g.,
line versus bar graphs), selection of graphs for given data, and all necessary components that
well-constructed graphs should have (e.g., axis labels, condition lines). We provide an online
worksheet related to graphing to support learning and maintaining the basic skills required
for graphing. The goal is for the completed worksheet to be used as a reference guide when
working on intermediate and advanced skills. Supervisees must show competent knowledge
of the basic skills before being given opportunities to engage in intermediate skills.
The intermediate skills allow the supervisee to practice generating various graphs and
to select the appropriate graph for given data in a training environment. Behavior analysts
may be working with clients who engage in one or more problem behaviors, and they will
need to monitor the progress of multiple socially appropriate replacement behaviors and
establishment of verbal repertoires, and at least two times a year complete progress reports
that may require using different types of graphs and visually displaying more than one
behavior on some of the graphs. For example, when graphing problem behavior data, the
behavior analyst may also want to show the use of Functional Communicative Responses
(FCR) on the same graph. A behavior analyst may want to plot the frequency and magnitude
of screaming on the same graph to show more apparent improvement in screaming. Based
on our experience, the intermediate skills listed in Table 14.1 cover the most common type
of data for which behavior analysts generate graphs. We strongly recommend providing
the supervisees with opportunities to practice generating graphs for all listed variations of
raw data obtained under different experimental conditions (e.g., same behavior under other
conditions, two or more dimensions of the same behavior). Tasks listed under intermediate
skills also allow the opportunity to practice data-based decision-making through visual
analysis of data paths on generated graphs.
Advanced skills are designed to have supervisees apply intermediate skills with clients.
For example, after meeting the criteria for intermediate skills related to generating graphs
to show results of modified typical functional analysis, the supervisee may be given the
opportunity to use that skill, under the guidance of a supervisor, to graph the results of
functional analyses conducted with a client. Advanced skills also emphasize data-based de-
cision-making. We recommend having supervisees engage in data-based decision-making
every time graphs are generated or updated.
Finally, the competency includes generality criteria to support the supervisors in making
decisions about the readiness of the supervisees to perform the advanced skills accurately and
independently. The competency may be considered mastered when the supervisee meets the
164 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 14.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 4

Graphing data to communicate relevant quantitative relations and interpreting visually
displayed data
Supervisor’s
Basic Skills Initials

• Review the Behavior Analyst Certification Board’s Professional and

Ethical Compliance Codes for Behavior Analysts regarding data-based
decision-making
• Define graphs, baseline, mean, median, level, trend, independent variable,
dependent Variable
• Discriminate between variable and stable data paths
• Calculate the mean and identify the median of given data points
• State when to use mean and median to determine the level of graphed data
• Explain prediction, affirmation of the consequent, verification, and
replication, and identify each on graphs
• Use affirmation of the consequent, verification and replication to determine
if there is a functional relationship between the IV and DV for graphed data
in articles
• State benefits of graphing data
• List four types of graphs used by behavior analysts working in the home,
clinic, and school settings
• List all parts of basic graphs
• State when to use: line graphs, bar graphs, cumulative record, scatterplots,
and SCC


Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

Use Excel to practice generating line graphs with all correct basic parts
across three different data sets
• Same behavior under different conditions
• Functional analysis results (standard, latency-based, pairwise, precursor,
brief)
• Data obtained by assessing the effects of two different treatment options
on the same behavior (e.g., teaching imitation using incidental teaching
versus discrete trial instruction)
• Single behavior at baseline, two to three different intervention phases,
generality probes, and maintenance phase
• Data obtained through component analysis to simplify a treatment
package or add new procedures to the initial treatment package
• Data obtained through parametric analysis
• Data obtained using changing criterion design: single behavior at
baseline and three to four stepwise changes during the intervention
phase (e.g., duration of play, task completion, percent of steps completed
correctly for a complex skill)
• Single behavior in two to three different settings
(continued)
 14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 165

TABLE 14.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 4 (continued)
Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• Two or more measures of the same behavior (e.g., frequency and

interresponse time)
• Two different dimensions of the same behavior at baseline, two to three
different intervention phases, and maintenance phase (e.g., latency to
initiation of hand washing and duration, rate of correct responses and
accuracy)
• Two different dimensions of single behavior at baseline and three to four
stepwise changes during the intervention phase (e.g., latency to initiating
a task and accuracy of task completion, accuracy and trials to criterion)
• Two or more different behaviors of the same client (e.g., aggression
and crying)
• Baseline data obtained on two different behaviors of the same client
during the initial assessment (e.g., aggression and self-injury, crying and
elopement, successive bathroom use and initiation)
• Baseline and two to three different intervention phases, and
maintenance phase on two different behaviors of the same client (e.g.,
aggression + functional communicative response, crying + functional
communicative response + transition to scheduled activity,
elopement + functional communicative response + percent of task
completion)
• Baseline and shaping and forward or backward chaining data for
teaching the first or last three steps of a complex skill (e.g., complex
skillswashing hands: independently completing step 1 until step 2 is
introduced, then independently completing steps 1 and 2 until step 3 is
taught)
• Use Excel to practice generating cumulative records across three
different data sets for
• Reporting progress on skills for which cumulative records are appropriate
(e.g., teaching tacts, listener skills such as identifying nouns and verbs)
○ The graph should include the baseline and two progress report data
(e.g., baseline for tacting nouns and verbs, progress report 1 data for
tacting nouns and verbs, and progress report 2 data)
• Use Excel to practice generating different bar graphs across three
different data sets
• Trial-based functional analysis data
• Preference assessment data
• Conditional Probability data for analyzing A–B and B–C relationships
• Categorical data (e.g., classroom 1 and classroom 2)
• Use Excel to practice generating scatterplots across three different
data
• Baseline data showing the relationship between two different variables
(e.g., time of day and rate of toileting accidents, time of day and rate of
problem behaviors in a classroom)
• Practice drawing level lines using the mean or median of given data across
three different graphed data
(continued)
166 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 14.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 4 (continued)
Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• Practice drawing trend lines using the trendline option on Excel and
manually using a split middle line of progress across three different
graphed data
• Practice interpreting change in behavior by examining change in trend and
level using different methods of analyzing effect size (e.g., points of non-
overlap, dual criterion method) across three different graphed data
• Practice visually inspecting graphs and use affirmation of the consequent
verification and replication to determine if there is a functional relationship
between the IV and DV for graphed data obtained through the following
experimental designs
• Withdrawal/reversal
• Alternating treatments
• Changing criterion
• Multiple Baseline or probe


Advanced Skills Supervisor’s Initials

• Apply the following skills across two different clients Client 2 Client 3
1. Select the correct type of graphs for assessment and
intervention data
2. Generate graphs with all correct components for
assessment and intervention data when using various
experimental designs
3. Draw level and trendlines for baseline and intervention
and analyze data by examining changes in level and trend
4. Make changes to the IV based on visual inspection of
intervention data
5. Using non-technical language, explain plotted data to
caregivers/teachers
Shows generalized advanced skills across two novel
clients to: Supervisor’s Date
• Generate line graphs with all correct components to signature
graph
• Functional analysis data
• Data for problem and socially appropriate behaviors
targeted in treatment plans
• Skill acquisition data for teaching daily living, play, and
social skills
• Any data that would require the use of line graphs
• Generate cumulative records with all correct components
to graph
• Skill acquisition data for skills that can be reported as
cumulative gains (e.g., learning to tact and identify as a
listener nouns, verbs, and other parts of speech)
(continued)
 14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 167

TABLE 14.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 4 (continued)
Advanced Skills Supervisor’s Initials

• Generate bar graphs with all correct components to

graph:
• Conditional probability data
• Preference and reinforcer assessment data
• Summary data
• Make correct treatment decisions by analyzing graphed
data
• Use non-technical language to explain the change
in level, trend, and effectiveness of interventions to
caregivers/teachers across two caregivers/teachers
DV, dependent variable; IV, independent variable;SSC, Standard Celeration Charts.

generality criteria for that competency. For example, to consider the supervisee as showing
competence in graphing and data-based decision-making, the supervisee, across two novel
clients, must select the appropriate type of graphs to use, generate those graphs with all the
correct components, graph functional analysis data, intervention data, make correct treatment
decisions by analyzing graphed data, and use non-technical language to explain behavior
change to caregivers/teachers.
When each component listed in the competency is met, the supervisors are encouraged
to sign off on the skill by writing their initials next to that skill. For example, when working
on intermediate skills, as soon as the supervisee meets the criteria for graphing baseline
data obtained during initial assessment in different contexts (e.g., math versus language
arts instruction, school versus home, community setting versus home), the supervisor may
add their initials to indicate that the supervisee met the criteria for that specific intermediate
skill. Sometimes, the completion of a component skill requires meeting multiple criteria. For
example, to consider the criteria for visually inspecting graphs and determining if there is a
functional relationship between the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV)
as an intermediate skill to be met, the supervisee must perform the skills for data obtained
using four different experimental designs (e.g., withdrawal/reversal, alternating treatments,
changing criterion, and multiple baseline or probe) (see Table 14.1).
To support learning and showing competency in measuring behavior (see the competen-
cies in Table 14.1), we have included individual and group learning activities and strategies
for supervisees and supervisors to utilize. The group activities provided for supervisors can
also be used as part of one-to-one meetings with supervisees. For example, the supervisor
can use a group activity designed to establish an intermediate skill, such as graphing a single
behavior at baseline, two to three different intervention phases, generality probes, and main-
tenance phase, and apply the same activity when meeting one-on-one with a supervisee.
Recommended activities and procedures are aligned with establishing competence in basic,
intermediate, and advanced skills.

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH BASIC SKILLS

• To build and maintain basic skills related to graphing and data analysis:
• Review notes from classes that discussed terms and concepts
• Read ethical guidelines related to data collection and graphing
168 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Build fluency with the concepts using Say All Fast, Minute Each Day, Shuffled
(SAFMEDS; Quigley et al., 2018)
• If struggling with discriminating when to use specific graphs, reach out to supervisors
for support and more opportunities to practice the concept
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 4 Skills List
(Table 14.1) for each completed basic skill

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• To build and maintain intermediate skills related to graphing and data analysis:
• Become familiar with Excel functions (e.g., insert graph functions, use of formulas,
adding and deleting cells)
• Complete assigned work within given timelines
• Actively participate in group or individual meetings
• Ask questions and for feedback on completed work
• Use a cover-copy-compare learning methods using the same exercises completed
during group or individual supervision meetings. For example, during group su-
pervision, the supervisee generated a graph of two different measures of the same
behavior. After a few days the supervisee on their own may use the same data set
and generate a graph. After generating the graph, compare the results to the work
done in group practica.
• Apply given feedback to assigned work and ask for more opportunities to practice
the skill if needed
• Have open and clear communication with the field supervisor and ask for oppor-
tunities to practice the targeted skills in Competency 4 Skills List (Table 14.1)
○ Example: Obtain permission from the field supervisor to graph client data and
have the supervisor review the generated graph
• Use the additional reading and resources provided at the end of each competency
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 4 Skills List
(Table 14.1) for each completed intermediate skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• To build and maintain advanced skills related to graphing and data analysis:
• Provide evidence to supervisors overseeing the development of advanced skills
of readiness to apply the skills learned in a training environment with actual
clients
○ Example: Presenting the Competency 4 Skills List (Table 14.1) with the group
supervisor’s initials for listed basic and intermediate skills can function as evi-
dence for readiness to apply the skills with the clients
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 169

• Establish open and transparent communication with supervisors overseeing the

development of advanced:
○ Ask for opportunities to apply advanced skills as part of progress monitoring
and progress report writing
■ When working on progress reports, generate different types of graphs
• Seek supervision and feedback as often as possible
• Complete given work before established timelines
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 4 Skills List
(Table 14.1) for each completed advanced skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH BASIC AND

INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• Competence: Graphing data to communicate relevant quantitative relations and

interpret graphed data
• Skill level: Basic and Intermediate
• Number of meetings: 4
• Duration of each meeting: 3 hours
• Group supervision objectives:
○ Establish competence in basic concepts related to graphing and visual analysis
of data
■ Define the following:
- Baseline, mean, median, level, trend, IV, DV
■ State the benefits of graphing data
■ State four types of graphs used by behavior analysts working in home, clinic,
and school settings
■ State and pinpoint all parts of basic graphs
■ State when to use line graphs, bar graphs, cumulative record, scatterplots
■ Discriminate between variable and stable data paths
■ Calculate the mean and identify the median of given data points
■ State when to use mean and median to determine the level of graphed data
■ Explain prediction, affirmation of the consequent, verification, and replication
and identify each on graphs
○ Establish competence in intermediate skills related to graphing and visual anal-
ysis of data by using Excel to generate graphs with all the correct basic parts for:
■ Same behavior under different conditions
■ Two or more dimensions of the same behavior
■ Two or more different behaviors of the same client
■ Cumulative records with all correct basic parts
■ Bar graphs with all correct basic parts
170 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Scatterplots with all correct basic parts

- Perform visual analysis of data
- Draw level lines using the mean or median of the given data
- Draw trends using the trendline option on Excel and manually using a
split middle line of progress

GROUP MEETING 1

• Skill Level: Basic

• Purpose: Establish competence in basic skills
• Agenda:
○ Review basic concepts related to graphing and data analysis
○ Complete the graphic display of behavior data worksheet
○ Review and complete part 1 of the worksheet before group meeting 1
○ Learn to generate graphs using Excel for a single behavior under different conditions
• GROUP MEETING 1: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 2, the individual leading the group should inform the
supervisees (group members) to:
○ Review and be prepared to define and discuss all basic skills listed in competency
benchmarks related to graphing
○ Bring computers with operational Excel software to practica
○ Bring assigned articles and the textbook used in courses covering the graphic
display of data to practica to be used when completing part 2 of the worksheet
• Provide supervisees with the following resources to support preparedness for
group meetings:
○ Competency benchmarks related to graphing
○ To support their graphing, have supervisees read and bring to meetings the fol-
lowing articles:
■ Deochand, 2017
■ Dixon et al., 2009
○ Read chapters and pages from textbooks assigned by university programs for
courses that covered measurement quality
■ Example: If supervisees used Cooper et al. (2020), have the supervisees read
chapters 6 and 7 from the text

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITIES 1 AND 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To review basic concepts related to graphing and data analysis and basic components
of graphs
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 171

○ Review and create PowerPoint slides for all basic concepts listed in the Competency
4 Skills List (Table 14.1)
■ Example 1: Review definitions of graph, baseline, mean, median, level, trend,
IV, DV
■ Example 2: Review types of graphs used by behavior analysts working in the
home, clinic, and school settings, and all parts of basic graphs
■ Example 3: Review the procedure for drawing level and trendlines and how
to calculate the mean and identify the median for given data points
○ Include in a PowerPoint slide the worksheet
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda:
○ Review basic concepts related to graphing and data analysis
○ Complete the worksheet
○ Generate graphs using Excel for a single behavior under different conditions
• After going over the agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a basic skill (e.g., validity) and a supervisee
and have the them answer the question about the selected basic skill
○ Use the information on PowerPoint slides to provide feedback and use multiple
exemplar training to provide sufficient examples of each basic skill
○ Continue until all basic skills are discussed and understood by everyone

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP

• To practice selecting the most appropriate graphs to use to display data visually:
○ Display the worksheet on a PowerPoint slide
○ Allow 5 minutes for supervisees to review the worksheet
○ Using a random wheel or cards, and select a supervisee and have them use the
textbook and acquired knowledge from coursework to provide an answer to the
selected information in the worksheet
■ Example: When completing the worksheet for listing all parts of basic graphs:
- Supervisee 1 will provide information on one part (e.g., vertical axis or y-axis
or ordinate)
- Supervisee 2 will provide the answer to the next part (e.g., condition change lines)
○ Provide feedback and use multiple exemplar training to provide sufficient examples
during the completion of the worksheet

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice generating line graphs for single behavior under different conditions,
include PowerPoint slides data sets that include:
172 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Baseline data obtained during initial assessment in different contexts (e.g., math versus
language arts instruction, school versus home, community setting versus home
Example:
Target behavior: Aggression Baseline measure—frequency per hour
Date Home Preschool Park

1/10 4 6 1
1/11 3 7 2
1/12 4 6 0

○ Baseline data was obtained during functional analysis (FA). Include data for at
least four different types of FA designs (e.g., modified standard FA, precursor FA,
latency-based FA, pairwise FA, and Interview-Informed Synthesized Contingency
Analysis (IISCA) (if used))
Example 1: Modified standard FA
Target behavior: Aggression Session length 5 min.
Measure—rate per min.
Session Attention Escape Control Tangible

1 0 1 0 1
2 0 2 0 1
3 0 2 0 2

Example 2: Latency-based FA
Target behavior: Self-injury Session length 5 min.
Measure—latency in sec.
Sessions Attention Escape Control Tangible

1 300 120 300 250

2 300 90 300 300
3 300 45 300 300

Example 3: Pairwise precursor FA

Target behaviors: Screaming and self- Session length 5 min.
injury Screaming is reinforced Measure—Rate per min
Sessions Attention Control Escape Control Tangible Control

1 1 0 1 0 1 0
2 0 0 2 0 1 0
3 0 0 2 0 2 0

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Start with baseline data obtained during initial assessment in different contexts
(e.g., math versus language arts instruction, school versus home, community setting
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 173

versus home) (see example 1 under preparatory activities for group meeting 1,
activity 3)
1. Follow the behavior skills training procedure to have the group members com-
plete the graph to set the criterion
2. If needed, demonstrate the correct data setup and graphing in Excel
3. Walk around the room and provide individual feedback to each supervisee as
needed
- If holding the group meetings via teleconference, have group members share
their screens one-by-one
4. If most members of the group are making the same errors, show how to correct
the error to the entire group
5. Continue monitoring their work and provide individual or group feedback
until each graph is completed to set criteria indicated in Cooper et al. (2020),
Deochand (2017), and Dixon et al. (2009).
6. To practice inserting graphs onto reports, have them copy and paste each graph
as a picture into a Word document
7. Repeat steps 1–6 for the second data sets for the same behavior in two or three
different contexts
○ After completing the graph to set criterion, present data for FA results in the fol-
lowing order: (1) modified standard FA, (2) precursor FA, (3) latency-based FA,
(4) pairwise FA, and (5) ISCA (if used)
■ Repeat steps 1–7 for all FA data sets
• GROUP MEETING 1: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY
3 AND PROVIDE OPPORTUNITY TO COMPLETE AN UNRESTRICTED
ACTIVITY
• GROUP MEETING 1: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• To continue practicing graphing data for the same behavior under different
conditions
○ Generate three to four data sets like those used in activity 3 in group meeting 1
by varying the behavior, data, and conditions
○ Email the supervisees the independent work data set
■ Example 1: Students learned to graph baseline data for aggression during group
meetings
- As independent work, they will be asked to graph baseline data for
self-injury

Target behavior: Aggression Target behavior: Self-injury

Measure—frequency per hour Measure—frequency per hour
Date Home Preschool Park Sessions Clinic Home

1/10 4 6 1 1 2 4
1/11 3 7 2 2 3 3
1/12 4 6 0 3 2 5
174 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Example 2: Students learned to graph modified standard FA results for aggres-

sion during group meetings
- As independent work, they will be asked to graph standard FA data for crying

Target behavior: Crying

Target behavior: Aggression
Session length: 5 min.
Session length: 5 min.
Data collection method: Partial interval
Session Attention Escape Control recording
1 0 1 0 Session Ignore Attention Escape Control

2 0 2 0 1 20% 30% 0% 0%
3 0 2 0 2 0% 35% 0% 0%

• GROUP MEETING 1: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY

• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Use the generated graphs during the group meeting as a guide and generate
graphs for the provided data
○ Email the Excel file with the graphs to the group supervisor before the next su-
pervision meeting
○ Encourage the supervisees to ask the individual supervisors for opportunities to
graph client data for single problem behavior (e.g., crying at baseline and inter-
vention data)

GROUP MEETING 2

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review the independent graphing activity
○ Generate graphs that show the effects of the intervention on a single behavior for
data obtained using the following experimental designs:
■ Reversal/withdrawal design
■ Chaining criterion design
■ Multiple baseline design
• GROUP MEETING 2: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 2, the individual leading the group should inform the
supervisees (group members) to:
○ Review basic skills from group meeting 1
○ Bring computers with Excel software to practica and assign articles
• GROUP MEETING 2: GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR GRAPHING GROUP
ACTIVITIES
1. Follow the behavior skills training procedure to have the group members complete
the graph to set the criterion
2. If needed, demonstrate the correct data setup and graphing in Excel
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 175

3. Walk around the room and provide individual feedback to each supervisee as needed
○ If holding the group meetings via teleconference, have group members share their
screens one-by-one
4. If most members of the group are making the same errors, show how to correct the
error to the entire group
5. Continue monitoring their work and provide individual or group feedback until
each graph is completed to set criteria indicated in Cooper et al. (2020), Deochand
(2017), and Dixon et al. (2009)
6. To practice inserting graphs into reports, have them copy and paste each graph as
a picture into a Word document
7. Repeat steps 1–6 for all group 2 activities

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To review the independent graphing work two to three days prior to the meeting,
inform the supervisees to:
○ Bring independent graphing work to practica meeting
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 2:
○ Review the independent work graphing activity
○ Generate graphs that show the effects of the intervention on a single behavior for
data obtained using the following experimental designs:
■ Reversal/withdrawal design
■ Chaining criterion design
■ Multiple baseline design
• After going over the group meeting 2 agenda, begin activity 1
○ One at a time, have each supervisee present their generated graphs
○ Have peers provide feedback to each presenter
○ Provide feedback to the presenter and peers until the graphs are correctly drawn

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate line graphs to show the effects of intervention
on a single behavior using reversal/withdrawal design, create data sets that include:
○ Single behavior at baseline, two to three different intervention phases, generality
probes (if applicable to the selected behavior), and maintenance phase
○ One data set for targeted problem behavior (e.g., repetitive motor movements)
○ One data set for socially appropriate behavior (e.g., manding)
○ Data obtained using component analysis
○ Data obtained using parametric analysis
176 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

Example 1: Single problem behavior at baseline, two to three different intervention

phases, and maintenance phase
Target behavior: Repetitive motor movements
Data collection method: Partial interval recording
% of intervals % of intervals
Date with TB Date with TB

Baseline 6/2 35% Intervention 6/19 15%

Phase 2
6/4 30% 6/21 10%
6/5 30% 6/22 07%
6/23 05%
Intervention 6/8 30% 6/24 02%
Phase 1
6/10 25% 6/25 03%
6/11 20%
6/13 20% Maintenance 6/27 04%
6/15 15% 6/28 03%
6/16 10% 7/15 03%
6/18 10% 7/20 04%
TB, target behavior

Example 2: Data obtained using component analysis to simplify an initial treatment

package
Problem Behavior: Screaming
Measure: Rate per hour

Session Baseline Session T1 + T2 Session T2 + T3

1 4 8 2 15 1
2 5 9 3 16 2
Initial treatment T3 17 2
package T1 + T2 + T3
3 2 10 3
4 1 11 3
5 0 T1 + T3
6 0 12 1
7 0 13 0
14 0

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Start with a single behavior at baseline, two to three different intervention phases,
generality probes (if applicable to the selected behavior), and maintenance phase
(see example 1 under preparatory activities for group meeting 2, activity 2)
■ One data set for targeted problem behavior (e.g., repetitive motor movements)
■ One data set for socially appropriate behavior (e.g., manding)
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 177

○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data
○ After the graph is completed to set the criterion, have them graph:
■ Data obtained through component analysis (see example 2 under preparatory
activities for group meeting 2, activity 2)
■ Data obtained through parametric analysis

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate line graphs for the effects of intervention on a
single behavior using changing criterion design, create two data sets that include
○ Single behavior at baseline, three to four stepwise changes
■ One of the data sets should be for behaviors targeted for increase (e.g., task
completion, duration of play, remaining in designated area)
■ The second data set should be for behaviors targeted for decrease (e.g., frequent
mands to use a restroom during class, shortening duration of transitions, con-
sumption of junk food, nail-biting, talking out without permission)
Example 1: Single behavior at baseline, three stepwise changes
Target behavior: Independent functional play
Measure: Duration per occurrence in seconds
Duration per Intervention
Date occurrence Date phase

Baseline 6/2 10 Criterion 2 6/19 35

Average daily
6/4 05 6/21 40
duration per
6/5 07 occurrence: 6/22 45
40 seconds for
Intervention
two consecutive
phase
days
Criterion 1 6/8 15
Average daily
6/10 20
duration
per 6/11 30
occurrence:
6/13 25 Criterion 3 6/27 50
30 seconds
Average daily
for two 6/15 30 6/28 55
duration per
consecutive
6/16 35 occurrence: 7/15 65
days
60 seconds for
7/16 70
three consecutive
days

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Start with one of two data sets with single behavior at baseline and three to four
stepwise changes (see example 1 under preparatory activities for group meeting
2, activity 3)
178 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data
○ After providing feedback and correct completion of the graph for the first data
set, present the second data set for additional practice (e.g., behavior that is to be
decreased)

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 4

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 4—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate line graphs for the effects of intervention on a
single behavior using multiple baseline design, create two data sets that include:
○ Single behavior at baseline in two to three different settings and effects of inter-
vention in those settings (e.g., home and school or daycare)
○ Single behavior at baseline across two different people and effects of intervention
(e.g., parents versus grandparent, parents versus teacher)
Example: Single behavior in two different settings with continuous baseline
Target behavior: Screaming
Measure: Rate per hour
Frequency Frequency
Date per hour Date per hour

Baseline at 5/2 04 Baseline at 5/2 08

home school
5/3 06 5/3 12
5/4 04 5/4 07
Frequency 5/6 04
per hour
5/7 06
Intervention 5/6 02 5/8 07
at home
5/7 01 5/10 08
5/8 01 Frequency
per hour
5/10 0 Intervention 5/11 04
at school
5/11 01 5/12 03
5/12 01 5/13 02

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 4—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Start with one of two data sets (see example 1 under preparatory activities for
group meeting 2, activity 4).
○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data
○ After providing feedback and correct completion of the graph for the first data set,
present the second data set with single behavior at baseline across two different
people and the effects of intervention across people
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 179

• GROUP MEETING 2: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY

4 AND PROVIDE AN OPPORTUNITY TO COMPLETE AN UNRESTRICTED
ACTIVITY
• GROUP MEETING 2: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• To provide opportunities to practice graphing skills outside of group meetings, gen-
erate three data sets (one for each group activity) that are similar to the ones used
during group meetings by varying the behavior, data, and conditions (see examples
1 and 2 that follow)
Example 1: Students learned to graph data for repetitive motor movements during group
meetings
Target behavior: Repetitive motor movements
Data collection method: Partial interval recording
% of intervals % of intervals
Date with TB Date with TB

Baseline 6/2 35% Intervention 6/19 15%

Phase 2
6/4 30% 6/21 10%
6/5 30% 6/22 07%
6/23 05%
Intervention 6/8 30% 6/24 02%
Phase 1
6/10 25% 6/25 03%
6/11 20%
6/13 20% Maintenance 6/27 04%
6/15 15% 6/28 03%
6/16 10% 7/15 03%
6/18 10% 7/20 04%
TB, target behavior

Example 2: As independent work, they will be asked to graph the data

Target behavior: Screaming
Measure: Frequency/rate per week
Date Rate per hour Date Rate per hour

Baseline 1/9 9 Intervention 2/3 3

Phase 3
1/11 11 2/4 4
2/6 3
Intervention 1/14 4 2/7 2
Phase 1
1/15 2 2/8 1
1/16 1 2/10 1
1/18 2 2/11 0
2/13 1
Intervention 1/19 3
Phase 2
1/20 0 Maintenance 3/1 2
1/30 1 4/1 2
180 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 2: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY

• Email the data set to supervisees and instruct to:
○ Use the generated graphs during the group meeting as a guide to generate graphs
for the provided data
○ Encourage the supervisees to ask their individual supervisors for opportunities
to graph client data for single problem behavior (e.g., crying at baseline and in-
tervention data)

GROUP MEETING 3

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review the independent graphing activity
○ Generate graphs that show the effects of the intervention on two or more dimensions
of the same behavior and two or more behaviors of a client using
■ Reversal/withdrawal design
■ Chaining criterion design
■ Multiple probe design
○ Generate cumulative records
• GROUP MEETING 3: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 3, the individual leading the group should inform the
supervisees (group members) to:
○ Bring computers with Excel software to practica and assign articles
• GROUP MEETING 3: GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR GRAPHING GROUP
ACTIVITIES
1. Follow the behavior skills training procedure to have the group members complete
the graph to set the criterion
2. If needed, demonstrate the correct data setup and graphing in Excel
3. Walk around the room and provide individual feedback to each supervisee as
needed
○ If holding the group meetings via teleconference, have group members share their
screens one-by-one
4. If most members of the group are making the same errors, show how to correct the
error to the entire group
5. Continue monitoring their work and provide individual or group feedback until
each graph is completed to set criteria indicated in Cooper et al. (2020), Deochand
(2017), and Dixon et al. (2009)
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 181

6. To practice inserting graphs onto reports, have them copy and paste each graph as
a picture into a Word document
7. Repeat steps 1–6 for all group 2 activities

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To review the independent graphing work two to three days prior to the meeting
and inform the supervisees to:
○ Bring independent graphing work to practica meeting
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 3:
○ Review the independent work graphing activity
○ Generate graphs that show the effects of the intervention on two or more dimensions
of the same behavior and two or more behaviors of a client using:
■ Reversal/withdrawal design
■ Chaining criterion design
■ Multiple probe design
○ Generate cumulative records
• After going over the group meeting 3 agenda, begin activity 1
○ One at a time, have each supervisee present the generated graphs
○ Have peers provide feedback to each presenter
○ Provide feedback to the presenter and peers until the graphs are correctly drawn

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate line graphs with two y-axes for effects of
intervention on two or more dimensions of the same behavior using reversal/
withdrawal design, create two data sets that include:
○ Two dimensions of a single behavior, two to three different intervention phases,
generality probes (if applicable to the selected behavior), and maintenance
phase
■ One data set for targeted problem behavior (e.g., crying: duration and occur-
rence) (see example 1)
■ One data set for socially appropriate behavior (e.g., academic engagement:
duration per occurrence and accuracy) (see example 2)
182 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

Example 1: Two dimensions of single problem behavior at baseline, two to three different
intervention phases, and a maintenance phase
Target behavior: Crying
Measure: Duration per occurrence and count
Average duration Average duration
per occurrence per occurrence
Date in min Count Date in min Count

Baseline 2/2 6 2 Intervention 2/15 1.5 3

Phase 2
2/4 4.5 3 2/16 2 2
2/5 5.5 2 2/17 0 0
2/19 1.5 1
Intervention 2/7 3 1 2/20 0 0
Phase
2/8 2.5 2 2/21 .5 1
1
2/9 2.5 1
2/12 1.5 1 Maintenance 3/1 .5 1
2/13 1.5 1 4/1 1 1

Example 2: Two dimensions of a single behavior at baseline, two different intervention phases,
generality and maintenance phases
Target behavior: Academic engagement
Measure: Duration per occurrence and accuracy
Average Average
duration Accuracy duration Accuracy
per of per of
occurrence completed occurrence completed
Sessions in min. work Sessions in min. work

Baseline 1 2 30% Intervention 9 10 75%

Phase 2
2 2.5 25% 10 10 80%
11 10 80%
Intervention 3 3 40%
Phase 1
4 4 50% Generality 12 9 80%
probe
5 4 50%
6 6 60%
7 8 75% Maintenance 13 10 85%
8 10 75% 14 9 80%

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Start with a data set for targeted problem behavior (see example 1 under prepa-
ratory activities for group meeting 3, activity 2)
○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data
○ After completing the graph to set criterion, present the data set for socially appropriate
behavior (see example 2 under preparatory activities for group meeting 3, activity 2)
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 183

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate line graphs with two y-axes for effects of
intervention on two or more dimensions of the same behavior using changing
criterion design, create two data sets that include:
○ Two dimensions of a single behavior at baseline, three to four stepwise changes
■ One of the data sets should be for behaviors that are targeted for increase
(e.g., task completion, duration of play, remaining in designated area) (see
example 1)
■ The other data set should be for behaviors targeted for decrease (e.g., consump-
tion of junk food, nail-biting, talking out without permission)

Example 1: Single behavior at baseline, three stepwise changes

Target behavior: Academic engagement
Measure: Duration per occurrence and accuracy
Intervention phase
Criterion 2: Average daily duration per occurrence
6 min. and average daily accuracy 60% for three
Baseline consecutive days
Average Accuracy Average
duration per of duration per Accuracy of
occurrence in completed occurrence in completed
Session min. work Session min. work

1 2.5 15% 9 4.5 50%

2 2 20% 10 4.5 55%
Intervention phase 11 5.5 55%
Criterion 1: Average daily duration per
12 6 65%
occurrence 4 min. and average daily
accuracy 40% for three consecutive 13 6 60%
days
14 6 65%
3 3 30%
4 3 35% Intervention phase
Criterion 3: Average daily duration per
occurrence 9 min. and average daily
accuracy 80% for three consecutive days
5 4 35% Session Average Accuracy of
duration completed
per work
occurrence
in min.
6 4 40% 15 6.5 65%
7 4.5 45% 16 7 70%
8 4 40% 17 7 70%
18 7.5 75%
19 7.5 75%
184 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Start with the data set for behaviors that are targeted for increase (see example 1
under preparatory activities for group meeting 3, Aactivity 3)
○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data
○ After completing the graph to set criterion, present data set for behaviors targeted for
decrease (e.g., consumption of junk food, nail-biting, talking out without permission)

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 4

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 4—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate line graphs with one and two y-axes for the
effects of an intervention package on two or more behaviors of the same client
using reversal/withdrawal design, create two data sets that include:
○ Two problem behaviors at baseline, and effects of two to three phases of an inter-
vention in a given setting, and generality or maintenance probes (e.g., screaming
and aggression at home) (see example 1)
○ Two socially appropriate replacement behaviors at baseline, and effects of two to
three phases of an intervention in a given setting, and generality or maintenance
probes (e.g., FCR to terminate a task or reduce the intensity of a task and task
completion); or
○ A problem behavior and a socially appropriate replacement behavior at baseline,
and effects of two to three phases of an intervention in a given setting, and gen-
erality or maintenance probes (e.g., aggression and FCR to terminate a task or
reduce the intensity of a task) (see example 2)
Example 1: Two problem behaviors exhibited by a client that are part of the response class
hierarchy
Screaming Aggression Screaming Aggression
frequency per frequency per frequency per frequency per
Date hour hour Date hour hour
5/2 04 01 Intervention Phase 3
5/3 06 01 5/17 02 0.5
5/4 04 01 5/19 01 01
Intervention Phase 1 5/20 02 01
5/6 04 01 5/22 01 0
5/7 03 01 5/24 01 0.5
5/8 02 01 Maintenance Phase
5/10 02 01 6/1 01 0
Intervention Phase 2 6/15 02 0.5
5/12 02 .5 7/1 01 0
5/13 01 1
5/14 01 0
5/16 01 0
 14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 185

Example 2: A problem behavior and a socially appropriate replacement behavior

Aggression FCR Screaming Aggression
Frequency % of Frequency Frequency
Sessions per hour opportunities Sessions per hour per hour

1 02 0 Intervention Phase 3
2 03 0 11 02 85
Intervention Phase 1 12 01 100
3 02 40 13 .5 100
4 02 60 Generality
Probe
5 01 60 14 03 70
6 02 80 Intervention Phase 3
7 01 80 15 03 70
Intervention Phase 2 16 02 80
8 02 80 17 02 100
9 01 85 18 02 100
10 01 85 19 1.5 100
FCR, functional communicative response

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 4—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Start with two problem behaviors at baseline, and the effects of two to three phases
of an intervention in a given setting, and generality or maintenance probe data
set (see example 1 under preparatory activities for group meeting 3, activity 4)
○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data
○ After providing feedback and correct completion of the graph to set criterion,
present the second data set:
■ A problem behavior and a socially appropriate replacement behavior at base-
line, and effects of two to three phases of an intervention in a given setting,
and generality or maintenance probes (e.g., aggression and FCR to terminate a
task or reduced intensity of a task) (see example 2 under preparatory activities
for group meeting 3, activity 4); or
■ Two socially appropriate replacement behaviors at baseline, the effects of two
to three phases of an intervention in a given setting, and generality or main-
tenance probes (e.g., FCR to terminate a task or reduce the intensity of a task
and task completion)

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 5

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 5—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate line graphs with two y-axes for effects of
intervention on two or more behaviors of the same client using multiple probe
designs, create two data sets that include:
186 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ One of the data sets shaping two to three steps in the task analysis for a complex
skill using forward chaining as part of the procedure (e.g., shaping steps 1 and 2 for
washing hands and chaining the steps using forward chaining ) (see example 1)
○ The second data set shaping the last two to three steps in the task analysis for a
complex skill using backward chaining as part of the procedure (e.g., shaping the
last three steps of tying shoes and chaining the steps using backward chaining )
(see example 2)
Example 1: Shaping and forward chaining data was obtained using a multiple probe design for
graphing steps 2 and 3.
Circled data represents probes before teaching the next step.
Target skill: Washing hands
Acquisition criteria: Independent completion of a step across two consecutive trials
Teaching Trials
Steps BL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
2 - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + +
3 - - - - - + + + + + + + +
4 - - - - - + + +
5 - - -
6 +
7 -
8 -
9 -
10 -
BL, baseline

Example 2: Shaping and backward chaining data were obtained using a multiple probe design for
graphing steps 10 and 9.
Circled data represents probes before teaching the next step.
Target skill: Washing hands
Acquisition criteria: Independent completion of a step across two consecutive trials
Teaching Trials
Steps BL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 +
2 -
3 -
4 -
5 -
6 +
7 - - - -
8 - - - - - + + + +
9 - - - - + + + + + + + + +
10 - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + +
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 187

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 5—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Start with shaping the first two to three steps in the task analysis for a complex
skill using forward chaining as part of the procedure (see example 1 under pre-
paratory activities for group meeting 3, activity 5)
○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data
○ After correct completion of the graph to set criterion, present the second data sets
for shaping the last two to three steps in the task analysis for a complex skill using
backward chaining as part of the procedure (see example 2 under preparatory
activities for group meeting 3, activity 5)

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 6

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 6—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate cumulative records, create two data sets
○ One of the data sets can show data for teaching tacts (see example 1)
○ The second data set can show data for teaching echoics until generality is estab-
lished (see example 2)
Example 1: Cumulative number of tacts acquired per month

Date Baseline
12/20 4
Months Number of tacts acquired per month
January 4
February 7
March 12
April 12
May 18
June 20
Progress Report 1
July 22
August 22

Example 2: Cumulative number of two-syllable words echoed until generality is

established

Date Baseline
1/15 0
Week of Number of tacts acquired per month
1/20 2
188 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

Example 2: Cumulative number of two-syllable words echoed until generality is

established

1/27 2
2/3 6
2/10 8
2/17 15
Generality probe
2/23 7 out of 7 assessed on the first trial

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 6—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Start with one of the data sets for teaching a skill for which a cumulative graph
will be appropriate to use (see example 1 under preparatory activities for group
meeting 3, activity 6)
○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data
○ After correct completion of the graph to set criterion, present the second data sets
for teaching a skill for which cumulative graph will be appropriate to use (see
example 2 under preparatory activities for group meeting 3, activity 6)
• GROUP MEETING 3: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY
• Provide an opportunity to complete an unrestricted activity
• GROUP MEETING 3: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• To provide opportunities to practice graphing skills outside of group meetings, gen-
erate three data sets (one for each group activity) that are similar to the ones used
during group meetings by varying the behavior, data, and conditions

Example 1: Cumulative number of listener responses for items acquired per month

Date Baseline
12/20 3
Months Number of tacts acquired per month
January 6
February 8
March 11
April 13
May 17
June 18
Progress Report 1
July 24
August 28
September 31
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 189

• GROUP MEETING 3: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY

• Email the data set to supervises and instruct to:
○ Use the generated graphs during the group meeting as a guide and generate
graphs for the provided data
○ Encourage the supervisees to ask the individual supervisors for opportunities to
graph client data for:
■ A single behavior for which two or more dimensions are being measured
■ Two or more problem and socially appropriate behaviors of a client

GROUP MEETING 4

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review the independent graphing activity
○ Generate bar graphs and scatterplots
○ Practice drawing level and trendlines
• GROUP MEETING 4: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 4, the individual leading the group should inform the
supervisees (group members) to:
○ Bring computers with Excel software to practica and assign articles
• GROUP MEETING 4: GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR GRAPHING GROUP
ACTIVITIES
1. Follow the behavior skills training procedure to have the group members com-
plete the graph to set the criterion
2. If needed, demonstrate the correct data setup and graphing in Excel
3. Walk around the room and provide individual feedback to each supervisee as
needed
■ If holding the group meetings via teleconference, have group members share
their screens one-by-one
4. If most members of the group are making the same errors, show how to correct
the error to the entire group
5. Continue monitoring their work and provide individual or group feedback until
each graph is completed to set criteria indicated in Cooper et al. (2020), Deochand
(2017), and Dixon et al. (2009).
6. To practice inserting graphs onto reports, have them copy and paste each graph
as a picture into a Word document
7. Repeat steps 1–6 for all group 2 activities

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

190 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• To review the independent graphing work two to three days prior to the meeting
and inform the supervisees to:
○ Bring independent graphing work to practica meeting
• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 4:
○ Review the independent graphing activity
○ Generate bar graphs and scatterplots
○ Practice drawing level and trendlines
• After going over the group meeting 4 agenda, begin activity 1
○ One at a time, have each supervisee present the generated graphs
○ Have peers provide feedback to each presenter
○ Provide feedback to presenters and peers until the graphs are correctly drawn

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate bar graphs to show preference assessment
results, create two data sets that include
○ One data set could show the results of paired choice preference assessment (see
example 1)
○ The second data set could show the results of the multiple stimulus without re-
placement (MSWO) preference assessment (see example 2)
Example 1: Paired choice preference assessment results

Tested Items Percent of opportunities item selected

Apple 83%
Orange 50%
Strawberry 67%
Blueberry 100%
Pineapple 0%

Example 2: MSWO preference assessment results

Tested Items Percent of Trials Items Selected

LEGO 33%
Blocks 25%
Play-Doh 100%
Coloring book 50%
MSWO, Multiple Stimulus without Replacement
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 191

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Start with a data set for targeted problem behavior is maintained by escape from
task demands (see example 1 under preparatory activities for group meeting 4,
activity 2)
○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data
○ After completing the graph to set criterion, present data set for target behavior
that is maintained by access to tangibles and escape (see example 2 under prepa-
ratory activities for group meeting 4, activity 2)

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate bar graphs to show A-B-C data collection
results by plotting conditional probabilities for A-B and B-C relationships:
○ Generate an A-B-C data set for at least two behaviors (see example 1)
■ Example 1: A-B-C raw data for aggression and elopement and socially appro-
priate behaviors

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Present A-B-C data set for at least two behaviors (see example 1 under prepara-
tory activities for group meeting 4, activity 3)
○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data for
■ A-B relationship for at least two behaviors
■ B-C relationship for at least two behaviors
192 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 4

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 4—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate bar graphs to summarize data produced by
two or more categorical variables, create two data sets:
○ With different categorical variables (e.g., overall test performance by students in
classroom 1 versus classroom 2, implementation of treatment plans by mother
versus. father) (see examples 1 and 2)

Example 1: Summary of yearly attendance across three second grade classrooms

Yearly Attendance
Academic Year Classroom 1 Classroom 2 Classroom 3
2021–2022 92% 94% 88%
2022–2023 94% 96% 91%

Example 2: Summary of academic engagement for four students

Academic Engagement
Academic Student 1 Student 2 Student 3 Student
Activity 4
Reading 45% 85% 80% 90%
Math 80% 95% 75% 70%
Spelling 55% 65% 75% 90%

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 4—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Present the first data set (see example 1 under preparatory activities for group
meeting 4, activity 4)
○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data for
○ After correct completion of the graph to set criterion, present the second data sets
(see example 2 under preparatory activities for group meeting 4, activity 4)

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 5

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 5—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using Excel to generate scatterplots showing the relationship between
two different variables, create two data sets:
○ Showing the relationship between two different variables (e.g., time of day
and occurrence of problem behaviors, time of day and toileting accidents) (see
example 1)
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 193

Example 1: Relationship between time of day and screaming in a classroom

Screaming
Time of school day Number of occurrences

8 to 9 a.m. 01
9 to 10 a.m. 06
10 to 11 a.m. 08
11 a.m. to 12 p.m. 07
12 to 1 p.m. 02
1 to 2 p.m. 01
2 to 3 p.m. 01

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 5—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Using PowerPoint slides, show created data sets for this activity one at a time
○ Present the first data set showing the relationship between two different variables
(see example 1 under preparatory activities for group meeting 4, activity 5)
○ Follow general guidelines for graphing group activities to have the supervisees
graph the provided data
○ After correct completion of the graph to set criterion, present the second data sets

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 6

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 6—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice drawing level lines, create and print:
○ Two graphs that include stable baseline and intervention data with no trend (slope
of the trendline is zero) (see example 1)
○ Two graphs that include variable baseline and intervention data with no trend
(slope of the trendline is zero) (see example 2)
■ Example 1: Behavior with stable data path with no trend in baseline and inter-
vention phases

12
Baseline Intervention Phase 1
10

8
Rate Per Hour

0
1/10 1/12 1/14 1/16 1/10 1/12 1/14 1/16 1/18 1/20
194 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Example 2: Behavior with variable data path with no trend in baseline and
intervention phases
12
Baseline Intervention Phase 1
10

8
Rate Per Hour

0
1/10 1/12 1/14 1/16 1/18 1/19 1/20 1/21 1/22 1/23 1/24

• To practice drawing trend lines manually, using a split middle line of progress,
create and print:
○ Two graphs that include baseline data showing an upward trend and intervention
data showing a downward trend (see example 3)
○ Two graphs that include baseline data for appropriate behavior showing a down-
ward trend and intervention data showing an upward trend
■ Example 3: Behavior with increasing trend at baseline and decreasing trend
after implementation of intervention

12
Baseline Intervention Phase 1
10

8
Rate Per Hour

0
1/10 1/12 1/14 1/16 1/18 1/19 1/20 1/21 1/22 1/23 1/24 1/25

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 6—MEETING AS A GROUP

• Part 1: To practice drawing level lines, hand out:
○ One copy of graphs that have stable data and with no trend (slope of the
trendline is zero) (see example 1 under preparatory activities for group meeting 4,
activity 6)
○ One copy of graphs that have variable data and with no trend (slope of the
trendline is zero) (see example 2 under preparatory activities for group meeting 4,
activity 6)
■ If holding the group meetings via teleconference, email all four graphs to the
group members
14 COMPETENCY 4: GRAPHING DATA TO COMMUNICATE RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS 195

○ Have the supervisees examine both graphs and select mean or median for drawing
the level line for each graph
○ Randomly select two to three group members and have them state their decision
and provide the rationale for it
○ Provide feedback to make sure that the mean is selected for stable data and the
median for variable data
○ Allow 5 minutes to draw the level line on both graphs
○ Walk around the room and provide individual feedback to each group member
as needed
■ If holding the group meetings via teleconference, have group members share
their screens one-by-one
○ After all group members drew level lines to set the criterion:
■ Present the second copies of graphs with stable and variable data
■ Repeat these steps for the second graph
• Part 2: To practice drawing trendlines manually, using a split middle line of pro-
gress, hand out:
○ One copy of graphs that have a baseline showing an upward trend and interven-
tion data showing a downward trend (see example 3 under preparatory activities
for group meeting 4, activity 6)
■ If holding the group meetings via teleconference, email all graphs to the group
members
○ Randomly select a group member and ask them to explain how to use a split
middle line of progress to draw trendlines
○ If needed, provide feedback to make sure that the process is correct and under-
stood by others
○ Allow 5 minutes to draw the trend line for baseline and intervention data paths
○ Walk around the room and provide individual feedback to each group member
as needed
■ If holding the group meetings via teleconference, have group members share
their screens one-by-one
○ After all group members have drawn the trendlines to set the criterion, present
the graph that includes baseline data for appropriate behavior showing a down-
ward trend and intervention data showing an upward trend
○ Repeat these steps for the downward trend

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Suggested activities for supervisors(s) overseeing the development of advanced

skills and application of skills with clients
• After the supervisee meets the required criteria to begin developing advanced skills
○ While still in the process of earning a graduate degree, the supervisee may be
given opportunities to:
■ Assist with graphs for behavior assessments
196 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Generate graphs for problem behaviors and skills for data obtained while
working one to one with clients
■ Help with graphing progress report data
○ After earning a graduate degree and being allowed to manage clients under
supervision, the supervisee may be asked to:
■ Continue assisting with behavior assessments and graphing assessment data
■ Graph data for all clients receiving supervisory services
■ Analyze data every week and draw trend and level lines
■ Make data-based decisions and make changes to treatment plans
■ Document the competition of each skill by signing their initials on the Competency
4 Skills List (Table 14.1)

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCES

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis, 3rd edition. Hoboken, NJ:
Pearson.
Deochand, N. (2017). Automating phase change lines and their labels using Microsoft Excel (R). Behavior
Analysis in Practice, 10(3), 279–284. [Link]
Dixon, M. R., Jackson, J. W., Small, S. L., Horner-King, M. J., Lik, N. M. K., Garcia, Y., & Rosales, R. (2009).
Creating single-subject design graphs in Microsoft Excel 2007. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42(2),
277–293. [Link]
Quigley, S. P., Peterson, S. M., Frieder, J. E., & Peck, K. M. (2018). A review of SAFMEDS: Evidence for
procedures, outcomes and directions for future research. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 41(1), 283–301.
[Link]
 15
COMPETENCY 5: CONDUCTING
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENTS

PREREQUISITE SKILLS

• Operationally defining behaviors

• Data collection and graphing

• Data-based decision-making

• Experimental design

Addressing problem behaviors is one of the primary roles of behavior analysts. To develop
evidence-based treatment plans that address problem behaviors, behavior analysts must
first identify the consequences that maintain the targeted problem behaviors. Functional
Behavior Assessment (FBA) is used to identify variables influencing problem behaviors
(Iwata & Dozier, 2008). Years of research have shown that developing treatment plans based
on accurately identified variables that evoke and maintain the targeted problem behaviors
increases treatment precision and practical implementation (Hanley, 2012). Showing mastery
in conducting FBAs is a critical skill that all behavior analysts should have.
There are three types of behavior assessments: indirect (e.g., rating scales and interviews),
descriptive assessments (e.g., A-B-C data collection), and functional analysis (FA). FA involves
directly manipulating environmental variables hypothesized to evoke and maintain the targeted
behavior and measuring the effects on the target behavior (Iwata & Dozier, 2008). Although
results of indirect assessments are unreliable and inaccurate for identifying consequences that
maintain the problem behaviors (Hanley, 2012), open-ended interviews with caregivers and
teachers may provide helpful information to develop a hypothesis of variables that evoke and
maintain the problem behaviors that can be tested using FA. In practice, most FBAs incorpo-
rate indirect and descriptive assessments or indirect assessments in the form of interviews
with FA to gather information on variables that may evoke and maintain targeted behaviors.
When conducting a FA, behavior analysts must be able to select the most appropriate type of

197
198 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

FA (e.g., precursor versus latency based) given the severity of the client’s behaviors and plan
how to conduct the assessment to show a functional relationship between the behavior and
the consequence(s) that maintain it. After conducting a functional assessment, the assessor
must write reports by incorporating all assessment data and making recommendations based
on the assessment results. Building competency in conducting FBAs requires practice and
supervised application of the skills with clients. In Table 15.1, we provide the reader with
benchmarks to guide skill development for this competency to support building competency
for conducting FBAs
The basic skills for building competency in conducting FBAs emphasize a review
of ethical practices regarding the conducting of the assessment and discriminating be-
tween the different types of behavior assessments. Selecting the best type of assessment
or combination of assessments for given situations requires knowledge of the strengths
and weaknesses of each assessment type. We provide a worksheet (see Table 15.2) to help
identify each assessment type’s strengths and weaknesses and develop procedures for
conducting each type of assessment. The completed worksheet can be used as a refer-
ence guide when working on intermediate and advanced skills. Supervisees must show
competent knowledge of the basic skills before being given opportunities to engage in
intermediate skills.
The intermediate skills are designed to provide the supervisee with opportunities to prac-
tice conducting indirect, descriptive assessments and FA. We recommend that supervisees
build intermediate skills by practicing how to conduct assessments through role-play.
Intermediate skills can be established using group or individual supervision format. The
activities we provided in this chapter are designed to guide the supervisors on supporting
supervisees to establish each intermediate competency listed in Table 15.1. Tasks listed under
intermediate skills also allow the opportunity to practice sharing assessment results with
caregivers and teachers.
Advanced skills are designed to have supervisees apply intermediate skills with clients
under supervisor supervision. For example, after meeting the criteria for intermediate skills
related to conducting open-ended interviews with caregivers or teachers, the supervisee may
be given the opportunity to use that skill when conducting a FBA with a client under the
guidance of a supervisor. Advanced skills also emphasize data-based decision-making. We
recommend having supervisees always engage in data-based decision-making every time
graphs are generated or updated.
Finally, the competency includes generality criteria to support the supervisors in making
decisions about the readiness of the supervisees to perform the advanced skills accurately
and independently. The supervisee may demonstrate mastery in conducting FBAs when
they meet the generality criteria listed in Table 15.1. For example, to consider the supervisee
showing competence in conducting FBAs, the supervisee, across two novel clients, must
conduct comprehensive FBAs by obtaining consent from caregivers, utilizing direct and in-
direct assessments to obtain information on variables that evoke and maintain the targeted
behaviors, write the assessment report, and use non-technical language to explain the results
to caregivers/teachers.
When each component listed in the competency is met, the supervisors are encouraged
to sign off on the skill by writing their initials next to that skill. For example, when working
on intermediate skills, as soon as the supervisee meets the criteria for practicing how to
conduct FA, the supervisor may place initials to indicate that the supervisee met the criteria
for that specific intermediate skill. Sometimes, the completion of a component skill requires
meeting multiple criteria. For example, to consider the criteria for practicing how to conduct
FA is met, the supervisee must practice conducting six different types of FA to set criteria
(e.g., modified standard, precursor, latency-based; see Table 15.1).
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  199

TABLE 15.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 5

Functional Behavior Assessment—addressing behaviors of concern
Supervisor’s
Basic Skills Initials

• Review BACB’s Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior

Analysts related to assessments
• State purpose of conducting FBAs
• State the steps for conducting an FBA
• State the differences between direct and indirect assessments
• State indirect assessment methods that may be used during FBAs
• State the weaknesses of indirect assessment
• Define descriptive assessment and state two types of descriptive assessments
• State the process of conducting descriptive assessments
• State the weakness of descriptive assessments
• Define FA
• State all different types of FA
• State advantages and weaknesses of FA
• State when to use each type of FA
• Describe each condition of a typical FA
• Provide rationale, in relation to experimental control and manipulation of
EOs, for the order of FA conditions


Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• Review consent for assessment used by the organization and role-play

obtaining consent
• Practice review of the following records
○ Medical and educational (IEPs and psychoeducational assessment
reports)
○ Prior assessments (diagnostic, FBAs, and progress reports)
• Role-play interviewing individuals who are familiar with the client
• Use the online worksheet, included at the link under Resources for
Supervisors at the end of this chapter, for prioritizing problem behaviors and
selecting the behaviors that should be targeted for reduction based on the
indirect assessment results and caregiver/teacher concerns and priorities
• Generate hypotheses for variables that evoke and maintain the selected
target behaviors by developing contingency tables for each behavior using
the information obtained from structured interviews and rating scales
• Practice conducting descriptive assessments
• Use A-B-C continuous recording
• Calculate and graph conditional probability data for A-B and B-C relationships
(continued)
200 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 15.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 5 (continued)
Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials
• State the probable EOs, SDs (if any), and possible function based on
conditional probability data for targeted behavior(s)
• Use A-B-C continuous recording to determine the presence of response
class hierarchy
• Use scatterplots
• Practice FA conditions
• Modified standard and precursor
• Latency based
• Pairwise
• Trial based
• State the EOs, SDs (if any), and function based on FA results for targeted
behaviors
• Role-play explaining assessment results to the caregiver/teacher using
non-technical language


Supervisor’s Initials
Advanced Skills: Client 1 Client 2 Client 3
• Obtain consent for assessment from caregivers
(across three different clients)
• Conduct record reviews, consider biological/
medical variables, and incorporate obtained
information in FBA report (across three different
clients)
• Conduct indirect assessments using structured
interviews and rating scales (e.g., FAST) and select
behaviors to be targeted for reduction and develop
hypotheses for variables that evoke and maintain
the selected target behaviors by developing
contingency tables for each targeted behavior
(across three different clients)
• Conduct descriptive assessments (across three
different clients)
• Calculate, graph, and include conditional
probability data for A-B and B-C relationships in
a FBA report
• Include the probable EOs, SDs (if any), and
function based on conditional probability data
for targeted behaviors in the FBA report
• Select a type of FA to conduct given the severity
of behaviors or combination of behaviors, time
limitation, setting within which assessment is
being conducted, and presence and absence of
response class hierarchies (across three different
clients)
(continued)
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  201

TABLE 15.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 5 (continued)
Supervisor’s Initials
Advanced Skills: Client 1 Client 2 Client 3

• Design FA conditions using withdrawal and multi-

element designs (across three3 different clients)
• Conduct FA (across three different clients)
• Graph the FA results and include these in the FBA
report
• Write comprehensive FBA reports (across three
different clients)
• Recommend potential interventions based on
assessment results, best available scientific
evidence, client preferences, supporting
environments, risks, constraints, and social validity
(across three different clients)
• Using non-technical language, explain assessment
results and recommendations to caregivers/
teachers (across three different caregivers/
teachers)


Shows generalized advanced skills, across two
novel clients, to: Supervisor’s Date
• Obtain consent and conduct record reviews and signature
indirect assessments as part of FBA
• Design and conduct FA
• Conduct descriptive assessment
• Complete FBA reports setting criteria by
incorporating information obtained through
record reviews, indirect and direct assessments,
and recommending potential interventions
based on assessment results, best available
scientific evidence, client preferences, supporting
environments, risks, constraints, and social validity
• Use non-technical language to explain assessment
results and recommendations to at least two novel
caregivers/teachers
BACB, Behavior Analyst Certification Board; EO, establishing operation; FA, functional analysis; FAST,
Functional Assessment Screening Tool; FBA, Functional Behavior Assessments; IEP, individualized
educational program; SD, discrimitive stimulus

To support learning and showing competency in behavior measurement (see competen-

cies in Table 15.1), we have included individual and group learning activities and strategies
for supervisees and supervisors to utilize. The group activities provided for supervisors can
also be used as part of one-on-one meetings with supervisees. For example, the supervisor
can use a group activity designed to establish an intermediate skill, such as practicing review
of medical and education records and prior assessments, and apply the same activity when
meeting one-on-one with a supervisee. Recommended activities and procedures are aligned
with establishing competence in basic, intermediate, and advanced skills.
202 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH BASIC SKILLS

• To build and maintain basic skills related to conducting FBAs:

• Review ethical guidelines related to assessment and informed consent
• Review notes and reading from classes that discussed terms and concepts listed in
Competency 5 Skills List (Table 15.1)
• Example:
○ Review information on direct and indirect assessment
○ Review the descriptive assessments and FA
• Build fluency with the concepts using Say All Fast, Minute Each Day, Shuffled
(SAFMEDS; Quigley et al., 2018)
• Use notes and readings from classes and complete the Utilization of Different Types
of Behavior Assessments Worksheet (see Table 15.2)
• If struggling with discriminating when to use specific assessment methods or
procedures, reach out to supervisors for support and more opportunities to practice
the concept
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 5 Skills List
(Table 15.1) for each completed basic skill

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• To build and maintain intermediate skills related to conducting FBAs:

• Complete assigned work within given timelines
• Actively participate in group or individual meetings
• Ask questions and for feedback on completed work
• Apply given feedback to assigned work and ask for more opportunities to practice
the skill
• Practice the conditions of FA with peers
• Ask the field supervisor for copies of the consent forms used by the organization
during assessments and review the forms to become familiar with them. Ask questions
about the content of the forms during supervision meetings.
• Have open and clear communication with the field supervisor and ask for oppor-
tunities to practice the targeted skills in Table 15.1
○ Example:
■ When there is an opportunity to conduct a FA, ask the field supervisor to be
part of the assessment process
■ If A-B-C data collection is used, ask the supervisor to allow calculating and
graphing of conditional probability data for A-B and B-C relationships
• Role-play with the supervisor on how to go over the consent paperwork with
caregivers or clients at the onset of assessments (see link to sample role-play under
“Resources for Supervisors” at the end of this chapter)
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  203

• Role-play with supervisors on how to share assessment results with caregivers or

teachers
• Use the additional reading and resources provided at the end of each competency
• Search for and read articles on different types of FA and when it should be used
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 5 Skills List
(Table 15.1) for each completed intermediate skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• To build and maintain advanced skills related to conducting FBAs:

• Provide evidence to supervisors overseeing the development of advanced skills
of readiness to apply the skills learned in a training environment with actual
clients
○ Example: Presenting the Competency 5 Skills List (Table 15.1) with the group
supervisor’s initials for listed basic and intermediate skills can function as evi-
dence for readiness to apply the skills with the clients
• Establish open and clear communication with supervisors overseeing the develop-
ment of advanced skills and ask for opportunities to:
○ Conduct FBAs as often as possible.
■ Conducting two assessments per month will provide sufficient practice
opportunities
○ Complete FBA reports
○ Design FA conditions and be included in assessments where functional analysis
will be used
○ Share the assessment results with caregivers or school teams during Individualized
Educational Program (IEP) meetings
• Seek supervision and supervisor feedback as often as possible
• Complete given work before established timelines
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 5 Skills List
(Table 15.1) for each completed advanced skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH BASIC AND

INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• Competence: Conducting FBAs

• Skill: Conducting FBAs to address behaviors of concern
• Skill level: Basic and Intermediate
• Number of meetings: 4
• Duration of each meeting: 3 hours
204 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Group supervision objectives:

○ Establish competence in basic concepts related to conducting FBAs addressing
behaviors of concern
■ Define function, descriptive assessment, functional analysis
■ State:
- The purpose of conducting FBAs
- The steps of conducting FBAs
- The differences between direct and indirect assessments
- Thr indirect assessment methods that may be used during FBAs
- The weaknesses of indirect assessment
- The process of conducting descriptive direct assessments
- The weakness of descriptive assessments
- The advantages and weaknesses of functional analysis
■ List the different types of FA and when to use each type of FA
■ Describe each condition of standard FA
■ Provide rationale, in relation to experimental control and manipulation of
establishing operations (EO), for the order of FA conditions
○ Establish competence in intermediate skills related to conducting FBAs
addressing behaviors of concern
■ Obtain consent for conducting FBAs
■ Practice conducting indirect assessments using:
- Record review
- Interviews with caregivers/teachers
- Rating scales
■ Practice conducting direct assessments using
- A-B-C recordings
- FA
■ Practice completing FBA reports
■ Practice reporting the results of indirect and descriptive assessments in formats
used in FBAs
■ Practice explaining assessment results to the caregiver/teacher using non-
technical language

GROUP MEETING 1

• Skill Level: Basic

• Purpose: Establish competence in basic and intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to conducting assessments
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  205

○ Review basic concepts related to conducting FBA

○ Complete the Utilization of Different Types of Functional Analysis Worksheet
(Table 15.2)
○ Review components of informed consent for FBA and role-play obtaining informed
consent
○ Practice record review and incorporate the obtained information onto FBA reports
• GROUP MEETING 1: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to review:
■ Competency 5 Skills List (Table 15.1) benchmarks related to conducting FBAs
addressing behaviors of concern
■ Suggested readings
○ Provide supervisees with the following resources to support preparedness for
group meetings:
■ Informed consent for conducting FBAs used by the organization
■ Semi-structured or open-ended interview form used by the organization
and rating scales such as Functional Assessment Screening Tool (FAST) and
Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS)
■ List of suggested readings and resources
- Camp et al., 2009
- Fryling & Baires, 2016)
- Greer et al., 2020
- Hanley, 2012
- Iwata & Dozier, 2008
- O’Neill et al., 2015
- Wiskirchen et al., 2017

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To establish competency in basic concepts related to conducting FBAs, the indi-
vidual leading the group should:
○ Inform the supervisees to review:
■ Terms and concepts listed in Competency 5 Skills List (Table 15.1) and to be
prepared to discuss all the basic skills listed in the table
■ Utilization of Different Types of Functional Assessment Procedures Worksheet
(see Table 15.2; also included in the online student resources)
■ Suggested readings, and bring to practica the articles and the textbooks used
in a course covering FBAs
- Example: If the supervisees used Cooper et al. (2020), they will bring that
textbook to group practica meeting.
206 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 15.2 Sample Table for All Assessment Procedures and Their Strengths and Weaknesses
Basic Skills: Utilization of different types of behavior assessments
General When Should
Assessment Type Procedure Be Used Advantages Weaknesses

Indirect
Descriptive
A-B-C Continuous
A-B-C Narrative
Recording
Scatterplot Recording
Functional Analysis
Modified Standard
Precursor
Latency Based
Pairwise
Trial Based
Brief
ISCA
Functional Analysis
Conditions Procedure When Should Be Used

Alone
Ignore
Attention
Escape
Control
Tangible
Synthesized (for ISCA)
ISCA, International School Counselor Association

○ Create PowerPoint slides for ethical guidelines related to assessment and all
basic concepts listed in Competency 5 Skills List (Table 15.1)
■ Example 1: Rreview the purpose of conducting FBAs and include it on the
PowerPoint slides
■ Example 2: Review types of descriptive assessments and include the informa-
tion on the PowerPoint slides
○ Include on the PowerPoint slide the Utilization of Different Types of Functional
Analysis Worksheet
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 1:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to assessments
○ Review basic concepts relate to FBA
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  207

○ Complete the Utilization of Different Types of Functional Analysis Worksheet

○ Review components of informed consent for FBA and role-play obtaining informed
consent
○ Practice record review and incorporate the obtained information onto FBA reports
• After going over group meeting 1 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Review the ethical guidelines related to conducting assessments
○ After the review of ethical guidelines, start the review of terms and concepts
by using a random wheel or cards, and select a basic skill (e.g., validity) and a
supervisee and have them answer the question about the selected basic skill
○ Use information on PowerPoints slides to provide feedback and use multiple
exemplar training to provide sufficient examples of each basic skill
○ After completing the review of terms and concepts, have supervisees complete
the Utilization of Different Types of Functional Analysis Worksheet
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select an item from the worksheet (e.g., latency-
based FA) and have them answer the question about the selected skill
■ Use information on the PowerPoint slides to provide feedback
○ Continue until all cells in the worksheet are completed

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To learn how to obtain informed consent when conducting FBAs, include into
PowerPoint slides:
○ Informed consent documents used by the organization for conducting FBAs
○ Questions that caregivers might ask when giving informed consent for assessment.
■ These questions will be directed toward supervisees during role-plays and
should include all parts of the informed consent form used by the organization
(see sample interview role-play in online student resources)
- Examples:
- “How long will it take to start the services?’
- “Why is it necessary to do an assessment?”
- “Why can’t you just use the information I provided during the interview
to complete the assessment?”
- “Why is it needed to conduct functional analysis?”
- “Will doing functional analysis make the problem behavior worse?”
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by reviewing the informed consent with the group
• Assign each part of the informed consent to a group member
• Have the group members go over their assigned parts using non-technical statements
with the supervisor acting as the caregiver
• Ask the prepared questions relevant to each section
• Provide feedback to each supervisee on the following:
208 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Clarity of presentation of the information

○ Use of non-technical language
○ Answering the questions posed by the “caregiver”

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To learn how to conduct record reviews:
○ Send the group members a template of a background information section of the
FBA report used by the organization (to be used when summarizing the record
reviews)
○ Compile the following records (redact all identifying information, including the
client’s name)
■ Medical records that show:
- Medical conditions such as asthma or no health issues
■ School records (if applicable):
- Individual Education Plan (IEP), attendance, report cards
- Previous and current interventions
- Previous school-based FBA report or progress report
■ Previous home-based FBA report or progress report
■ Previous and current behavior intervention plans
○ Create PowerPoint slides:
■ Containing relevant information that needs to be obtained for each type of record
- Example: For review of medical records, the slides may include:
- Medical conditions
- Medications
- Allergies
- Hospitalizations
- Vision and hearing results
- Dietary restrictions
- Issues with food and liquid swallowing
■ To practice incorporating record reviews into FBA reports, develop PowerPoint
slides that would include criteria and samples for each type of record review.
The slides may consist of samples from FBA reports for the following areas
that are commonly included in reports:
- Medical history
- Education history
- Previous and current services
- Previous assessments and interventions
- Example:
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  209

Parent Report / Medical Records Review

Medical or physical conditions None reported by caregiver and medical records

Allergies None reported by caregiver and medical records
History of hospitalizations and None reported by caregiver and medical records
recent injures
Medications None reported by caregiver and medical records
Vision and hearing Vision normal and hearing at greater than 80 decibels
Problems with swallowing food None reported
or liquids

- Detailed descriptions of the type of record reviews and samples of incorpo-

rating the information obtained from record reviews onto FBA reports can
be found in O’Neill et al. (2015)
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP
• One record type at a time, present the group with medical and school records, and
previous assessments/progress reports and intervention plans
• Use the prepared information on record reviews (present the prepared slides) and dis-
cuss with the group what information should be used from each type of record review
• Have the group members pinpoint the discussed information from that specific record
○ Example:
■ First, discuss what medical information is usually obtained for the assessment
(e.g., any medical conditions, medications)
■ Then, have the group members go over the medical records and pinpoint rel-
evant information
• After the record is reviewed but before moving on to the next record, show samples
of how the review of records will be incorporated into background information of
the FBA report
• Instruct the group members to use a provided template and summarize the target
record review
• Follow these steps for all provided records

GROUP MEETING 2

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Practice interviewing caregivers and administering rating scales
○ Practice writing parts of FBA reports that are based on record reviews and informa-
tion obtained through indirect assessment (e.g., reason for referral, medical history)
○ Use worksheets for prioritizing problem behaviors and select behaviors that should
be targeted for reduction based on caregiver/teacher concerns and priorities
210 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Generate hypotheses for variables that evoke and maintain the selected target
behaviors by developing contingency tables for each behavior using the infor-
mation obtained from structured interviews and rating scales
• GROUP MEETING 2: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to review:
■ Competency 5 Skills List (Table 15.1) benchmarks related to conducting FBAs
addressing behaviors of concern
■ The worksheets for prioritizing problem behaviors
■ Interview forms and rating scales
■ FBA template
○ Email to the supervisees:
■ Interview form used by the organization and rating scales (FAST or MAS) (if
the organization is not using rating scales, then no need to include them)
■ FBA template used by the organization

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice interviewing caregivers or teachers and using rating scales, the indi-
vidual leading the group should:
○ Inform the supervisees to:
■ Review the provided interview forms and rating scales prior to group meeting
■ Bring all materials used during record review activity and the corresponding
notes (this information will be used in combination with information obtained
through interviews when writing sections of the FBA report)
○ Prepare needed materials and include them in the PowerPoint slides or as Word
or PDF documents
■ Interview form used by the organization and rating scales (FAST or MAS) (if
the organization is not using rating scales, there is no need to include them)
■ Develop Performance Monitoring Checklist/Tool (PMC/T) to set clear acqui-
sition criteria for developing interviewing skills
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 2:
○ Practice interviewing caregivers and administering rating scales
• After going over group meeting 2 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Part 1: Start with practicing interviewing
■ Assign each group member a section of the interview to conduct
- Example:
- Group member 1 will ask questions about the reason for the referral
- Group member 2 will ask questions about behaviors of concern
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  211

■ Have the group members conduct the interviews for the sections they are
assigned, using non-technical statements, with the supervisor acting as the
caregiver
■ Follow the steps above until all sections of the interview form are completed
■ Supervisor provides feedback on the following:
- Clarity of presentation of the information
- Use of non-technical language
- Asking clarifying questions
- Controlling the pace of the interview
■ Repeat these steps by reassigning the sections of the interview to supervisees
until all members meet the set acquisition criteria for interviewing caregivers/
teachers
■ Use the developed PMC/T to assess skill acquisition criteria
○ Part 2: Practice administering and scoring rating scales (e.g., FAST or MAS)
(if the organization does not use rating scales, eliminate this part from
training)
■ Have the group members review the rating scales emailed to them prior to the
group meeting
■ Select a rating scale for practice (e.g., FAST)
■ Provide the supervisees with the answers to the ratings for each area
- Example: Completing FAST
- Does the problem behavior occur when the person is not receiving atten-
tion or when caregivers are paying attention to someone else? NO
- Does the problem behavior occur when the person’s requests for preferred
items or activities are denied or when these are taken away? YES
■ After the rating scale is complete, model how to score the rating scale
■ Change the answers to the questions and have them practice scoring the rating
scale
- Does the problem behavior occur when the person is not receiving attention
or when caregivers are paying attention to someone else? Yes
- Does the problem behavior occur when the person’s requests for preferred
items or activities are denied or when these are taken away? No
■ Use total count interobserver agreement (IOA) for each section of the rating
scales to assess reliability and provide feedback on scoring and practice until
the IOA for all scores is 100%
■ Have supervisees graph the results of the rating scales to be included in the
FBA report
■ Review the graph and provide feedback on the following:
- Selection of the correct type of graph
- Having all components of a graph present
- Accuracy of the graph in relation to the scores on the rating scales
212 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice incorporating interview and rating scale results into FBAs, the indi-
vidual leading the group should:
○ Inform the supervisees to:
■ Bring the FBA template used by the organization
■ Have interview and rating scale results ready at the start of the activity
○ To practice writing the reasons for referral and summary of family history of
living arrangements sections of the FBA reports using indirect assessment
results, develop PowerPoint slides that may include:
■ Criteria and samples for each area included in reports. The PowerPoint might
include samples from FBA reports for the following areas that are commonly
included in reports.
- Example: FBA section, Reason for referral:
- Criteria: Reason for referral must include, but may not be limited to:
- Source of referral (caregiver, teacher)
- Reasons for which the assessment was requested, including the general
description of target behaviors (e.g., crying or aggression) and skill
deficits (if home-based services are the goal)
- Include information on current reported levels of the targeted behaviors
and also on worsening or improvement in target behaviors to provide
the need for assessment
- State the purpose of the FBA
- Sample of the reason for referral section of an FBA
- Jane’s mother requested this Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA) to
address self-injury, aggression, and skill deficits in the areas of commu-
nication, daily living, and social interactions. According to the caregiver,
the first aggression was observed when Jane was 3 years old, and first
self-injury was observed when she was 4. According to caregiver, Jane
engages in aggression 3 times a day and in self-injury 2 times a day. Per
caregiver, aggression and self-injury occur more often and are more in-
tense compared to when they were initially observed. The purposes of
this assessment are to:
- Gather baseline data on the problem behaviors and assess communi-
cation, play, daily living, and social interaction skills
- Identify classes or sequences of behaviors that frequently occur
together
- Identify antecedent events that could evoke the problem behaviors
- Identify the function of the problem behaviors
- Recommend intervention strategies that would address necessary
environmental changes, function-based interventions, and teaching
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  213

strategies to address behaviors of concern and needs in communication,

play, daily living, and social interaction skills
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Present one at a time the PowerPoint slides that include criteria and samples from
FBA reports for the reason for referral and family history/living arrangements
• Have the group members use the set criteria for each section—provided FBA tem-
plate and information obtained through indirect assessments—and complete the
sections of the report listed above
○ Example: Reason for referral
■ Present the criteria and sample write-up on the same slide. Go over the criteria
and sample.
- Have the group members use the information obtained via interview and
write reason for referral section for the report
• Ask the supervisees to read their work and provide them with feedback until all
group members meet the set criteria for writing all sections of the report that are
based on indirect assessment results

GROUP MEETING 3

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Practice using descriptive assessment of targeted behaviors to identify pos-
sible antecedent and consequent events that evoke and maintain targeted
behaviors
○ Practice incorporating the descriptive assessment results into FBA reports
• GROUP MEETING 3: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to review and bring to the meeting:
■ Competency 5 Skills List (Table 15.1) benchmarks related to conducting FBAs
addressing behaviors of concern
■ A-B-C data sheet that will be used during group meetings
■ Descriptive assessment of targeted behaviors covered in their classes and
textbooks
■ Section in the FBA template related to reporting of descriptive assessment
results
○ Email the supervisees:
■ Blank A-B-C data sheet that will be used during group meetings
■ FBA template used by the organization (unless already done in a previous
meeting)
214 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using descriptive assessment of targeted behaviors to identify possible
antecedent and consequent events that evoke and maintain targeted behaviors,
the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform the supervisees to bring blank A-B-C data sheets and the FBA template
to the meeting
○ Prepare needed materials and include them in the PowerPoint slides or as Word
or PDF documents
■ Sample completed A-B-C Data sheet
■ Search and download or include the links to two to three videos onto PowerPoint
slides that meet the following criteria:
- Include socially appropriate behaviors
- Include clear antecedent events related to the behavior
- Include observable consequences related to the behavior
■ Develop a PMC/T to set clear acquisition criteria for evaluating A-B-C data
collection by the supervisees
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 3:
○ Practice descriptive assessment of targeted behaviors and reporting results of
descriptive assessment in FBA reports
• After going over group meeting 3 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Review the A-B-C data collection sheet emailed to group members
○ Review the sample completed A-B-C data
○ Answer all questions
○ After review, present one video at a time, and after watching the video:
■ Have the group members identify and operationally define the problem
behavior
■ Have the group members define antecedent events that are correlated with
all four possible functions (social positive-attention, social positive-access to
tangible, escape, and automatic reinforcement)
- Examples:
- Task demand/instruction: Presenting an instructional demand (e.g., write
a sentence, wash your hands, “What’s is your name?”)
- Tangible/leisure activity taken away: An item is taken away from the
client without any additional requests to transition to a different activity
(e.g., something the child was playing with or had in their possession and
a peer or adult took the item away from the child)
- Denied access to a tangible/leisure activity: The client mands for an item
or reaches for an item. Access to the item of interest is blocked, or the client
is told “no” or “not now” contingent on the mand (e.g., client mands for
juice, the caregiver says “no” or “Not now, you just had some”).
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  215

- No interaction (ignore) with access to leisure items: Adult, sibling, or

peer is visible to the client (e.g., in the same room), but no one engages in
vocal or physical interaction (instructional or otherwise) with the client
for 5 seconds or more. The client could have access to tangibles (e.g., client
is watching TV while the mom is in the room, but there is no interaction
with the client).
■ Have the group members define consequent events for all four functions
- Examples:
- Escape: Client engages in any other behavior that is not related to the task
demand within 5 seconds from the time the request was presented (e.g., an
adult asks the client to complete a matching task; the client engaged in problem
behavior within 5 seconds from the time the instruction was delivered)
- Tangible: Having access to or contact with leisure activities or items or
edible items after the target behavior was observed (e.g., adult allows the
client to continue to play on the computer after engaging in aggression;
adult gives the client access to a manded toy following aggression)
■ After defining the target behaviors, antecedents, and the consequences:
- Show the video again
- Have the group members collect A-B-C data using the provided datasheet
- Model how to collect data for the first two occurrences of the targeted
behaviors
- Have the group members continue collecting data
- Stop the video after each opportunity to collect A-B-C data and have each
group member share the marked sequence
- Provide feedback as needed using the PMC/T (see a sample PMC/T in the
online student resources)
■ Complete the steps above for each video till all supervisees show at least 100%
IOA with the data collected by the supervisor

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice writing the results of descriptive assessment for FBA reports, develop
PowerPoint slides that would include criteria and samples of information that
must be included in reports
○ Example: Criteria—must include, but may not be limited to:
■ Target behavior
■ Possible antecedent events: Description of antecedent events that have the
highest correlation with the behavior based on the conditional probability data
- Break down antecedent events to setting events, establishing operations and
discriminative stimulus (if applicable)
- Provide data shown in the graph to support the conclusions
- Reference to a bar graph showing the A-B relationship
216 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Possible function(s)
- Using bullet points, list the consequent events that have the highest corre-
lation with the behavior based on the conditional probability data
- Provide data shown in the graph to support the conclusions
■ Sample as included in the FBAs
- Aggression
- Antecedent events
- Setting events: Illness and lack of sleep
- Establishing operations:
- Task demands: In 55% of opportunities, aggression followed demands
to engage in an instructional task
- Removal of tangibles and denial of mands: In 45% of opportunities,
aggression followed the denial of mands to access preferred items such
as music or food and interruption of play
- Possible function(s)
- Escape from instructional tasks: In 50% of opportunities, tasks were
terminated or postponed following aggression
- Access to tangible: In 50% of opportunities, manded item and continued
access to play was provided following aggression
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Present the PowerPoint slides that include criteria and samples from FBA reports
for reporting A-B-C data
○ Go over the criteria and sample
○ Have the group members calculate conditional probabilities for A-B and B-C
relationships and graph the results
○ Monitor performance using PMC/T and provide feedback as needed
○ After graphs are developed, instruct the supervisees to use the provided FBA
template and the samples and include in the report descriptive assessment results
○ Ask each member to present their work and provide feedback as needed by com-
pleting the PMC/T
○ Provide feedback until all group members meet the set criteria for using descrip-
tive assessment results to report on probable antecedents and consequences for
targeted behaviors
• GROUP MEETING 3—END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY
2, AND PROVIDE AN OPPORTUNITY TO COMPLETE AN UNRESTRICTED
ACTIVITY
• GROUP MEETING 3: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY—PREPARATORY
ACTIVITIES
• None
• GROUP MEETING 3: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• To continue practicing A-B-C data collection and reporting results as part of FBA,
inform the supervisees to:
○ Ask permission from the field supervisor to collect A-B-C data for the client
supervisees are working with
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  217

○ After obtaining permission, use the provided A-B-C data collection form and
collect A-B-C data for targeted behaviors exhibited by a current client they are
assigned to
○ The independent unrestricted activity should include:
■ Defining the target behavior(s), antecedents, and consequences, or use the
previously developed definitions for targeted behavior, antecedents, and
consequences
■ Collect A-B-C data for two week period or until 10 occurrences of target beha-
vior have been recorded
■ Calculate conditional probabilities for A-B and B-C relationships
■ Graph the conditional probability results
■ Write up the assessment results is it was for an FBA
■ Scan the raw data sheets and email the data sheet with the write-up to indi-
vidual and group supervisors for feedback

GROUP MEETING 4

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Practice conducting FA for targeted behavior(s)
○ Practice incorporating the FA results into FBA reports
• GROUP MEETING 4: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to review:
■ Competency 5 Skills List (Table 15.1) benchmarks related to conducting FA
■ Conditions of standard FA
■ Section in the FBA template related to reporting of FA results
○ Email the supervisees:
■ FBA template used by the organization (if already done in a previous meeting,
skip this step)

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using FA to identify antecedent and consequent events that evoke and
maintain targeted behaviors, the individual leading the group should:
○ Prepare needed materials and include them in the PowerPoint slides or as Word
or PDF documents
218 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Develop a description of the setting in which the FA will be conducted and the
environmental variables that need to be addressed to:
- Ensure client safety (e.g., table with sharp corners or open window)
- Control for confounding variables (e.g., toys all over the house)
■ Develop a PMC/T for each condition of the FA
• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 3:
○ Practice conducting FA for targeted behaviors and reporting results of in FBA reports
• After going over the group meeting 3 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Go over the PMC/T (see the sample in online student resources) that will be used
to monitor the performance of the supervisees
○ Provide the group with a target behavior that will be easy to measure (e.g., ag-
gression or screaming)
○ Have supervisees define the behavior for the purposes of FA
○ After defining the target behaviors, provide the group with the description of the
setting in which the FA will be conducted and have the group address the existing
environmental variables:
■ To ensure the safety of the client
■ To control confounding variables (e.g., toys mislaid throughout the apartment)
■ Locations where each condition will be conducted
○ Provide feedback to make sure the client’s safety is addressed, possible confounding
variables are controlled, and locations for each condition are practical and match
the condition (e.g., conducting control condition in the client’s room where all
the toys are or in the living room where most of the toys are)
○ Use Behavior Skills Training to shape the procedures for each targeted condition
1. Pair up the supervisees
2. Randomly select a pair and collect a baseline for each condition before teaching
it (each pair of supervisees will demonstrate a condition)
3. After the baseline is established, model the procedure
4. Have each pair practice the modeled condition
5. For each group, use the PMC/T for each condition to evaluate performance
and provide feedback
6. Move to the next condition when all group members perform the skill with
100% accuracy across two consecutive trials
○ Repeat steps 1–6 for all other conditions

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice writing the results of FA into FBA reports, develop PowerPoint slides that
would include criteria and samples of information that must be included in reports
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  219

○ Example: Criteria—must include, but may not be limited to:

■ Target behavior
■ Type of FA that was conducted and assessed functions
■ Antecedent events: Description of antecedent events that were in place when
specific functions were assessed
- Break down antecedent events to setting events, establishing operations,
and discriminative stimulus (if applicable)
- Provide data shown in the graph to support the conclusions
- Reference to the bar graph showing A-B relationship
■ Function(s)
- Using bullet points, list the consequent events that increased the occurrence
of targeted behaviors
- Reference to the FA graphs to support conclusions
■ Sample as included in the FBAs
- Aggression
- Antecedent events
- Setting events: Illness and lack of sleep
- Establishing Operations:
- Task demands
- Function(s)
- Escape from instructional tasks
• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Present the PowerPoint slides that include criteria and samples from FBA reports
for reporting functional analysis data
○ Go over the criteria and sample
○ Have the group members graph the results of the mock functional analysis
○ After graphs are developed, instruct the supervisees to use the provided FBA
template and the samples and include in the report FA results
○ Ask each supervisee to present their work and provide feedback until all group
members meet the set criteria for using FA results to report on antecedents and
consequences for targeted behaviors
• GROUP MEETING 4—END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY
2, AND PROVIDE AN OPPORTUNITY TO COMPLETE AN UNRESTRICTED
ACTIVITY
• GROUP MEETING 4: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY—PREPARATORY
ACTIVITIES
• None
• GROUP MEETING 4: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• To practice conducting FA and reporting results as part of FBA, inform the
supervisees to:
○ Reach out to individual supervisors and request to assist when the supervisor
has the opportunity to conduct a functional analysis
220 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ As part of the experience, the supervisee may be part of:

■ Designing the conditions for conducting FA and asking for feedback
■ Conducting conditions allowed by the supervisor during the assessment
■ Graphing the assessment results and asking for feedback
■ If possible, incorporating the results into reports

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Suggested activities for supervisors(s) overseeing the development of advanced

skills and application of skills with clients
• After the supervisee meets the required criteria to begin developing advanced skills
○ While still in the process of earning a graduate degree, the supervisee may be
given opportunities to:
■ Assist with functional behavior assessments using:
- Indirect assessments
- Descriptive assessments
- FA
■ Write completed FBA reports
○ After earning a graduate degree and being allowed to manage clients under
supervision, the supervisee may be asked to:
■ Continue assisting with behavior assessments
■ Write complete FBA reports
■ Go over the results with caregivers and school staff
■ Document completion of each skill by getting supervisor to initial Competency
Skills List 5 (Table 15.1)

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

RESOURCES FOR SUPERVISORS

Additional tables and checklists for this chapter are available at the end of this text, following the index.

REFERENCES

Camp, E. M., Iwata, B. A., Hammond, J. L., & Bloom, S. E. (2009). Antecedent versus consequent events as
predictors of problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42(2), 469–483. [Link]
/10.1901/jaba.2009.42-469
Cooper, J., Heron, T., & Heward, W. (2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.
 15 Competency 5: Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments  221

Fryling, M. J., & Baires, N. A. (2016). The practical importance of the distinction between open and closed-
ended indirect assessments. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9(2), 146–151. [Link]
/s40617-016-0115-2
Greer, B. D., Mitteer, D. R., Briggs, A. M., Fisher, W. W., & Sodawasser, A. J. (2020). Comparisons of
standardized and interview-informed synthesized reinforcement contingencies relative to functional
analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53(1), 82–101. [Link]
Hanley, G. P. (2012). Functional assessment of problem behavior: Dispelling myths, overcoming
implementation obstacles, and developing new lore. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5(1), 54–72. https://
[Link]/10.1007/BF03391818
Iwata, B. A., & Dozier, C. L. (2008). Clinical application of functional analysis methodology. Behavior
Analysis in Practice, 1(1), 3–9. [Link]
O’Neill, R. E., Albin, R. W., Storey, K., Horner, R. H., & Sprague, J. R. (2015). Functional assessment and
program development for problem behavior (3rd ed.). Cengage Learning.
Quigley, S. P., Peterson, S. M., Frieder, J. E., & Peck, K. M. (2018). A review of SAFMEDS: Evidence for
procedures, outcomes and directions for future research. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 41(1), 283–301.
[Link]
Wiskirchen, R. R., Deochand, N., & Peterson, S. M. (2017). Functional analysis: A need for clinical decision
support tools to weigh risks and benefits. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, 17(4), 325–333. https://
[Link]/10.1037/bar0000088
 16
COMPETENCY 6: CONDUCTING
PREFERENCE AND REINFORCER
ASSESSMENTS

PREREQUISITE SKILLS

• Data collection and graphing

• Data-based decision-making

• Knowledge of single-subject experimental design

• Knowledge of different types of preference assessments and when to use them

We all prefer specific items, foods, or activities over others. One person might pick apples over
all other fruits and always select an apple when provided with a choice of eating an apple,
pear, grapes, watermelon, or peach. After a few observations, we can conclude that apple
is the preferred fruit for that individual. Behavior analysts conduct preference assessments
to identify preferences. Preference assessments can be indirect (e.g., information gathered
through structured interviews such as Reinforcement Assessment for Individuals with Severe
Disabilities [RAISD]) or direct (e.g., single stimulus, paired choice, multiple stimulus with
and without replacement). Direct assessment of preference generally involves systematically
presenting stimuli to a client for short periods, across multiple trials, and then taking data on
the learner’s selections or duration of engagement with each stimulus (Hagopian et al., 2004).
Preference assessment provides information on client preferences; high preference stimuli are
considered “potential” reinforcers (Hagopian et al., 2004). A reinforcer assessment must be
conducted to determine if a high-preference stimulus will function as a reinforcer (Hagopian
et al., 2004). Preferences might change weekly, monthly, or even during a session depending
on exposure to the preferred items or activities and the novelty of items and activities,
suggesting frequent preference assessments (Butler & Graff, 2021). In summary, preference
assessments are essential tools that allow behavior analysts to identify possible reinforcers
that can be used to establish new behaviors and strengthen existing ones. Knowing when

222
 16 Competency 6: Conducting Preference and Reinforcer Assessments 223

to use specific preference assessments may provide accurate information about a learner’s
preferences. Conducting the most common preference assessments and discriminating when
to use particular preference assessments should be in a competent behavior analyst’s reper-
toire. In Table 16.1, we provide the reader with benchmarks to guide skill development for
this competency to support building competency for conducting preference and reinforcer
assessments.
The basic skills for building competency in conducting preference assessments empha-
size the review of purposes of conducting preference and reinforcer assessments and dis-
criminating between different types of preference assessments. Selecting the best type of
preference assessment or combination of assessments for given situations requires knowing
the strengths and weaknesses of each assessment type. We provide a worksheet, included
at the link under Resources for Supervisors at the end of this chapter, to help identify pre-
requisite skills in learners’ repertoires and the strengths and weaknesses of each preference
assessment type. The completed worksheet can be used as a reference guide when working
on intermediate and advanced skills. Note that supervisees must show competent knowledge
of the basic skills before being given opportunities to engage in intermediate skills.
The intermediate skills are designed to provide the supervisee with opportunities to
practice conducting indirect and direct preference assessments and reinforcer assessments.
We recommend that supervisees first build intermediate skills by practicing how to conduct
all preference assessment types through role-play. After the supervisee meets set perfor-
mance criteria in the training environment, supervisors should provide opportunities for
supervisees to conduct preference assessments with clients. Practice of intermediate skills
can be established using a group or individual supervision format. The activities provided in
this chapter are designed to guide the supervisors in supporting supervisees in establishing
each intermediate competency listed in Table 16.1. Tasks listed under intermediate skills also
allow the opportunity to practice sharing assessment results with caregivers and teachers.
Advanced skills are designed to have supervisees apply their intermediate skills with
clients and train staff directly working with clients on conducting preference assessments.
For example, after meeting the criteria for intermediate skills related to conducting structured
interviews with caregivers or teachers to identify possible preferred items, the supervisee
may be allowed to use that skill when conducting a Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)
under the guidance of a supervisor with the client. After the supervisee shows competence in
conducting preference assessments with 100% fidelity with clients, the supervisor may provide
opportunities for supervisees to train others on implementing different types of preference
assessments. Advanced skills also emphasize data-based decision-making. We recommend
having supervisees always engage in data-based decision-making by graphing preference
assessment results and selecting preferred items based on visual inspection of the graphs.
Finally, the competency list includes generality criteria to support the supervisors in
making decisions about the readiness of the supervisees to perform the advanced skills ac-
curately and independently. The supervisee may demonstrate mastery in conducting pref-
erence assessments when the supervisee meets the generality criteria listed in Table 16.1. For
example, the supervisee, across three novel clients, must select to use the most appropriate
preference assessment given the client’s repertoire, conduct indirect and direct preference
assessments, graph and use the results of the assessment during sessions, and teach direct
staff to work at least two different types of direct preference assessments and incorporate
the preference assessment results onto treatment plans, FBAs, and progress reports.
When each component listed in the competency is met, the supervisors are encouraged
to sign off on the skill by signing their initials next to that skill. For example, when working
on intermediate skills, as soon as the supervisee meets the criteria for practicing how to con-
duct paired choice preference assessment, the supervisor may initial the designated box to
224 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 16.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 6

Conduct preference and reinforcer assessments
Supervisor’s
Basic Skills Initials

• State purpose of conducting preference assessments

• State four types of preference assessments
• State purpose of conducting reinforcer assessments
• State behavior cusps that are needed for each type of preference
assessment


Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• Practice identifying possible reinforcers by conducting caregiver/teacher

interviews (e.g., RAISD)
• Practice selecting an appropriate preference assessment method given the
client’s repertoire (across three different client repertoires)
• Practice conducting the following preference assessments using a list
of possible reinforcers provided by caregivers/teachers in a training
environment with 100% fidelity across two consecutive PMCs
• SS
• PS
• MSWO
• FO
• Practice graphing the preference assessment results and order possible
reinforcers from most to least preferred with 100% fidelity across two
consecutive PMCs
• Optional: Using the preference assessment results, conduct reinforcer
assessments in a training environment with 100% fidelity across two
consecutive PMCs
• Optional: Graph the reinforcer assessment results and select potent
reinforcers with 100% fidelity across two consecutive PMCs
• Practice explaining assessment results to the caregiver/teacher using non-
technical language (across three different preference assessments)


• Conduct preference assessments with clients: Supervisor’s Initials
Independently complete, with 100% accuracy, the
Client 1 Client 2 Client 3
listed direct preference assessments using a list
of possible reinforcers provided by caregivers/
teachers with at least three clients across two
consecutive PMCs
• SS
• PS
(continued)
 16 Competency 6: Conducting Preference and Reinforcer Assessments 225

TABLE 16.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 6 (continued)
Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• MSWO
• FO
• Optional: Using the preference assessment results,
conduct reinforcer assessments with clients:
Independently complete, with 100% accuracy,
reinforcer assessment using preference assessment
results with at least three clients across two
consecutive PMCs
• Graph the preference assessment results and order
possible reinforcers from most to least preferred
with 100% fidelity across two consecutive PMCs


Supervisor’s Initials
Advanced Skills Client 1 Client 2 Client 3

• Identify possible reinforcers by conducting

caregiver/teacher interviews using RAISD (across
three different clients)
• Select an appropriate preference assessment
method given the client’s repertoire and obtain
feedback from the supervisor (across three
different clients)
• Graph the preference assessment results and use
the results to identify potential reinforcers to be
used during sessions (across three different clients)
• Graph the results and use the results during sessions
with actual clients (across three different clients)
• Discuss the results of preference assessment with
caregivers/teachers (across three different clients)
• Incorporate the preference assessment results
into FBAs and progress reports, and explain
the results to the caregiver/teacher using non-
technical language (across three different clients)
• Optional: Using the preference assessment
results, conduct reinforcer assessment (across
three different clients)
• Use BST to teach direct staff how to conduct Supervisor’s Initials
preference assessments (across three different
Staff 1 Staff 2 Staff 3
staff)
• SS
• PS
• MSWO
• FO
(continued)
226 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 16.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 6 (continued)
Supervisor’s Initials
Advanced Skills Client 1 Client 2 Client 3


Shows generalized advanced skills across three novel
clients, by: Supervisor’s Date
• Selecting the most appropriate preference assessment given signature
the client’s repertoire
• Conducting indirect and direct preference assessments
• Graphing and using the results of the assessment during
sessions
• Using BST to teach staff working with clients to conduct at
least two different types of direct preference assessments
• Incorporating the preference assessment results into treatment
plans, FBAs, and progress reports
• Optional: Conducting reinforcer assessment and using the
results of the assessment during sessions
BST, Behavior Skills Training; FO, Free Operant; FBA, Functional Behavior Assessment; MSWO, Multiple
Stimulus without Replacement; PS, Paired Stimulus or Paired Choice; PMC, Performance Monitoring Checks;
RAISD, Reinforcement Assessment for Individuals with Severe Disabilities; SS, Single Stimulus.

indicate that the supervisee met the criteria for that specific intermediate skill. Sometimes, the
completion of a component skill requires meeting multiple criteria. For example, to consider
the criteria for conducting direct preference assessments met, the supervisee must conduct
four different types of direct preference assessments to set criteria with clients; for example,
single stimulus (SS), paired stimulus or paired choice (PS), multiple stimulus without replace-
ment (MSWO), and free operant (FO) (see Table 16.1).

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH BASIC SKILLS

• To build and maintain basic skills related to conducting skills assessments:

• Review notes and reading from classes that discussed terms and concepts listed in
Competency 6 Skills List (Table 16.1)
○ Example:
■ Review information on direct and indirect preference assessment
■ Review when to use a specific type of preference assessment
■ Review the difference between preference and reinforcer assessments
• Complete the Utilization of Different Types of Preference Assessments Worksheet
(see Table 16.2)
• Build fluency with the interpretation of standard scores using Say All Fast, Minute
Each Day, Shuffled (SAFMEDS; Quigley et al., 2018)
• If struggling with discriminating when to use specific preference assessments, reach
out to supervisors for support and more opportunities to practice the concept
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 6 Skills List
(Table 16.1) for each completed basic skill
 16 Competency 6: Conducting Preference and Reinforcer Assessments 227

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• To build and maintain intermediate skills related to conducting FBAs:

• Complete assigned work within given timelines
• Actively participate in group or individual meetings
• Ask questions and for feedback on completed work
• Apply given feedback to assigned work and ask for more opportunities to practice
the skill
• Practice conducting preference assessments with peers
○ Example: Role-play with a peer conducting MSWO preference assessment. A peer
can play the role of a client, and then switch roles
• Practice scoring preference assessment results and graphing the results by cre-
ating mock data for all listed preference assessments in Competency 6 Skills List
(Table 16.1)
• Have open and clear communication with the field supervisor and ask for oppor-
tunities to practice the targeted skills in Competency 6 Skills List (Table 16.1)
○ Example: When there is an opportunity to conduct a preference assessment
with a current client, with supervision conduct the preference assessment by
selecting the assessment type first, then conducting the assessment and asking
for feedback
• Discuss with the supervisor how to incorporate the assessment results into the
client’s treatment plans
• Role-play with supervisors how to share assessment results with caregivers when
conducting caregiver training
• Use the additional reading and resources provided at the end of each competency
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 6 Skills List
(Table 16.1) for each completed intermediate skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• To build and maintain advanced skills related to conducting skills assessments:

• Provide evidence to supervisors overseeing the development of advanced skills
of readiness to apply the skills learned in a training environment with actual
clients
○ Example: Presenting the Competency 6 Skills List (Table 16.1) with the group
supervisor’s initials for listed basic and intermediate skills can function as evi-
dence for readiness to apply the skills with the clients
• Establish open and clear communication with supervisors overseeing the develop-
ment of advanced skills and ask for opportunities to:
○ Conduct preference and reinforcer (if needed) assessments
■ Conducting two preference assessments per month will provide sufficient
practice opportunities
228 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Incorporate the preference assessment results into progress reports

○ Use the assessment results and make changes to reinforcers used in treatment
plans
• Share preference assessment results with caregivers when conducting caregiver
training
• Seek supervision and feedback as often as possible
• Complete given work before established timelines
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 6 Skills List
(Table 16.1) for each completed advanced skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH BASIC AND

INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• Competence: Conducting preference and reinforcer assessments

• Skill: Conduct preference assessments to identify possible reinforcers
• Skill level: Basic and Intermediate
• Number of meetings: 2
• Duration of each meeting: 3 hours
• Group supervision objectives:
○ Establish competence in basic concepts related to conducting skills assessments
■ State the purpose of conducting preference and reinforcer assessments
■ Name four types of preference assessments
■ State behavior cusps that are needed for each type of preference assessment
○ Establish competence in intermediate skills related to conducting preference
assessments
■ Explain the purpose of the preference assessment to a caregiver and direct
staff
■ Practice identifying possible reinforcers by conducting caregiver/teacher
interviews using open-ended questions (e.g., RAISD)
■ Practice selecting an appropriate preference assessment method given the
client’s repertoire
■ Practice conducting the following preference assessments using the list of pos-
sible reinforcers provided by caregivers/teachers in a training environment
- SS
- PS
- MSWO
- FO
■ Practice graphing the preference assessment results
■ Optional: Practice conducting reinforcer assessment using preference assess-
ment results
 16 Competency 6: Conducting Preference and Reinforcer Assessments 229

GROUP MEETING 1

• Skill Level: Basic and intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in basic and intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review basic concepts related to preference and reinforcer assessments
○ Complete the Utilization of Different Types of Preference Assessments Worksheet
(see Table 16.2)
○ Practice obtaining information on possible reinforcers through interviews
○ Practice conducting single stimulus preference assessment
○ Practice monitoring fidelity of conducting single stimulus preference assessment
and providing feedback
• GROUP MEETING 1: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Before group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to review:
■ Competency 6 Skills List (Table 16.1) benchmarks related to conducting pref-
erence and reinforcer assessments
■ Notes and chapters from textbooks used in classes that discussed behavior
reduction procedures

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To establish competency in basic concepts related to selecting and conducting
preference assessments, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform the supervisees to review:
■ Terms and concepts listed in Competency 6 and be prepared to discuss all basic
skills listed in Competency 6 Skills List (Table 16.1)
■ Utilization of Different Types of Preference Assessments Worksheet (Table 16.2)
■ Review and bring to practica the assigned articles listed here and readings from
the textbook
- Fisher et al. (1996)
- Hagopian et al. (2001)
- Lill et al. (2021)
■ Review the interview form and bring it to the supervision meeting
○ Review and develop PowerPoint slides to refer to, if needed, for:
■ All basic concepts listed in Competency 6 Skills List and Utilization of Different
Types of Preference Assessments Worksheet (Table 16.2)
- Example 1: Review the purpose of conducting preference assessments
- Example 2: Review the procedures for conducting all four preference
assessments listed in the worksheet
230 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 16.2 Table to Summarize Advantages and Disadvantages of Preference Assessments

Utilization of Different Types of Preference Assessments
Is appropriate for clients who … (list required
Preference behavior cusps in client’s repertoire that would
assessments ensure accurate assessment results) Advantages Weaknesses

SS
PS
MSWO
FO
FO, Free Operant; MSWO, Multiple Stimulus without Replacement; PS, Paired Stimulus or Paired Choice; SS,
Single Stimulus.

- Example 3: Review the decision-making flow for selecting preference assess-

ment based on the client’s repertoire as described in Lill et al. (2021).
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 1
○ Review basic concepts related to preference and reinforcer assessments
○ Complete the Utilization of Different Types of Preference Assessments Worksheet
(Table 16.2)
○ Practice obtaining information on possible reinforcers through interviews
○ Practice conducting single stimulus preference assessment
○ Practice graphing single stimulus preference assessment results
• After going over the group meeting 1 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Start the review by discussing (1) the purpose of conducting preference assessments,
(2) four types of preference assessments, and (3) the purpose of conducting rein-
forcer assessments
■ Using a random wheel or cards,select a basic skill (e.g., the purpose of conducting
preference assessment) and a supervisee and have them answer the question
about the selected basic skill
■ Use information on the PowerPoints to provide feedback
○ After reviewing the basic skills, have the group work on completing the Utilization
of Different Types of Preference Assessments Worksheet (Table 16.2)
■ Allow 10 minutes for supervisees to review:
- Utilization of Different Types of Preference Assessments Worksheet (Table 16.2)
- The decision-making flow for selecting preference assessments in Lill et al. (2021)
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and one of the items on the
worksheet and have them use the textbook and assigned articles to provide
the answer to the selected information in the worksheet
- Example: While supervisee 1 is selected to answer the question about be-
havior cusps needed for conducting paired choice preference assessment,
supervisee 2 is chosen to answer a question about the weakness of single
stimuli preference assessment
■ Provide feedback and use multiple exemplar training to provide sufficient
examples during the completion of the worksheet
 16 Competency 6: Conducting Preference and Reinforcer Assessments 231

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice conducting indirect assessments to obtain information on client
preferences from caregivers or teachers or clients, include in PowerPoint slides
○ The indirect preference assessment tool used by the organization
■ Example: if the organization is using RAISD, include the form on the PowerPoint
slides
○ Develop a Performance Monitoring Checklist/Tool (PMC/T) to set clear acqui-
sition criteria for developing interviewing skills
■ The PMC/T may include but is not limited to:
- Providing clear rationale to obtain information on client preferences
- Making eye contact with the interviewee when asking questions
- Clearly stating each question and providing clarifying examples if needed
- Waiting for a response from the interviewee
- Accurately writing down the information provided by the interviewee
- Accurately answering all questions
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Assign each group member a section of the interview to conduct
○ Example:
■ Group member 1 will ask questions about preferred food
■ Group member 2 will ask questions about preferred toys
■ Group member 3 will ask questions about preferred activities
• Have the group members conduct the interviews for the sections they are assigned to,
using non-technical statements, with the group supervisor acting as the interviewee
• After obtaining information on possible preferred items for each category (e.g., food),
have the group member ask the interviewee to rank the items within the category
○ Example: The following foods were listed by the caregiver as preferred
■ Apple, potato chips, popcorn, strawberries, and crackers
■ The supervisee will ask the interviewee to rank the listed food from most pre-
ferred to least preferred by assigning numbers 1 to 5 to each stimulus
• Follow these steps until all sections of the interview form are completed, and items
in each category are ranked from most to least preferred
• Use the PMC/T and provide feedback on the following:
○ Clarity of presentation of the information
○ Use of non-technical language
○ Asking clarifying questions
○ Controlling the pace of the interview
• Repeat these steps by reassigning the sections of the interview to each supervisee
until all members meet the set acquisition criteria for interviewing caregivers/
teachers
232 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice conducting single stimulus preference assessment to obtain informa-
tion on client preferences:
○ Review the procedure for single stimulus preference assessment using the text-
book and assigned articles (Hagopian et al., 2001), and create PowerPoint slides
for the procedure (see sample procedure in online student resources)
○ Develop a PMC/T for the procedure (see sample PMC/T in the online student
resources)
○ Create a data sheet for single stimulus preference assessment and make copies
of the data sheet used by the organization for preference assessments (see online
student resources for examples)
○ Create a document with possible client responses for each pair of supervisees for
role-play (see a sample in the online student resources)
■ Providing the supervisees with client behavior will ensure that all possible
responses are presented and supervisee behaviors to the responses are practiced
○ Prepare three 3D stimuli for each pair of supervisees to be used during the pref-
erence assessment
■ Example: If the group has six supervisees, prepare three sets of stimuli (one set
for each pair)
- Set 1: 3D toy car, dinosaur, and doll
- Set 2: 3D toy strawberry, apple, and banana
- Set 3: 3D toy airplane, Play-Doh, and LEGOs
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Present the PowerPoint with the procedure and model the administration of a single
stimulus preference assessment
• Answer all questions
• Pair up the group members
• Provide each pair with:
○ Client behavior document, instructing the pairs not to share the assigned behaviors
with their partner
○ Stimuli to be used during the assessment
○ Data sheets
• Have each pair complete the data sheet using the provided stimuli
• After completing the data sheet, instruct the pairs to start practicing the skill with
each other
• Observe each pair and using the developed PMC/T monitor performance and pro-
vide feedback as needed
• After one of the pairs meets 100% performance criteria, have them switch roles
• Continue until all supervisees conduct a single stimulus preference assessment with
100% fidelity
 16 Competency 6: Conducting Preference and Reinforcer Assessments 233

• After acquisition criteria are met, have all supervisees graph the assessment results by:
○ Selecting the most appropriate graph to use
○ Generating graphs that visually display accurate data and have all components
needed for a graph
• GROUP MEETING 1: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 3
• Provide an opportunity to complete an unrestricted activity to practice single
stimulus preference assessments
• GROUP MEETING 1: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• To practice conducting single stimulus preference assessment:
○ None
• GROUP MEETING 1: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct supervisees to reach out to individual supervisors and ask for
opportunities:
○ To conduct indirect assessments in the presence of the supervisor, using interviews
with caregivers to obtain information on possible reinforcers
○ To conduct single stimulus preference assessment with the client
○ To graph the assessment results by:
■ Selecting the most appropriate graph to use
■ Generating graphs that visually display accurate data and have all the components
needed for a graph
○ Seek feedback from the supervisor on the use of procedures and graphs

GROUP MEETING 2

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Practice conducting paired choice and MSWO preference assessments
○ Practice graphing the preference assessment results
○ Practice sharing the assessment results with caregivers/teachers/clients
• GROUP MEETING 2: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 2, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to review:
■ Competency 6 Skills List (Table 16.1) benchmarks related to conducting pref-
erence and reinforcer assessments
■ Provided articles, notes, and readings from classes that discussed paired choice
and MSWO assessments
■ Provided data sheets
○ Provide supervisees with the following resources to support preparedness for
group meetings:
■ Email data sheets for paired choice and MSWO assessments used by the
organization
234 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

- If the organization does not have data sheets for preference assessments,
create data sheets and email them to supervisees (see sample data sheet for
MSWO under supervisor resources)
■ List of suggested readings and resources
- DeLeon and Iwata, 1996
- Fisher et al., 1992

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice conducting MSWO preference assessment to obtain information on
client preferences, the supervisor should:
○ Review the procedure for MSWO preference assessment using textbook and ar-
ticles, and create PowerPoint slides for the procedure (see sample procedure in
the supervisor resources section of this chapter)
○ Develop a PMC/T the procedure (see a sample PMC/T at the supervisor resources
link at the end of this chapter)
○ Create a data sheet for MSWO preference assessment and make copies,
or supply copies of the data sheet used by the organization for preference
assessments (see sample data sheet at the supervisor resources link at the end
this chapter)
○ Create a document with possible client responses for each pair for role play (see
a sample at the supervisor resources link at the end of this chapter)
■ Provide the supervisees with client behavior to ensure that all possible responses
are presented and supervisee behaviors to the responses are practiced
○ Pair up the supervisees and prepare five 3D stimuli for each pair of supervisees
to be used during the preference assessment
■ Example: If the group has six supervisees, prepare three sets of stimuli (one set
for each pair)
- Set 1: 3D toy car, dinosaur, doll, LEGOs, Play-Doh
- Set 2: 3D toy strawberry, apple, banana, blueberry, orange
- Set 3: 3D toy airplane, train, Play-Doh, puzzle, LEGOs
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 2
○ Practice conducting MSWO and paired choice preference assessments
○ Practice determining rank and graphing MSWO and paired choice preference
assessment results
• After going over the group meeting 2 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Present the PowerPoint with the MSWO procedure and model the administration
○ Answer all questions
○ Pair up the group members
○ Provide each pair with:
 16 Competency 6: Conducting Preference and Reinforcer Assessments 235

■ Client behavior document, and instruct the pairs not to share the assigned
behaviors with their partner
■ Stimuli to be used during the assessment
■ Data sheets
• Have each pair complete the data sheet using the provided stimuli
• After completing the data sheet, instruct the pairs to start practicing the skill
• Observe each pair, and using developed PMC/T monitor performance and provide
feedback as needed
• After one of the pairs meets 100% performance criteria, have them switch roles
• Continue until all supervisees conduct MSWO preference assessment with 100% fidelity
• After acquisition criteria are met, have the supervisees:
○ Use the data sheet and calculate the rank
○ Graph the results of the MSWO preference assessment
• Provide feedback

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice conducting paired choice preference assessment to obtain information
on client preferences, the supervisor should:
○ Review the procedure for paired choice preference assessment using textbook and
articles, and create PowerPoint slides for the procedure (see a sample procedure
at the supervisor resources link at the end of this chapter)
○ Develop a PMC/T for the procedure
○ Create a data sheet for paired choice preference assessment and make copies, or
supply copies of the data sheet used by the organization for preference assessments
○ Create a document with possible client responses for each pair for role-play
■ Provide the supervisees with client behavior to ensure that all possible
responses are presented and supervisee behaviors to the responses are
practiced
○ Prepare four 3D stimuli per pair of supervisees to be used during the preference
assessment
■ Example: If the group has six supervisees, prepare three sets of stimuli (one set
for each pair)
- Set 1: 3D toy car, dinosaur, doll, LEGOs
- Set 2: 3D toy strawberry, apple, banana, blueberry
- Set 3: 3D toy airplane, train, Play-Doh, puzzle
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Present the PowerPoint with the paired choice procedure and model the administration
• Answer all questions
• Pair up group members
236 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Provide each pair with:

■ Client behavior document, and instruct the pairs not to share the assigned behaviors
with their partner
■ Stimuli to be used during the assessment
■ Data sheets
• Have each pair complete the data sheet using the provided stimuli
• After completing the data sheet, instruct the pairs to start practicing the skill
• Observe each pair, and using developed PMC/T monitor performance and provide
feedback as needed
• After one of the pairs meets 100% performance criteria, have them switch roles
• Continue until all supervisees conduct paired choice preference assessment with
100% fidelity
• After acquisition criteria are met, have the supervisees:
○ Use the data sheet and calculate the rank
○ Graph the results of the paired choice preference assessment
• Provide feedback
• GROUP MEETING 2: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Provide an opportunity to complete an unrestricted activity to practice single
stimulus preference assessments
• GROUP MEETING 2: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• To practice conducting single stimulus preference assessment:
○ None
• GROUP MEETING 2: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct supervisees to reach out to individual supervisors and ask for opportunities
to be performed in the presence of the supervisor
○ Using provided materials and procedures to conduct:
■ MSWO and paired choice preference assessments with clients
○ Rank the items and graph the results
○ Ask to be observed by supervisors when conducting the assessments

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Suggested activities for supervisors(s) overseeing the development of advanced

skills and application of skills with clients
• After the supervisee meets the required criteria to begin developing advanced skills
○ While still in the process of earning a graduate degree, the supervisee may be
given opportunities
■ When assisting with skills assessments:
- To select and use a preference assessment procedure that is appropriate for
the client’s current repertoire
- To graph the results and incorporate the findings into treatment plans
 16 Competency 6: Conducting Preference and Reinforcer Assessments 237

■ When assisting with writing FBAs or progress reports:

- To incorporate the preference assessment results into the reports
- To recommend changes to possible reinforcers used
■ To explain the results of the preference assessment to caregivers of clients the
supervisee is working with directly
○ After earning a graduate degree and being allowed to manage clients under
supervision, the supervisee may be asked to:
■ Teach direct staff how to conduct various preference assessments
■ Incorporate direct and indirect preference assessments when conducting FBAs
and developing progress reports
■ Go over the results with caregivers and school staff
■ Document the competition of each skill by placing initials on the Competency
6 Skills List (Table 16.1)

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

RESOURCES FOR SUPERVISORS

Additional tables and checklists for this chapter are available at the end of this text, following the index.

REFERENCES

Butler, C., & Graff, R. B. (2021). Stability of preference and reinforcing efficacy of edible, leisure, and social
attention stimuli. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 54(2), 684–699. [Link]
DeLeon, I. G., & Iwata, B. A. (1996). Evaluation of a multiple-stimulus presentation format for assessing
reinforcer preferences. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29(4), 519–533. [Link]
.1996.29-519
Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., Hagopian, L. P., Owens, J. C., & Slevin, I. (1992). A comparison
of two approaches for identifying reinforcers for persons with severe and profound disabilities. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(2), 491–498. [Link]
Hagopian, L. P., Long, E. S., & Rush, K. S. (2004). Preference assessment procedures for individuals with
developmental disabilities. Behavior Modification, 28(5), 668–677. [Link]
/0145445503259836
Lill, J. D., Shriver, M. D., & Allen, K. D. (2021). Stimulus preference assessment decision-making system
(SPADS): A decision-making model for practitioners. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 14, 1144–1156. https://
[Link]/10.1007/s40617-020-00539-3
Quigley, S. P., Peterson, S. M., Frieder, J. E., & Peck, K. M. (2018). A review of SAFMEDS: Evidence for
procedures, outcomes and directions for future research. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 41(1), 283–301.
[Link]
 17
COMPETENCY 7: CONDUCTING
SKILLS ASSESSMENTS

PREREQUISITE SKILLS

• Operationally defining behaviors

• Data collection and graphing

• Discriminating between assessment instruments that use norm and criterion-referenced interpretation
of obtained scores

• Knowledge of how to interpret results of assessment instruments that use norm- and criterion-
referenced interpretation of obtained scores (e.g., knowing different types of standardized scores such
as scaled versus standard scores and corresponding values)

Behavior analysts work on reducing problem behaviors and teaching socially appropriate
replacement behaviors as well as teaching verbal behavior, learning readiness skills, play,
social interaction, and independent living skills. To determine what skills to select for interven-
tion, conducting a comprehensive skills assessment is an objective way of pinpointing skills
in the learner’s repertoire and needs. Skills assessments can also be beneficial in providing
information on treatment outcomes for ongoing services. Assessment instruments enable
practitioners to assess individual skills in an objective manner (Reynolds & Livingston, 2021).
Behavior analysts may use two types of assessment instruments when conducting skills
assessments: norm-referenced interpretations of results and criterion-referenced interpret-
ations of results. Norm-referenced interpretations of assessment results allow comparison of
the learner’s performance with those of same-age peers representing a norm group (Sattler,
2014). A norm-referenced interpretation answers the question, “How does the examinee’s
performance on a specific skill compare to others of the same age?” (Reynolds & Livingston,
2021). A norm provides an average (typical) performance of the same-age peer group and
is used to obtain valuable information about the client’s skills compared to age peers. An
example of norm-referenced interpretation of assessment results is the Vineland Adaptive
Behavior Scales (Vineland-3; Sparrow et al., 2016). Criterion-referenced interpretation of results
compares the learner’s performance to an objective criterion (Sattler, 2014; Padilla et al., 2022).

238
 17 Competency 7: Conducting Skills Assessments  239

A criterion-referenced interpretation answers the question, “Does the child’s performance

reach a predetermined level of proficiency?” (Reynolds & Livingston, 2021). A typical ex-
ample of criterion-referenced interpretation of assessment results is performance on the
Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP) assessment.
Skills assessments require knowledge of measurement, child development, and ex-
perience in conducting culturally sensitive assessments. When selecting an assessment
instrument, the assessor must consider the reason for referral, the learner’s age, phys-
ical capabilities, primary language, level of verbal behavior, and culture (Sattler, 2014).
Selecting appropriate assessment instruments, conducting valid, reliable, and objective
skills assessments, and interpreting and utilizing the assessment results to pinpoint areas
of need requires practice. In Table 17.1, we provide the reader with benchmarks to guide
skill development for this competency to support building competency for conducting
skills assessments.
The basic skills for building competency in conducting skills assessments empha-
size a review of Behavior Analyst Certification Board’s ethical guidelines, the purposes of
conducting skills assessments, and learning the difference between assessment tools that
use norm and criterion interpretation of results. As a basic skill, the supervisees must also
know how assessors’ qualifications correlate with selecting specific assessment instruments.
Supervisees must show competent knowledge of the basic skills before being given oppor-
tunities to engage in intermediate skills.
The intermediate skills are designed to provide the supervisee with opportunities to
practice conducting indirect and direct skills assessment tools that use standardized and
criterion interpretation of assessment results. We recommend that supervisors work with
supervisees using role-plays and Behavior Skills Training to teach how to administer direct
and indirect skills assessment tools that organizations use before having the client practice
the skills with actual clients. Practice of intermediate skills can be established using group or
individual supervision format. We provided activities in this chapter to guide the supervisors
in supporting supervisees in establishing each intermediate competency listed in Table 17.1.
Tasks listed under intermediate skills also allow the opportunity to practice sharing assess-
ment results with caregivers and teachers.
Advanced skills are designed to have supervisees with supervision, apply the
intermediate skills with clients, and conduct skills assessments. For example, after
meeting the criteria for intermediate skills related to conducting skills assessment using
the Vineland-3, the supervisee may be given the opportunity to use the Vineland-3
when the supervisor is conducting a Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA) with the
client’s caregiver. Advanced skills also emphasize the development of present levels of
performances that clearly and objectively describe skills in the client’s repertoire and
needs that would require teaching.
Finally, the competency includes generality criteria to support the supervisors in making
decisions about the readiness of the supervisees to perform the advanced skills accurately
and independently. The supervisee may be considered to show mastery in conducting skills
assessments when the supervisee meets the generality criteria listed in Table 17.1. For example,
the supervisee, across three novel clients, must obtain consent for assessment from caregivers;
conduct assessments of verbal behavior; learn readiness skills as well as independent living,
social and play/leisure skills using criterion and norm-referenced assessment tools; and in-
corporate the assessment results into initial behavior assessments and progress reports by
developing objective Present/Current Levels of Performances (PLP/CLP) that include relative
or normative strengths and needs.
When each component listed in the competency is met, the supervisors are encour-
aged to sign off on the skill by signing their initials next to that skill. For example, when
240 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 17.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 7

Skills Assessment
Supervisor’s
Basic Skills Initials

• Review the Behavior Analyst Certification Board’s Professional and Ethical

Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts related to conducting assessments
• State purpose of conducting skills assessments
• State the differences between skills assessment tests that use criterion-
and norm-referenced interpretation of results
• Name skills assessments that use criterion-referenced interpretation of
results
• Name skills assessments that use norm-referenced interpretation of results
• State mean and standard deviations for scaled, standard, T, and V-scale
scores
• State the average, above average, and deficit ranges of each standard
score
• State the advantages and weaknesses of skills assessment tests using
criterion- and norm-referenced interpretations
• State the relationship between assessor qualifications and administration of
skills assessment instruments


Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• Practice obtaining informed consent for assessment by role-playing with

the supervisor
• Practice conducting assessment of verbal behaviors and learning
readiness skills (e.g., imitation, matching to sample) using any of the
following tests in a training environment with 100% fidelity for each of the
assessed skills
• ABLLS-R
• PEAK
• VB-MAPP
• Practice conducting skills assessment of independent living skills, and
social and play/leisure skills using any of the following tests in a training
environment through role-plays with 100% fidelity for each of the assessed
areas
• AFLS with SSIS
• Vineland-3
• Practice developing objective PLP/CLP for the following skills that include
relative or normative strengths (skills in learner’s repertoire) and needs
• Verbal behavior (speaker and listener skills)
• Learning readiness skills (e.g., imitation, matching, sorting)
• Independent living skills (e.g., dressing, personal hygiene, eating and
meal preparation, chores)
(continued)
 17 Competency 7: Conducting Skills Assessments  241

TABLE 17.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 7 (continued)
Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• Play/leisure skills
• Social interactions skills
• Role-play explaining assessment results to the caregiver/teacher using
non-technical language


Supervisor’s Initials
Advanced Skills Client 1 Client 2 Client 3

• Obtain informed consent for skills assessment from

caregivers (across three different clients)
• Conduct skills assessments using assessment tools used by
the organization to assess verbal behavior, learning readiness
skills, independent living, social and play/leisure skills with
actual clients with 100% fidelity (across three different clients)
• Develop objective PLP/CLP for skills listed below that include
relative or normative strengths (skills in learner’s repertoire)
and needs
• Verbal behavior (speaker and listener skills)
• Learning readiness skills (e.g., imitation, matching, sorting)
• Independent living skills (e.g., dressing, personal hygiene,
chores)
• Play/leisure skills
• Social interactions skills
• Write progress reports to set criteria incorporating skills
assessment results during each intervention period for actual
clients (across three different clients)
• Using non-technical language, explain assessment results
and recommendations to the actual caregivers/teachers
(across three different clients)


Shows generalized advanced skills across three different
clients to: Supervisor’s Date
• Obtain consent for assessments signature
• Complete skills assessments of verbal behavior, learning
readiness skills, independent living, social and play/leisure
skills using criterion- and norm-referenced assessment tools
• Incorporate the assessment results into initial behavior
assessments and progress reports and develop objective PLP/
CLP that include relative or normative strengths and needs
• Use non-technical language to explain assessment results
and recommendations to at least three caregivers/teachers
ABLLS-R, Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills—Revised; AFLS, Assessment of Functional Living
Skills; PEAK, Promoting Emergence of Advanced Knowledge; PLP/CLP, Present/Current Levels of Performance;
SSIS, Social Skills Improvement System; VB-MAPP, Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement
Program.
242 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

working on intermediate skills, as soon as the supervisee meets the criteria for practicing
how to conduct skills assessment using the Vineland-3, the supervisor may initial the
designated box to indicate that the supervisee met the criteria for that specific interme-
diate skill. Sometimes, the completion of a component skill requires meeting multiple
criteria. For example, to consider the criteria for developing objective PLP/CLP met, the
supervisee must develop objective PLP/CLP for verbal behaviors (speaker and listener
skills), learning readiness skills (e.g., imitation, matching), independent living skills (e.g.,
dressing, personal hygiene, eating and meal preparation, chores), and play/leisure and
social interactions skills.
To support learning and showing competency in measuring behavior (see compe-
tencies in Table 17.1), we have included individual and group learning activities and
strategies for supervisees and supervisors to utilize. The group activities provided for
supervisors can also be used as part of one-to-one meetings with supervisees. For ex-
ample, the supervisor can use a group activity designed to establish an intermediate
skill, such as assessing for verbal behaviors using the VB-MAPP, and apply the same
activity when meeting one-to-one with the supervisee by role-playing assessment of each
verbal operant one-to-one with the supervisee and providing feedback. Recommended
activities and procedures are aligned with establishing competence in basic, interme-
diate, and advanced skills.

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH BASIC SKILLS

• To build and maintain basic skills related to conducting skills assessments:

• Review ethical guidelines related to assessment and informed consent
• Review notes and reading from classes that discussed terms and concepts listed in
Competency 7 Skills List (Table 17.1)
○ Example:
■ Review information on direct and indirect assessment
■ Review how to interpret scaled, standard, T, and V-scale scores (Note:
Most tests of adaptive living use scaled and standard scores while Vscores
are used in Vinland-3)
• Build fluency with the interpretation of standard scores using Say All Fast, Minute
Each Day, Shuffled (SAFMEDS; Quigley et al., 2018)
• If struggling with discriminating when to use specific assessment instruments or
procedures, reach out to supervisors for support and more opportunities to practice
the concept
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 7 Skills List
(Table 17.1) for each completed basic skill

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• To build and maintain intermediate skills related to conducting FBAs:

• Complete assigned work within given timelines
 17 Competency 7: Conducting Skills Assessments  243

• Actively participate in group or individual meetings

• Ask questions and for feedback on completed work
• Apply given feedback to assigned work and ask for more opportunities to practice
the skill
• Practice administering standardized tests with peers
○ Example: Roleplay with a peer administering Vineland-3. Have a peer first play
the role of a caregiver, and then switch roles
• Practice scoring standardized tests by changing the ratings on assessments
○ Practice scoring a section that has a basal and ceiling
○ Practice scoring a section that has no basal but has a ceiling
○ Practice scoring a section that has a basal but no celling
• Practice administering tests using criterion interpretation of scores (e.g., VB-MAPP)
with peers
○ Example: Role-play with peer assessing tacts, having a peer first play the role of
a client, and then switch roles
• Practice scoring tests using criterion interpretation of scores (e.g., VB-MAPP) by
changing correct responses to each verbal operant or learning readiness skills
○ Example: Practice scoring mands for a client who:
■ Only points to reinforcer
■ Uses one-word utterances to access at least 30 reinforcers and shows generality
of mands across people and settings
■ Uses phrases to access at least 20 reinforcers and shows generality of mands
across people and settings
• If working at school or in a setting where academic skills are taught, practice using
role-play how to assess academic skills using Curriculum-Based Measurement
(CBM)
○ Reach out to the supervisor for support and practice opportunities for using
CBM
• Have open and transparent communication with the supervisor and ask for oppor-
tunities to practice the targeted skills in Table 17.1
○ Example: When there is an opportunity to conduct a skills assessment with a
current client, ask the supervisor to be part of the assessment process
• Role-play with supervisors how to share assessment results with caregivers/
teachers
• Use the additional reading and resources provided at the end of each competency
• Search and read articles on the reliability and validity of different types of skills
assessment tools and how each measures changes (e.g., see Chatham et al., 2018)
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the competency task list
Competency 7 Skills List (Table 17.1) for each completed intermediate skill and
complete the Excel profile for met competencies
244 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• To build and maintain advanced skills related to conducting skills assessments:

• Provide evidence to supervisors overseeing the development of advanced skills of
readiness to apply the skills learned in a training environment with actual clients
○ Example: Presenting the Competency 7 Skills List (Table 17.1) with the group
supervisor’s initials for listed basic and intermediate skills can function as evi-
dence for readiness to apply the skills with the clients
• Establish open and transparent communication with supervisors overseeing the
development of advanced skills and ask for opportunities to:
○ Conduct skills assessments that utilize a combination of assessment tools that
use norm- (e.g., Vineland-3) and criterion-referenced (e.g., ABLLS-R Assessment
of Basic Language and Learning Skills—Revised [ABLLS-R]) interpretation of
scores as often as possible
■ Conduct two skills assessments per month to provide sufficient practice
opportunities
○ Complete FBA reports that also incorporate skills assessment results.
○ Share the assessment results with caregivers or school teams during Individualized
Educational Program (IEP) meetings
• Seek supervision and feedback as often as possible
• Complete given work before established timelines
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 7 Skills List
(Table 17.1) for each completed advanced skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH BASIC AND

INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• Competence: Conducting skills assessments

• Skill: Conducting skills assessments utilizing assessment tools that use norm and
criterion interpretation of results
• Skill level: Basic and Intermediate
• Number of meetings: 3
• Duration of each meeting: 3 hours
• Group supervision objectives:
○ Establish competence in basic concepts related to conducting skills assessments
■ Review professional and ethical compliance codes for behavior analysts related
to conducting assessments
■ State purpose of conducting skills assessments
■ State the differences between skills assessment tests that use criterion- and
norm-referenced interpretation of results
■ Name skills assessments that use criterion-referenced interpretation of results
 17 Competency 7: Conducting Skills Assessments  245

■ Name skills assessments that use norm-referenced interpretation of results

■ State the means and standard deviations for scaled, standard, T, and V-scale scores
■ State the average, above average, and deficit ranges of each standard score
■ State the advantages and weaknesses of skills assessment tests using criterion-
and norm-referenced interpretations
■ State the relationship between assessor qualifications and administration of
skills assessment instruments.
○ Establish competence in intermediate skills related to conducting skills
assessments utilizing assessment tools that use norm and criterion interpreta-
tion of results
■ Practice conducting skills assessments using any of the following standardized
tests:
- Vineland-3
- Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (3rd edition) (ABAS-3)
■ Practice conducting skills assessments utilizing assessment tools used by the
organization that use criterion interpretation of results
- ABLLS-R
- PEAK (Promoting Emergence of Advanced Knowledge) Relational Training
System
- VB-MAPP
○ Establish competence in intermediate skills related to identifying and reporting
on the client’s relative strengths and needs
■ Using the assessment results, practice to develop objective present levels of
performances that include behaviors in the client’s repertoire and needs

GROUP MEETING 1

• Skill Level: Basic

• Purpose: Establish competence in basic and intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to conducting skills assessments
○ Review basic concepts related to conducting skills assessments
○ Practice conducting direct assessments using standardized tests (e.g., Vineland-3
or ABAS-3) to obtain information on skills in the client’s repertoire and needs
○ Practice developing present levels of performance that objectively describe skill in
repertoire and needs in daily living, play/leisure, and social interaction domains
• GROUP MEETING 1: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to review:
■ Competency 7 Skills List (Table 17.1) benchmarks related to conducting FBAs
addressing behaviors of concern
246 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Provide supervisees with the following resources to support preparedness for

group meetings:
■ Completed copy of a standardized test that will be used to assess for adaptive
skills
- Example: If Vineland-3 is used, fill a copy of the interview or caregiver form
that will be used to learn how to administer and score the test

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To establish competency in basic concepts related to practicing conducting skills
assessments, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform the supervisees to review:
■ Terms and concepts listed in Competency 7 and be prepared to discuss all basic
skills listed in Competency 7 Skills List (Table 17.1)
○ Create PowerPoint slides for:
■ Ethical guidelines related to assessment
■ All basic concepts listed in Competency 7
- Example 1: Review the purpose of conducting skills assessments and include
it on the PowerPoint slides
- Example 2: Review the most common standardized scores used in tests that
utilize normative samples and include the information about each type of
score on the PowerPoint slides
- Scaled scores: Mean and standard deviation (M = 10 Sd = 3) and in-
terpretive ranges of scores (average: 7–13; above average: > 13; and
deficit: < 7)
- Standard scores: Mean and standard deviation (M = 100 Sd = 15) and
interpretive ranges of scores (average: 85–115; above average: > 115; and
deficit: < 85)
■ Review and include on the PowerPoint slides the administration and scoring
procedures for the standardized test that will be used during the meeting
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 1:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to assessments
○ Review basic concepts related to skills assessments
○ Practice conducting direct assessments using standardized tests (e.g., Vineland-3
or ABAS-3) to obtain information on skills in the client’s repertoire and needs
○ Practice developing present levels of performance for daily living, play/leisure,
and social interaction skills by considering the client’s age and achievement of
developmental milestones for a given age
• After going over the group meeting 1 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Review the ethical guidelines related to conducting assessments
 17 Competency 7: Conducting Skills Assessments  247

○ Review terms and concepts by using a random wheel or cards, then selecting a
basic skill (e.g., validity) and a supervisee and have them answer the question
about the selected basic skill
○ Use information on the PowerPoints to provide feedback and use multiple ex-
emplar training to provide sufficient examples of each basic skill
■ Example: When reviewing standard scores, after the supervisees answered the
questions about the mean and standard deviation and performance ranges (e.g.,
average), provide the supervisees with different standard scores (e.g., 95, 67,
104, 118, 78, 83, 87) and ask them to identify if the scores are within the average,
above average, or below average (deficient) ranges

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice conducting assessments using standardized tests of adaptive skills to
obtain information on clients’ adaptive skills, include on the PowerPoint slides:
○ Review of the manual of the standardized test used by the organization as part
of behavior assessment (e.g., Vineland-3 or ABAS-3)
■ Example: If the organization is using Vineland-3, review the Vineland-3 manual
○ Develop PowerPoint slides that include the following information from the manual:
■ Skills measured by the test
■ Age range of the test
■ Forms used (e.g., parent versus teacher)
■ Instructions on how to calculate chronological age
■ Steps for conducting the assessment by following test developers’ instructions
- Starting point and administration procedure
- How to score the test items (e.g., 0, 1, and 2)
- How to establish ceiling and basal
■ Scoring the assessment by following test developers’ instructions
- Obtaining raw scores for each subtest
- Converting raw scores to standard scores (e.g., V-scales or scaled scores)
- Obtaining:
- Domain standard scores (e.g., communication, daily living)
- Percentiles for standard scores and age equivalence from raw scores
○ To practice scoring and obtaining standardized scores, create three different fully
scored protocols with the following response patterns:
■ Protocols that have (1) a clear basal and ceiling, (2) no basal but has a ceiling,
or (3) has a basal but no ceiling
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Using the prepared PowerPoint slides, discuss the following information from the
manual of the selected assessment tool:
248 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Skills measured by the test

○ Age range
○ Forms used (e.g., parent versus teacher)
○ Calculating chronological age
■ After showing how to calculate the chronological age, have the supervisees
practice the skill
- Provide the group with three to five different dates of birth and assessment dates
- Have the group members practice calculating age until all members manu-
ally calculate age with 100% accuracy
○ Administration procedures
■ Starting points (if any)
■ Administration of test items
■ Establishing ceiling and basal
- After going over administration procedures, use the age ranges calculated
when the supervisees were learning how to calculate chronological age and
have them:
- Pinpoint starting points on the test and basal and ceilings
- Take turns practicing administration of the test
- Practice identifying basal and ceiling, providing the members with the
following patterns and practicing pinpointing basal and ceiling
- Protocol that has a clear basal and ceiling
- Protocol that has no basal but has a ceiling
- Protocol that has a basal but no ceiling
○ Scoring procedures
■ Obtaining raw scores for each subtest using basal and ceiling
- After showing how to obtain raw scores, provide the supervisees with the
following patterns of scored protocols and have the group practice obtaining
raw scores using basal and ceiling
- Test that has a clear basal and ceiling
- Test that has no basal but has a ceiling
- Test that has a basal but no ceiling
■ Converting raw scores to standardized scores (e.g., V-scales or scaled scores)
■ Show how to obtain:
- Domain standard scores (e.g., communication, daily living)
- Standard error of measurement
- Percentiles for standard scores
- Age equivalence
■ After showing how to obtain standardized scores, percentiles, and age equiv-
alence, provide the group with three to five different examples of raw scores
and then have them practice obtaining standardized scores, standard error of
measurement, percentiles, and age equivalence
 17 Competency 7: Conducting Skills Assessments  249

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To learn how to develop present levels of performance for daily living, play/lei-
sure, and social interaction skills by pinpointing skills in the client’s repertoire
and needs
○ Include in the PowerPoint slides:
■ Developmental milestones obtained from reputable sites (e.g., Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]) for ages 0–18 for the following skills:
- Daily living and community
- Play/leisure and social interactions
■ Samples of written present levels of performance that include behaviors related
to each skill in the client’s repertoire and needs for the following skills (see
the link to supervisor’s resources section at the end of this chapter for sample
present levels of performance)
- Daily living and community
- Play/leisure and social interactions
○ Scored standardized assessments used during activity 1
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Use prepared PowerPoint slides and provide examples of how to develop present
levels of performance for daily living, community, play/leisure, and social interac-
tion that include:
○ Client’s relative and normative strengths (skills in repertoire) and needs
• Have the group members use the scored protocol(s), provide samples and develop-
mental milestones, and develop present levels of performance for:
○ Daily living and community
○ Play/leisure and social interactions
• Provide feedback to each supervisee using the provided samples as a guide
○ Practice the skill until all supervisees produce a present level of performance that
matches the provided sample
• GROUP MEETING 1—END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY
• Provide the opportunity to complete an unrestricted activity
• GROUP MEETING 1: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY—PREPARATORY
ACTIVITIES
• To practice scoring standardized tests and developing present levels of perfor-
mance for assessed skills:
○ Complete a sample assessment protocol (one that was not used during group
meeting 1) and email or provide copies to the group members at the end of the
group meeting
• GROUP MEETING 1: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Provide the supervisees with the following instructions:
○ Score the completed protocol
○ Obtain standard scores, percentiles, and age equivalence
250 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Develop present levels of performance for daily living, play, and social interaction
skills as practiced in practica
○ Bring the completed work to the next meeting
○ Reach out to individual supervisors and ask for opportunities in the presence of
the supervisor:
■ To conduct skills assessments using standardized tests with caregivers for
progress reports
■ To develop present levels of performance for assessed skills as part of progress
reports
■ Ask for feedback from the supervisor

GROUP MEETING 2

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review unrestricted work assigned after group meeting 1
○ Practice conducting direct assessments utilizing tests that use criterion interpre-
tation of results to obtain information on manding, tacting, and echoics
○ Practice developing present levels of performance for manding, tacting, and
echoics by considering the client’s age and developmental milestones for a given
age
• GROUP MEETING 2: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Review basic skills in Competency 7 Skills List (Table 17.1) related to skills
assessment
■ Bring completed unrestricted work to practica meeting

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• Two to three days prior to the meeting, inform the supervisees to bring independent
work assigned after group meeting 1 to the practica meeting
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 2:
○ Review unrestricted work assigned after group meeting 1
○ Practice conducting direct assessments utilizing tests that use criterion interpre-
tation of results to obtain information on manding, tacting, and echoics
○ Practice developing present levels of performance for manding, tacting, and
echoics by considering the client’s age and developmental milestones for a given
age
 17 Competency 7: Conducting Skills Assessments  251

• After going over the group meeting 2 agenda, begin activity 1

○ Randomly select a supervisee and a skill area (e.g., community)
■ Have the supervisee provide the raw score, standardized scores, percentile,
and age equivalence for the skill
■ Have peers calculate interobserver agreement (IOA)
■ If IOA is 90% or above, move to the next peer and skill area
■ If IOA is less than 90%, pick another supervisee to provide the same information
○ Provide feedback to the supervisee presenting by identifying errors and having
supervisee correct the errors
○ After all scores are checked, move to sharing and providing feedback on the pre-
sent level of performance following the same steps

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice conducting direct assessments utilizing assessment tools that use cri-
terion interpretation of results (e.g., VB-MAPP) to obtain information on mands,
tacts, and echoics
○ Review the manual of the assessment tool used by the organization as part of the
behavior assessment
■ Example: If the organization is using VB-MAPP, review the VB-MAPP manual
○ Develop PowerPoint slides that include the following information from the manual:
■ Skills measured by the test
■ Age range and when the test can be used
■ Administration procedure for assessing mands, tacts, and echoics using the
test developers’ instructions (see a sample administration procedure for tacting
using VB-MAPP in the online student resources)
- Starting points
- Scoring the test items (e.g., 0, 1)
○ Complete two sample assessments for the selected assessment tool that will be
used to practice scoring the protocols
○ Gather materials needed to assess for mands, tacts, and echoics
■ Example: Toy fruits, pictures of everyday items, echoic target list, and echoic
assessment protocol when using VB-MAPP
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Part 1: Introduce the assessment tool
○ Using prepared PowerPoint slides, discuss the following information from the
manual of the selected assessment tool
■ Skills measured by the test
■ Age range and when the test can be used
■ Starting point
■ Scoring the items (e.g., 0, 1)
252 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Part 2: Administration procedures

○ One at a time, display the administration procedure on PowerPoint slides for
manding, tacting, and echoics
■ Model administration of test items following the test developers’ administra-
tion procedures
■ Pair up supervisees and have them use the provided materials topractice
assessing for mands following the administration procedures
■ Provide feedback until all group members show 100% accuracy in administra-
tion of each subtest
○ Part 3: Scoring procedures
■ To practice scoring, distribute the scored sample assessment results for mands,
tacts, and echoics to all group members and have them score the protocol for the
selected assessment tool by following the publisher’s instructions for scoring
■ Provide feedback to each group member on their scoring sample
■ Repeat the process until all members manually score the given test with 100%
accuracy

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To learn how to develop present levels of performance for mands, tacts, and
echoics by pinpointing skills in the client’s repertoire and needs
○ Include in the PowerPoint slides:
■ Developmental milestones obtained from reputable sites (e.g., CDC) for ages
0–10 for the following skills
- Manding, tacting, and echoics
■ Samples of written present levels of performance that include behaviors related
to each skill in the client’s repertoire and needs for the following skills (see the
links in supervisor’s resources section at the end of this chapter for sample
present levels of performance)
- Manding, tacting, and echoics
○ Scored assessments used during activity 2
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Use prepared PowerPoint slides and provide examples of how to develop present
levels of performance for targeted skills that include:
○ Client’s relative and normative strengths and needs (see a sample under super-
visor resources)
• Have the group members use the scored protocol(s) to provide samples and devel-
opmental milestones and to develop present levels of performance for:
○ Manding, tacting, and echoics
• Provide feedback to each supervisee using the provided samples as a guide
○ Practice the skill until all supervisees produce a present level of performance that
matches the provided sample
 17 Competency 7: Conducting Skills Assessments  253

• GROUP MEETING 2—END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2

• Unrestricted activity: None

GROUP MEETING 3

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Practice conducting direct assessments utilizing tests that use criterion interpre-
tation of results to obtain information on listener behaviors, intraverbals, and
learning readiness skills such as imitation and matching to sample
○ Practice developing present levels of performance for listener behaviors, intraverbals,
and learning readiness skills such as imitation and matching to sample by con-
sidering the client’s age and developmental milestones for a given age

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice conducting direct assessments utilizing assessment tools that use
criterion interpretation of results (e.g., VB-MAPP) to obtain information on lis-
tener behaviors, intraverbals, and learning readiness skills such as imitation and
matching to sample
○ Review the manual of the selected assessment tool used by the organization as
part of the behavior assessment
■ Example: If the organization is using VB-MAPP, review the VB-MAPP manual
○ Develop PowerPoint slides that include the following information from the
manual:
■ Administration procedure for assessing listener behaviors, intraverbals, and
learning readiness skills such as imitation and matching to sample using the
test developers’ instructions (see a sample administration procedure for listener
behaviors using VB-MAPP in online student resources)
- Starting points
- Scoring the test items (e.g., 0, 1)
○ Complete two sample assessments for the selected assessment tool that will be
used to practice scoring the protocols
○ Gather materials needed to assess for listener behaviors, intraverbals, and learning
readiness skills such as imitation and matching to sample
■ Example: Toy fruits, pictures of everyday items when assessing for listener skills
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Part 1: Administration procedures
○ One at a time, display the administration procedure on PowerPoint slides for
listener behaviors, intraverbals, and learning readiness skills such as imitation
and matching to sample
254 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Model administration of test items following the test developers’ administra-

tion procedures
■ Pair up supervisees and have them use the provided materials to practice
assessing for mands following the administration procedures
■ Provide feedback until all group members show 100% accuracy in administra-
tion of each subtest
○ Part 2: Scoring procedures
■ To practice scoring, distribute the scored sample assessment results for listener
behaviors, intraverbals, and learning readiness skills such as imitation and
matching to sample to all group members and have them score the protocol
for the selected assessment tool by following the publisher’s instructions for
scoring
■ Provide feedback to each group member for scoring
■ Repeat the process until all members manually score the given test with 100%
accuracy

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2—PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To learn how to develop present levels of performance for intraverbals, listener
behaviors, matching to sample, and imitation by pinpointing skills in the client’s
repertoire and needs
○ Include in the PowerPoint slides:
■ Developmental milestones obtained from reputable sites (e.g., CDC) for ages
0–10 for the following skills
- Listener behaviors, intraverbals, and learning readiness skills such as imi-
tation and matching to sample
■ Samples of written present levels of performance that include behaviors related
to each skill in the client’s repertoire and needs for the following skills (see the
supervisor’s resources section at the end this chapter for links to sample present
levels of performance)
- Listener behaviors, intraverbals, and learning readiness skills such as imi-
tation and matching to sample
■ Scored assessments used during activity 2
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2—MEETING AS A GROUP
• Use prepared PowerPoint slides and provide examples of how to develop present
levels of performance for targeted skills that include:
○ Client’s relative and normative strengths and needs (see samples on the online
student resources)
• Have the supervisees use the scored protocol(s), provide samples and developmental
milestones, and develop present levels of performance for:
○ Listener behaviors, intraverbals, and learning readiness skills such as imitation
and matching to sample
 17 Competency 7: Conducting Skills Assessments  255

• Provide feedback to each supervisee using the provided samples as a guide (see the
online student resources)
○ Practice the skill until all supervisees produce a present level of performance that
matches the provided sample
• GROUP MEETING 3—END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Provide an opportunity to complete an unrestricted activity: none
• GROUP MEETING 3: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY—PREPARATORY
ACTIVITIES
• To practice scoring standardized tests and developing present levels of perfor-
mance for assessed skills:
○ Complete a sample assessment protocol (one that was not used during group
meetings 2 and 3) and email or provide copies to the group members at the end
of the meeting
• GROUP MEETING 3: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Provide the supervisees with the following instructions:
○ Score the completed protocol
○ Obtain standard scores, percentiles, and age equivalence
○ Develop present levels of performance for manding, tacting, echoics, listener
responses, intraverbals, imitation, and matching to sample as practiced in practica
○ Schedule a meeting with a supervisor to receive feedback on the given work
○ Reach out to individual supervisors and ask for opportunities in the presence of
the supervisor:
■ To conduct skills assessments using tests that use criterion interpretation of results
■ Develop present levels of performance for assessed skills as part of progress
reports
■ Ask the supervisor for feedback

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Suggested activities for supervisors(s) overseeing the development of advanced

skills and application of skills with clients
• After the supervisee meets the required criteria to begin developing advanced skills
○ While still in the process of earning a graduate degree, the supervisee may be
given opportunities to:
■ Assist with skills assessments using tests that use norm- and criterion-referenced
interpretation of results
■ Assist with writing FBA reports that also include skills assessment
■ Assist with writing progress reports
○ After earning a graduate degree and being allowed to manage clients under
supervision, the supervisee may be asked to:
■ Continue assisting with skills assessments
■ Write complete FBA reports that include skills assessments
256 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Write progress reports

■ Go over the results with caregivers and school staff
■ Document the competition of each skill by signing their initials on the Competency
7 Skills List (Table 17.1)

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

RESOURCES FOR SUPERVISORS

Additional tables and checklists for this chapter are available at the end of this text, following the index.

REFERENCES

Chatham, C. H., Taylor, K. I., Charman, T., Liogier D’Ardhuy, X., Eule, E., Fedele, A., Hardan, A. Y., Loth,
E., Murtagh, L., del Valle Rubido, M., San Jose Caceres, A., Sevigny, J., Sikich, L., Snyder, L., Tillmann, J.
E., Ventola, P. E., Walton-Bowen, K. L., Willgoss, T., & Bolognani, F. (2018). Adaptive behavior in autism:
Minimal clinically significant differences on the Vineland-II. Autism Research, 11(2), 270–283. https://
[Link]/10.1002/aur.1874
Padilla, A. M., Chen, X., Song, D., Swanson, E., & Peterson, M. (2022). Mindset, stereotype threat and the
academic achievement gap between Chinese and Latinx English Learners (ELs). International Journal of
Educational Research, 112, 101916. [Link]
Quigley, S. P., Peterson, S. M., Frieder, J. E., & Peck, K. M. (2018). A review of SAFMEDS: Evidence for
procedures, outcomes and directions for future research. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 41(1), 283–301.
[Link]
Reynolds, C. R., & Livingston, R. A. (2021). Mastering modern psychological testing. Springer.
Sattler, J. M. (2014). Foundations of Behavioral, Social, and Clinical Assessment of Children (6th ed.). Jerome M.
Sattler, Publisher, Inc.
Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Saulnier, C. A. (2016). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (3rd ed.). Pearson.
 18
COMPETENCY 8: IMPLEMENT AND
DEVELOP BEHAVIOR REDUCTION
TREATMENT PLANS

PREREQUISITE SKILLS

• Operationally defining behaviors

• Data collection, graphing, and analysis

• Conducting Functional Behavior Assessments

• Knowledge of basic principles and use of schedules of reinforcement

• Knowledge of how and when to use antecedent- and consequence-based procedures

• Knowledge of the negative effects of extinction and punishment and how to address them

• Knowledge of how to write goals

After identifying variables that evoke and maintain problem behaviors through Functional
Behavior Assessments (FBA), developing evidence-based technological treatment plans to
address problem behaviors is the responsibility of all behavior analysts. Without appro-
priate treatment, individuals with severe problem behavior often have difficulties building
and maintaining peer relationships and obtaining educational and vocational services, and
their families experience higher levels of stress (Hagopian et al., 2013). For many individuals
with developmental disabilities, problem behaviors function as the most significant barrier
to accessing community activities (Lowe et al., 2007). Decades of research have shown that
because most problem behaviors are learned and are often maintained by socially mediated
consequences (e.g., access to attention, preferred items or activities, or escape from or avoid-
ance of undesirable events such as academic demands), they can be effectively treated using
interventions that are based on the function of the behaviors (Hagopian et al., 2013).
Development of comprehensive and effective behavior reduction treatment plans requires
the selection of replacement behaviors, most effective antecedent, and consequence-based

257
258 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

procedures, selection of correct schedules of reinforcements for problem and replacement

behaviors, and procedures that will support the generality of the use of replacement behaviors
in lieu of problem behaviors across different contexts, people, and settings. Writing clear and
objective goals for problem and replacement behaviors and selecting the most appropriate
data collection methods to measure desired behaviors are also part of developing a behavior
intervention plan (BIP). In Table 18.1, we provide the reader with benchmarks to drive skill
development for this competency to guide learning how to develop evidence-based, com-
prehensive, and technological behavior reduction treatment plans.
The basic skills for building competency in developing behavior reduction treatment
plans emphasize the review of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board’s ethical guidelines
related to selecting procedures, developing treatment plans, informed consent, and moni-
toring progress. The basic skills also address supervisees’ skills in describing how to im-
plement differential reinforcement procedures with or without extinction, antecedent, and
punishment procedures. Developing evidence-based treatment plans requires knowing
what procedures to use for a given behavior and function, stating when to use differential
reinforcement, antecedent, extinction, punishment procedures, token exchange systems,
and contingency contracts. Supervisees must show competent knowledge of the basic skills
before being given opportunities to practice intermediate skills.
The intermediate skills allow the supervisee to implement behavior reduction plans with
clients as restricted activities. Intermediate skills also include practicing selecting socially ac-
ceptable replacement behaviors, writing goals for desired behaviors, selecting evidence-based
procedures, and developing technological treatment plans that incorporate antecedent
and consequent procedures to address problem behaviors maintained by social positive,
negative, and automatic reinforcement. We strongly recommend that supervisors provide
opportunities for supervisees to practice all tasks listed under intermediate skills until the
supervisee meets each set of criteria. When developing treatment plans, after the supervisee
selects antecedent and consequent procedures, we recommend having the supervisee first
develop a treatment implementation flow chart, role-play implementing the treatment plan
using the flow, make modifications to the flow after mock implementation, and then write a
technological treatment plan. Practice of intermediate skills can be established using group
or individual supervision formats. Provided activities in this chapter are designed to guide
the supervisors on supporting supervisees, as a group or individually, to establish each in-
termediate competency listed in Table 18.1.
Developing advanced skills involved providing supervisees with opportunities to use
assessment results and clients’ skills to select replacement behaviors, write goals, select evi-
dence-based antecedent and consequent procedures, and write technological treatment plans.
The supervisees should also be given opportunities to train others in the implementation of
treatment plans as well as to engage in progress monitoring and data-based decision-making.
Advanced skills also emphasize obtaining informed consent before treatment plan imple-
mentation and discussing progress with caregivers and clients.
This competency includes generality criteria to support the supervisors in making
decisions about the readiness of the supervisees to perform the advanced skills accurately
and independently. The supervisee may be considered to show mastery in behavior reduc-
tion treatment plan development when the supervisee meets the generality criteria listed
in Table 18.1.
When each component listed in the competency is met, the supervisors are encouraged
to sign off on the skill by signing their initials next to that skill. For example, when working
on intermediate skills, as soon as the supervisee meets the criteria for practicing the selec-
tion of socially acceptable replacement behaviors for problem behavior maintained by social
positive reinforcement, the supervisor may initial the designated box to indicate that the
supervisee met the criteria fo’r that specific intermediate skill.
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  259

TABLE 18.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 8

Implement and develop treatment plans that address problem and replacement behaviors
Supervisor’s
Basic Skills Initials

• Review sections of professional and ethical compliance codes for behavior

analysts related to the development and implementation of behavior
reduction plans
• Define and provide examples of positive and negative reinforcement
• Define and provide examples of extinction
• Define and provide examples of punishment
• Define and provide examples of differential reinforcement
• Define and provide examples of unconditioned and conditioned EO and AO
• State effects of EO and AO on behavior and consequences
• Define and provide examples of SD and S-delta
• State effects of SDs and S-deltas on behavior and relationship with the
consequences
• State similarities and differences between EO and SD and AO and S-delta
for reinforcement and punishment
• State when to use DRI
• State when to use DNRI
• State when to use DNRA
• State when to use DRO
• State when to use DRL
• State when to use DRH
• State possible negative effects of using
• Reinforcement
• Extinction
• Punishment
• State when to use contingency contracts
• State when to use self-management plans
• State when to use the following antecedent procedures
• NCR and the limitations of NCR
• Response and stimulus prompts, including instructions
• Establishing and manipulating discriminative stimuli and S-delta for
targeted behaviors
• Contingency specifying stimuli (also known as rules)
• Choice
• Stimulus fading in
• High-p instructional sequence


(continued)
260 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 18.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 8 (continued)
Intermediate Skills
A. Practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans

• Use the dimensions of applied behavior analysis (Baer et al., 1968) to Supervisor’s
evaluate whether treatment plans used with clients are behavior-analytic Initials
across three different treatment plans
• Identify antecedent variables (setting events, MOs, and SDs) and
consequences that evoke/abate and maintain targeted behaviors by the
following functions:
• Positive reinforcement —attention
• Positive reinforcement —tangible
• Negative reinforcement
• Automatic reinforcement
• Practice selecting socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for each
targeted problem behavior(s) by taking into account the function of the
targeted problem behavior(s) and client’s repertoire across all functions
listed below
• Positive reinforcement —attention
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Automatic reinforcement
• Practice developing treatment goals for selected problems and socially
appropriate replacement behaviors
• Practice utilizing current literature to select the most effective and
evidence-based treatments/procedures by taking into account
assessment results, the client’s repertoire, preferences, environmental
barriers, risks, and social validity of the targeted skills
• Practice developing treatment plans that incorporate the use of evidence-
based antecedent and consequence-based procedures for the following
• DRA (including FCT)
• DRI
• DRO
• DRL
• Token economy
• When treatment plans that incorporate differential reinforcement and
antecedent procedures are not sufficient to achieve significant behavior
change, the use of negative punishment procedure(s) may be appropriate
to incorporate into treatment plans. Practice developing behavior analytic
treatment plans that incorporate negative punishment procedure(s)
(e.g., response cost) in combination with differential reinforcement and
antecedent procedure(s) and practice obtaining informed consent from
caregivers or clients.
(continued)
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  261

TABLE 18.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 8 (continued)
Intermediate Skills
A. Practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans

• When treatment plans that incorporate differential reinforcement and

antecedent procedures are not sufficient to achieve significant behavior
change, the use of positive punishment procedure may be appropriate to
incorporate into treatment plans. Practice developing behavior analytic
treatment plans that incorporate positive punishment procedure(s) (e.g.,
RIRD) in combination with differential reinforcement and antecedent
procedure(s) and practice obtaining informed consent from caregivers or
clients.
• Antecedent procedures
• Use of response and stimulus prompts, including instructions
• Contingency specifying stimuli (also known as rules)
• Establishing and manipulating SD and S-delta for targeted behaviors
• Choice
• Stimulus fading in
• High-p instructional sequence
B. Implement behavior reduction treatment plans with clients: Supervisor’s
Independently complete 100% of the steps on PMCs for each treatment Initials
plan listed in the following across two consecutive performance
monitoring checks
• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate DRA/
DRI with or without extinction and antecedent procedures for problem
behaviors maintained by:
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Automatic reinforcement
• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that use the DRO procedure
• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that use the DRL procedure
• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that use NCR to reduce
problem behaviors maintained by:
• Implementing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of behavior contracts with antecedent procedures
• Implementing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of token economy with differential reinforcement and antecedent
procedures
• Implementing self-management plans using BST to teach the client how
to implement the treatment plan
• Implementing treatment plans incorporating the use of token economy,
group contingencies, differential reinforcement, and antecedent procedures
• Only when clinically necessary, implement behavior reduction treatment
plans that incorporate the use of punishment procedures in combination
with differential reinforcement and antecedent procedures


(continued)
262 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 18.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 8 (continued)
Advanced Skills
A. Develop behavior reduction treatment plans for actual clients: Supervisor’s Initials

• Select socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for each Client 1 Client 2

targeted problem behavior(s) by taking into account the function
of the targeted problem behavior(s) and client’s repertoire across
all functions in the following list
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Automatic reinforcement
• Develop treatment goals for selected problems and socially
appropriate replacement behaviors
• Utilize current literature to select the most effective and evidence-
based treatments/procedures by taking into account assessment
results, client’s repertoire, preferences, environmental barriers,
risks, and social validity of the targeted skills for actual clients
• Design and conduct parametric analysis to support selecting
initial schedules of reinforcement for appropriate behaviors
• Develop behavior-analytic behavior reduction treatment plans
that incorporate the use of evidence-based antecedent and
consequence-based procedures for problem behavior(s)
maintained by:
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Automatic reinforcement
• Develop behavior-analytic behavior reduction treatment plans
that incorporate the use of token economy in combination with
differential reinforcement procedures
• Develop behavior-analytic behavior reduction treatment plans
that incorporate the use of behavior contracts and antecedent
procedures
• Develop behavior-analytic self-management plans that
incorporate the use of differential reinforcement and antecedent
procedures
• When treatment plans that incorporate differential reinforcement
and antecedent procedures are not sufficient to achieve
significant behavior change, develop behavior-analytic behavior
reduction treatment plans that include the use of punishment
procedures (e.g., response cost, RIRD) in combination with
differential reinforcement and antecedent procedures
• Obtain informed consent from caregivers before implementing
any treatment plan
(continued)
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  263

TABLE 18.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 8 (continued)
B. Train others, using BST with feedback and reinforcement system,
to implement behavior reduction treatment plans with at least 90%
fidelity across two consecutive performance monitoring checks for
the following: Supervisor’s Initials
Client 1 Client 2

• Treatment plans incorporating DRA/DRI with or without extinction

(including FCT) and antecedent procedures for problem behaviors
maintained by:
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Automatic reinforcement
• Treatment plans incorporating antecedent procedures and DRO
• Treatment plans incorporating antecedent procedures and DRL
• Treatment plans incorporating the use of token economy, differential
reinforcement, and antecedent procedures
• Treatment plans incorporating the use of behavior contracts and
antecedent procedures
• Self-management treatment plans incorporating the use of
differential reinforcement and antecedent procedures
• Treatment plans incorporating the use of token economy, group
contingencies, differential reinforcement, and antecedent
procedures
• Only when necessary, treatment plans that incorporate the use of
punishment procedures (e.g., response cost, RIRD) in combination
with differential reinforcement and antecedent procedures
C. Progress monitoring and data-based decision-making Supervisor’s Initials
Client 1 Client 2

• Graph and monitor progress, analyze data at least weekly,

and make changes to treatment plans, including schedules
of reinforcement, based on progress data
• Use changing criterion design to evaluate the effects of
treatment plans that address gradual change in target
behavior(s)
• Write progress reports by addressing progress toward
targeted goals, including graphs to support reported
progress, developing new goals, and modifying schedules of
reinforcement and treatment plans to address client needs
• Use withdrawal design to:
• Conduct component analysis to determine the most
effective component of behavior reduction treatment plans
• Evaluate generality and maintenance of the taught skills
in the natural environment


(continued)
264 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 18.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 8 (continued)
C. Progress monitoring and data-based decision-making Supervisor’s Initials
Client 1 Client 2

Shows generalized advanced skills to:

• Pinpoint target behaviors, establish accurate function, and Supervisor’s Date
select socially acceptable replacement behaviors across signature
two novel clients
• Develop behavior reduction and replacement behavior goals
for selected target behavior across two novel clients
• Develop technological treatment plans that incorporate
assessment results, best available scientific evidence,
skills in the client’s repertoire, preferences, environmental
barriers, risks, and social validity of the targeted behaviors
across two novel clients
• Obtain informed consent from caregivers before
implementing any treatment plan across two novel caregivers
• Develop PMCs and use BST to train direct staff on the
implementation of behavior reduction plans across three
direct staff
• Graph and monitor progress, analyze data at least weekly,
and make changes to treatment plans based on progress
data across two novel clients
• Write progress reports by addressing progress toward
targeted goals, including graphs to support reported
progress, identifying relative and normative strengths and
needs, and developing new goals and treatment plans to
address client needs across two novel clients
AO, Abolishing Operations; BST, Behavior Skills Training; DRA, Differential Reinforcement of Alternative
Behavior; DRI, Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behaviors; DNRA, Differential Negative Reinforcement
of Alternative Behaviors; DNRI, Differential Negative Reinforcement of Incompatible Behaviors; DRL,
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding; DRH, Differential Reinforcement of Higher Rates of
Responding; DRO, Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviors; EO, Establishing Operations; FCT, Functional
Communication Training; MO, Motivating Operations; NCR, Non-contingent reinforcement; PMC, Performance
Monitoring Checklists; RIRD, Response interruption and redirection; SD, Discriminative Stimulus.
Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(1):91–97. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1968.1-91

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH BASIC SKILLS

• To build and maintain basic skills related to implementing and developing beha-
vior reduction treatment plans:
• Review notes and reading from classes that discussed terms and concepts listed in
Competency 8 Skills List (Table 18.1)
○ Example:
■ Review information on positive and negative reinforcement, extinction, posi-
tive and negative punishment
■ Review when to use specific types of behavior reduction procedures that ma-
nipulate the consequences and the antecedents
• Ask supervisors to provide case scenarios and develop contingency diagrams that
show the antecedents and consequences that evoke and maintain the target behaviors
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  265

• Build fluency with the interpretation of standard scores using Say All Fast, Minute
Each Day, Shuffled (SAFMEDS; Quigley et al., 2018)
• If struggling with discriminating when to use specific procedures, reach out to
supervisors for support and more opportunities to practice the concept
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain initials on the Competency 8 Skills List
(Table 18.1) for each completed basic skill

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• To build and maintain intermediate skills related to conducting FBAs:

• Implement behavior reduction plans with high fidelity and request from the super-
visor to rate performance on at least a monthly basis
• Ask for opportunities to implement treatment plans that use a combination of an-
tecedent- and consequence-based intervention
• Keep track of the experience with behavior reduction procedures by having the
supervisors sign off on procedures for which competency criteria are met
• Complete assigned work within given timelines
• Actively participate in group or individual meetings
• Ask questions and for feedback on completed work
• Apply given feedback to assigned work and ask for more opportunities to practice
the skill
• Have open and clear communication with the field supervisor and ask for oppor-
tunities to practice the targeted skills in Competency 8 Skills List (Table 18.1)
○ Example: When there is an opportunity to develop a behavior reduction plan,
ask to be part of its development and ask for feedback
• When there is an opportunity to work on changing treatment plans, ask to be part of
the decision-making process, provide a solution to the supervisor, and ask for feedback
• Ask for opportunities to work with other staff and teach them how to implement
behavior reduction plans
• Use the additional reading and resources provided at the end of each competency
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 8 Skills List
(Table 18.1) for each completed intermediate skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• To build and maintain advanced skills related to conducting skills assessments:

• Provide evidence to supervisors overseeing the development of advanced skills of
readiness to apply the skills learned in a training environment with actual clients
○ Example: Presenting the Competency 8 Skills List (Table 18.1) with the group
supervisor’s initials for listed basic and intermediate skills can function as evi-
dence for readiness to apply the skills with the clients
266 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Establish open and clear communication with supervisors overseeing the develop-
ment of advanced skills and ask for opportunities to:
○ Develop treatment plans after completing assessments
○ Recommend changes to treatment plans
○ Recommend solutions when the treatment plans are not working
○ Train other staff on the implementation of treatment plans
• Seek supervision and feedback as often as possible
• Complete given work before established timelines
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 8 Skills list
(Table 18.1) for each completed advanced skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH BASIC AND

INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• Competence: Implement and develop behavior-reduction treatment plans

• Skill level: Basic, Intermediate, and Advanced
• Number of meetings: 8
• Duration of each meeting: 3 hours
• Group supervision objectives:
○ Establish competence in basic concepts related to behavior reduction treatment plans
■ Define Differential reinforcement and extinction
■ State when to use:
- Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviors (DRA) (including
Functional Communication Training [FCT])
- Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behaviors (DRI)
- Differential Negative Reinforcement of Incompatible Behaviors (DNRI)
- Differential Negative Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviors (DNRA)
- Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviors (DRO)
- Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL)
- Differential Reinforcement of Higher Rates of Responding (DRH)
- Non-contingent reinforcement (NCR) and what the limitations of NCR are
- Following antecedent procedures/interventions:
- Response and stimulus prompts, including instructions and contingency
specifying stimuli (also known as rules)
- Establishing and manipulating discriminative stimuli and S-delta for
targeted behaviors
- Choice
- Stimulus fading in
- High-p instructional sequence
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  267

■ State possible negative effects of using extinction and punishment

○ Establish competence in intermediate skills related to the implementation and
development of behavior-reduction treatment plans
■ Implement behavior reduction plans that include a combination of antecedent-
and consequence-based interventions with 100% fidelity
■ Practice using dimensions of applied behavior analysis (Baer et al., 1968) to
evaluate whether behavior reduction treatment plans used with clients are
behavior-analytic
■ Practice identifying antecedent variables (setting events, motivating operations
[MOs], and discrimitive stimulus [SD]) and consequences that evoke/abate
and maintain targeted behaviors
■ Practice selecting socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for each targeted
problem behavior(s) by taking into account the function of the targeted problem
behavior(s) and client’s repertoire
■ Develop treatment goals for selected problems and socially appropriate re-
placement behaviors
■ Practice utilizing current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based
treatments/procedures by taking into account assessment results, the client’s
repertoire, preferences, environmental barriers, risks, and social validity of the
targeted skills
■ Develop treatment plans that incorporate the use of evidence-based ante-
cedent- and consequence-based procedures listed in the next two bullet points
to decrease the occurrence of problem behaviors and increase the occurrence
of socially appropriate behaviors
■ When treatment plans that incorporate differential reinforcement and antecedent
procedures are not sufficient to achieve significant behavior change, develop beha-
vior analytic treatment plans that incorporate evidence based negative punishment
procedure(s) (e.g., response cost) in combination with differential reinforcement
and antecedent procedure(s) and obtain informed consent from caregivers.
■ When treatment plans that incorporate differential reinforcement and antecedent
procedures are not sufficient to achieve significant behavior change, practice
using positive punishment procedure that is protective and therapeutic, and
when there is informed consent from caregivers or clients, develop behavior
analytic treatment plans that incorporate positive punishment procedure(s)
(e.g., response interruption and redirection [RIRD]) in combination with dif-
ferential reinforcement and antecedent procedure(s).

GROUP MEETING 1

• Skill Level: Basic

• Purpose: Establish competence in basic and intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to implementing and developing behavior-
reduction treatment plans
268 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Review basic concepts related to implementing and developing behavior-reduction

treatment plans
○ Discuss expectations for building competence in the implementation of behavior-
reduction treatment plans
• GROUP MEETING 1: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to review:
■ Competency 8 Skills List (Table 18.1) benchmarks related to the implementation
and development of behavior reduction intervention plans
■ Notes and chapters from textbooks used in classes that discussed behavior
reduction procedures and treatment plan development

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To establish competency in basic concepts related to developing behavior reduc-
tion treatment plans:
○ Review and list the ethical guidelines on PowerPoint slides related to implementing
and developing behavior-reduction treatment plans
■ Examples:
- 1.05 Practicing Within the Scope of Competence
- 1.07 Cultural Responsiveness and Diversity
- 2.01 Providing Effective Treatment
- 2.08 Communicating About Services
- 2.11 Obtaining Informed Consent
○ Develop PowerPoint slides with each dimension of Applied Behavior Analysis
(ABA) with examples related to implementing and developing behavior reduc-
tion treatment plans
■ Example 1: Technological —Include a sample treatment plan that shows clear
and detailed steps of the treatment plan
■ Example 2: Effective 1 —Include an example of a behavior with a specific func-
tion and two articles that used specific treatment plans that showed significant
improvement in targeted behaviors
■ Example 3: Effective 2 —Include an example of behavior with the specific func-
tion of a current or past client, the treatment plan that was used to address the
targeted behavior, and graphs showing significant improvement in targeted
behaviors
○ Review and develop PowerPoint slides for all basic concepts listed in the Competency
8 Skills List (Table 18.1)
■ Example: Include on a PowerPoint slide the definition of differential reinforce-
ment and extinction
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  269

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 1:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to implementing and developing behavior-
reduction treatment plans
○ Review basic concepts related to implementing and developing behavior-reduction
treatment plans
○ Discuss expectations for building competence in the implementation of behavior-
reduction treatment plans
• After going over the group meeting 1 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Go over the ethical guidelines related to implementing and developing behavior-
reduction treatment plans
○ After going over the ethical guidelines and answering all questions, start a review
of basic concepts, and discuss and provide examples of each dimension of ABA
related to implementing and developing behavior reduction treatment plans
■ For each dimension, randomly pick supervisees and have each of them provide
examples from their own experiences of each dimension and how it applied to
the implementation of behavior reduction plans that they have used
○ After a discussion of the dimension of APA related to implementing and devel-
oping behavior reduction treatment plans:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, and select a supervisee and a basic skill (e.g.,
define differential reinforcement, extinction, and punishment)and have them
answer the question about the selected basic skill
■ Use information on the PowerPoints to provide feedback and use multiple
exemplar training to provide sufficient examples of each basic skill
■ Continue until all basic skills are discussed and understood by the supervisees

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To discuss expectations for building competence in the implementation of beha-
vior reduction treatment plans; include on the PowerPoint slides:
○ Samples of Performance Monitoring Checklists/Tools (PMC/T) used by the or-
ganization to monitor the implementation of behavior reduction plans (see the
online student resources for a sample PMC/T)
○ Advantages of using PMC/Ts to measure performance
○ Organizational expectations regarding the implementation of behavior-reduction
treatment plans
■ The minimum criteria required by the organization for implementation of
behavior-reduction treatment plans by the supervisees
- Example: Completing 100% of the steps in the PMC/T for a behavior reduc-
tion plan to address problem behavior maintained by negative reinforcement
across three consecutive monthly PMC/Ts.
270 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ The minimum number of different behavior treatment plans that must be

implemented with set fidelity by the supervisees
- Example: With two different clients, meet minimum criteria for implemen-
tation of treatment plans that address problem behaviors maintained by
positive, negative, and automatic reinforcement
○ Guidelines for supervisees when coordinating with the field supervisors to ensure
timely assessment of the required behavior reduction skills while working with
clients
■ Request evaluation of performance at least monthly
■ Accept feedback and change performance based on feedback
■ Provide a copy of the completed PMC/Ts to the group supervisor to save in
their supervision file
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the group meeting with a review of PMC/Ts used by the organization and
discuss the advantages of using PMC/Ts to measure performance
• Go over the minimum criteria required by the organization for implementation of
behavior reduction treatment plans by the supervisees
○ Example:
■ Completion of 100% of the steps in the PMC/T for a behavior reduction plan to
address problem behavior maintained by negative reinforcement across three
consecutive monthly PMC/Ts.
■ With three different clients, meet the minimum criteria for implementation of
treatment plans that address problem behaviors maintained by positive, neg-
ative, and automatic reinforcement
• Discuss the supervisee’s responsibilities when coordinating with the field supervisors
to ensure timely assessment of the required skills while working with clients
○ Request evaluation of performance at least monthly
○ Accept feedback and change performance based on feedback
○ Provide a copy of the completed PMC/Ts to the group supervisor to save in their
supervision file
• GROUP MEETING 1: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Independent unrestricted experience: None

GROUP MEETING 2

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Working with field supervisors on building competency in the implementation of
behavior reduction treatment plans listed in Competency Skills 8 List (Table 18.1)
and documentation of performance and completion of individual Competency 8
Skills List (Table 18.1)
○ Practice evaluating whether treatment plans are behavior analytic
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  271

○ Practice identifying antecedent variables (setting events, MOs, and SDs) and
consequences that evoke/abate and maintain targeted behaviors
○ Practice selecting socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) based on a client’s
skills and preferences
• GROUP MEETING 2: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 2, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to review:
■ Basic concepts discussed in group meeting 1 and the seven dimensions of
ABA
■ Work with field supervisors on building competency in the implementation of
behavior reduction treatment plans listed in Competency 8 Skills List (Table 18.1)
and submit PMC/Ts, completed by the field supervisor(s), to the group super-
visor as the set criteria for each competency that is met
- Example: Competency: Implementing behavior reduction treatment plans that
incorporate DRA/DRI with or without extinction and antecedent procedures
for problem behaviors maintained by positive reinforcement
- Criteria: Independently complete 100% of the steps on the PMC/Ts across
two consecutive performance monitoring checks

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To build competence in the implementation of behavior reduction treatment plans
with clients
○ Include the following competency and criterion from Competency 8 Skills List
(Table 18.1) onto a PowerPoint slide
■ Intermediate Skills: Implement behavior reduction treatment plans with clients
■ Criterion: Independently complete 100% of steps on PMCs for each treatment
plan listed in the table across two consecutive PMC
B. Implement behavior reduction treatment plans with
clients: independently complete 100 % of steps on
PMCs, for each treatment plan listed below, across two Supervisor’s
consecutive performance monitoring checks Initials

• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that

incorporate DRA/DRI with or without extinction and
antecedent procedures for problem behaviors maintained
by:
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Automatic reinforcement
• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that use
DRO procedure
272 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

B. Implement behavior reduction treatment plans with

clients: independently complete 100 % of steps on
PMCs, for each treatment plan listed below, across two Supervisor’s
consecutive performance monitoring checks Initials

• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that use

DRL procedure
• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that use
NCR to reduce problem behaviors maintained by:
• Implementing behavior reduction treatment plans that
incorporate use of behavior contract with antecedent
procedures
• Implementing behavior reduction treatment plans that
incorporate use of token economy with differential
reinforcement and antecedent procedures
• Implementing self-management plans using BST to
teach the client how to implement the treatment plan
BST, Behavior Skills Training; DRA, Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior;
DRI, Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior; DRL, Differential Reinforcement
of Low Rates; DRO, Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior; NCR, Non-contingent
Reinforcement; PMC/T, Performance Monitoring Checklist/Tool

■ Include two completed PMC/Ts for any behavior reduction plan (e.g., a treat-
ment plan that incorporated fixed-interval DRO with antecedent procedures)
showing 100% completion on two consecutive assessments on the PowerPoint
slide
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 2:
○ Working with field supervisors on building competency in the implementation of
behavior reduction treatment plans listed in Competency Skills 8 List (Table 18.1)
and documentation of performance and completion of individual Competency 8
Skills List (Table 18.1)
○ Evaluating whether treatment plans are behavior analytic
○ Identifying antecedent variables (setting events, MOs, and SDs) and consequences
that evoke/abate and maintain targeted behaviors
○ Selecting socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) based on client’s skills and
preferences
○ After going over the agenda, remind the supervisees to save the work completed
during the group meeting because it will be used again when practicing writing
goals and selecting evidence-based treatment plans
• After going over the group meeting 1 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Present the PowerPoint slide with the Competency 8 Skills List (Table 18.1)
■ Intermediate skills: Implement behavior reduction treatment plans with clients
■ Criterion: Independently complete 100% of steps on PMCs for each treatment
plan listed in the table across two consecutive performance monitoring checks
18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  273

B. Implement behavior reduction treatment plans with

clients: independently complete 100 % of steps on
PMCs, for each treatment plan listed below, across two Supervisor’s
consecutive performance monitoring checks Initials

• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that

incorporate DRA/DRI with or without extinction and
antecedent procedures for problem behaviors maintained
by:
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Automatic reinforcement
• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that use
DRO procedure
• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that use
DRL procedure
• Implement behavior reduction treatment plans that use
NCR to reduce problem behaviors maintained by:
• Implementing behavior reduction treatment plans that
incorporate use of behavior contract with antecedent
procedures
• Implementing behavior reduction treatment plans that
incorporate use of token economy with differential
reinforcement and antecedent procedures
• Implementing self-management plans using BST
to teach the client how to implement the treatment
plan

■ Inform the supervisees that when criteria for each competence listed in the task
list are met, remind thefield supervisor to initial the Competency 8 Skills List
(Table 18.1) to indicate that competency is met
■ Provide an example by:
- Presenting the PowerPoint slides with two completed PMC/Ts for a selected
treatment plan (e.g., a strategy that incorporated fixed interval [FI] DRO
with antecedent procedures) showing 100% completion on two consecutive
assessments
- Select the box for the supervisor’s initials for that specific treatment plan
(e.g., FI DRO) and sign initials to indicate that the competence criteria for
using the targeted treatment plan (FI DRO) have been met
■ Go back to the PowerPoint slide with the Competency 8 Skills List (Table 18.1),
under Intermediate Skills: Implement Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans
With Clients
- Inform the supervisees to continue working with field supervisors to meet
as many of the competencies listed in the task list as possible
274 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To evaluate whether treatment plans are behavior analytic, prepare the following
treatment plans and include them on PowerPoint slides
○ Three treatment plans that meet the following dimensions:
■ Applied: Addresses socially significant behavior(s) for a client
■ Behavioral: Includes target behaviors identified as concern by caregivers, clear
operational definition of the targeted behavior, and data collection method(s)
to gather data when measuring behavior change.
■ Conceptually Systematic: Selected procedures are rooted in the relevant basic
principles from which they were derived
- Example: DRA with extinction is rooted in the effects of reinforcement and
extinction on behaviors.
■ Effective: The treatment plans include:
- Clear and measurable goals for targeted problem and alternative behaviors
- Most effective and evidence-based treatments/procedures by taking into
account assessment results, client’s repertoire, client preferences, environ-
mental barriers, and risks
■ Generality: The treatment plans include:
- Clear and measurable generality criteria
- Incorporated procedures that support the generality of targeted behaviors
(e.g., program common stimuli, multiple exemplar training) into the treat-
ment plan from the onset of intervention
■ Technological: The treatment plan must include sufficient detail to allow a
person reading the treatment plan to act out the procedure as it is written, and
without making mistakes and asking questions to clarify the written directions
○ One treatment plan that includes all the dimensions listed here except the
technological dimension
■ The treatment plan should lack detail and should be challenging to act out
without asking clarifying questions
○ One treatment plan that includes all the dimensions listed here except the gen-
erality dimension
■ The treatment plan should lack:
- Clear and measurable generality criteria
- Incorporating procedures that support the generality of targeted behaviors
(e.g., program common stimuli, multiple exemplar training) into the treat-
ment plan from the onset of intervention
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by presenting the PowerPoint slide that includes one of three
treatment plans that meet applied, behavioral, conceptually systematic, effective,
generality, and technological dimensions of ABA
○ Present each dimension one at a time and model for the supervisees how to re-
view the plan and identify if the plan meets all relevant dimensions of ABA
18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  275

■ Example 1: Applied dimension: Discuss how the reduction of problem behavior

identified by caregivers and the establishment of socially significant behaviors
will improve the client’s quality of life
■ Example 2: Behavioral dimension: Highlight the clear and measurable opera-
tional definition of the targeted behavior and correct data collection method(s)
to be used to gather data when measuring behavior change
■ Example 3: Technological dimension:
- Randomly select a supervisee and have that supervisee read the plan and
act out the procedure in the plan with the supervisor taking on the role of
the client
- When the procedure is completed, pinpoint that the treatment plan in-
cluded sufficient detail to allow the supervisee to act out the procedure as
it is written, without making mistakes and asking questions to clarify the
written directions
■ Answer all questions related to the treatment plan
○ Present the PowerPoint slide that includes the second of three treatment plans
that meet the applied, behavioral, conceptually systematic, effective, generality,
and technological dimensions of ABA
■ Ask the supervisees to review the plan and provide evidence that supports the
inclusion of applied, behavioral, conceptually systematic, effective, generality,
and technological dimensions of ABA in the treatment plan
■ Allow 15 minutes to complete the activity
■ After all supervisees have completed the assigned task, randomly select a
dimension and then choose a supervisee to provide evidence for the targeted
dimension
■ Provide feedback until all supervisees show acquisition of the targeted skill
○ Present the PowerPoint slide with a treatment plan that includes applied, be-
havioral, conceptually systematic, effective, and generality dimensions but
excludes the technological dimension of ABA
■ Ask the supervisees to review the plan and provide evidence that supports
the inclusion of applied, behavioral, conceptually systematic, effective, and
generality of ABA in the treatment plan
■ Allow 10 minutes to complete the activity
■ After all supervisees have completed the assigned task, randomly select a
dimension and then choose a supervisee to provide evidence for the targeted
dimension
■ Provide feedback until all supervisees show acquisition of the targeted
skill
○ Present the PowerPoint slide that includes the third of three treatment plans
that meet the applied, behavioral, conceptually systematic, effective, generality,
and technological dimensions of ABA
■ Ask the supervisees to review the plan and provide evidence that supports the
inclusion of applied, behavioral, conceptually systematic, effective, generality,
and technological dimensions of ABA in the treatment plan
■ Allow 10 minutes to complete the activity
276 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ After all supervisees have completed the assigned task, randomly select a dimen-
sion and then choose a supervisee to provide evidence for the targeted dimension
■ Provide feedback until all supervisees show acquisition of the targeted skill
○ Present the PowerPoint slide with a treatment plan that includes applied, be-
havioral, conceptually systematic, effective, and technological dimensions but
excludes the generality dimension of ABA
■ Ask the supervisees to review the plan and provide evidence that supports the
inclusion of applied, behavioral, conceptually systematic, and technological
dimensions of ABA in the treatment plan
■ Allow 10 minutes to complete the activity
■ After all supervisees have completed the assigned task, randomly select a
dimension and then choose a supervisee to provide evidence for the targeted
dimension
■ Provide feedback until all supervisees show acquisition of the targeted skill

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice identifying antecedent variables (setting events, MOs, and SDs) and
consequences that evoke/abate and maintain targeted behaviors, and select so-
cially acceptable replacement behavior(s), develop three scenarios for each of the
following functions:
○ Positive reinforcement —attention
■ Scenario 1: Problem behavior is evoked by divided attention
■ Scenario 2: Problem behavior is evoked by removal of attention
■ Scenario 3: Problem behavior is evoked by denial of mands for attention
○ Positive reinforcement —tangibles
■ Scenario 1: Problem behavior is evoked by the removal of tangible (toys)
■ Scenario 2: Problem behavior is evoked by the removal of tangible (electronic
device)
■ Scenario 3: Problem behavior is evoked by denial of mands for tangible
○ Negative reinforcement
■ Scenario 1: Problem behavior is evoked by instructional tasks when teaching
verbal behavior or matching to sample tasks
■ Scenario 2: Problem behavior is evoked by the presentation of academic tasks
or the presentation of homework or chores
■ Scenario 3: Problem behavior is evoked by demands to complete daily living
tasks (e.g., brushing teeth)
○ Automatic positive reinforcement
○ Each scenario should include the following information:
■ Client’s age
■ Manding topography (e.g., selection-based, one-word utterances, phrases)
18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  277

■ A problem behavior or problem behaviors that are part of response class hier-
archy (e.g., one problem behavior, tantrum, or two problem behaviors, crying
and aggression, that have the same function, and aggression always follows
crying if reinforcer is withheld contingent on crying)
■ Baseline data for problem behavior(s)
■ Clear antecedents that evoke the problem behavior(s)
■ Clear consequence that maintains the problem behavior(s)
■ Schedule of reinforcement for problem behavior
- Example 1: You are assigned a 5-year-old client who engages in screaming
maintained by the termination of or postponement of demands to com-
plete chores such as feeding a pet dog, cleaning their room, and putting
clean and folded clothes away. The baseline data show that screaming
occurs on average 1 time an hour/10 times a day, and aggression occurs
on average .2 times an hour/4 times a day. The data also shows that, on
average, every second instance of screaming and every instance of aggres-
sion results in a reduced intensity of task demands by having the parents
do most of the chores for the client. Aggression always follows screaming
if parents continue presenting the demands. The client uses two to three
word vocal utterances to mand for reinforcers. The assessment of high and
low demands shows that the client feeds the pets on average 85% of the
time without PBs (Problem Behaviors), 50% of the time complies with the
demand to put away clothes, and 30% of the time demands a clean room.
The parents would like to decrease problem behaviors and increase socially
appropriate behaviors.
- Example 2: You were just assigned a case where a 4-year-old client engages
in crying that is maintained by access to tangibles. The client cries when
access to tangibles is removed (e.g., turning off the TV or removing
iPad) or mands to access specific tangibles are denied (e.g., mands to
get ice cream). Crying is occurring on average 20 times a week with an
average duration per occurrence of 10 minutes (range 8–12 minutes per
occurrence). The client uses American Sign Language one-word mands
to access reinforcers in and out of view and has a generalized imitative
repertoire for fine motor and two-step gross motor models. The parents
indicate that they can tolerate the problem behavior and that it does not
cause any danger to the client or others. The client plays with multiple
toys functionally on average for 12 minutes and can watch TV for 20
minutes. The parents would like to decrease crying and increase socially
appropriate behaviors.
- Example 3: The assessment results for a 4-year-old client show that the client
has limited play skills and needs to be prompted to play with toys function-
ally, can echo up to three-syllable words, and mands for specific food items
and toys using one-word utterances in the presence of the items only. The
client engages in repetitive jumping that is automatically maintained and
interferes with teaching new skills and increasing interaction with peers.
When the client is left alone without interaction, the average interresponse
time (IRT) for jumping is 30 seconds. When the client engages with toys,
the IRT for jumping is 60 seconds. Parents asked you to present a plan to
decrease the frequency of jumping.
278 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• Present the PowerPoint slide that includes one of three scenarios with problem
behavior that is maintained by positive reinforcement —access to tangible
○ Ask the supervisees to review the scenario and draw a contingency diagram that
clearly shows specific antecedent events (e.g., EOs and SD [if present]), target
behavior(s), and the consequence that maintains the target behavior
■ Allow 5 minutes to complete the contingency diagram
■ After all supervisees have completed the assigned task, randomly select three
supervisees and have the chosen supervisees share the contingency diagrams
with the group
■ After the last selected supervisee shares their contingency diagram, provide
feedback and make sure all supervisees have the correct antecedents and the
consequences for the target behavior(s)
○ Ask the supervisees to select socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for the
targeted problem behavior by considering the function of the targeted behavior
and the client’s repertoire
■ Allow 5 minutes to select replacement behaviors
■ After all supervisees have completed the assigned task, randomly select three
supervisees and have the chosen supervisees share the selected replacement
behaviors with the group
■ After the last selected supervisee shares selected replacement behaviors, pro-
vide feedback and make sure all supervisees have the appropriate replacement
behaviors
○ Present the PowerPoint slide that includes one of three scenarios with problem
behavior that is maintained by negative reinforcement
○ Ask the supervisees to review the scenario and draw a contingency diagram that
clearly shows specific antecedent events (e.g., EOs and SD [if present]), target
behavior(s), and the consequence that maintains the target behavior
■ Allow 5 minutes to complete the contingency diagram
■ After all supervisees have completed the assigned task, randomly select three
supervisees and have the selected supervisees share the contingency diagrams
with the group
■ After the last selected supervisee shares the contingency diagram, provide
feedback and make sure all supervisees have the correct antecedents and the
consequences for the target behavior(s)
○ Ask the supervisees to select socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for the
targeted problem behavior by considering the function of the targeted behavior
and the client’s repertoire
■ Allow 5 minutes to select replacement behaviors
■ After all supervisees have completed the assigned task, randomly select three
supervisees and have the selected supervisees share the selected replacement
behaviors with the group
■ After the last selected supervisee shares selected replacement behaviors, pro-
vide feedback and make sure all supervisees have the appropriate replacement
behaviors
18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  279

○ Present the PowerPoint slide that includes one of three scenarios with problem
behavior that is maintained by positive reinforcement —access to attention
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
○ Ask the supervisees to select socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for the
targeted problem behavior by considering the function of the targeted behavior
and the client’s repertoire
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
○ Present the PowerPoint slide that includes one of three scenarios with problem
behavior that is maintained by automatic positive reinforcement
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
○ Ask the supervisees to select socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for the
targeted problem behavior by considering the function of the targeted behavior
and the client’s repertoire
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
○ Present the PowerPoint slide that includes two of three scenarios with problem
behavior that is maintained by positive reinforcement — access to tangible
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
○ Ask the supervisees to select socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for the
targeted problem behavior by considering the function of the targeted behavior
and the client’s repertoire
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
○ Present the PowerPoint slide that includes two of three scenarios with problem
behavior that is maintained by negative reinforcement
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
○ Ask the supervisees to select socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for the
targeted problem behavior by considering the function of the targeted behavior
and the client’s repertoire
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
○ Present the PowerPoint slide that includes two of three scenarios with problem
behavior that is maintained by positive reinforcement —access to attention
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
○ Ask the supervisees to select socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for the
targeted problem behavior by considering the function of the targeted behavior
and the client’s repertoire
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
280 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Present the PowerPoint slide that includes two of three scenarios with problem
behavior that is maintained by automatic positive reinforcement
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
○ Ask the supervisees to select socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for the
targeted problem behavior by considering the function of the targeted behavior
and the client’s repertoire
■ Use the same steps for scenarios with problem behaviors that were maintained
by access to tangible and negative reinforcement to complete the activity
• GROUP MEETING 2: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 3
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
group meeting 2 skills
• GROUP MEETING 2: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY
ACTIVITIES
• To practice developing contingency diagrams and selecting socially appropriate
behaviors:
○ Email the supervisees a third scenario for problem behaviors maintained by pos-
itive, negative, and automatic positive reinforcements
• GROUP MEETING 2: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Review the scenarios and draw contingency diagrams that clearly show specific
antecedent events (e.g., EOs and SD [if present]), target behavior(s), and the con-
sequence that maintains the target behavior
○ Select socially acceptable replacement behavior(s) for the targeted problem
behavior by considering the function of the targeted behavior and the client’s
repertoire
○ Bring the completed work to the next practica group meeting.

GROUP MEETING 3

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Develop treatment goals for selected problems and socially appropriate replace-
ment behaviors
○ Utilize current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based treatments/
procedures
• GROUP MEETING 3: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 3, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Bring the work completed during group meeting 2 (contingency diagrams and
selected socially acceptable behaviors)
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  281

■ Bring independent unrestricted work to the group meeting

■ Bring computers to practica to conduct a literature search

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice identifying antecedent variables (setting events, MOs, and SDs) and
consequences that evoke/abate and maintain targeted behaviors and selecting
socially acceptable replacement behavior(s):
○ Group 2 independent unrestricted work completed by supervisees outside of
group meeting
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 3:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Develop treatment goals for selected problems and socially appropriate replace-
ment behaviors
○ Utilize current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based treatments/
procedures
• After going over the group meeting 3 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and a scenario and have them
present the unrestricted work for the scenario to the group
○ After selection, remove the scenario and the supervisee from the list so they will
not be selected again in this activity
○ Case presentation should include:
■ The scenario
■ Contingency diagram
■ Replacement behaviors
○ Randomly select supervisees and ask them to provide feedback to the presenting
peer on each of these three components
○ Provide feedback to the presenters
○ Repeat the process until all scenarios are discussed

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing treatment goals for selected problems and socially appro-
priate replacement behaviors
○ Develop PowerPoint slides to review goal writing that include the following:
○ Components of clear and measurable goals (e.g., achievement data, clear context,
clear behavior) for:
■ Behavior reduction
■ Replacement behaviors
282 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ One example of:

■ Behavior reduction goal
■ Replacement behavior goal
○ PowerPoint slides with scenarios from group meeting 2, activity 3
○ Contingency diagrams and selected socially acceptable behaviors developed
during group meeting 2, activity 3
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by reviewing components of behavior reduction and replacement
behavior goals
• Using the examples, pinpoint each component of a goal in the examples
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions, have the supervisees practice goal-writing
○ Using scenarios that were used in group meeting 2 (exclude the ones that were
given as part of unrestricted work), display one scenario at a time
○ Instruct supervisees to use the contingency diagrams for problem behaviors and
selected replacement behavior for the given scenario and write:
■ Behavior reduction goal for each scenario
■ Replacement behavior(s) goal(s) for each scenario
■ Allow 10 minutes for goal writing for each scenario
○ After all supervisees have completed the goals for a given scenario:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them present
the goals to the group
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to their goals
■ Repeat the process with the remaining scenarios

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice utilizing current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based
treatments/procedures by taking into account assessment results, the client’s
repertoire, preferences, environmental barriers, risks, and social validity of the
targeted skills, develop:
○ PowerPoint slides with scenarios from group meeting 2, activity 3
○ Contingency diagrams developed by the supervisees during group meeting 2,
activity 3
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by displaying scenarios from group meeting 2, one scenario at a time
• Instruct supervisees to:
○ Use the identified antecedent(s) and consequence(s) for each targeted behavior(s)
and conduct a literature search to identify evidence-based treatments
○ Find at least two different articles that meet the criteria stated in the preparatory
activities
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  283

○ Write down the antecedent- and consequence-based procedures used in selected

articles
○ Allow 10 minutes for each scenario
• After all supervisees complete the activity for a given scenario:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have tthem discuss
the selected articles by providing the following:
○ Participants’ ages and repertoires (communication level)
_ Severity of problem behaviors at baseline
_ The procedures used to address the targeted behavior(s)
_ Effectiveness of the treatment by analyzing the included graphs
_ Provide feedback
_ Repeat the process with the remaining scenarios
• GROUP MEETING 3 —END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY
3
• Provide an opportunity to complete an unrestricted activity to practice skills
targeted during group meeting 3
• GROUP MEETING 3: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY
ACTIVITIES
• To practice competencies worked on in group meeting 3, ask supervisees to use:
○ Scenarios used for independent work after group meeting 2 for group 3 inde-
pendent unrestricted work
• GROUP MEETING 3: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct the supervisees to review the scenarios used for independent work after
group meeting 2
○ Develop behavior reduction and replacement behavior goals for each scenario
○ Conduct a literature search and find at least two different articles that include
evidence-based treatments to address targeted problem behavior with similar
antecedent(s) and consequence(s)
■ Write down the antecedent- and consequence-based procedures used in selected
articles
○ Bring the completed work to the next practica group meeting

GROUP MEETING 4

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Select evidence-based DRA/DRI and antecedent procedures using information
obtained from the literature
○ Write behavior-analytic BIPs for problem behaviors maintained by positive
reinforcement
284 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 4: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• Prior to group meeting 4, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Bring independent work to practica
■ Bring the work completed during group meetings 2 and 3 (contingency
diagrams, selected socially acceptable behaviors, goals, and researched treat-
ment procedures)
■ Bring computers to practica to write technological treatment plans
■ Review DRA/DRI, non-contingent reinforcement (NCR), and antecedent
procedures and when to use them

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing treatment goals for selected problems and socially ap-
propriate replacement behaviors and utilize current literature to select the most
effective and evidence-based treatments/procedures
○ Group 3 independent unrestricted work completed by supervisees outside of the
group meeting
• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 4:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Select evidence-based DRA/DRI and antecedent procedures using information
obtained from the literature
○ Write behavior-analytic behavior intervention plans for problem behaviors
maintained by positive reinforcement
• After going over the group meeting 4 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and a scenario and have them
present the unrestricted work for the scenario to the group
○ After selection, remove the scenario and the supervisee from the list so they are
not selected again
○ Case presentation should include:
■ The scenario
■ Behavior reduction and replacement behavior goals
■ Articles that include evidence-based treatments to address targeted problem
behavior with similar antecedent(s) and consequence(s)
■ Antecedent and consequence-based procedures used in selected articles
○ Randomly select supervisees and ask them to provide feedback to the presenting
peer for each component listed presented
○ Provide feedback to the presenters
○ Repeat the process until all scenarios are discussed
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  285

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of evidence-based antecedent and DRA/DRI procedures and schedules of
reinforcement, develop PowerPoint slides to review:
○ Components of a BIP
■ Develop PowerPoint slides that include the completed sample treatment plan
or have copies made of the completed sample treatment plan to share with
supervisees during the group meeting (see online student resources for a sample
BIP)
■ Email the group members a blank copy of the BIP template used by the orga-
nization (see online student resources for a sample BIP)
■ PowerPoint slides with scenarios from group meeting 2, activity 3, with problem
behaviors that are maintained by positive reinforcement
• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by using the developed PowerPoint slides for the completed sample
BIP and review components of the BIP (see online student resources for a sample
BIP)
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions, instruct the supervisees to download and open the
BIP template that was emailed to them
• Display one scenario at a time (only use scenarios with problem behaviors maintained
by positive reinforcement)
• Use the first scenario to guide the supervisees through the process of completing
all sections of the BIP, except the written step-by-step implementation section:
○ Targeted problem behavior: Have the group members identify the target problem
behavior from the scenario and include it in this section with an operational
definition
○ Baseline: Guide the group members to identify the baseline for problem behavior
from the scenario and include it in this section
○ Goal(s) for behavior reduction: Have the group members find and include the
goals developed during the prior meeting for that specific behavior in this
section
○ Goal(s) for alternative/incompatible behavior(s): Have the group members find
and include the replacement behavior goals developed during the prior meeting
for that specific behavior in this section
○ Procedures in the treatment package:
■ Antecedent procedures (using bullet points to list the procedures): Guide the
group members to list the antecedent procedures identified in researched arti-
cles or come up with evidence-based antecedent procedures that would have
ablative effects on the problem behavior
■ Consequence-based procedures: Guide the group members to list the DRA/
DRI procedures identified in researched articles
286 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Initial schedules of reinforcement: Guide the group members to determine the

initial schedule for
■ Problem behavior:
■ Alternative/incompatible behaviors
○ Data collection methods: Have them refer to the Behavior Measurement Worksheet
that can be downloaded using the link under Resources for Supervisors and select
data collection methods for:
■ Problem behavior
■ Alternative/incompatible behaviors
○ Materials: Guide the group members to list materials that will be needed during
the implementation of the BIP
• Present remaining scenarios one at a time:
○ Instruct the supervisees to follow the provided sample and practice completing
all sections of the BIP, except the written step-by-step implementation section,
for all remaining scenarios
○ Allow 10 minutes for each scenario
○ After all supervisees complete the assigned section of the BIP for the given scenario:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them present
their work to the group
○ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to their work
○ Repeat the process with the remaining scenarios
• GROUP MEETING 4: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
group meeting 4 skills
• GROUP MEETING 4: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• To practice competencies addressed in group meeting 4
○ Use scenarios that were provided for group meeting 3 independent work
• GROUP MEETING 4: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Review the scenarios used for independent work after group meeting 3
○ Complete all sections of the BIP, except the written step-by-step implementation
section, for the independent work scenarios
○ Bring the independent work to the next group meeting

GROUP MEETING 5

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Develop treatment goals for selected problems and socially appropriate replace-
ment behaviors
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  287

○ Utilize current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based treatments/
procedures
• GROUP MEETING 5: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 5, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Bring the work completed during the previous group meeting (contingency
diagrams and selected socially acceptable behaviors)
■ Bring independent unrestricted work to the group meeting
■ Bring computers to practica to write technological procedures
■ To review DRA/DRI, NCR, and antecedent procedures
○ Email to the group members the sample technological BIP used by the organiza-
tion (see online student resources for a sample BIP)

GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of evidence-based antecedent and DRA/DRI procedures and schedules of
reinforcement:
○ Group 4 independent unrestricted work completed by supervisees outside of the
group meeting
• GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 5:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Write step-by-step BIPs by incorporating selected evidence-based DRA/DRI
and antecedent procedures for problem behaviors maintained by positive
reinforcement
• After going over the group meeting 5 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and a scenario and have them
present the unrestricted work for the selected scenario to the group
○ After selection, remove the scenario and the supervisee from the list so they are
not selected again
○ Case presentation should include:
■ The scenario
■ Completed BIP, except the written step-by-step implementation section, for the
given scenario
○ Randomly select group members and ask them to provide feedback to the presenting
peer on each component listed above
○ Provide feedback to the presenters
○ Repeat the process until all scenarios are discussed
288 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of evidence-based antecedent and DRA/DRI procedures and schedules of
reinforcement:
○ Develop PowerPoint slides with a sample technological (step-by-step) BIP used
by an organization that incorporates the use of antecedent and consequence
procedures (see online student resources for a sample BIP)
○ PowerPoint slides with scenarios from group meeting 2, activity 3, with problem
behaviors that are maintained by positive reinforcement
• GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by reviewing the sample technological (step-by-step) treatment
plan with the group members using the developed PowerPoint slides
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions:
○ Display one scenario at a time (only use scenarios with problem behaviors
maintained by positive reinforcement)
○ Instruct the supervisees to open the file of the BIP that was started in group
meeting 4 for the displayed scenario
○ Use the first scenario to guide the supervisees through the process of writing a
technological step-by-step treatment plan following the provided sample:
■ Example: Supervisees, with guidance from the group supervisor, will complete:
- How to use antecedent procedures to increase the probability of engaging in
replacement behavior and decrease the probability of problem behaviors prior
to the presentation of antecedent events that evoke the problem behaviors
- How to present antecedents that evoke the problem behavior in different
contexts (e.g., if problem behavior is maintained by access to tangibles, the
relevant contexts must be removal and denial of toys, technology, food, and
drinks, and outdoor activities with at least three different people at home
and outside of the home)
- Contingency for each replacement behavior
- Contingency for problem behavior
○ Present remaining scenarios one at a time:
■ Instruct the supervisees to follow the provided sample and practice writing a
step-by-step implementation plan for all remaining scenarios
■ Allow 15 minutes for each scenario
○ After all supervisees complete the assigned section of the BIP for the given scenario:
■ Use a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them present
their work to the group
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to their work
■ Repeat the process with the remaining scenarios
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  289

• GROUP MEETING 5 —END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2

• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
group meeting 5 skills
• GROUP MEETING 5: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• To practice competencies addressed in group meeting 5
○ Use scenarios that were provided for independent work after group meeting 4
• GROUP MEETING 4: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Write a step-by-step implementation plan for the independent work scenarios

GROUP MEETING 6

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Select evidence-based DRA/DNRA/DRI/DNRI and antecedent procedures using
information obtained from the literature for problem behaviors maintained by
negative reinforcement
○ Write behavior-analytic behavior intervention treatment plans for problem
behaviors maintained by negative reinforcement
• GROUP MEETING 6: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 6, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Bring the work completed during group meetings 2 and 3 (contingency diagrams
and selected socially acceptable behaviors) for behaviors maintained by neg-
ative reinforcement
■ Bring independent unrestricted work to the group meeting
■ Bring computers to practica to write technological treatment plans
■ Review DRA/DNRA/DRI/DNRI and antecedent procedures used when
addressing behaviors maintained by negative reinforcement

GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of evidence-based antecedent and DRA/DRI procedures and schedules of
reinforcement:
○ Group 5 independent unrestricted work completed by supervisees outside of the
group meeting
290 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 6:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Select evidence-based DRA/DNRA/DRI/DNRI and antecedent procedures using
information obtained from the literature for problem behaviors maintained by
negative reinforcement
○ Write behavior-analytic behavior intervention treatment plans for problem
behaviors maintained by negative reinforcement
• After going over group meeting 6 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and a scenario and have them
present the unrestricted work for the selected scenario to the group
○ After selection, remove the scenario and the supervisee from the list so they are
not selected again
○ Case presentation should include:
■ The scenario
■ Completed BIP for the given scenario
○ Randomly select group members and ask them to provide feedback to the presenting
peer on each component listed above
○ Provide feedback to the presenters
○ Repeat the process until all scenarios are discussed

GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate
the use of evidence-based antecedent and DRA/DNRA/DRI/DNRI procedures
and schedules of reinforcement for problem behavior maintained by negative
reinforcement:
○ Develop PowerPoint slides with a sample technological (step-by-step) BIP used
by an organization that incorporates the use of antecedent and consequence
procedures (see online student resources for a sample BIP) for problem behaviors
maintained by negative reinforcement
○ Review PowerPoint slides with scenarios from group meeting 2 with problem
behaviors that are maintained by negative reinforcement
• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by reviewing the sample technological (step-by-step) treatment
plan with the group members using the developed PowerPoint slides
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions:
○ Display one scenario at a time (only use scenarios with problem behaviors
maintained by positive reinforcement)
○ Instruct the supervisees to open the file of the BIP that was started in group
meeting 4 for the displayed scenario
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  291

○ Use the first scenario to guide the supervisees through the process of writing a
technological step-by-step treatment plan following the provided sample:
■ Example: Supervisees, with guidance from the group supervisor, will complete
- How to use antecedent procedures to increase the probability of engaging
in replacement behavior and decrease the probability of problem behaviors
prior to the presentation of antecedent events that evoke the problem
behaviors
- How to present antecedents that evoke the problem behavior in different
contexts (e.g., if problem behavior is maintained by access to tangibles, the
relevant contexts must be removal and denial of toys, technology, food, and
drinks, and outdoor activities with at least three different people at home
and outside of the home)
- Contingency for each replacement behavior
- Contingency for problem behavior
○ Present remaining scenarios one at a time:
■ Instruct the supervisees to follow the provided sample and practice writing
step-by-step implementation plan for all remaining scenarios
■ Allow 15 minutes for each scenario
○ After all supervisees complete the assigned section of the BIP for the given
scenario:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them present
their work to the group
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to their work
■ Repeat the process with all remaining scenarios
• GROUP MEETING 6: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
group meeting 6 skills
• GROUP MEETING 6: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• To practice competencies addressed in group meeting 6
○ Email the scenario to supervisees with problem behavior maintained by negative
reinforcement (one of three developed scenarios)
• GROUP MEETING 6: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Write step by step implementation plan for the independent work scenarios
○ Bring the completed work to the next supervision meeting

GROUP MEETING 7

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
292 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Select evidence-based DRO, DRL, NCR, and antecedent procedures using infor-
mation obtained from literature and assessment results
○ Write behavior analytic behavior intervention treatment plans that incorporate
the use of DRO, DRL, NCR, and antecedent procedures
• GROUP MEETING 7: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 7, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Bring independent unrestricted work to the group meeting
■ Bring computers to practica to write technological treatment plans
■ Review DRO, DRL, NCR, and antecedent procedures and when and how to
use them

GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of evidence-based antecedent and differential reinforcement procedures
and schedules of reinforcement for problem behaviors maintained by negative
reinforcement:
○ Group 6 independent unrestricted work completed by supervisees outside of
group meeting
• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 7:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Select evidence-based DRO, DRL, NCR, and antecedent procedures using infor-
mation obtained from literature and assessment results
○ Write behavior-analytic behavior intervention treatment plans that incorporate
the use of DRO, DRL, NCR, and antecedent procedures
• After going over group meeting 7 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and a scenario and have them
present the unrestricted work for the scenario to the group
○ After selection, remove the scenario and the supervisee from the list so they are
not selected again
○ Case presentation should include:
■ The scenario
■ Completed BIP for the given scenario
○ Randomly select group members and ask them to provide feedback to the presenting
peer on each component
○ Provide feedback to the presenters
○ Repeat the process until all the scenarios are discussed
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  293

GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 2 - PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of DRO and antecedent procedures and schedules of reinforcement:
○ Develop three scenarios that include problem behaviors for which DRO will be
an appropriate procedure
○ The scenarios may include:
■ Client’s age
■ Client’s current repertoire
■ A problem behavior or problem behaviors
■ Baseline data for problem behavior(s) (latency and interresponse time [IRT] data)
■ Clear antecedents that evoke the problem behavior(s)
■ Clear consequence that maintains the problem behavior(s)
■ Schedule of reinforcement for problem behavior
- Example: An 8-year-old student is talking to peers during independent work
that disrupts the learning of involved peers. The student has grade-level skills
in all academic areas, and the assessment results show that talking with peers
is maintained by attention from peers. The average IRT for problem behavior
is 3 minutes, 45 seconds. Talking occurs mostly during independent work
activities. Peers engage with the student every time the student initiates a
conversation with any peer.
○ Develop PowerPoint slides with a sample BIP that includes a DRO with ante-
cedent procedures for a behavior maintained by positive reinforcement: access
to attention.
• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by reviewing the sample technological (step-by-step) treatment
plan utilizing DRO with the group members using the developed PowerPoint slides
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions:
○ Display one scenario at a time (only use scenarios with problem behaviors
maintained by positive reinforcement)
○ Instruct the supervisees to open the file of the BIP
○ Use the first scenario to guide the supervisees through the process of writing a
technological step-by-step treatment plan following the provided sample:
■ Example: Supervisees, with guidance from the group supervisor, will:
- Select specific DRO (FI, variable interval [VI], or momentary DRO) and an-
tecedent procedures after conducting a literature search
- Determine initial schedules of reinforcement for the selected DRO procedure
- Write the procedure on how to use antecedent procedures to decrease the
probability of engaging in problem behavior
- Write the procedure on how to present antecedents that evoke the problem
behavior in different contexts (e.g., if problem behavior is maintained by
294 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

access to tangibles, the relevant contexts must be removal and denial of

toys, technology, food, and drinks, and outdoor activities with at least three
different people at home and outside of the home)
- Contingency for the absence of problem behavior
- Contingency for problem behavior
○ Present remaining scenarios one at a time:
■ Instruct the supervisees to follow the provided sample and practice writing
step-by-step implementation plan for all remaining scenarios
■ Allow 20 minutes for each scenario
○ After all supervisees complete the assigned section of the BIP for the given scenario:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them present
their work to the group
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to their work
○ Repeat the process with all remaining scenarios

GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 3 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of DRL, antecedent procedures, and schedules of reinforcement:
○ Develop three scenarios that include problem behaviors for which DRL will be
an appropriate procedure
○ The scenarios may include:
■ Client’s age and current repertoire
■ A problem behavior that is acceptable at lower rates (e.g., talks out in class)
■ Baseline data for problem behavior(s) (IRT and frequency data)
■ Clear antecedents that evoke the problem behavior(s), consequence that
maintains the problem behavior(s)
- Example 1: A 19-year-old client is requesting help to reduce drinking soda
because of health concerns. The client drinks a can of soda every 20 minutes
from 9 a.m. to 10 p.m. every day, on average. The client would like to reduce
soda consumption to no more than two a day. The behavior is maintained
by automatic positive reinforcement.
- Example 2: An 8-year-old student is talking out of turn during teacher-led
instruction by giving the answers to the questions posed by the teacher be-
fore peers get a chance to answer. The problem behavior is maintained by
automatic positive reinforcement. The Planned Activity Check (PLACHECK)
data shows that about 70% of students do give answers to teachers’ questions
on average 1 time per hour. The teacher indicates that the student’s behavior
is disruptive and asks for help to reduce talk to no more than 1 time an hour.
○ Develop PowerPoint slides with a sample BIP that includes a DRO with ante-
cedent procedures for a behavior maintained by positive reinforcement: access
to attention.
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  295

• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 3 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• Start the activity by reviewing the sample technological (step-by-step) treatment
plan utilizing DRL with the group members using the developed PowerPoint
slides
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions:
○ Display one scenario at a time (only use scenarios with problem behaviors
maintained by positive reinforcement)
○ Instruct the supervisees to open the file of the BIP
○ Use the first scenario to guide the supervisees through the process of writing a
technological step-by-step treatment plan following the provided sample
■ Example: Supervisees, with guidance from the group supervisor, will:
- Select specific DRL (spaced responding, interval of full session) and ante-
cedent procedures after conducting a literature search
- Determine initial schedules of reinforcement for the selected DRL procedure
- Write the procedure on how to use antecedent procedures to decrease the
probability of engaging in problem behavior
- Write the procedure on how to present antecedents that evoke the problem
behavior in different contexts (e.g., if problem behavior is maintained by
access to tangibles, the relevant contexts must be removal and denial of
toys, technology, food, and drinks, and outdoor activities with at least three
different people at home and outside of the home)
- Contingency for meeting the set DRL criteria
- Contingency for problem behavior when criteria are not met
○ Present remaining scenarios one at a time:
■ Instruct the supervisees to follow the provided sample and practice writing
step-by-step implementation plan for all remaining scenarios
■ Allow 15 minutes for each scenario
○ After all supervisees complete the assigned section of the BIP for the given scenario:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them present
their work to the group
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to their work
○ Repeat the process with the remaining scenarios

GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 4

• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 4 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate
the use of NCR with extinction, other antecedent procedures, and schedules of
reinforcement:
○ Develop three scenarios that include problem behaviors for which NCR with
extinction will be an appropriate procedure
296 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ The scenarios may include:

■ Client’s age and current repertoire
■ A problem behavior that is acceptable at lower rates (e.g., talks out in class)
■ Baseline data for problem behavior(s) (latency and IRT data)
■ Clear antecedents that evoke the problem behavior(s), consequence that
maintains the problem behavior(s)
- Example: A 4-year-old client is engaging in screaming and self-injurious
behavior (SIB) by biting their hand. While screaming is occurring 20 times
an hour, self-injury is occurring on average 10 times an hour. Latency to
screaming when reinforcers are removed or denied is 7 seconds, and latency
to SIB when screaming is placed on extinction is 10 seconds. The functional
analysis results show that screaming is a precursor to self-injury, and both
behaviors are maintained by access to attention from parents. There is an
85% probability that the client will engage in problem behaviors when the
parent interacts with the younger sibling. The client attends daycare only,
has a generalized echoic repertoire for single words, and has generalized
one-step gross and fine motor imitation skills. The client has age-level func-
tional play skills with a variety of toys. The client mands for reinforcers by
reaching for them or pointing and lacks functional communication skills.
Parents ask for support to decrease self-injurious behaviors and increase
communication.
○ Develop PowerPoint slides with a sample BIP that includes the NCR proce-
dure with other antecedent procedures for a behavior maintained by positive
reinforcement.
• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 4 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by reviewing the sample technological (step-by-step) treatment
plan utilizing NCR with extinction with the group members using the developed
PowerPoint slides
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions:
○ Display one scenario at a time (only use scenarios with problem behaviors
maintained by positive reinforcement)
○ Instruct the supervisees to open the file of the BIP
○ Use the first scenario to guide the supervisees through the process of writing a
technological step-by-step treatment plan following the provided sample:
■ Example: Supervisees, with guidance from the group supervisor, will:
- Select other antecedent procedures that can be used with NCR after conducting
a literature search
- Determine initial schedules of reinforcement for the selected NCR procedure
- Write the procedure on how to use antecedent procedures with NCR to de-
crease the probability of engaging in problem behavior
- Contingency for timer going off
- Contingency for problem behavior when the timer is running
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  297

○ Present remaining scenarios one at a time:

■ Instruct the supervisees to follow the provided sample and practice writing
step-by-step implementation plan for all remaining scenarios
■ Allow 15 minutes for each scenario
○ After all supervisees complete the assigned section of the BIP for the given scenario:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them present
their work to the group
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to their work
○ Repeat the process with the remaining scenarios
• GROUP MEETING 7: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 4
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
group meeting 7 skills
• GROUP MEETING 7: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY
ACTIVITIES
• To practice competencies addressed in group meeting 7
○ Email to the supervisees the scenarios for which DRO, DRL, and NCR could be
used to decrease the occurrence of problem behaviors (one of three developed
scenarios for each procedure)
• GROUP MEETING 7: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Review the scenarios used for independent work after group meeting 6
○ Complete all sections of the BIP and write step-by-step implementation section
for all provided independent work scenarios

GROUP MEETING 8

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Write behavior-analytic behavior intervention treatment plans that incorporate
the use of token economy and contingency contracts with antecedent and differ-
ential reinforcement procedures
• GROUP MEETING 8: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 8, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Bring independent unrestricted work to the group meeting
■ Bring computers to practica to write technological treatment plans
■ Review how and when to use economy and contingency contracts with ante-
cedent and differential reinforcement procedures
298 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 1 - PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of DRO, DRL, and NCR procedures and schedules of reinforcement:
○ Group 7 independent unrestricted work completed by supervisees outside of the
group meeting
• GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 8:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Write behavior-analytic behavior intervention treatment plans that incorporate
the use of token economy and contingency contracts with antecedent and differ-
ential reinforcement procedures
• After going over group meeting 8 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and a scenario, and have them
present the unrestricted work for the scenario to the group
○ After selection, remove the scenario and the supervisee from the list so they are
not selected again
○ Case presentation should include:
■ The scenario
■ Completed BIP for the given scenario
○ Randomly select group members and ask them to provide feedback to the presenting
peer on each component
○ Provide feedback to the presenters
○ Repeat the process until all scenarios are discussed

GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 2 - PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of token economy with evidence-based antecedent and differential reinforce-
ment procedures and schedules of reinforcement:
○ Develop PowerPoint slides with a sample BIP the organization uses that incorpo-
rate token economy with antecedent and differential reinforcement procedures
for behavior maintained by positive or negative reinforcement.
■ Example of components of an intervention plan that utilizes the token economy
used by the organization the plan may contain:
- Target behaviors for which tokens will be dispensed
- Token selection (e.g., check mark or poker chips)
- Backup reinforcer menu
- Contingency for delivering the tokens
- Contingency for problem behavior
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  299

- Contingency if the requirement for token delivery is not met

- Token exchange (when and how tokens will be exchanged)
- Criteria for fading out tokens
- Fade-out plan (e.g., increasing response requirement, increasing price of
backup reinforcers)
○ Develop three scenarios that include problem behaviors for which token economy,
in combination with antecedent and differential reinforcement procedures, will
be an appropriate treatment package
■ The scenario must include sufficient information to allow calculation of tokens
earned per day or week at baseline levels of problem and socially appropriate
behaviors, with maximum tokens earned per day or week if the client engaged
only in socially appropriate behaviors targeted for increase without any problem
behaviors.
- Example: You are assigned a case of an 11-year-old client. The parents report
wanting the client to complete age-appropriate chores at home. They have
difficulty getting the client to complete the assigned chores. Per parents, the
client is asked to complete six chores (take out the trash, clean their room,
make their bed, put away their clean clothes, and help put away groceries)
around the house every week. The client has to make the bed and take out
the trash every day of the week. The parents expect the client to clean his
room, help with putting away groceries twice a week, and put away his
clothes once per week. Per parents, the client takes out the trash with one
reminder 100% of the time, helps with putting away groceries 100% of the
time, puts clothes away 1 out of 4 opportunities, makes his bed less than
30% of the time, puts his clothes aways and cleans own room 0% of the time.
Parents want the client to exchange the tokens for backup reinforcers every
seven days (on Sunday evenings).
• GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by reviewing the sample technological (step-by-step) treatment
plan that incorporates the use of token economy and antecedent and differential
reinforcement procedures
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions:
○ Use the first scenario to guide the supervisees through developing a token system
○ Display one scenario at a time (only use scenarios with problem behaviors
maintained by positive reinforcement)
○ Instruct the supervisees to open the file of the BIP
○ Use the first scenario to guide the supervisees through the process of writing a
technological step-by-step treatment plan following the provided sample:
■ Example: Supervisees, with guidance from the group supervisor, will:
- Develop an exchange value for backup reinforcers
- Example: Going out for ice cream = 50 tokens
- Select specific differential reinforcement and antecedent procedures to be
part of the treatment plan
- Determine initial schedules of reinforcement for the selected behaviors
300 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

- Write the procedure on how to use differential reinforcement, antecedent,

and token economy procedures to decrease the probability of engaging in
problem behavior
- Contingency for the absence of problem behavior
- Contingency for problem behavior
○ Present remaining scenarios one at a time:
■ Instruct the supervisees to follow the provided sample and practice establishing
token exchange values and writing step-by-step implementation plans for all
remaining scenarios
■ Allow 20 minutes for each scenario
○ After all supervisees complete the assigned section of the BIP for the given scenario:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them present
their work to the group
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to their
work
○ Repeat the process with the remaining scenarios

GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 3 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing behavior reduction treatment plans that incorporate the
use of contingency contracts with evidence-based antecedent and differential
reinforcement procedures and schedules of reinforcement:
○ Email blank contingency contract used by the organization to supervisees
○ Develop PowerPoint slides with a sample BIP used by the organization that
incorporates a contingency contract with antecedent and differential rein-
forcement procedures for a behavior maintained by positive or negative
reinforcement.
■ Example of components of a contingency contract:
- Who: (person who would engage in targeted replacement behaviors)
- Task or appropriate behavior(s): (clearly defined replacement behavior)
- When: (by when should the task be completed or when should the client
engage in appropriate behavior)
- Goal:
- Clear criteria that indicate completion of a task or engagement in replace-
ment behavior
- Exceptions, if any
- Reward:
- Who: (person who would deliver the rewards)
- Reward: (reward, including the magnitude, for meeting the set goal)
- When: (contingency and time for delivering the reward)
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  301

- Task record: (a place on the contract to record if the client met the set goals
within set timelines)
- If the caregiver or teacher insists on having negative consequences for
problem behaviors, the contract may include a section for the use of negative
punishment
- Negative consequence
- Behavior: (behaviors targeted for decrease)
- When: (clear contingency for and magnitude of negative punishment)
○ Use the same scenarios that were used for a token economy with the following
changes, if needed:
■ Make sure the age of the client is 7 years old or older and that the client has
rule governance in the repertoire
• GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 3 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by reviewing the sample technological (step-by-step) treatment plan
that incorporates the use of a contingency contract with antecedent and differential
reinforcement procedures
• Review the components of the contract when reviewing the sample treatment plans
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions:
○ Use the first scenario to guide the supervisees through developing a contingency
contract
■ Who: (person who would engage in targeted replacement behaviors)
■ Task or appropriate behavior(s): (clearly defined replacement behavior)
■ When: (by when should the task be completed or when should the client en-
gage in appropriate behavior)
■ Goal:
■ Reward:
■ Task Record: (a place on the contract to record if the client met the set goals
within set timelines)
○ Role-play how to review the contract with the client and provide access to the
specified rewards
○ Role-play may include:
■ Checking if the targeted task is completed
■ Placing a checkmark in the task record if the task was completed to agreed-on
criteria
■ If contingency for reward is met, delivering the agreed-on reward
■ If the criteria for the task are not met, review the contract again with the client,
clarify the goals, and make sure the client has a clear understanding of the set
expectations
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions:
○ Instruct the supervisees to open the BIP template that was emailed to them
302 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Present the second scenario with a problem behavior maintained by positive

reinforcement:
■ Instruct the supervisees to follow the provided sample and practice completing
all sections of the BIP, including the written step-by-step implementation section
■ Allow 30 minutes to complete the activity
• After all supervisees complete the assigned section of the BIP for the given scenario
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them present
their work to the group
○ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to their work
○ Create groups of two and have each group practice reviewing the contract with
each other.
■ Provide feedback while observing group members engage in the task

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Suggested activities for supervisors(s) overseeing the development of advanced

skills and application of skills with clients
• After the supervisee meets the required criteria to begin developing advanced skills
○ While still in the process of earning a graduate degree, the supervisee may be
given opportunities to:
■ After assisting with FBAs, provide the supervisee with an opportunity to de-
velop behavior reduction intervention plans for targeted behaviors
■ Provide opportunities to assist with progress reports by analyzing intervention
data and making needed changes to existing BIPs
■ Provide opportunities to train other staff on the implementation of behavior
reduction plans
○ After earning a graduate degree and being allowed to manage clients under
supervision, the supervisee may be asked to:
■ After assisting with FBAs, have the supervisee develop behavior reduction
intervention plans for targeted behaviors
■ Provide opportunities to complete progress reports by analyzing intervention
data and making needed changes to existing BIPs
■ Provide opportunities to train direct staff on the implementation of behavior
reduction plans
■ Provide opportunities to train caregivers or teachers on the implementation of
behavior reduction plans

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].
 18 Competency 8: Implement and Develop Behavior Reduction Treatment Plans  303

RESOURCES FOR SUPERVISORS

Additional tables and checklists for this chapter are available at the end of this text, following the index.

REFERENCES

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(1), 91–97. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1968.1-91
Hagopian, L. P., Rooker, G. W., Jessel, J., & DeLeon, I. G. (2013). Initial functional analysis outcomes and
modifications in pursuit of differentiation: A summary of 176 inpatient cases. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 46, 88–100. [Link]
Lowe, K., Allen, D., Jones, E., Brophy, S., Moore, K., & James, W. (2007). Challenging behaviours:
Prevalence and topographies. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 51(8):625–636. doi:
10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00948.x
Quigley, S. P., Peterson, S. M., Frieder, J. E., & Peck, K. M. (2018). A review of SAFMEDS: Evidence for
procedures, outcomes and directions for future research. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 41(1), 283–301.
[Link]
 19
COMPETENCY 9: IMPLEMENT AND
DEVELOP SKILL ACQUISITION
TREATMENT PLANS

PREREQUISITE SKILLS

• Operationally defining behaviors

• Data collection, graphing, and analysis

• Conducting skills and preference assessments

• Knowledge of how to write goals

• Foundational knowledge of basic principles related to verbal behavior, stimulus control, stimulus
equivalence, and use of schedules of reinforcement

• Knowledge of how and when to use prompts, prompt fading, incidental teaching (IT), discrete trial in-
struction (DTI), shaping, and chaining

Many clients that behavior analysts work with not only have behavior excesses but also pre-
sent with skill deficits in communication, learning readiness, daily living, play, and social
interactions. Interventions utilizing principles and technologies of Applied Behavior Analysis
(ABA) have shown positive results in improving daily living, social communication skills,
and academic performance (Virués-Ortega, 2010). Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention
(EIBI) utilizing principles and technologies of ABA, compared to eclectic or no intervention
controls, is considered a “well-established” treatment for children with autism (Eldevik
et al., 2009). When behavior analysts start working with clients, they accept responsibility
for implementing EIBI programs and for the clients’ future (Ala’i-Rosales & Zeug, 2010).
Appropriate selection of skills that need to be taught, procedures, and training of staff and
parents in the implementation of the selected procedures with high fidelity increase the ef-
fectiveness of EIBI programs. Appropriate selection of skills also helps children have happy
and productive childhoods, go on to become contributing members of society, and support
the establishment of a harmonious family life (Ala’i-Rosales & Zeug, 2010). At the same time,

304
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  305

disastrous outcomes may occur when certified behavior analysts lack the appropriate training
and skills to provide effective interventions (Ala’i-Rosales & Zeug, 2010). Therefore, compe-
tent behavior analysts must learn how to conduct skills assessments and use the assessment
results to design and carry out developmentally appropriate skill acquisition programs to
teach clients new skills (e.g., communication, following directions, play, social interactions, and
daily living and community skills). Outside of developmental disabilities, behavior analysts
can also work with college students in a university course or train individuals in a business
setting to implement new safety procedures. Given that processes and procedures that are used
to teach communication and learning readiness skills differ from processes and procedures
used to teach daily living and social skills, the skill acquisition competencies are divided
into communication and learning readiness skills (e.g., teaching verbal behavior, following
directions, matching and imitation), daily living, and play and social interactions sections.
The basic skills for building competency in implementation, program development, and
monitoring emphasize the review of Behavior Analyst Certification Board’s ethical guidelines
related to selecting procedures, developing treatment plans, informed consent, and moni-
toring progress. The basic skills also address a supervisee’s skills in defining prompts, dis-
criminating between different types of prompting methods, describing how to implement
most-to-least and least-to-most prompting, how to implement prompt fading, IT, discrete
trial teaching (DTT), shaping, chaining, and use of scripts. Because the development of evi-
dence-based skill acquisition treatment plans require knowing what procedures to use when
teaching specific skills (e.g., manding versus dressing) as part of basic skills, supervisees are
required to know when to use IT, DTT, different types of prompting methods, shaping, and
chaining procedures. Supervisees must show competent knowledge of the basic skills before
being given opportunities to practice intermediate skills.
The intermediate skills allow the supervisee to engage in restricted activities that in-
volve implementing skill acquisition treatment plans with clients that address deficits in
verbal behavior, learning readiness skills, daily living, community living, play, and social
interaction skills. Because teaching new skills involves the selection of skills that need to
be taught, goal writing, and development of appropriate treatment plans, the intermediate
skills must include practicing choosing a selection of age-appropriate skills, of methods to
support the generality of the skills from the onset of the intervention, and of evidence-based
procedures, as well as goal writing and the development of technological treatment plans
that will be used to teach selected skills. We strongly recommend that supervisors provide
opportunities for supervisees to practice all tasks listed under intermediate skills in Table 19.1
until the supervisee meets each set of criteria. When developing treatment plans, after the
supervisee selects treatment procedures we recommend having the supervisee first develop
a treatment implementation flow chart, role-play implementing the treatment plan using
the flow, make any needed modifications to the flow after mock implementation, and then
write a technological treatment plan. Practice of intermediate skills can be established using
group or individual supervision formats by using the provided activities in this chapter. The
activities for supervisors in this chapter are designed to guide the supervisors on how to
support supervisees, as a group or individually, to establish each intermediate competency
listed in Table 19.1.
Advanced skills development involves applying intermediate skills with the supervi-
sion of clients. The development of advanced skills can start with providing opportunities
to supervisees, after meeting set criteria for implementation of skill acquisition treatment
plans, to train others on the implementation of treatment plans, conduct generality probes,
and discuss progress with caregivers. During progress reporting, the supervisees can be
given opportunities to learn how to write progress reports, engage in data analysis, select
skills to teach, write goals, select treatment plans and generality methods, and go over the
306 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 19.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 9

Implement and develop skill acquisition treatment plans
Supervisor’s
Basic Skills Initials

• Review professional and ethical compliance codes for behavior analysts

related to the development and implementation of treatment plans
• Define all verbal operants, including listener behaviors and state-
controlling variables
• Define imitation and model
• Define observational learning
• Discriminate between observational learning and imitation
• Define shaping and chaining
• Define task analysis
• State the components of DTT
• State the components of IT (NET)
• State the advantages and weaknesses of DTT
• State the advantages and weaknesses of IT (NET)
• Define prompts and discriminate between stimulus and response
prompts
• Define prompt fading and state two prompt fading methods
• Discriminate between most-to-east and least-to-most prompting
• List procedures to support generality when teaching verbal operants
and learning readiness skills


Intermediate Skills

• Using skills assessment results and the client’s repertoire, practice Supervisor’s
selecting skills that need to be taught and developing skill acquisition Initials
goals for selected skills across two different client repertoires
• Select verbal behaviors to teach and maintain (mands, tacts, echoics,
intraverbals, listener responses)
• Select learning readiness skills to teach and maintain (imitation, match
to sample, attending skills)
• Select daily and community living skills to teach and maintain
• Select play/leisure skills to teach and maintain
• Select social interaction skills to teach and maintain
• Using the most current research, practice selecting the most effective
and evidence-based treatments/procedures to teach selected skills
across two different client repertoires
• Practice selecting procedures to promote generality (e.g., multiple
exemplar training) and incorporating them into skill acquisition treatment
plans at the onset of the interventions when teaching selected skills
across two different client profiles
(continued)
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  307

TABLE 19.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 9 (continued)
Intermediate Skills

• Implement skills acquisition procedures with clients: Independently Supervisor’s

complete 100% of the steps on PMCs for each procedure on the Initials
following list across two consecutive performance monitoring checks
per procedure
• Use DTT
• Use IT (NET)
• Use LTM prompting to establish prompt hierarchy or prompt fading
• Use errorless learning (MTL)
• Use constant prompt delay with error correction procedures to fade
out the prompts
• Use progressive prompt delay with error correction procedures to
fade out the prompts
• Use pairing procedures to establish new conditioned reinforcers
• Use scripts and script fading
• Teach complex skills using shaping and forward chaining
• Teach complex skills using shaping and backward chaining
• Teach complex skills using shaping and total task chaining
• Optional: Use PT to establish fluent responding


Advanced Skills

• Using skills assessment results and the client’s Supervisor’s Initials

repertoire, select skills that need to be taught and
develop skill acquisition goals for selected skills
across three different client repertoires
Client 1 Client 2 Client 3
• Select verbal behaviors to teach and maintain
• Select learning readiness skills to teach and maintain
• Select daily and community living skills to teach
• Select play/leisure skills to teach
• Select social interaction skills to teach
• Use most current literature, client preferences,
supporting environments, risks, constraints, and
social validity to select the most effective and
evidence-based treatments/procedures for teaching
selected skills across three different clients
• Select and incorporate procedures to promote
generality (e.g., multiple exemplar training) into
teaching procedures at the onset of the interventions
across three different clients
(continued)
308 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 19.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 9 (continued)
Advanced Skills

• Obtain informed consent from caregivers before

implementing developed treatment plans across
caregivers of 3 different clients
5. Use BST with a feedback and reinforcement Supervisor’s Initials
system and train others to implement the skill
acquisition procedures in the following list with
at least 90% fidelity across two consecutive
performance monitoring checks per procedure
Staff 1 Staff 2 Staff 3
• DTT
• IT (NET)
• PT
• LTM prompting
• MTL prompting
• Prompt fading procedures
• Error correction procedures
• Establish new conditioned reinforcers
• Use scripts and script fading
• Teach complex skills using shaping and forward
chaining
• Teach complex skills using shaping and backward
chaining
• Teach complex skills using shaping and total task
chaining
Progress monitoring and data-based
decision-making Supervisor’s Initials
Client 1 Client 2 Client 3
• Graph and monitor progress, analyze data at least
weekly, and make changes to treatment plans and
targeted skills based on progress data
• Write progress reports by addressing progress
toward targeted goals, including graphs to
support reported progress, identifying relative and
normative strengths and needs, and developing
new goals and treatment plans to address client
needs
• Use withdrawal design to evaluate the maintenance
of the taught skills in the natural environment by
systematically withdrawing the components of the
intervention and measuring the maintenance of the
taught skills in the natural environment


(continued)
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  309

TABLE 19.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 9 (continued)
Advanced Skills

Shows generalized advanced skills across three

clients to: Supervisor’s Date
• Select skills that need to be taught, develop goals for signature
selected skills, and use the best teaching methods
to develop technological treatment plans that
incorporate assessment results; use of equivalence-
based instruction, error correction, prompting and
prompt fading, and consider the client preferences,
environmental barriers, risks, and social validity of the
targeted skills across three clients
• Program and assess for response and stimulus
generality of the taught skills from the onset of the
interventions and assess maintenance of the taught
skills in the natural environment across three clients
• Obtain informed consent from at least three caregivers
• Develop PMCs and use BST to train direct staff
working with clients on how to implement:
• DTT and IT (NET) in combination with LTM, MTL,
prompt fading, and error correction
• Shaping and chaining procedures
• Procedure to establish new conditioned reinforcers
• Graph and monitor progress, analyze data at least
weekly, and make changes to treatment plans and
targeted skills based on progress data
• Incorporate precision teaching into sessions to
increase fluency with verbal operants and learning
readiness skills across three clients
• Write progress reports by addressing progress toward
targeted goals, including graphs to support reported
progress, identifying relative and normative strengths
and needs, and developing new goals and treatment
plans to address client needs across three clients
BST, Behavior Skills Training; DTT, Discrete Trial Training/Teaching; IT, Incidental Teaching; LTM, Least-to-
Most Prompting; MTL, Most-to-Least Prompting; NET, Natural Environment Teaching; PMC, Performance
Monitoring Checklist; PT, Precision Teaching.

progress with caregivers. When there is an opportunity to involve the supervisee in the initial
assessment, the supervisees can be allowed, with supervision, to use assessment results and
the client’s skills to select age-appropriate skills to teach, write goals, select evidence-based
procedures and write technological treatment plans that address generality of the targeted
skills from the onset of the intervention. Advanced skills also emphasize obtaining informed
consent prior to treatment plan implementation.
The generality criteria included in this competency is to support the supervisors in
making decisions about the readiness of the supervisees to perform the advanced skills
accurately and independently. The supervisee may be considered to show mastery in skills
acquisition treatment plan development when the supervisee meets the generality criteria
listed in Table 19.1.
When each component listed in the competency is met, the supervisors are encouraged
to sign off on the skill by placing their initials next to that skill. For example, when working
on intermediate skills, as soon as the supervisee meets the criteria for practicing selecting ap-
propriate mands to teach given the client’s skills and assessment results, the supervisor may
initial the designated box to indicate that the supervisee met the criteria for that specific skill.
310 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH BASIC SKILLS

• To build and maintain basic skills related to implementing and developing skills
acquisition treatment plans:
• Review notes and reading from classes that discussed terms and concepts listed in
Competency 9 Skills List (Table 19.1)
○ Example:
■ Review information on manding, tacting, echoics, intraverbals, listener behaviors,
shaping, and chaining
■ Review when to use specific types of procedures to teach new skills, such as
shaping, chaining, DTT, IT, prompts, and prompt fading
• Build fluency with the interpretation of standard scores using Say All Fast, Minute
Each Day, Shuffled (SAFMEDS; Quigley et al., 2018)
• If struggling with discriminating when to use specific concepts, reach out to supervisors
for support and more opportunities to practice the concept
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 9 Skills List
(Table 19.1) for each completed basic skill

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• To build and maintain intermediate skills related to conducting Functional Behavior

Assessments (FBA):
• Implement behavior skill acquisition plans with high fidelity and request a super-
visor to rate performance on at least a monthly basis
• Ask for opportunities to implement treatment plans to teach verbal operants, learning
readiness skills, complex skills, play, and social interaction skills
• Keep track of the experience with the implementation of skill acquisition procedures
by having the supervisor sign off on procedures for which competency criteria are
met
• Complete assigned work within given timelines
• Actively participate in group or individual meetings
• Ask questions and for feedback on completed work
• Apply given feedback to assigned work and ask for more opportunities to practice
the skill
• Have open and clear communication with the field supervisor and ask for oppor-
tunities to practice the targeted skills in Competency 9 Skills List (Table 19.1)
○ Example: When there is an opportunity to develop a skill acquisition plan, ask
to be part of the development and ask for feedback
• When there is an opportunity to work on changing treatment plans, ask to be part
of the decision-making process, provide a solution to the supervisor, and ask for
feedback
• Ask for opportunities to work with other staff and teach them how to implement
skills acquisition treatment plans
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  311

• Use the additional reading and resources provided at the end of each competency
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 9 Skills List
(Table 19.1) for each completed intermediate skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• To build and maintain advanced skills related to conducting skills assessments:

• Provide evidence to supervisors overseeing the development of advanced skills of
readiness to apply the skills learned in a training environment with actual clients
○ Example: Presenting the Competency 9 Skills List (Table 19.1) with the group
supervisor’s initials for listed basic and intermediate skills can function as evi-
dence for readiness to apply the skills with the clients
• Establish open and clear communication with supervisors overseeing the develop-
ment of advanced skills and ask for opportunities to:
○ Develop skills acquisition treatment plans after completing assessments to teach:
■ Verbal operants
■ Complex skills
■ Play skills
■ Social interaction skills
○ Recommend changes to skills acquisition treatment plans
○ Recommend solutions when the skills acquisition treatment plans are not working
○ Train other staff on the implementation of the following skills acquisition treat-
ment plans:
■ IT and DTT
■ Prompting and prompt fading
■ Error correction
■ Shaping and forward, backward, and total task chaining
• Seek supervision and feedback as often as possible
• Complete given work before established timelines
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain initials on the Competency 9 Skills List
(Table 19.1) for each completed advanced skill and complete the Excel profile for
met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH BASIC AND

INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• Competence: Implement and develop skills acquisition treatment plans

• Skill level: Basic and intermediate
• Number of meetings: 8
• Duration of each meeting: 3 hours
312 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Group supervision objectives:

○ Establish competence in basic concepts related to skills acquisition treatment plans
■ Example: Define verbal operant, shaping, and chaining
○ State the components of and when to use:
■ DTT
■ IT (Natural Environment Teaching [NET])
■ Shaping and chaining
○ State the advantages and weaknesses of DTT
○ State the advantages and weaknesses of IT(NET)
○ Define prompts and discriminate between stimulus and response prompts
○ Define prompt fading and state two prompt fading methods
○ Discriminate between most-to-least and least-to-most prompting
○ List procedures to support generality when teaching verbal operants, learning
readiness, daily living, play, and social interaction skills
○ Practice selecting skills that need to be taught based on assessment results
○ Develop treatment goals for selected skills
○ Using the most current research, practice selecting the most effective and evi-
dence-based treatments/procedures to teach selected skills
○ Practice selecting procedures to promote generality (e.g., multiple exemplar
training) and incorporating them into skill acquisition treatment plans at the
onset of the interventions

GROUP MEETING 1

• Skill Level: Basic

• Purpose: Establish competence in basic skills
• Agenda:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to implementing and developing skills acqui-
sition treatment plans
○ Review basic concepts related to implementing and developing skills acquisition
treatment plans
○ Discuss expectations for building competence in the implementation of skills
acquisition treatment plans
• GROUP MEETING 1: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to review:
■ Competency 9 Skills List (Table 19.1) benchmarks related to the implementation
and development of treatment plans to teach new skills
■ Notes and chapters from textbooks used in classes that discussed procedures
and the development of treatment plans to teach new skills
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  313

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To establish competency in basic concepts related to developing skill acquisition
treatment plans:
○ Review and list the ethical guidelines on the PowerPoint slides related to
implementing and developing skill acquisition treatment plans
○ Review and develop the PowerPoint slides for all basic concepts listed in the
Competency 9 Skills List (Table 19.1)
■ Example: Include on a PowerPoint slide all verbal operants, including listener
behaviors and controlling variables
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 1:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to implementing and developing skills acqui-
sition treatment plans
○ Review basic concepts related to implementing and developing skill acquisition
treatment plans
○ Discuss expectations for building competence in the implementation of skill ac-
quisition treatment plans
• After going over the group meeting 1 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Go over the ethical guidelines related to implementing and developing skills
acquisition treatment plans
○ After going over the ethical guidelines and answering all questions, start a review
of the basic concepts
○ Using a random wheel orcards, select a basic skill (e.g., define mands, shaping,
chaining, prompts) and a supervisee and have them answer the question about
the selected basic skill
■ Use information on the PowerPoints to provide feedback and use multiple
exemplar training to provide sufficient examples of each basic skill
■ Continue until all basic skills are discussed and understood by everyone

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To discuss expectations for building competence in the implementation of skills
acquisition treatment plans include on the PowerPoint slides:
○ The following competency and criterion from the Competency 9 Skills List
(Table 19.1)
○ Intermediate Skills: Implement skill acquisition plans with clients
○ Sample criterion: Independently complete 100% of the steps on Performance
Monitoring Checklists/Tools (PMC/Ts) for each procedure listed below for three
different verbal behaviors and two different learning readiness skills across two
314 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

consecutive performance monitoring checks per verbal behavior and learning

readiness skill

1. Implement skills acquisition procedures with clients: Independently

complete 100% of the steps on PMCs for each procedure listed below, for three
different verbal behaviors and two different learning readiness skills, across two
consecutive performance monitoring checks per verbal behavior and learning Supervisor’s
readiness skill Initials

• DTT
• IT (NET)
• Use LTM prompting to establish prompt hierarchy or prompt fading
• Use errorless learning MTL
• Use constant prompt delay with error correction procedures to fade
out the prompts
• Use progressive prompt delay with error correction procedures to fade
out the prompts
• Use pairing procedures to establish new conditioned reinforcers
• Optional: Use PT to establish fluent responding

DTT, Discrete Trial Training/Teaching; IT, Incidental Teaching; LTM, Least of Most; MTL, Most of Least Prompting;
NET, Natural Environment Teaching; PMC, Performance Monitoring Checklist; PT, Precision Teaching.

○ Include samples of two completed PMC/Ts used by the organization to monitor

the implementation of any skill acquisition procedure (e.g., using IT and constant
prompt fading) showing 100% completion on two consecutive assessments onto
the PowerPoint slide
○ Organizational expectations regarding the implementation of skill acquisition
treatment plans
■ The minimum criteria required by the organization for implementation of skills
acquisition treatment plans by the supervisees
- Example: Completion of 100% of the steps in PMC for using shaping and
forward chaining to teach washing hands across two consecutive monthly
PMCs.
■ The minimum number of different treatment plans that must be implemented
with set fidelity by the supervisees
- Example: With two different clients, meet minimum criteria for implementa-
tion of treatment plans that address teaching manding, tacts, and play skills
○ Guidelines for supervisees to coordinate with the field supervisors to ensure timely
assessment of the required skills acquisition skills while working with clients
■ Request evaluation of performance at least monthly
■ Accept feedback and change performance based on feedback
■ Provide a copy of the completed PMCs to the group supervisor for your su-
pervision file
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the group meeting with a review of PMC/Ts used by the organization
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  315

• Go over the minimum criteria required by the organization for implementation of

skills acquisition treatment plans by the supervisees
○ Example:
■ Completion of 100% of the steps in PMC for skills acquisition plan that utilizes
shaping and forward chaining to teach washing hands across two consecutive
monthly PMCs.
■ With three different clients, meet minimum criteria for implementation of
treatment plans that address skill deficits
○ Inform the supervisees that when criteria for each competence listed in the task list
are met, the field supervisor will initial the Competency 9 Skills List (Table 19.1)
to indicate that competency is met
○ Provide an example by:
■ Presenting the PowerPoint slides with two completed PMCs for selected treat-
ment plans showing 100% completion on two consecutive assessments
- Example 1: Completed PMC for IT showing 100% completion on two con-
secutive assessments
- Example 2: Completed PMC for constant prompt fading procedures showing
100% completion on two consecutive assessments
• Inform the supervisees to continue working with field supervisors to meet as many
of the competencies listed in the task list as possible.
• Discuss the supervisee’s responsibilities to coordinate with the field supervisors to
ensure timely assessment of the required skills while working with clients
○ Request evaluation of performance at least monthly
○ Accept feedback and change performance based on feedback
○ Provide a copy of the completed PMCs to the group supervisor for your super-
vision file
• GROUP MEETING 1: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Independent unrestricted experience: None

GROUP MEETING 2

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Working with field supervisors on building competency in the implementation
of skills acquisition treatment plans listed in Competency 9 Skills List (Table 19.1)
and documentation of performance and completion of individual Competency 9
Skills List (Table 19.1)
○ Practice using skills assessment results and the client’s repertoire to select verbal
behaviors that need to be taught and develop skill acquisition goals for selected
skills
316 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 2: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• Prior to group meeting 2, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Review basic concepts discussed in group 1
■ Continue working with field supervisors on building competency in the im-
plementation of skills acquisition treatment plans listed in Competency 9 Skills
List (Table 19.1) and submit PMCs, completed by the field supervisor(s), to the
group supervisor as the set criteria for each competency is met
- Example:
- Competency: Implementing DTT
- Criteria: Independently complete 100% of steps on PMCs for DTT across
two consecutive performance monitoring checks

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice selecting skills to target for intervention and developing treat-
ment goals for selected skills, develop PowerPoint slides that include the
following:
○ Components of clear and measurable skill acquisition goals (e.g., achievement
data, clear context, clear behavior, clear acquisition criteria)
■ Include two examples of skill acquisition goals
○ Four scenarios where each scenario shows a deficit in the following skills:
■ Any verbal operant (e.g., manding or tacting)
■ Learning readiness skills (e.g., imitation)
■ Daily living skills (e.g., washing hands)
■ Play skills (e.g., functional play)
- Example 1: Scenario with deficit in manding
- The 3-year-old client mands by pointing to the reinforcing items. No other
mands have been observed or reported. The client makes 12 sounds per
hour but does not have an echoic repertoire.
- Example 2: Scenario with a deficit in fine motor imitation
- The 4-year-old client has generalized imitative repertoire for one-step
models with objects and one-step gross motor models. Client imitated 0
of 7 tested one-step fine motor models.
- Example 3: Scenario with a deficit in daily living skill
- A 5-year-old client independently completes 40% of the steps for washing
hands.
- Example 4: Scenario with a deficit in play skill
- A 3-year-old client independently engages in functional play with one toy
for 20 seconds per play opportunity
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  317

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 2:
○ Working with field supervisors on building competency in the implementation
of skill acquisition treatment plans listed in Competency 9 Skills List (Table 19.1)
and documentation of performance and completion of individual Competency
9 Skills List (Table 19.1)
○ Review components of skill acquisition goals
○ Practice selecting skills that need to be taught and develop complete skill acqui-
sition goals for selected skills
• After going over the group meeting 2 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Use the PowerPoint slides for goal components and review the components of
skill acquisition goals
○ After going over the components of the goals:
■ Display the example goal and pinpoint each component of a goal in the example
○ Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
○ After answering all questions, have the supervisee practice goal writing:
■ Display the first scenario
- Instruct supervisees to write goals for this scenario
- Allow 5 minutes for goal writing for the scenario
- Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them pre-
sent their goals to the group
- Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to their goals
○ After all supervisees complete the goals for the first scenario:
■ Display the remaining scenarios one at a time
- For each scenario, instruct supervisees to write goals for the given scenario
- Allow 5 minutes for goal writing for the scenario
■ After each goal, use a random wheel or cards to select two supervisees, and
have them present the goal to the group
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to their goals
■ Repeat the process with the remaining scenarios

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice selecting verbal behaviors and learning readiness skills that need to
be taught, develop PowerPoint slides that include:
○ Three different skills assessment baseline results utilizing the skills assessment tool
used by the organization that include assessment information for the following
skills, or use( copies of a de-identified skill acquisition sections of an FBA with
baseline data without the proposed goals:
■ Manding, echoics, tacts, intraverbals, listener behaviors, matching to sample,
and imitation
318 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

Example: Client: Age —3 years old

• Attending skills in the client’s repertoire:
• Attends to caregiver’s voice when next to client 5 out of 5 opportunities
• Looks toward the speaker when the name is called in the presence of none-competing ac-
tivity in 8 out of 10 opportunities from the front
• Tracks and locates toys and attends to toys for 40 seconds
• Attends to stimuli in an array of 6 while scanning the array to locate reinforcers for 3 seconds
• Manding:
• Skills in repertoire
○ Mands for reinforcers by pointing in the direction of the item
• Needs:
○ Mands for reinforcers using one-word utterances in 0 out of 5 opportunities
• Echoics:
• Skills in repertoire
○ Has generalized echoics for up to four-syllable words
• Needs:
○ Has generalized echoics for
■ 0 phrases and sentences
• Tacts:
• Engaged in pure tacts only with 3D items for the following: 3 toys, 4 food items, and 1 drink
(milk) consumed by the client, mom and dad, and cat (family pet)
• Intraverbals:
• No intraverbal responses were observed
• Listener behaviors:
• Independently followed 1 of 10 instructions related to learning readiness and safety (clean
up, show me ready, give me, point to, sit down, stand up, stop)
○ In an array of 3 independently identified only the following 3D nouns: mom, cat, 4 toys,
4 food items, and 1 drink
• Matching to sample:
○ Has generalized matching for 3D-to-3D identical items
• Needs:
○ Matched 0 of 7 2D-to-2D identical items

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• Start the activity by showing the PowerPoint slides for the first skills assessment
baseline results (see the example in Preparatory Activities section) or provide copies
of the de-identified skill acquisition sections of the first FBA with baseline data
without the proposed goals included
• Guide the supervisees through the first example to select skills that need to be taught
○ Example 1: While using the skill accusation curriculum guide used by the or-
ganization (e.g., Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills–Revised
[ABLS-R], Promoting Emergence of Advanced Knowledge [PEAK], or Verbal
Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program [VB-MAPP]), guide the
supervisees to identify what skills need to be taught in the areas listed as needs
one skill at a time
■ In Example 1, the client showed needs in the following skills:
– Manding: Work on manding using one-word utterances
– Echoics: Work on echoing two to three word phrases
– Tacts: Work on tacting reinforcers, family members, and family pets
– Listener behaviors: Same as tact
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  319

– Intraverbals: Given the client’s echoic skills, can work on basic personal in-
formation (e.g., name and age)
– Matching to sample: Work on 2D-to-2D identical matching
• After the skills are selected, have the supervisees develop goals for each selected
skill one at a time
○ Example: Manding
■ Instruct the supervisees to write goals for manding
■ Allow 5 minutes, then randomly select two supervisees and have them share
their goals
■ Provide feedback and have all supervisees make needed changes
• Continue one skill at a time until all skills are addressed and goals developed
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions, present the second baseline data:
• Instruct supervisees as follows:
○ Identify which skills need to be taught and select an appropriate target for each skill
○ Write a goal for the selected target
○ Allow 30 minutes for the activity
• After all the group members have completed the activity:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a skill and two supervisees and have them
discuss their rationale for selecting what to teach
○ Share the goal(s) for the selected skills that need to be taught
○ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to selected
skills and goals
• GROUP MEETING 2: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
group meeting 2 skills
• GROUP MEETING 2: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• To practice developing contingency diagrams and selecting socially appropriate
behaviors:
○ Email the supervisees the third example of skills assessment
• GROUP MEETING 2: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Review the example, identify which skills need to be taught, and select an appro-
priate target for each skill
○ Write a goal for the selected target
○ Bring the completed work to the next group meeting

GROUP MEETING 3

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
320 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Using skills assessment results and the client’s repertoire, select verbal behaviors
and learning readiness skills that need to be taught and develop skill acquisition
goals for selected skills
○ Utilize current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based treatments/
procedures to teach selected skills
• GROUP MEETING 3: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 3, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Bring independent unrestricted work to the group meeting
■ Bring computers to practica to conduct a literature search

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using skills assessment results and the client’s repertoire to select
verbal behaviors and learning readiness skills that need to be taught and develop
skill acquisition goals for selected skills, review:
○ Group 2 independent unrestricted work assigned to supervisees outside of group
meeting
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 3:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Using skills assessment results and the client’s repertoire, select verbal behaviors
and learning readiness skills that need to be taught and develop skill acquisition
goals for selected skills
○ Utilize current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based treatments/
procedures to teach selected skills
• After going over the group meeting 3 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and a skill, and have them
present the unrestricted work for the skill to the group
○ After selection, remove the skill and the supervisee from the list
○ Case presentation should include:
■ The skill
■ Skills in repertoire
■ Skills that need to be taught
○ Provide feedback to the presenters
○ Repeat the process until all assigned skills are discussed
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  321

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice selecting verbal behaviors and learning readiness skills that need to
be taught, using the assessment results, and developing skill acquisition goals
for selected skills, create PowerPoint slides that include:
○ Three skills assessment baseline results that are different from the examples used
in group meeting 2, utilizing the skills assessment tool used by the organization
that includes assessment information or copies of de-identified skill acquisition
sections of an FBA with baseline data without the proposed goals.
Example: Client: Age —4 years old
• Attending skills in the client’s repertoire:
• Attends to caregiver’s voice when next to client 5 out of 5 opportunities
• Looks toward the speaker when the name is called in the presence of none-competing ac-
tivity in 8 out of 10 opportunities from the front
• Tracks and locates toys and attends to toys for 40 seconds
• Attends to stimuli in an array of 6 while scanning the array to locate reinforcers for 3 seconds
• Manding:
• Mands for 20 out of 20 reinforcers using one-word vocal utterances in the presence and
absence of reinforcing items 100% of opportunities
• Needs: Mands for 0 reinforcers using two-word utterances in 0 out of 5 opportunities
• Echoics:
• Has generalized echoics for up to threeword phrases
• Needs: Echoed 0 of 5 four- to six-word phrases
• Tacts:
• Tact three different samples of the following nouns:
• 20 of 20 toys and 3 of 3 electronic devices (iPad, phone, and TV)
• All 4 immediate family members (mom, dad, brother and sister)
• Needs:
○ 15 of 40 food items and 2 of 5 drinks commonly consumed by age peers
○ 5 of 15 body parts
○ 4 of 10 actions of other (eating, drinking, playing, running)
• Intraverbals:
• Completes fill-in songs 12 out of 12 tested
• Says first name, age, and last name
• Needs: Provides names of parents or siblings in zero of 3 tested trials
• Listener behaviors:
• Independently followed 10 out of 10 presented instructions related to learning readiness and
safety (clean up, show me ready, give me, point to, sit down, stand up, stop)
• In a messy array of 6, independently identified three different samples of the following nouns:
○ 20 of 20 toys and 3 of 3 electronic devices (iPad, phone, and TV)
○ All 4 immediate family members (mom, dad, brother and sister)
○ 6 of 6 pets most commonly found in homes
• Needs:
○ 15 of 40 food items and 2 of 5 drinks commonly consumed by age peers
○ 5 of 15 body parts
○ 4 of 10 actions of other (eating, drinking, playing, running)
• Imitation:
• Has generalized imitation for one-step gross motor models and one-step models with objects
• Needs: Imitated
○ 0 of 7 fine motor and oral motor models
○ 0 of 5 two-step gross motor models
322 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• Display the PowerPoint slides showing two of the three skills assessment data one
at a time or provide copies of the de-identified skill acquisition sections of the first
example of FBAs with baseline data without the proposed goals included
• For each baseline assessment data, instruct supervisees to:
○ Identify what skills need to be taught and select an appropriate target for each
skill
○ Write a goal for the selected target
○ Allow 45 minutes for the activity
• After all the group members have completed the activity:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a skill and two supervisees and have them
discuss their rationale for selecting what to teach
○ Share the goal(s) for the selected skills that need to be taught
○ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to selected
skills and goals
○ Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
○ Repeat the process for the second of three scenarios

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice utilizing current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based
treatments/procedures by taking into account assessment results, the client’s
repertoire, preferences, environmental barriers, risks, and social validity of the
targeted skills, develop
○ PowerPoint slides with scenarios from group meetings 2 and 3,activity 2 (skills
assessment results)
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 3 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by displaying the skills assessment result from group meeting 2,
one scenario at a time
• Instruct supervisees to:
○ Use the identified skills that are selected for teaching and conduct a literature
search to identify evidence-based treatments/procedures that can be used to
teach the selected skills
○ Find at least two different articles that meet this criteria
○ Write down type of procedure(s) used in selected articles
○ Allow 10 minutes for each identified skill
• After all supervisees complete the activity for a given scenario:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them discuss
the selected articles by providing the following:
○ Participants’ ages and repertoires (communication level)
○ The procedures used to address the targeted behavior(s)
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  323

○ Effectiveness of the treatment by analyzing the included graphs

○ Provide feedback
• Repeat the process with the remaining skills assessment results
• GROUP MEETING 3: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
group meeting 3 skills
• GROUP MEETING 3: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY
ACTIVITIES
• To practice competencies worked on in group meeting 3:
○ Email the third example of skills assessment to group members
• GROUP MEETING 3: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct supervisees to:
○ Identify which skills need to be taught and select an appropriate target for each
skill
○ Write goal(s) for the selected target
○ Bring the completed work to the next group supervision meeting

GROUP MEETING 4

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Practice select daily living skills that need to be taught
○ Practice developing goals for selected daily living skills
• GROUP MEETING 4: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 4, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Bring independent unrestricted work from group meeting 3 to the meeting
■ Review how to write goals for complex skills

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using skills assessment results and the client’s repertoire to select
verbal behaviors and learning readiness skills that need to be taught and develop
skill acquisition goals for selected skills, review:
○ Group 3 independent unrestricted work assigned to supervisees outside of group
meeting
324 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 4:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Practice select daily living skills that need to be taught
○ Practice developing goals for selected daily living skills
• After going over the group meeting 4 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and a skill, and have them
present the unrestricted work for the skill to the group
○ After selection, remove the skill and the supervisee from the list so they will not
be selected again
○ Case presentation should include:
■ The skill
■ Skills in repertoire
■ Skills that need to be taught
○ Provide feedback to the presenters
○ Repeat the process until all assigned skills and scenarios are discussed

GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice selecting daily living skills that need to be taught, using skills assess-
ment results and the client’s repertoire, and developing skill acquisition goals
for selected skills, develop PowerPoint slides with:
○ Three different skills assessment baseline results utilizing the skills assessment tool
used by the organization that include assessment information for the following
skills, or copies of de-identified skill acquisition sections of an FBA with baseline
data without the proposed goals:
■ Behavior cusps (prerequisite skills) that are needed to teach daily living skill
■ Present levels of performance on daily living skill

Example: Client: Age: 4 years old

• Behavior Cusps:
• Attending skills:
○ Attends to caregiver’s voice when next to client 5 out of 5 opportunities
○ Looks toward the speaker when the name is called in the presence of none-competing
activity in 8 out of 10 opportunities from the front
○ Tracks and locates toys and attends to toys for 40 seconds
• Imitation:
○ Has generalized imitation for one-step gross motor and one-step models with objects
• Following directions:
○ Follows one-step instructions related to play skills
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  325

• Present levels of performance for daily living skill

• Eating and meal preparation
○ Relative strengths:
■ Client independently completes 100% of steps for:
– Drinking from a cup
– Using a fork
○ Needs:
■ Client independently completes:
– 0% of the step for using a spoon
– 20% of the step for wiping their mouth during and after meals
• Personal Hygiene:
○ Relative strengths:
■ Client independently completes 100% of the steps for:
– Washing hands
– Toileting
○ Needs:
■ Client independently completes:
– 50% of the step for washing the face
– 0% of step for brushing teeth
• Dressing:
○ Relative strengths:
■ Client independently completes 100% of steps for:
– Taking off shoes and socks
○ Needs:
■ Client independently completes:
– 20% of the step for putting on shoes
– 0% of step for putting on socks

• GROUP MEETING 4: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• Display the PowerPoint slides showing one of three skills assessment data or pro-
vide copies of the de-identified skill acquisition sections of the first example of an
FBAs with baseline data without the proposed goals included
• Instruct supervisees to:
○ Identify which skills need to be taught and select an appropriate target for each
skill
○ Write a goal for the selected target
○ Allow 30 minutes for the activity
• After all the group members have completed the activity:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a skill and two supervisees and have them
discuss their rationale for selecting what to teach
○ Share the goal(s) for the selected skills that need to be taught
○ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to selected
skills and goals
○ Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
326 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Repeat the process for the remaining two skills assessment data one at a time
• GROUP MEETING 4: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice group meeting
4 skills —none

GROUP MEETING 5

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Practice using skills assessment results and the client’s repertoire, select daily
living skills that need to be taught, and develop skill acquisition goals for selected
skills
○ Utilize current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based treatments/
procedures to teach daily living skills
• GROUP MEETING 5: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 5, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Bring computers to practica to write technological procedures
■ Continue working with field supervisors on building competency in the im-
plementation of skills acquisition procedures listed in Competency 9 Skills
List (Table 19.1) and submit PMCs, completed by the field supervisor(s), to the
group supervisor as the set criteria for each competency is met

GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice selecting daily living skills that need to be taught, using skills assess-
ment results and the client’s repertoire, and developing skill acquisition goals
for selected skills, create PowerPoint slides with:
○ Three skills assessment baseline results that are different from group 4 baseline
results utilizing the skills assessment tool used by the organization that includes
assessment information for daily living skills, or use copies of de-identified
skill acquisition sections of an FBA with baseline data without the proposed
goals:
■ Behavior cusps (prerequisite skills) that are needed to teach daily living skill
■ Present levels of performance on daily living skill
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  327

Example: Client: Age —5 years old

• Behavior Cusps
• Attending skills:
○ Attends to caregiver’s voice when next to client 5 out of 5 opportunities
○ Looks toward the speaker when the name is called in the presence of none-competing
activity in 7 out of 10 opportunities from the front
○ Tracks and locates toys and attends to toys for 5 minutes
• Imitation:
○ Has generalized imitation for two-step gross motor and two-step models with objects
• Following directions:
○ Follows two-step instructions related to daily living and play skills
• Present levels of performance for daily living skill
• Eating and meal preparation
○ Relative strengths: Client independently completes 100% of steps for:
■ Drinking from a cup
■ Using a spoon
○ Needs: The client independently completes:
■ 0% of steps for using a fork
■ 20% of steps for wiping mouth during and after meals
• Personal Hygiene:
○ Relative strengths: Client independently completes 100% of steps for:
■ Washing hands and face
■ Toileting
○ Needs: The client independently completes:
■ 50% of the steps for brushing teeth
• Dressing:
○ Relative strengths: Client independently completes 100% of steps for:
■ Taking off shoes and socks
■ Putting on shoes and socks
■ Taking off and putting on a jacket
○ Needs: The client independently completes:
■ 30% of the steps for putting on pants
■ 50% of the steps for taking off the shirt

• GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• Display the PowerPoint slides showing one of three skills assessment data or pro-
vide copies of the deiidentified skill acquisition sections of the first example of FBAs
with baseline data without the proposed goals included
• Instruct supervisees to:
○ Identify which skills need to be taught and select an appropriate target for each
skill
○ Write a goal for the selected target
○ Allow 30 minutes for the activity
• After all the group members have completed the activity:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a skill and two supervisees and have them
discuss the rationale for selecting what to teach
328 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Share the goal(s) for the selected skills that need to be taught
○ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to selected
skills and goals
○ Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• Repeat the process for the second of three skills assessment data

GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice utilizing current literature to select the most effective and evidence-based
treatments/procedures by taking into account assessment results, the client’s
repertoire, preferences, environmental barriers, risks, and social validity of the
targeted skills, develop:
○ PowerPoint slides with scenarios from group meeting 4, activity 2, and group
meeting 5, activity 1 (skills assessment results)
• GROUP MEETING 5: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by displaying skills assessment results, one at a time
• Instruct supervisees to:
○ Use the identified skills that are selected for teaching and conduct a literature
search to identify evidence-based treatments/procedures that can be used to
teach the selected skills
○ Find at least two different articles that meet this criteria
○ Write down type of procedure(s) used in selected articles
○ Allow 10 minutes for each identified skill
• After all supervisees complete the activity for a given scenario:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees, and have them discuss
the selected articles by providing the following:
○ Participants’ ages and repertoires (communication level)
○ The procedures used to address the targeted behavior(s)
○ Effectiveness of the treatment by analyzing the included graphs
○ Provide feedback
• Repeat the process with the remaining skills assessment results
• GROUP MEETING 5: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
group meeting 5 skills
• GROUP MEETING 5: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY
ACTIVITIES
• To practice competencies addressed in group meeting 5
○ Email the supervisees the third scenario out of the three scenarios developed for
group 5, activity 1
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  329

• GROUP MEETING 5: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY

• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Identify what skills need to be taught and select an appropriate target for each skill
○ Write a goal for the selected target
○ Bring the completed work to the next group supervision meeting

GROUP MEETING 6

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Practice developing task analysis for daily living skills and assessing the task
analysis
○ Practice writing technological treatment plans to teach daily living skills
• GROUP MEETING 6: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 6, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Bring computers to practica to write treatment plans
■ Bring all work completed during group meetings 4 and 5
■ Review notes and readings from classes that covered how to develop and test
task analysis and write treatment plans that address teaching complex skills
○ Email to the supervisees copies of:
■ Sample task analysis used by the organization
■ Treatment plan template that is used by the organization when teaching daily
living skills
■ Sample treatment plan for teaching daily living skill

GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using skills assessment results and the client’s repertoire to select
daily living skills that need to be taught and develop skill acquisition goals for
selected skills:
○ Group 5 independent unrestricted work completed by supervisees outside of
group meeting
• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 6:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
330 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Practice developing task analysis for daily living skills and assessing the task
analysis
○ Practice writing technological treatment plans to teach daily living skills
• After going over group meeting 6 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and a skill and have them
present the unrestricted work for the skill to the group
○ After selection, remove the skill and the supervisee from the list so they are not
selected again
○ Case presentation should include:
■ The skill
■ Skills in repertoire
■ Skills that need to be taught
○ Provide feedback to the presenters
○ Repeat the process until all assigned skills are discussed

GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing task analysis for selected daily living skills:
○ A day prior to the group meeting, remind the supervisees to bring all work com-
pleted during group meetings 4 and 5 to the practica meeting
○ Prepare a sample of task analysis for teaching a specific daily living skill (see
online student resources for a sample)
○ Include on a PowerPoint slide three different daily living skills for which goals
were developed during previous group meetings
■ Example: Using a fork, washing hands, putting shoes on
• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by displaying on screen or providing copies of sample task analysis
for teaching a specific daily living skill (e.g., washing hands)
○ Randomly select supervisees and ask them to:
■ Describe the steps for developing a task analysis
■ Provide a rationale for the importance of breaking down the steps into small
teachable units
• After the discussion, provide the group with the first sample skill (e.g., washing hands)
○ Guide the group to develop a task analysis for the task
• After the task analysis for the skill is complete, provide the second sample skills
○ Instruct the supervisees to develop a task analysis for the skill (allow 15 minutes
for the activity)
○ After all the group members have completed the activity:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select two supervisees and have them share
the developed task analysis
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  331

■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to selected
skills
• Repeat the process with the third sample skill

GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 3 - PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice assessing mastery of steps in task analysis:
○ Review the three task analyses developed during meeting 6, activity 3 (e.g., task
analysis for using a fork, washing hands, and putting shoes on)
○ Develop PowerPoint slides that assess mastery of steps in task analysis using
single and multiple opportunity methods.
○ Develop client behaviors that will be used when assessing for mastery of the steps
(see online student resources for a sample)
• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 3 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by displaying the PowerPoint slide with the procedures for single
and multiple opportunity methods of assessments and go over each procedure with
the supervisees
• After the discussion, have the group assess the first task analysis
○ Pair up the supervisees and provide each pair with a paper containing client
behaviors
○ Instruct the supervisees to role-play the steps in task analysis by being a client
and then switching to being the assessor for each assessment method
■ First, conduct the assessment using the single opportunity method
- After conducting the assessment, calculate the baseline level for the task
analysis
■ Then use multiple opportunity methods
- After conducting the assessment, calculate the baseline level for the task
analysis
○ Provide feedback to each pair
• After all the group members have completed the activity for the first task analysis:
○ Have them repeat the process for the remaining two task analyses
○ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to selected
skills

GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 4

• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 4 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice writing technological treatment plans to teach complex skills by uti-
lizing evidence-based procedures (e.g., shaping and chaining), develop PowerPoint
slides that include:
332 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ A sample technological (step-by-step) treatment plan used by the organization

for teaching a complex skill that incorporates shaping and chaining procedures
(see online student resources for a sample treatment plan) or making copies to
give to group members during the group meeting
○ Baseline task analysis assessments for the three daily living skills (e.g., using a
fork, washing face, and putting shoes on) completed during group meeting 6,
activity 3 (see sample table).

■ Sample baseline after conducting multiple opportunity task analysis assessment

• GROUP MEETING 6: ACTIVITY 4 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by displaying on screen or providing copies of a sample treatment
plan for teaching a complex skill (e.g., washing hands) and go over each point on
the treatment plan
○ Pinpoint the correlation between the chaining procedure used in the treatment
plan and the results of the task analysis assessment
○ Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions:
○ Select one of the assessed task analyses from activity 3 (e.g., using a fork)
○ Using the treatment plan template, guide the supervisees in:
■ Selecting the most appropriate chaining and prompting methods for the skill
(e.g., using a fork: backward chaining and most-to-least prompts)
■ Selecting a method to support the generality of the targeted skills from the
onset of the intervention
■ Completing the treatment plan for the first two steps that need to be taught by
incorporating the selected procedures and the generality method
- Example: Per the sample assessed task analysis, the treatment plan should
address teaching steps 2 and 4
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  333

• After all the group members have completed the activity:

○ Select the second assessed task analysis from activity 3 (e.g., using a fork)
○ Instruct the supervisees to use the treatment plan template and:
■ Select the most appropriate chaining and prompting methods given the skill
(e.g., washing hands: forward chaining and most-to-least prompts)
■ Complete the treatment plan for the first two steps that need to be taught
• After all the group members have completed the activity:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a skill and two supervisees and have them
share the developed treatment plans
○ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to treatment
plans
○ Repeat the process with the sample baseline task analysis assessment for the third
skill used in group meeting 6, activity 3
• GROUP MEETING 6: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 4
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
group meeting 6 skills
• GROUP MEETING 6: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• To practice writing treatment plans to teach complex skills
○ Develop two task analyses with assessment results using multiple opportunity
methods similar to the sample provided for group meeting 6, activity 4
○ Email both task analyses to the supervisees
• GROUP MEETING 6: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Write step--by-step implementation plan for the first three steps that need to be
taught for each of the provided task analyses
○ Bring the completed work to the next group meeting

GROUP MEETING 7

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills related to teaching play/leisure
and social interaction skills
• Agenda:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Practice selecting play/leisure and social interaction skills that need to be taught
○ Practice developing goals for selected skills
• GROUP MEETING 7: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 7, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Bring independent unrestricted work to a supervision meeting
■ Review how to write goals for play/leisure and social interaction skills
334 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing treatment plans that incorporate shaping and chaining to
teach complex skills, remind the supervisees to:
○ Bring to practica group 6 independent unrestricted work
• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 7:
○ Review and provide feedback for unrestricted activity
○ Practice selecting play/leisure and social interaction skills that need to be
taught
○ Practice developing goals for selected skills
• After going over group meeting 7 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee, a task analysis, and a
step that needs to be shaped within the task analysis (e.g., washing hands —
step 2)
○ After selection, remove the step and the supervisee from the list so they are not
selected again
○ Ask the supervisee to present the treatment plan for the step to the group
○ Case presentation should include:
■ The target step and the steps in the client’s repertoire
■ Rational for selecting the shaping, prompting, and chaining methods
■ The technological treatment plan for the step
○ Provide feedback to the presenters
○ Repeat the process until all assigned skills are discussed, and all task analysis and
targeted steps are reviewed

GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice selecting play/leisure and social interaction skills that need to be
taught, using skills assessment results and client’s repertoire, and developing
skill acquisition goals for selected skills, prepare PowerPoint slides with:
○ Three different skills assessment baseline results utilizing the skills assessment tool
used by the organization that include assessment information for the following
skills, or copies of de-identified skill acquisition sections of anFBA with baseline
data without the proposed goals:
■ Behavior cusps (prerequisite skills) that are needed to teach play and social
interaction skills
■ Present levels of performance for play/leisure and social interaction skills
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  335

Example: Client: Age —4 years old

• Behavior Cusps:
• Communication skills: Uses two to three word utterances to mand for reinforcer without any
prompts. Provides basic personal information such as name, age, and parents’ names.
• Attending skills:
○ Attends to caregiver’s voice when next to client 5 out of 5 opportunities
○ Looks toward the speaker when the name is called in the presence of none-competing
activity in 8 out of 10 opportunities from the front
○ Tracks and locates toys and attends to toys for 40 seconds
• Imitation:
○ Has generalized imitation for two-step gross motor and two-step models with objects
• Following directions:
○ Follows one-step instructions related to play/leisure and daily living skills
• Echoics:
○ Has generalized echoics for four-word sentences
• Present levels of performance for play and social interaction skills
• Play/leisure skills: Relative strengths:
○ Watches TV and uses tablet to watch favorite shows for an average of 30 minutes per
opportunity
○ Shares toys with adults and engages in functional play with eight different toys with adults
(also independently assembles the toys if needed [e.g., puts together train set]).
○ Engages in parallel play with peers without sharing the toys for an average of 15 minutes
○ When in the community, uses 3 different playground equipment (slide, swing, seesaw)
per their intended function for an average of 60 minutes per opportunity
○ Needs:
■ Engages in zero pretend or make-believe plays
• Social interactions: Relative strengths
○ Returns smiles
○ Says “Hi” and “Bye” in response to greetings and farewells initiated by others
○ Needs:
■ Initiates “Hi” when sees adults or peers before they initiate the greeting in 0 of 3
opportunities
■ Responds to small talk such as “How was your day?” in 0% of opportunities

• GROUP MEETING 7: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• Display the PowerPoint slides for one of three skills assessment data or provide
copies of the de-identified skill acquisition sections of the first example of FBAs
with baseline data without the proposed goals included
• Instruct supervisees to:
○ Identify which skills need to be taught and select an appropriate target for each
skill
○ Write a goal for the selected target
○ Allow 30 minutes for the activity
• After all the group members have completed the activity:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a skill and two supervisees and have them
discuss their rationale for selecting what to teach
○ Share the goal(s) for the selected skills that need to be taught
336 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to selected
skills and goals
○ Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• Repeat the process for the remaining two skills assessment data one at a time
• GROUP MEETING 7 —END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY
2
• Opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice group meeting
4 skills —none

GROUP MEETING 8

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills related to teaching play/leisure
and social interaction skills
• Agenda:
○ Practice selecting play/leisure and social interaction skills that need to be taught
○ Practice developing goals for selected skills
○ Practice selecting evidence-based treatments/procedures to teach play/leisure
and social interaction skills
• GROUP MEETING 8: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 8, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Review how to write goals for play/leisure and social interaction skills
■ Review evidence-based procedures that are used to teach play/leisure and
social interaction skills covered in classes
■ Review methods of programming generality from the onset of the intervention
■ Bring computers to the meeting to conduct a literature search

GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice selecting play/leisure and social interaction skills that need to be
taught, using skills assessment results and client’s repertoire, and developing
skill acquisition goals for selected skills, prepare PowerPoint slides with:
○ Three different skills assessment baseline results that are different from ones from
meeting 7 activities, or copies of de-identified skill acquisition sections of an FBA
with baseline data without the proposed goals:
■ Behavior cusps (prerequisite skills) that are needed to teach play/leisure and
social interaction skills
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  337

■ Present levels of performance for play/leisure and social interaction skills

Example: Client: Age —5 years old
• Behavior Cusps:
• Communication skills: Uses four to six word utterances to mand for reinforcer without any
prompts
• Attending skills:
○ Attends to caregiver’s voice when next to client 5 out of 5 opportunities
○ Looks toward the speaker when the name is called in the presence of non-competing
activity in 8 out of 10 opportunities from the front, left, right, and back
○ Tracks and locates toys and family members
• Imitation:
○ Has generalized imitation for two-step gross motor, two-step models with objects, and
fine motor skills
• Following directions:
○ Follows two-step instructions that are part of a chain related to play/leisure and daily
living skills
• Echoics:
○ Has generalized echoics for five-word sentences
• Present levels of performance for play/leisure and social interaction skills
• Play/leisure skills: Relative strengths:
○ Watches TV and uses tablet to watch favorite shows for an average of 30 minutes per
opportunity
○ Shares toys with adults and siblings and engages in functional play with 8 different toys
with adults and siblings (also independently assembles the toys, if needed [e.g., puts
together train set]).
○ When in the community, uses 2 different playground equipment (slide, swing, seesaw)
per their intended function for an average of 30 minutes per opportunity
○ Engages in 4 different pretend or make-believe plays with adults
○ Needs:
■ Engages in 0 board or card games
■ Engages in 1 pretend play activity with peers or sibling for 60 seconds
• Social interactions: Relative strengths
○ Returns smiles
○ Says “Hi” and “Bye” in response to greetings and farewells initiated by others
○ Initiates “Hi” and “Bye” when sees adults or peers before they initiate the greeting or
farewell
○ Responds to small talk such as “How was your day?” in 100% percent of opportunities
○ Needs:
■ Says “Thank you” when given something or responds appropriately to compliments
of others in 0 of 4 tested opportunities.

• GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 8:
○ Practice selecting play/leisure and social interaction skills that need to be taught
○ Practice developing goals for selected skills
○ Practice selecting evidence-based treatments/procedures to teach play/leisure
and social interaction skills
• After going over group meeting 8 agenda, start activity 1
338 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Display the PowerPoint slides for one of three skills assessment data or provide
copies of the de-identified skill acquisition sections of the first example of FBAs
with baseline data without the proposed goals included
○ Instruct supervisees to:
■ Identify what skills need to be taught and select an appropriate target for each
skill
■ Write a goal for the selected target
■ Allow 30 minutes for the activity
○ After all the group members have completed the activity:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select a skill and two supervisees and have
them discuss the rationale for selecting what to teach
■ Share the goal(s) for the selected skills that need to be taught
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to selected
skills and goals
○ Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
○ Repeat the process for the remaining two skills assessment data one at a time

GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice conducting a literature search and selecting evidence-based procedures
to teach play/leisure and social interaction skills, instruct the supervisees to:
○ Use the permanent product produced during group meeting 8, activity 1 (selected
skills from each of three skills assessments used in activity 1)
○ Use an online article search engine (e.g., Google Scholar)
○ Use notes from classes that discussed methods of programming for generality
from the onset of the intervention
• GROUP MEETING 8: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Select one of three skills assessments from group meeting 8, activity 1
• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Conduct a literature search for each selected skill and identify two procedures
that have been used to teach the selected skill
■ Example: If pretend play was selected as the target skill, supervisees will search
for two procedures that were successfully used to teach pretend play
○ Include the following information for each identified procedure
■ Name of the article and author(s)
■ Behavior cusps that participants had at the onset of the study
■ Procedure
■ Effectiveness of procedure
○ Select a method of programming for generality to support the generality of the
targeted skill from the onset of the intervention
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  339

• After all supervisees complete the task:

○ Randomly select a supervisee and a skill and ask them to share their search
results
○ Continue until all skills in the assigned assessment are covered
• After all targeted skills in the first skills assessment have been discussed and
procedures identified, instruct the supervisees to follow the same process and select
procedures for the remaining two skills assessment results
• After all the group members have completed the activity:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, and select a skill and two supervisees and have
them share the research procedures and client profiles
○ Provide feedback
• GROUP MEETING 8: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 3
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
group meeting 8 skills
• GROUP MEETING 8: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY
ACTIVITIES
• To practice selecting evidence-based procedures to teach play/leisure and social
interaction skills
○ Randomly select and assign to each group member four of the following play/
leisure and social interaction skills:
■ Play:
- Pretend to play with peers
- Action games (e.g., hide and seek, chase)
- Board games
- Card games
- Sports activities (e.g., playing basketball)
■ Social interaction skills:
- Expressions of gratitude (e.g., saying thank you) and receiving and giving
compliments
- Joint attention
- Responding to and initiating small talk (e.g., responding to “How are you?”
or “What did you do today?”)
- Empathy
- Conversations: preferred topics
- Conversations: non-preferred topics
- Conversations: recognizing disinterest and changing conversation topics
- Joining and leaving groups
• GROUP MEETING 8: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct supervisees to:
○ Write skill acquisition goals for each assigned skill
○ Conduct a literature search for each assigned skill and identify two procedures
that have been used to teach the selected skill
340 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Include the following information for each identified procedure from the articles:
- Name of the article and author(s)
- Behavior cusps that participants had at the onset of the study
- Procedure
- Effectiveness of procedure
○ From textbooks and class notes used to teach programming for generality, select
a method to support the generality of the targeted skills from the onset of the
intervention
○ Bring the completed work to group meeting 9

GROUP MEETING 9

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills related to teaching play/leisure
and social interaction skills
• Agenda:
○ Review independent unrestricted activity assigned during the group meeting 8
○ Practice writing skill acquisition treatment plans for selected play/leisure and
social interaction skills by incorporating:
■ Selected evidence-based treatments/procedures
■ Prompts and prompt fading
■ Selected method(s) of generality
• GROUP MEETING 9: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 9, the individual leading the group should:
○ Remind supervisees to bring completed independent work to the group
meeting
○ Provide a copy of the skill acquisition treatment plan template used by the orga-
nization to supervisees
○ Inform supervisees to:
■ Review the skill acquisition treatment plan template
■ Bring work completed in group meeting 8 to the supervision meeting
■ Bring computers to the meeting

GROUP MEETING 9: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 9: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To prepare for the review of independent work assigned during group meeting 8,
follow the steps under group 9 meeting General Preparatory Activities
• GROUP MEETING 9: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  341

• Start the meeting by going over the group meeting 9 agenda

○ Review independent unrestricted activity assigned during the group meeting 8
○ Practice writing skill acquisition treatment plans for selected play and social in-
teraction skills by incorporating:
■ Selected evidence-based treatments/procedures and generality methods
■ Prompts and prompt fading
• After going over the group meeting 9 agenda, start activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and skill and have them pre-
sent the unrestricted work to the group
○ Case presentation should include:
■ Goal for the skill
■ Selected generality method
■ For each selected procedure:
- Name of the article and author(s)
- Behavior cusps that participants had at the onset of the study
• Continue the activity until all skills have been discussed and feedback provided

GROUP MEETING 9: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 9: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice writing technological treatment plans to teach play and social inter-
action skills utilizing evidence-based procedures (e.g., shaping and chaining),
develop PowerPoint slides that include:
■ A sample technological (step-by-step) treatment plan used by the organization
for teaching play/leisure and social interaction skills or making copies of the
treatment plan template to give to group members during the meeting
• GROUP MEETING 9: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by displaying on screen or providing copies of a sample treatment
plan for teaching play/leisure and social skills and go over each point on the treat-
ment plan
○ Treatment plan may include the following sections:
■ Materials
■ List of procedures in the treatment package (e.g., shaping, chaining, and use
of scripts)
■ Written technological procedure, incorporating the selected procedure with:
- Presentation of specific antecedent stimuli that should evoke the targeted
response
- Selected method of generality to program from generality from the onset of
intervention
■ Written technological procedure, including clear:
- Contingency for correct response
- Contingency for incorrect response
342 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

- Prompt fading criteria

- Criteria for conducting generality probes and procedure for conducting
generality probes
○ Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
○ After answering all questions:
○ Select one of the skills from the group meeting 8 independent work
○ Using the treatment plan template as a guide, instruct the supervisees to:
■ Complete the treatment plan for the skill
• After all the group members have completed the activity:
○ Select the second skill from the group meeting 8 independent work
○ Instruct the supervisees to complete the treatment plan for the selected skill
• After all the group members have completed the activity:
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and have them share their
developed treatment plans
○ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to treatment plans
• Repeat the process for two more skills from group meeting 8 independent work
• GROUP MEETING 9 —END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY
• Opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice group meeting
9 skill —none

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Suggested activities for supervisors(s) overseeing the development of advanced

skills and application of skills with clients
• After the supervisee meets the required criteria to begin developing advanced skills
○ While still in the process of earning a graduate degree, the supervisee may be
given opportunities to:
■ After assisting with skills assessments, provide the supervisee with an oppor-
tunity to:
- Select skills that need to be taught
- Write goals for the selected skills
- Select evidence-based procedures to teach the skill
- Select method programming for generality
■ Provide opportunities to assist with progress reports by providing the supervisee
with an opportunity to:
- Select skills that need to be taught
- Write goals for the selected skills
- Select evidence-based procedures to teach the skill
- Select method programming for generality
■ Provide opportunities to train other staff on the implementation of skill acqui-
sition plans
 19 Competency 9: Implement and Develop Skill Acquisition Treatment Plans  343

○ After earning a graduate degree and being allowed to manage clients under
supervision, the supervisee may be asked to:
■ After assisting with skills assessments, provide the supervisee with an oppor-
tunity to:
- Select skills that need to be taught
- Write goals for the selected skills
- Select evidence-based procedures to teach the skill
- Select method programming for generality
■ Provide opportunities to write progress reports by having the supervisee:
- Select skills that need to be taught
- Write goals for the selected skills
- Select evidence-based procedures to teach the skill
- Select method programming for generality
- Write a treatment plan that incorporates selected evidence-based procedures
and methods of programming for generality
■ Provide opportunities to train other staff and parents on the implementation
of skill acquisition plans

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

RESOURCES FOR SUPERVISORS

Additional tables and checklists for this chapter are available at the end of this text, following the index.

REFERENCES

Ala’i-Rosales, S., & Zeug, N. (2010). Three important things to consider when starting intervention for a
child diagnosed with autism. Behavior Analysis Practice, 3(2), 54–55. [Link]
Eldevik, S., Hastings, R. P., Hughes, J. C., Jahr, E., Eikeseth, S., & Cross, S. (2009). Meta-analysis of early
intensive behavioral intervention for children with autism. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent
Psychology, 38(3), 439–450. [Link]
Quigley, S. P., Peterson, S. M., Frieder, J. E., & Peck, K. M. (2018). A review of SAFMEDS: Evidence for
procedures, outcomes and directions for future research. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 41(1), 283–
301. [Link]
Virués-Ortega, J. (2010). Applied behavior analytic intervention for autism in early childhood: Meta-
analysis, meta-regression and dose–response meta-analysis of multiple outcomes. Clinical Psychology
Review, 30(4), 387–399. [Link]
20
COMPETENCY 10: DISSEMINATE THE
PRACTICE OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR
ANALYSIS TO INDIVIDUALS UNFAMILIAR
WITH BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

PREREQUISITE SKILLS

• Foundational knowledge of basic principles

• Knowledge of the role of behavior analysts, and educational and training requirements

• Competency in data collection and implementation of behavior reduction and skill acquisition
procedures

• Competency in assessment and understanding purposes of different assessments

• Competency in the selection of evidence-based behavior reduction and skill acquisition procedures

• Competency in graphing and data analysis

After spending 2 to 3 years in graduate programs learning about behavior analysis and using
behavior analytic terms daily in and outside of class, using similar vernacular with individ-
uals who are not behavior analysts may lead to confusion and miscommunication (Neuman,
2018). Using a more straightforward and more easily understood vocabulary when working
with individuals who are not familiar with behavior analysis may increase clarity and allow
behavior analysts to effectively communicate with the community at large and be more suc-
cessful at introducing and disseminating behavior analysis to those new to the field (Neuman,
2018; Foxx, 1996). Using common vernacular with diverse non-behavior analytic communities
may support broader acceptance of behavior analysis as a field because it is highly likely
that how others perceive our language may shape how they view our values (Foxx, 1996).
Being an expert translator also requires knowledge of a listener’s learning history, careful
observation of the listener’s reactions to what is being said, and adjusting communication
accordingly (Foxx, 1996). Practicing active listening and using “I” statements must be in all

344
 20 COMPETENCY 10: DISSEMINATE THE PRACTICE OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 345

behavior analysts’ repertoires. For example, when getting information from a caregiver or
teacher, instead of paraphrasing what was heard by saying, “You said …,” one should use
“What I heard was …” or “It appears that Johnny is struggling with….”
Compared to other human service professions, the field of Applied Behavior Analysis
(ABA) is young, and many people are not familiar with what behavior analysts do. All beha-
vior analysts are responsible for supporting broader acceptance of the field when presented
with opportunities to use language understood by all. For example, the phrase “complying
with an instruction” means trying to “control” the individual’s behavior and taking away
choice. Replacing the word “compliance” with “following directions” communicates the same
content and may be much more acceptable to the non-behavior analytic community. Parents
and teachers would love for their children and students to follow directions. The same logic
should apply to behavior analytic procedures and concepts discussions. Instead of using the
word “reinforcer,” one can instead easily say, “We are going to provide access to toys when
…” or replace it with the word “rewards.”
When recommending behavior reduction and skill acquisition procedures to caregivers,
clients, and teachers, explaining a procedure’s purpose would require translation and
adjustments in the speaker’s behaviors in reaction to the listener’s reactions to the proposed
procedures. The same applies when teaching others to apply behavior analytic procedures.
Using common terms may increase the use of procedures and make the procedures appear
more familiar to the non-behavior analytic community. For example, instead of using phrases
such as “reinforcing appropriate behaviors,” the phrase “catch them being good” might res-
onate more with teachers or caregivers. Similarly, when teaching others how to implement
specific procedures, using familiar vocabulary when providing feedback or modeling the
procedure may increase the use of the procedures by the non-behavioral community.
In summary, how we interact with caregivers, their loved ones, and other stakeholders
influences continuity of care and treatment acceptability. In the medical field, “bedside manner”
describes communication by medical professionals with patients and family members that
is empathetic, culturally sensitive, and using language that all can understand. We all speak
highly of medical professionals who explain in common terms the medical conditions we
experience and treatment options. Developing bedside manners is the purpose of this com-
petency. Caregivers and teachers do not want to work with professionals who want to “con-
trol their child” but may choose to work with professionals who would collaborate, actively
listen to their values, and create an intervention program that is informed of the stakeholders’
views and perspectives (Rohrer et al., 2021; Allen & Mount, 2024).
The basic skills for building competency in disseminating the practice of ABA empha-
size learning about the educational and training requirements to become a behavior analyst,
and becoming fluent in using non-technical language to explain the job of a behavior analyst
and the practice of ABA. Basic skills also include practicing bedside manner by learning to
use non-technical, conceptually systematic language to explain and answer questions about
basic concepts, explain the purposes of assessments and interventions, and answer questions
about assessments and interventions. Last, Competency 10 (see Table 20.1) covers basic skills
such as understanding the impact of culturally competent practices, social validity, treatment
acceptability on service delivery, and service satisfaction. Supervisees must show competent
knowledge of the basic skills before being given opportunities to practice intermediate skills.
The intermediate skills provide the supervisee with opportunities to practice developing
training modules to teach basic concepts (e.g., behavior, reinforcement, punishment), data col-
lection, and intervention selection and implementation to school staff, caregivers, and newly
hired employees. Developing rating scales to measure the social validity of treatments and
treatment acceptability and practicing active listening and bedside manners are also part
of intermediate skills. The activities for supervisors in this chapter are designed to guide
346 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 20.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 10

Disseminate the practice of Applied Behavior Analysis to individuals unfamiliar with
behavior analysis
Basic Skills
Using vocabulary that can be easily understood by individuals who are not Supervisor’s
familiar with behavior analysis Initials

• Review and discuss with supervisor the ethical guidelines related to

responsibility to clients and stakeholders
• State what behavior analysts do and the educational and training
requirements
• Explain and answer questions about basic concepts
• Explain the purposes and answer questions about assessment and
interventions
• Define and provide examples of social validity and treatment acceptability
and how they affect service delivery
• Define and give examples of cultural competence


Supervisor’s
Intermediate Skills Initials

• Practice developing training modules to teach basic concepts (e.g.,

behavior, reinforcement, punishment) using sufficient examples related
to the experience of the group (e.g., when working with teachers,
the examples must be related to school) and utilizing non-technical
explanations of the basic concepts
• Practice developing training modules to teach data collection methods
(e.g., event recording, timing, and time sampling) and measures of
behavior (e.g., frequency/rate, duration, latency) using non-technical
language, multiple exemplars, and videos to practice data collection
• Practice developing training modules to teach purposes and applications
of differential reinforcement (e.g., DRA, DRI, DRL) and skill acquisition
procedures (e.g., shaping and chaining, IT, DTT) using non-technical
language
• Practice developing rating scales to measure social validity of treatments
and treatment acceptability for at least two different treatments
• Practice culturally competent active listening and bedside manners
when discussing assessment results, obtaining informed consent, and
discussing progress


Advanced Skills Supervisor’s Initials
Caregiver training (across at least three different
caregivers) Client 1 Client 2 Client 3

• Teach parents the effects of consequences and

antecedents on behaviors
• Use BST and PMCs to teach caregivers how
to implement
(continued)
 20 COMPETENCY 10: DISSEMINATE THE PRACTICE OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 347

TABLE 20.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 10 (continued)
Advanced Skills Supervisor’s Initials
Caregiver training (across at least three different
caregivers) Client 1 Client 2 Client 3

○ Behavior reduction treatment plans for

behaviors maintained by:
■ Positive reinforcement
■ Negative reinforcement
■ Automatic reinforcement
○ Skill acquisition treatment plans that utilize IT,
prompting, and prompt fading to teach:
■ Communication skills (e.g., manding,
echoics, tacting, listener behaviors, following
directions, intraverbals)
○ Skill acquisition treatment plans that utilize
shaping and chaining procedures, prompting,
and prompt fading to teach:
■ Daily living skills (e.g., eating, dressing,
personal hygiene)
■ Community living skills (e.g., ordering meals,
crossing the street, shopping)
■ Play/leisure and social interaction skills
• Develop and use rating scales to measure the
social validity of treatments and treatment
acceptability across two different clients
• Use active listening and bedside manners when
discussing assessment results, obtaining informed
consent, and discussing progress with at least two
different clients or caregivers or school staff
School staff or new hire group training (across two school or
new hire groups) Supervisor’s Initials

• Use developed training modules, BST, and PMCs and train Group 1 Group 2
school staff or newly hired employees
• Basic principles of Applied Behavior Analysis
• Data collection
○ Event recording to collect data on frequency/rate,
percent, and trials to criterion
○ Timing to collect data on duration, latency, and IRT
○ Permanent products
○ Time sampling methods
• Purposes and implementation of behavior reduction
treatment plans
○ DRA/DRI and DNRA/DNRI
○ DRL

(continued)
348 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 20.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 10 (continued)
School staff or new hire group training (across two school or
new hire groups) Supervisor’s Initials

○ Momentary DRO
○ Time out and overcorrection
• Purposes and implementation of skill acquisition
treatment plans
○ Shaping and chaining procedures
○ IT and DTT
○ Use of prompts and prompt fading
• Develop and use rating scales to measure the social
validity of training and acceptability across two different
pieces of training


Shows generalized advanced skills to:
• Develop training modules to teach basic concepts, data Supervisor’s Date
collection, and selection and implementation of treatment signature
plans
• Use the developed modules and conduct group or
individual training with caregivers, newly hired staff, or
school staff across two groups or individuals
• Develop and utilize social validity assessment tools to
measure treatment acceptability and social validity of
interventions across three different caregivers, school staff,
or clients
• Use culturally competent active listening and bedside
manners when discussing assessment results, obtaining
informed consent, and discussing progress across three
different caregivers, school staff, or clients
BST, Behavior Skills Training; DNRA/I, Differential Negative Reinforcement of Alternative/Incomplete Behavior;
DRA, Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior; DRI, Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible
Behavior; DRL, Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Behavior; DRO, Differential Reinforcement of Other
Behavior; DTT, Discrete Trial Teaching; IT, Incidental Teaching; IRT, Interresponse Time; PMC, Performance
Monitoring Checklist.

the supervisors on how to support supervisees, as a group or individually, to establish each

intermediate competency listed in Table 20.1.
Development of advanced skills involves the application of intermediate skills with su-
pervision from caregivers, school staff, and future employees of the organizations that pro-
vide behavior analytics services. The development of advanced skills should not be limited
to the people listed in the competencies and, if there are opportunities, can be expanded to
other groups such as group homes and hospital staff. The development of advanced skills
can start with providing opportunities to supervisees, after meeting set criteria for acqui-
sition of intermediate skills, to use developed training modules and train others on basic
concepts, data collection, and selection and implementation of behavior reduction and skill
acquisition treatment plans. When conducting assessments or sharing results of assessment
and progress report information, the supervisees can be given opportunities to engage in
culturally sensitive practices, use active listening, and use bedside manners with clients,
caregivers, and school staff.
 20 COMPETENCY 10: DISSEMINATE THE PRACTICE OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 349

The generality criteria included in this competency is to support the supervisors in making
decisions about the readiness of the supervisees to perform the advanced skills accurately
and independently. The supervisee may be considered to show mastery in the dissemination
of practice of ABA to individuals unfamiliar with behavior analysis when the supervisee
meets the generality criteria listed in Competency 10 Skills List (Table 20.1).
When each component listed in the competency is met, the supervisors are encouraged
to sign off on the skill by placing their initials next to that skill. For example, when working
on intermediate skills, as soon as the supervisee meets the criteria for developing training
modules to teach basic concepts, the supervisor may initial the designated box to indicate
that the supervisee met the criteria for that specific skill.

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH BASIC SKILLS

• To build and maintain basic skills related to disseminating the practice of ABA to
individuals unfamiliar with behavior analysis:
• Review and discuss with the supervisor ethical guidelines related to responsibility
to clients and stakeholders
• Maintain mastery of the basic terms and concepts taught in behavior analytic
coursework
○ Example: Maintain fluency with:
■ Basic concepts such as reinforcement, extinction, punishment, motivating op-
eration, and verbal and listener behaviors
■ Behavior reduction and skill acquisition procedures (e.g., Differential Reinforcement
of Alternative Behavior (DRA), shaping, chaining)
• To clearly understand the credentialing process and educational and experience
requirements, regularly review the credentialing organization’s websites (e.g.,
Behavior Analyst Certification Board website).
• Read articles on the effects of culturally competent practices, active listening, and
use of non-technical, and at the same time conceptually systematic, communication
on treatment acceptability
• If struggling locating articles or information on specific subject areas, reach out to
supervisors for support
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 10 Skills
List (Table 20.1) for each completed basic skill

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• To build and maintain intermediate skills related to disseminating the practice of

ABA to individuals unfamiliar with behavior analysis:
• Practice developing training modules and ask for feedback from a supervisor that
covers:
○ Basic terms
○ Data collection
○ Selection and use of behavior reduction and skill acquisition procedures
350 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Practice with peers and supervisors the use of non-technical language when explaining
basic concepts to others
• Practice culturally competent active listening and bedside manners when discussing
assessment results, obtaining informed consent, and discussing progress with peers
or supervisor
• Discuss with the supervisor how to incorporate culturally competent practices into
the selection of skill acquisition targets and treatment plans
• Conduct a literature search and find articles that discuss how to develop rating
scales to measure the social validity of treatments and treatment acceptability
○ Use the information from the selected article skills being taught to a current client
and develop a rating scale to measure the social validity of the interventions for
the client. Ask for feedback from the supervisor.
• Ask for opportunities to assist supervisors when they are conducting group training
• Complete assigned work within given timelines
• Actively participate in group or individual meetings
• Ask for feedback on completed work
• Apply given feedback to assigned work and ask for more opportunities to practice
the skill
• Have open and clear communication with the field supervisor and ask for oppor-
tunities to practice the targeted skills in competency
○ Example: When there is an opportunity to develop a training module, ask to be
part of the development
• Use the additional reading and resources provided at the end of each competency
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 10 Skills
List (Table 20.1) for each completed intermediate skill and complete the Excel profile
for met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• To build and maintain advanced skills related to disseminating the practice of ABA
to individuals unfamiliar with behavior analysis:
• Provide evidence to supervisors overseeing the development of advanced skills of
readiness to apply the skills learned in a training environment with actual clients
○ Example: Presenting the Competency 10 Skills List (Table 20.1) with the group
supervisor’s initials for listed basic and intermediate skills can function as evi-
dence for readiness to apply the skills with the clients
• Establish open and transparent communication with supervisors overseeing the
development of advanced skills and ask for opportunities to:
○ Conduct caregiver training on the use of behavior reduction and skill acquisition
treatment plans
○ Be part of school staff or new hire group training
■ Use developed training modules, Behavioral Skills Training (BST), and
Performance Monitoring Checklists (PMC) to train school staff or newly hired
employees
 20 COMPETENCY 10: DISSEMINATE THE PRACTICE OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 351

○ Develop and use rating scales to measure the social validity of caregiver or school
staff training and acceptability
○ To share assessment and progress report data and obtain informed consent from
clients, caregivers, or school staff using active listening and bedside manners
• Seek for supervision and feedback as often as possible
• Complete given work before established timelines
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the Competency 10 Skills
List (Table 20.1) for each completed advanced skill and complete the Excel profile
for met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH BASIC AND

INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• Competence: Disseminate the practice of ABA to individuals unfamiliar with behavior

analysis
• Skill level: Basic and intermediate
• Number of meetings: 2
• Duration of each meeting: 3 hours
• Group supervision objectives:
○ Establish competence in basic concepts
■ Knowledge of ethical guidelines related to the responsibility of behavior analysts
to clients and stakeholders
■ State what behavior analysts do and educational and training requirements
■ Explain and answer questions about basic concepts
■ Explain the purposes and answer questions about assessment and
interventions
■ Define and provide examples of social validity and treatment acceptability and
how they affect service delivery
■ Define and give examples of cultural competence
○ Establish competence in intermediate skills
■ Practice developing training modules and teach using non-technical language
- Basic concepts (e.g., behavior, reinforcement, punishment)
- Data collection methods (e.g., event recording, timing, and time sampling)
and behavior measures (e.g., frequency/rate, duration, latency…)
- Purposes and applications of behavior reduction (e.g., DRA, Differential
Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior [DRI], Differential Reinforcement of
Low Rates of Behavior [DRL]) and skill acquisition procedures (e.g., shaping
and chaining, Incidental Teaching [IT], Discrete Trial Teaching [DTT])
■ Practice developing rating scales to measure social validity of treatments and
treatment acceptability
■ Practice culturally competent active listening and bedside manners when
discussing assessment results, obtaining informed consent, and discussing
progress with caregivers, clients, school, and direct staff
352 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 1

• Skill Level: Basic and Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in basic and intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review and discuss ethical guidelines related to a behavior analyst’s responsi-
bility to clients and stakeholders
○ Review basic skills related to the dissemination of behavior analysis to the general
public listed in competency
○ Practice developing training modules for the following
■ Basic concepts (e.g., behavior, antecedents and consequences, reinforcement,
punishment, and extinction)
• GROUP MEETING 1: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to review:
■ Ethical guidelines related to the responsibilities of a behavior analyst to clients
and stakeholders
■ Competency benchmarks
■ Notes and chapters from textbooks used in classes that discussed basic concepts
in behavior analysis and data collection, and bring these notes and textbooks
to the group meeting

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To establish competency in basic skills related to the dissemination of the practice
of ABA to individuals unfamiliar with behavior analysis
○ Remind the supervisees to bring a computer to the meeting that will be used to
create PowerPoint training
○ Create PowerPoint slides that include:
■ Ethical guidelines related to dissemination of the practice of ABA to individuals
unfamiliar with behavior analysis
■ Basic skills listed in Competency 10 Skills List (Table 20.1) and sample questions
that one might ask a behavior analyst about basic skills
- Example: Include on the PowerPoint slide:
- When practicing how to explain the job description of a behavior analyst
in non-technical terms, ask, “Describe what behavior analysts do to a
caregiver or a family member.”
- When clarifying educational and training requirements for behavior
analysts, ask, “How much training did you receive?” or “What experience
allowed you to do this job?”
- When practicing how to explain the purposes of and answering questions
about assessment and interventions, ask, “Why are we taking time to do
the assessment? I need the services to start right away.”
 20 COMPETENCY 10: DISSEMINATE THE PRACTICE OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 353

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 1:
○ Review and discuss ethical guidelines related to a behavior analyst’s responsi-
bility to clients and stakeholders
○ Review basic skills related to the dissemination of behavior analysis to the general
public listed in competency
○ Practice developing training modules for the following
■ Basic concepts (e.g., behavior, antecedents and consequences, reinforcement,
punishment, and extinction)
• After going over the group meeting 1 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Go over the ethical guidelines
○ After going over the ethical guidelines and answering all questions, start reviewing
the basic skills
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a basic skill (e.g., job description of a be-
havior analyst) and a supervisee and have them respond to the question about
the basic skill
■ Use information on the PowerPoints to provide feedback and use multiple
exemplar training to provide sufficient examples of each basic skill
■ Continue until all basic skills are discussed and understood by everyone

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing training modules to train individuals unfamiliar with
behavior analysis
○ Remind the supervisees to bring computers to the meeting that will be used to
create PowerPoint slides for training
○ Develop PowerPoint slides that include guidelines for designing training modules
for the purposes of teaching individuals unfamiliar with behavior analysis
■ Example 1: To develop training modules for basic concepts
- For each basic concept, include:
- The term/concept
- Conceptually systematic definition using non-technical language
- Examples of the term/concept that is relatable to the audience (at least
two examples)
- If the trainees are school staff, then examples must be related to the
school
- If the trainees are parents or future employees of an organization, then
the examples must be related to home or community
- Checkpoints to assess for understanding
■ Example 2: To develop training modules for data collection
- Rationale for using a specific data collection method and for which behaviors
354 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

- Examples of how to use the data collection method (at least two videos
should be used when modeling the data collection method)
- If the trainees are school staff, then examples must be related to the school
- If the trainees are future employees of the organization, then the examples
must be related to home or community
- Supervisees practice using the data collection method and videos
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Display the PowerPoint slides showing the guidelines for designing training modules
• Go over the guidelines and provide examples
○ Example 1: Basic concept

• Behavior
• What is it: Any movement of a person
• Examples: Walking, talking, hitting, opening a door
• Non-examples: Not following directions, not eating

○ Example 2: Checkpoint for the basic concept

Checkpoint
Which of the following is an example of a behavior?
A. John is running out of the classroom
B. Mark is chewing gum
C. Kelly is screaming
D. Mike is not listening to the teacher

• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions

• After answering all questions:
○ Pair up the supervisees and instruct each pair to develop a training module using
PowerPoint slides for the following basic concepts using non-technical language
as much as possible
■ Behavior
■ Antecedents and consequences
■ Motivation
■ Reinforcement, punishment, extinction
○ Allow 45 minutes for the activity
○ After all pairs have completed the activity:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select a pair and have them present their
training modules to peers
■ Encourage the peers to provide feedback
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to the modules
• GROUP MEETING 1: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
developing training modules
 20 COMPETENCY 10: DISSEMINATE THE PRACTICE OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 355

• GROUP MEETING 1: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY

ACTIVITIES
• To practice developing training modules for people not familiar with behavior
analysis
○ Email to the supervisees the PowerPoint slides that include guidelines for de-
signing training modules for the purposes of training individuals unfamiliar with
behavior analysis used during group meeting 1, activity 2.
• GROUP MEETING 2: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Review the sample PowerPoint and create a training module for school staff on
data collection and measures of behavior for the use of:
■ Event recording
■ Timing to measure duration
■ Momentary time sampling
■ Planned Activity Check (PLACHECK)
○ Include videos for each data collection method to be used during training
○ Create and include a data collection sheet for each data collection procedure
○ Bring the completed module to the next group meeting

GROUP MEETING 2

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review independent unrestricted activity
○ Practice developing training modules for:
■ Behavior reduction and skills acquisition procedures
○ Practice developing rating scales to assess social validity of treatments for:
■ Behavior reduction
■ Skill acquisition
• GROUP MEETING 2: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 2, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Review notes and textbook chapters used in classes that discussed behavior
reduction and skill acquisition procedures (e.g., DRA, shaping, prompts)
■ Bring the unrestricted work to the supervision meeting
■ Bring computers to the group meeting
356 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To review independent unrestricted work assigned after group meeting 2
○ None: See group meeting 2, General Preparatory Activities
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 1:
○ Review independent unrestricted activity
○ Practice developing training modules for:
■ Behavior reduction and skills acquisition procedures
○ Practice developing rating scales to assess social validity of treatments for:
■ Behavior reduction
■ Skill acquisition
• After going over the group meeting 2 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and a data collection method
and measure and have them use the PowerPoints to present the training modules
for the selected data collection method and measure to peers
■ Example:
- Supervisee 1 presents on event recording and frequency/rate as a measure
- Supervisee 2 presents on timing and duration per occurrence as a measure
- Supervisee 3 presents on timing and latency as a measure
○ Encourage the peers to provide feedback
○ Provide feedback using a PMC/T (see online student resources for a sample one)
and have all members make needed corrections to the modules
○ Continue until all supervisees have a chance to present and all information is
covered

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing training modules to train individuals unfamiliar with
behavior analysis
○ Remind the supervisees to bring computers to the meeting to create PowerPoint
slides for training
○ Develop PowerPoint slides that include guidelines for designing training modules
on behavior and skill acquisition procedures for the purposes of teaching indi-
viduals unfamiliar with behavior analysis
■ Example 1: To develop training modules for behavior reduction procedures
- For each procedure, include:
- Name of procedure
 20 COMPETENCY 10: DISSEMINATE THE PRACTICE OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 357

- Rationale for using the procedure

- Conceptually systematic explanation of how to use the procedure using
non-technical language
- Examples of how the procedure will be used (at least two examples)
- If the trainees are school staff, then examples must be related to the
school
- If the trainees are parents or future employees of an organization, then
the examples must be related to home or community
■ Role-play using procedures
- Checkpoints to assess for understanding
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Display the PowerPoint slides showing the guidelines for designing training modules
• Go over the guidelines and provide examples
○ Example 1: Differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors
• Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviors
• What is it: It is a procedure that is used for strengthening appropriate behaviors
that can be used instead of the problem behavior to
○ Access what a person needs
○ Stop actions or tasks that the person does not like
• Examples:
○ Asking for a toy by saying “I want [toy]” or “Can I have [toy]”
○ Asking for help when doing chores: “Can you help me …”

○ Example 1: How to use differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors

• How to Use Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviors
• When it is time for the child to do a chore
• Remind the child that they can ask for help whenever they want
• Practice asking for help
○ Have the child say, “Can you help me?” → as soon as help is requested,
pretend to help them with a chore
• Have them start on the chore
• As soon as the child asks for help
○ Provide help with the chore, then have them continue on their own
• If they engage in problem behavior
○ Remind them to ask for help
○ Help as soon as they ask for help without engaging in problem behavior

○ Example 2: Checkpoint for the basic concept

Checkpoint
Which of the following behaviors would DRA be appropriate to use for (mark all
that apply)
A. Asking parents to play with them

B. Asking for a ride to the store

C. Screaming

D. Playing with toys

358 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions

• After answering all questions:
○ Pair up the supervisees and instruct each pair to develop a training module using
PowerPoint slides for the following procedures using non-technical language as
much as possible
■ Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior/Differential Reinforcement
of Incompatible Behavior
■ Extinction
■ Shaping
■ Chaining
■ Prompting (within and extra stimulus prompts)
■ Prompt fading
○ Allow 60 minutes for the activity
○ Approach each pair of supervisees as they work and provide feedback as needed
○ After all pairs have completed the activity:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select a pair and have them present the training
modules to their peers
■ Encourage the peers to provide feedback
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to the modules

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing rating scales to measure social validity and acceptance of
behavior reduction and skill acquisition procedures
○ Remind the supervisees to bring computers to meetings tol be used to create
rating scales
○ Develop PowerPoint slides that include:
■ Rationale for using rating scales to measure treatment acceptability and social
validity of intervention effectiveness
■ Sample social validity questionnaires for:
- Implementation of a specific intervention (see online student resources for
a sample)
- Social validity of overall intervention effectiveness on client performance
(see online student resources for a sample)
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 3 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Start the activity by displaying the PowerPoint slides showing:
○ Rationale for using rating scales to measure treatment acceptability and social
validity of intervention effectiveness
○ Sample social validity questionnaires
• Answer all questions
 20 COMPETENCY 10: DISSEMINATE THE PRACTICE OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 359

• Have the group conduct a literature search and find two articles that address social
validity and treatment acceptability
• Allow 20 minutes to review the articles
• Provide each supervisee with a procedure and instruct them to develop a social
validity rating scale
○ Examples of procedures
■ Shaping and chaining to teach daily living skills
■ Differential Reinforcement of Alternative/Incompatible Behavior to increase
Functional Communicative Responses (FCR) and decrease problem behaviors
■ Stimulus-stimulus pairing to increase vocalizations
■ Using discrete trials to teach tacts and echoics
■ Using incidental teaching to teach play/leisure and social interaction skills
• Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
• After answering all questions:
○ Randomly assign a procedure to the supervisee and instruct them to create a
treatment acceptability rating scale for the assigned procedure
• Allow 15 minutes for the activity
○ After all supervisees completed the activity:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and have them present the
rating scale to their peers
■ Encourage the peers to provide feedback
■ Provide feedback
○ Repeat the process until all supervisees share developed rating scales

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• Suggested activities for supervisors(s) overseeing the development of advanced

skills and application of skills with clients, caregivers, or teachers
• After the supervisee meets the required criteria to begin developing advanced skills,
provide opportunities to:
○ Assist with caregiver training and teach caregivers how to implement a specific
behavior reduction or skill acquisition procedure
○ Develop social validity or treatment acceptability rating scales and administer
the rating scales to caregivers or school staff
○ Analyze the results of rating scales and make clinical decisions on the accepta-
bility of used procedures and make changes if needed
○ Develop training modules on different procedures and present them to school
staff or groups of caregivers
○ Conduct group staff training for school staff or future employees of the
organization
○ Obtain informed consent for treatment plans or assessment by using active listening.
360 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

RESOURCES FOR SUPERVISORS

Additional tables and checklists for this chapter are available at the end of this text, following the index.

REFERENCES

Allen, L. L., LP, L., & Mount, K. B. (2024). ABPP, BCBA. Psychology Essentials for Behavior Analysts, 61.
Foxx, R. M. (1996). Translating the covenant: The behavior analyst as ambassador and translator. The
Behavior Analyst, 19(1), 147–161. [Link]
Neuman, P. (2018). Vernacular selection: What to say and when to say it. Analysis Verbal Behavior, 34(1–2),
62–78. [Link]
Rohrer, J. L., Marshall, K. B., Suzio, C., & Weiss, M. J. (2021). Soft skills: The case for compassionate
approaches or how behavior analysis keeps finding its heart. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 1–9.
 21
COMPETENCY 11: PERSONNEL
SUPERVISION AND MANAGEMENT

PREREQUISITE SKILLS

• Knowledge of Behavior Skills Training (BST)

• Data collection, graphing, and analysis

• Competency in developing treatment plans

Behavior analysts supervise and train other individuals daily. Therefore, part of the super-
vised experience must be devoted to learning how to monitor and improve the performance
of personnel directly working with the clients. Although a trainer is responsible for the in-
itial acquisition of the skill, a supervisor is responsible for the generality and maintenance
of the skill. Most behavior analysts wear both hats. Effective staff training generally consists
of instructions, modeling, practice, and feedback until a predetermined mastery criterion is
achieved, which are all components of competency-based BST (Parsons et al., 2012). This ap-
proach to training requires developing and using performance monitoring checklists (PMCs)
for the tasks selected for training, providing opportunities for directly observing staff perform
the skills, modeling the correct behaviors, and giving feedback effectively.
Effective delivery of performance feedback is not easy. Many supervisors or man-
agers shy away from providing corrective feedback. Giving feedback is a complex skill
that requires shaping over time. It is critical to shape supervisees’ clinical skills, such as
providing feedback to others during the supervision journey. Some individuals have dif-
ficulty delivering feedback when they do not know the skill for which they are providing
feedback, the right tool (e.g., PMCs), or experience providing feedback that has improved
behavior effectively. Therefore, this competency is designed to guide the supervisors
and supervisees on how to shape skills needed to supervise and manage others who are
providing direct services under the guidance and support of the supervising behavior
analyst. Competency 11 Core Skills List (Table 21.1) provides some benchmarks to support
skill development in this competency.

361
362 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

TABLE 21.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 11

Personnel supervision and management
Supervisor’s
Basic Skills Initials

• Review professional and ethical compliance codes for behavior analysts

related to the supervision of direct staff
• State the reasons for using behavior-analytic supervision and the potential
risks of ineffective supervision (e.g., poor client outcomes, poor supervisee
performance)
• State the importance of objective assessment of supervisee’s skills and
feedback
• Describe BST
• Describe the functional assessment approach (e.g., performance
diagnostics) to identify variables affecting personnel performance
• State the importance of using PMC/Ts


Intermediate Skills
Supervisor’s
Practice developing PMC/Ts for the following treatment plans/procedures Initials

• Behavior Reduction treatment plan that uses DRA/DRI with antecedent

procedures
• DTT using errorless learning
• IT/NET
• Teaching complex skills using shaping and chaining
• Prompting and prompt fading
• Preference assessments (paired choice and MSWO)
• Data collection procedures
• Event recording to collect data on frequency/rate, percent, and trial to
criterion
• Timing to collect data on duration, latency, and IRT
• Time sampling (e.g., partial interval recording)
Practice using PMCs to monitor performance and provide feedback on
implementation of:
• Behavior reduction intervention plan
• Skill acquisition treatment plan
• Data collection procedure
• Practice using a functional assessment approach (e.g., performance
diagnostics) to identify variables affecting direct staff performance


(continued)
 21 Competency 11: Personnel Supervision and Management  363

TABLE 21.1 Table for Development of Core Skills for Competency 11 (continued)
Advanced Skills
Provide evidence-based supervision and support to direct Supervisor’s Initials
staff across two direct staff working with two different
clients Staff 1 Staff 2

• Establish clear performance expectations for direct staff

• Use BST, PMC/Ts, feedback, and reinforcement systems
to improve and maintain direct staff performance at set
criterion levels for:
• Data collection procedures
• Skill acquisition treatment plans
• Behavior reduction treatment plans
• Preference assessment procedures
• Use a functional assessment approach (e.g.,
performance diagnostics) to identify variables affecting
direct staff performance
• Develop achievable and objective performance goals
and use function-based strategies to improve direct staff
performance
• Evaluate the effects of supervision by collecting and
analyzing data at least bi-weekly on staff performance
and client outcomes (change in performance slopes)
and make changes to training to support meeting
performance goals (e.g., increase the number of
supervision visits, break down complex procedures into
smaller steps and shape the skill using forward chaining)


Shows generalized advanced skills to:
• Assess job skills and develop performance expectations Supervisor’s Date
and goals for direct staff across 3 direct staff signature
• Design and use PMCs and BST to teach direct staff how
to implement behavior reduction and skills acquisition
treatment plans across three direct staff
• Use a functional assessment approach (e.g.,
performance diagnostics) to identify variables affecting
direct staff performance and use function-based
strategies to improve direct staff performance across
three direct staff
BST, Behavior Skills Training; DRA, Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior; DRI, Differential
Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior; DTT, Discrete Trial Teaching; IT, Incidental Teaching; IRT, Interresponse
Time; MSWO, Multiple Stimulus Without Replacement; NET, Natural Environment Teaching; PMC/T, Performance
Monitoring Checklists/Tool.
364 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH BASIC SKILLS

• To build and maintain basic skills related to personnel supervision and

management:
• Review and discuss with the supervisor ethical guidelines related to
supervision
• Review notes and textbook chapters from courses that discussed supervision and
best practices in staff training and support
• If struggling with finding articles or information on specific subject areas, reach out
to supervisors for support
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the core skills listed in
Competency 11 Skills List (Table 21.1) for each completed basic skill

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• To build and maintain intermediate skills related to personnel supervision and

management:
• Practice developing a PMC for procedures in place for current clients and seek feed-
back from the supervisor
• Read articles on BST and best practices in providing feedback
• Practice with peers and supervisors using the PMC to monitor the fidelity of the
implementation of a treatment plan
• Practice providing feedback to peers and supervisor
• Discuss with the supervisor how to incorporate culturally competent practices into
providing feedback
• Have open and clear communication with the field supervisor and ask for oppor-
tunities to practice the targeted skills in Competency 11 Skills List
○ Example: Ask for opportunities to assist supervisors with staff or caregiver
training
■ Use BST with the PMC during training and provide feedback
○ Complete assigned work within given timelines
○ Actively participate in group or individual meetings
○ Ask for feedback on completed work
○ Apply given feedback to assigned work and ask for more opportunities to prac-
tice the skill
○ Use the additional reading and resources provided at the end of each
competency
○ Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the core skills listed in
Competency 11 Skills List (Table 21.1) for each completed intermediate skill and
complete the Excel profile for met competencies
 21 Competency 11: Personnel Supervision and Management  365

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISEES: TO ESTABLISH ADVANCED SKILLS

• To build and maintain advanced skills related to personnel supervision and

management:
• Provide evidence to supervisors overseeing the development of advanced skills of
readiness to apply the skills learned in a training environment with actual clients
○ Example: Presenting the core skills listed in Competency 11 Skills List with the
group supervisor’s initials for listed basic and intermediate skills can function as
evidence for readiness to apply the skills with the clients
• Establish open and clear communication with supervisors overseeing the develop-
ment of advanced skills and ask for opportunities to:
○ Use BST to conduct caregiver and staff training on the use of behavior reduction
and skill acquisition treatment plans
○ Develop a PMC for treatment plans developed by the supervisor or developed
by the supervisee under supervision
○ Use performance diagnostic tools and pinpoint variables that affect staff perfor-
mance and develop a plan for improvement
• Seek supervision and feedback as often as possible
• Complete given work before established timelines
• Follow up with supervisors and obtain their initials on the core skills list in Competency
11 Skills List (Table 21.1) for each completed advanced skill and complete the Excel
profile for met competencies

ACTIVITIES FOR SUPERVISORS: TO ESTABLISH BASIC AND

INTERMEDIATE SKILLS

• Competence: Personnel supervision and management

• Skill level: Basic and intermediate
• Number of meetings: 3
• Duration of each meeting: 3 hours
• Group supervision objectives:
○ Establish competence in basic concepts
■ State reasons for using behavior-analytic supervision and the potential risks of
ineffective supervision (e.g., poor client outcomes, poor supervisee performance)
■ State the importance of objective assessment of the supervisee’s skills and feedback
■ Describe BST
■ State the importance of using PMCs
■ Describe the functional assessment approach (e.g., performance diagnostics)
to identify variables affecting personnel performance
○ Establish competence in intermediate skills related to supervision and man-
agement of direct staff
366 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

■ Practice developing PMCs for each of the following treatment plans/procedures

■ PMCs to monitor performance and provide feedback

GROUP MEETING 1

• Skill Level: Basic and Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in basic and intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to the supervision of staff directly working with
clients
○ Review basic concepts related to supervision and management of staff directly
working with clients
○ Develop PMCs for behavior intervention and skill acquisition treatment plans
• GROUP MEETING 1: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• Prior to group meeting 1, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Review core skills listed in Competency 11 Skills List
■ Review notes and chapters from textbooks used in class that discussed super-
vision, behavior skills training, and developing and using PMCs
■ Bring all treatment plans developed during previous group meetings to all
group meetings designated for supervision and management of direct staff
■ Bring computers to use for developing PMCs

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1 - PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To establish competency in basic skills related to supervision and management
of direct staff:
○ Create PowerPoint slides that include:
■ Ethical guidelines related to staff supervision
■ Basic skills listed in Competency 11 Skills List
- Example 1: State the reasons for using behavior-analytic supervision and the
potential risks of ineffective supervision (e.g., poor client outcomes, poor
supervisee performance)
- Example 2: State the importance of objective assessment of the supervisee’s
skills and feedback
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 1:
○ Review ethical guidelines related to the supervision of staff directly working with
clients
 21 Competency 11: Personnel Supervision and Management  367

○ Review basic concepts related to supervision and management of staff directly

working with clients
○ Develop PMCs for behavior intervention and skill acquisition treatment plans
• After going over the group meeting 1 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Go over the ethical guidelines
○ After answering all questions, start reviewing the basic skills
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a basic skill and a supervisee and have
them discuss the selected basic skill
■ Use the information on the PowerPoints to provide feedback and use multiple
exemplar training to provide sufficient examples of each basic skill
■ Continue until all basic skills are discussed and understood by everyone

GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice developing PMCs for behavior reduction and skill acquisition treat-
ment plans/procedures
○ Develop PowerPoint slides showing the steps of developing PMCs (see online
student resources for a sample PMC)
■ Include on the PowerPoint slides samples of PMCs for two different treatment
plans
■ Example:
- Sample 1 could be using incidental teaching with most-to-least prompting
- Sample 2 could be for a behavior reduction plan
• GROUP MEETING 1: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• Display the PowerPoint slides showing steps of developing PMCs
○ Go over the steps and the two samples of PMCs
○ Provide examples of each type of PMCs
■ Discuss the importance of having clear criteria for 0, 1, and 2 when using
weighted scores
○ Allow time for supervisees to ask questions
○ After answering all questions:
○ Guide the supervisees through the process of developing a PMC for using mul-
tiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO) preference assessment by using 0
and 1 ratings for all steps
■ Example: Guide the supervisees on how to:
- Review the steps of the procedure
- Create tables in a Word document
- Define the correct response
- Develop a rating scale to measure performance (0 and 1 or + and -)
- Develop feedback, performance goal(s), and signature sections
- Copy and paste steps from the procedure onto the table
368 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Allow time for supervisees to ask questions

○ After answering all questions, instruct the supervisees to select a treatment plan
developed in the group meeting for the development of behavior intervention
plans and develop a PMC for the treatment plan
○ Allow 30 minutes for the activity
○ After all the group members have completed the activity:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and have them share their
developed PMC
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to the PMC
○ Instruct the supervisees to select a second treatment plan developed in group
meetings for the development of behavior intervention plans and develop a PMC
for the treatment plan
○ Allow 20 minutes for the activity
○ After all the group members have completed the activity:
■ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and have them share their
developed PMC
■ Provide feedback and have all members make needed corrections to the
PMC
• GROUP MEETING 1: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
developing PMCs
• GROUP MEETING 1: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY
ACTIVITIES
• To practice developing PMCs:
○ Email to the supervisees the PowerPoint slides that include guidelines for de-
signing PMCs
• GROUP MEETING 1: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Review the PowerPoint and develop a PMC for the following treatment plans
developed during previous group meetings or as unrestricted work
■ Teaching complex skills using shaping and chaining
■ Paired choice preference assessment
○ Bring the completed work to the next group supervision meeting

GROUP MEETING 2

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review independent unrestricted activity
○ Use BST with PMCs to monitor treatment fidelity and provide feedback to im-
prove performance
 21 Competency 11: Personnel Supervision and Management  369

• GROUP MEETING 2: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• Prior to group meeting 2, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ Review basic concepts discussed in group meeting 1
■ Continue working with field supervisors on building competency in the
implementation of skills acquisition procedures listed in Competency
11 Skills List (Table 21.1) lists and submit PMCs, completed by the field
supervisor(s), to the group supervisor as the set criteria for each compe-
tency is met
■ Bring the developed PMC as part of independent unrestricted work

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To review independent unrestricted work assigned after group meeting 1
○ None: See group meeting 2 General Preparatory Activities
• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 1:
○ Review independent unrestricted activity
○ Use PMCs to monitor treatment fidelity and provide feedback to improve
performance
• After going over the group meeting 2 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, select a supervisee and have them present their
unrestricted work to the group
○ Case presentation should include:
■ Reviewing the steps in the selected treatment plan
■ Presenting the PMC that correlates with the selected treatment plan
○ Randomly select group members and ask them to provide feedback on each com-
ponent of the PMC to their presenting peer
■ Example: One peer may provide feedback on the definition of the correct re-
sponse, the second peer may provide feedback on the rating scale, and the third
peer on the steps included in the PMC
○ After selection, remove the supervisee who presented from the list so they are
not selected again
○ Repeat the process until all group members have had an opportunity to present
at least one of the PMCs

GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using BST with PMCs to monitor the implementation fidelity of treat-
ment procedures and provide feedback
370 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

○ Inform supervisees to bring to group meetings PMCs for:

■ MSWO developed during the last group meeting
■ One with the shaping and chaining procedures
○ Materials to be used when conducting MSWO preference assessment:
■ Include specific responses for each trial utilizing role-play, with supervisees
playing the client and supervisor (this will allow the “client” to engage in
responses that will provide opportunities for the “supervisor” to practice all
critical skills)
■ Teaching a complex skill with no more than six steps (Example: materials on
teaching using a spoon or folding a shirt)

Client Behaviors During MSWO:

Trials Client Responses

1 Reach for one item

2 Reach for two items
3 Reach for one item
4 No response

Client responses for shaping and chaining plans

Correct response on steps that are in the repertoire
Correct prompted response on first prompted trial
Correct prompted response on second prompted trial
No response

• GROUP MEETING 2: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• If possible, combine first- and second-year supervisees for this activity. By com-
bining the groups, the second-year supervisees will train the first years on how to
implement the procedures using BST
• If combining first- and second-year supervisees is not possible, then divide supervisees
into groups of three and assign the following roles to each group member:
○ Client, staff, and supervisor
• Instruct supervisees to access PMCs for MSWO
• Provide materials needed for MSWO to each group, including preset client behaviors
to the group member assigned to role-play the client
• Model how to use the PMC for MSWO and monitor performance
○ Project the PMC onto a screen
○ Instruct the group member who is role-playing the staff to start the assessment process
○ After each step:
■ Ask the group members to stop
■ Direct group members to the step on the PMC that was just performed by the staff
■ Show how to score the response on the PMC
 21 Competency 11: Personnel Supervision and Management  371

■ Have the staff perform the next step

■ Continue the process until the assessment is completed
○ After modeling the process of conducting fidelity checks:
■ Model how to deliver feedback in vivo
■ How to set clear performance objectives
○ After modeling how to provide feedback and setting a clear performance objective:
○ Instruct group members to practice monitoring progress and providing feedback
using the assigned roles
○ Move around the group and provide feedback as needed
○ After the assessment is complete, have the group members rotate and repeat the
process until all group members have had an opportunity to perform all three roles
○ Repeat the same process for the shaping and chaining treatment plan by:
■ Instructing group members to practice monitoring progress and providing
feedback using the assigned roles
■ Move around the group and provide feedback as needed
■ After the assessment is complete, have the group members rotate until all group
members have an opportunity to perform all three the roles
• GROUP MEETING 2: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Provide an opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work to practice
developing PMCs
• GROUP MEETING 2: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
• To practice developing PMC
○ None
• GROUP MEETING 2: UNRESTRICTED ACTIVITY
• Instruct the supervisees to:
○ Review the PowerPoint and develop a PMC for the following treatment plans
developed during previous group meetings or as unrestricted work:
■ Behavior reduction intervention plan that incorporated Differential Reinforcement
of Alternative Behavior (DRA)/Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible
Behavior (DRI) with antecedent procedures
■ Discrete trial teaching procedure for teaching tacts using errorless learning
2. Bring the completed work to the next group supervision meeting

GROUP MEETING 3

• Skill Level: Intermediate

• Purpose: Establish competence in intermediate skills
• Agenda:
○ Review independent unrestricted activity
○ Use BST with PMC to monitor treatment fidelity and provide feedback to improve
performance
372 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

• GROUP MEETING 3: GENERAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• Prior to group meeting 3, the individual leading the group should:
○ Inform supervisees (group members) to:
■ To continue working with field supervisors on building competency in the
implementation of skills acquisition procedures listed in Competency 11 Skills
List (Table 21.1) lists and submit PMCs, completed by the field supervisor(s),
to the group supervisor as the set criteria for each competency is met
■ To bring the developed PMCs as part of independent unrestricted work

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To review independent unrestricted work assigned after group meeting 2
○ None: See group meeting 3, General Preparatory Activities
• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 1 —MEETING AS A GROUP
• After greetings, go over the agenda for group meeting 1:
○ Review independent unrestricted activity
○ Use PMCs to monitor treatment fidelity and provide feedback to improve
performance
• After going over the group meeting 3 agenda, begin activity 1
○ Using a random wheel or cards, a supervisee and have them present their unre-
stricted work to the group
○ Case presentation should include:
■ Reviewing the steps in the selected treatment plan
■ Presenting the PMC that correlates with the selected treatment plan
○ Randomly select group members and ask them to provide feedback on each com-
ponent of the PMC to their presenting peer
■ Example: One peer may provide feedback on the definition of the correct re-
sponse, the second peer may provide feedback on the rating scale, and the third
peer on the steps included in the PMC.
○ After selection, remove the supervisee who presented from the list so they will
not be selected again
○ Repeat the process until both PMCs are presented and corrected based on the
provided feedback

GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2 —PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

• To practice using BST with PMCs to monitor the implementation fidelity of treat-
ment procedures and provide feedback
○ Inform supervisees to bring to group meetings PMCs for
■ Behavior intervention plan that used DRA/DRI with antecedent procedures
■ Discrete Trial Teaching (DTT) procedure
 21 Competency 11: Personnel Supervision and Management  373

○ Materials to be used when using DTT to teach tacts (five 3D items or pictures)
and toys for a behavior reduction plan
■ Include specific responses for each trial utilizing role-play, with supervisees
playing the client and supervisor (this will allow the “client” to engage in
responses that will provide opportunities for the “supervisor” to practice all
critical skills)

Client Behaviors During DTT:

Client Responses

Probe Incorrect response

Teaching Trials
1 Respond when prompted
2 Respond when promoted
3 Independent correct response
4 No response —respond when prompted.
5 Independent correct response

• GROUP MEETING 3: ACTIVITY 2 —MEETING AS A GROUP

• If possible, combine first- and second-year supervisees for this activity. By com-
bining the groups, the second-year supervisees will train the first years on how to
implement the procedures using behavior skills training
• If combining first- and second-year supervisees is not possible, then divide supervisees
into groups of three and assign the following roles to each group member:
○ Client, staff, and supervisor
• Instruct supervisees to access PMCs for behavior reduction intervention plan
• Provide materials needed for implementing a behavior reduction plan (e.g., toys)
to each group, including preset client behaviors to the group member assigned to
role-play the client
• Instruct group members to practice monitoring progress and providing feedback
using the assigned roles
○ Move around the group and provide feedback as needed
○ After the assessment is complete, have the group members rotate and repeat
the process until all group members have an opportunity to perform all three
roles
○ Repeat the same process for the DTT treatment plan by:
■ Instructing group members to practice monitoring progress and providing
feedback using the assigned roles
■ Move around the group and provide feedback as needed
■ After the assessment is complete, have the group members rotate until all group
members have an opportunity to perform all three roles
• GROUP MEETING 3: END THE SUPERVISION MEETING AFTER ACTIVITY 2
• Opportunity to complete independent unrestricted work —none
374 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

RESOURCES FOR SUPERVISORS

Additional tables and checklists for this chapter are available at the end of this text, following the index.

REFERENCE

Parsons, M. B., Rollyson, J. H., & Reid, D. H. (2012). Evidence-based staff training: a guide for practitioners.
Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5(2), 2–11. doi: 10.1007/BF03391819
 22
APPLYING, INTERVIEWING,
SECURING A POSITION, AND
GROWING PROFESSIONALLY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

• Identify the key features of an ethical employer

• Explain the steps you must take to apply, interview, and secure a position as a behavior analyst

• Discuss the importance of professional development

INTRODUCTION

Securing a position with an organization that engages in ethical and culturally sensitive
practices is the last step of the journey for a supervisee after completing the graduate degree
and supervision requirements for becoming a credentialed behavior analyst. Most organi-
zations will have transition plans for moving from supervised experience to employment as
a mid-tier provider and then from a mid-tier provider to working as a certified or licensed
behavior analyst. After completing a degree and supervised experience, securing employment
at the next level, even with the same organization, often requires applying and interviewing
for the position. In this chapter, we discuss how to apply and interview for a position and con-
tinue growing as a professional after obtaining certification or licensure in behavior analysis.

PREPARING TO APPLY

The hiring process might vary between organizations. For example, some organizations
may have a formal application and interview process, whereas others may have an informal
process involving an informal interview on a specific date and time. Typically, larger organ-
izations will likely have a more formal application process for all positions to ensure a fair

375
376 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

selection process. A formal application process typically requires that the applicant submit
a cover letter, a complete application, curriculum vitae (CV) or resume, and some references
or letters of recommendation before being granted the opportunity to interview. It is also
likely that the applicant will be required to submit all of these items, or some of them, during
a less formalized application process. In this chapter, we provide some guidelines regarding
each of these documents.

BUILDING A COVER LETTER

The purpose of the cover letter is to introduce the applicant to the organization and to draw
attention to the most important parts of supplemental materials (e.g., your CV) that accom-
pany the cover letter. The cover letter should be brief (typically one page); include the date;
a salutation or a greeting at the beginning of the letter; one or more paragraphs describing
the applicant’s qualifications, the reason for applying for the position, how the applicant’s
strengths can contribute to organization’s mission statement; and a professional closing
statement. The letter should clearly state which other documents the organization will re-
ceive besides the cover letter. The contact information (email address and phone number)
should be included at the end of the letter with a signature or a closing salutation. The cover
letter is the first document the prospective employer receives from applicants; thus, it must
be brief, to the point, and free of spelling and grammatical errors. Figure 22.1 includes an
example of a cover letter.

BUILDING A CURRICULUM VITAE

The purpose of a CV is to show a prospective employer that the applicant has the qualifications
and experience to meet the requirements for the position for which they are applying.
Compared to a resume, which is short and bulleted, a CV is more detailed and leaves room

FIGURE 22.1 An example cover letter.

Your Full Name

Address
Email
Phone Number

Date of Letter (Month DD, YYYY)

Dear Sir or Madam:

Discuss who you are. Do not include that you are writing this to apply for the job;
they already know that. Mention your qualifications, which include your most recent academic
achievements, such as getting your master's degree or obtaining a BCBA credential.
Discuss the reasons you are choosing to apply to this company. Mention its goals,
what you have found when researching the organization, and how those goals match with
your own at this position. Discuss what you can contribute to the company that may be
something new or strengthen the company's work. Lastly, mention the other documents that
the organization will be receiving from you in addition to this letter.

Thank them for their time and consideration.

Sincerely,
Your Full Name
 22 Applying, Interviewing, Securing a Position, and Growing Professionally  377

for the applicants to include experiences that make them stand out. A good CV has the fol-
lowing characteristics:

• Attracts the reader’s attention

• Creates a good impression of your experiences
• Presents your skills and qualities clearly and concisely

CV TIPS

1. Use a professional email address (e.g., [Link]@[Link], NOT partygal12@[Link]).

2. Include only experience relevant to the position.

3. Keep style and formatting consistent.

4. Leave out items such as birthday, ethnicity, or home address if placing a CV on the web.

Although there is no standard for a CV, the formatting and the content included matter.
The following subheadings are included in most CVs.

Personal Contact Information

Include full name, contact details such as the best phone number to be reached at, email ad-
dress, and mailing address.

Education

Include education listed in reverse chronological order, with most recent experiences and
qualifications first. Listing education in reverse chronological order allows the prospective
site to quickly evaluate the highest level of education, a key component when determining
whether the applicant meets the minimum criteria for the open position. Each entry should
include the name of the institution, the dates attended, the degree obtained, and the city and
state where the institution is located.

Employment or Work Experience

Like the education section, the work experience should be listed in reverse chronological
order, and experiences relevant to the position can be highlighted. A maximum of 5 years of
experience is sufficient unless an applicant’s experience is extremely relevant, highly presti-
gious, or more appropriate than the experiences in the last 5 years. When having had several
different jobs, list the relevant roles for the position you are applying for. If you have only a
few work experiences, your CV can include volunteer work with a subheading of “Volunteer
Experiences.” Any relevant research experience will also be included in this section, either
within the “Work Experience” section or in a separate section dedicated to research experi-
ence. Each experience should include dates of experience, the title of the job, and the specific
roles and responsibilities performed by the applicant in bullet points. Include roles and
responsibilities to highlight the skills required to complete the job. For example, everyone
in a sales position may have greeted customers, worked on merchandise sales, and helped
clean up the store at the end of the day. However, suppose the applicant was trusted with
opening and closing the store, training staff, and assisting the manager. In that case, those
378 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

duties should be outlined to demonstrate dependability and willingness to learn new skills.
To help describe roles and responsibilities during different employment experiences, we have
provided a list of words to describe the applicant’s skills and experiences in Quick Reference
22.1. These suggestions also apply to electronic or online business and employment-focused
social media platforms (e.g., LinkedIn).

QUICK REFERENCE 22.1. ACTION WORDS TO USE IN YOUR CV

Roles and Responsibilities Skills and Abilities

• Managed • Supervised • Trained in

• Coordinated • Delegated • Proficient at
• Assigned to • Analyzed • Initially employed to
• Designed • Developed • Organized
• Created • Conducted • Negotiated
• Researched • Led • Initiated
• Improved • Implemented • Presented
• Identified • Ensured • Resulted
• Monitored • Supported • Instrumental in
• Strengthened • Resolved
• Planned • Prepared

References

References should be selected carefully because the title, position, and reputation of the
individual listed as a reference influence how the applicant is perceived. When choosing
references, avoiding ethical problems such as listing individuals with personal relationships
with the applicant or clients with whom the applicant works is imperative. For example, using
a relative as a reference biases the recommendation, and it will not be deemed valid because
of the dual relationship with that person listed as a reference. Asking clients, or caregivers of
clients, to be references may deem the reference invalid because the caregiver or client may
have agreed to serve as a reference to avoid jeopardizing their relationship with the appli-
cant. Furthermore, asking a client or a parent to serve as a reference violates confidentiality.
Typically, the best references are individuals who can comment on the performance of specific
skills and attributes relevant to the position one seeks. Some individuals to consider would
be former professors, mentors, or supervisors.

Other Subheadings

Some applicants might have different types of certifications or specific skills that might be
relevant to the open position. These additional items can be included under the subheading
of “Professional Certification” if one has appropriate professional certification(s), such as
Crisis Management Intervention (CPI), Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR), Registered
Behavior Technician (RBT), or Board Certification at the Assistant Level (BCaBA). In ad-
dition, the certification date for each item should be included. A subheading of “Awards
 22 Applying, Interviewing, Securing a Position, and Growing Professionally  379

and Honors” can list received high honors or achievements relevant to the position. Any
publications should be included in the section titled “Publications.” The Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association should be used to reference publications appropriately.

Grammar and Formatting

CVs should be written in an active voice, and formatting must be kept consistent (e.g., how
each sentence is started and how bullets are used). Past tense should be used when referring
to work experiences that occurred in the past, and the present tense should be used only for
positions the applicant had at the time of writing the CV. The CV should be easy to read and
digest. Simple fonts (also referred to as sans serif in typography), such as Calibri, Arial, or
Cambria, are recommended to make the CV easy to read. The font size should be 12 or 12.5
points, and bolding, use of italics, and underlining should be constant across items on the
CV. For example, make all of the headings bold. The margins should be between 0.5 and 1
inch. CVs must be carefully reviewed for spelling and grammar. Typos, gross grammatical
errors, or formatting issues may demonstrate a lack of time management skills and attention
to detail, resulting in the denial of interviews. We recommend revising the CV annually be-
cause otherwise searching, finding, and including activities accurately when it is time for a
change is daunting. If using a social media business platform, we recommend setting aside
time to update the platform at least every quarter. Figure 22.2 provides an example of a CV
that can serve as a model.

ASKING FOR LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION

If the organization requires letters of support from people listed as references, we recom-
mend providing ample notice to recommenders. Much notice is 10 to 14 days, although
some individuals ask for up to 30 days’ notice in advance. The applicant should provide the
recommenders with a copy of their CV, a description of the organization, and the key in-
formation that the recommender may consider including in the letter. Most recommenders
prefer to send letters to the organization requesting the recommendation. Therefore, it is a
good practice to provide electronic addresses and the person to whom the emails should be
addressed or deliver the recommenders with what they need for snail mail, such as addressed
and stamped envelopes.

SELECTING AN ETHICAL EMPLOYER

We advise that if the supervisee is looking for employment outside the organization where
they obtained fieldwork experience, before starting the application process they thoroughly
review the organizational practices. Besides the organization’s pay and benefits, the appli-
cant may also consider essential factors related to job performance, such as the availability
of professional development opportunities, clinical support, minimum billing requirements,
and opportunities for organizational growth and promotion (Brodhead et al., 2018). Another
important variable to consider is an organization’s ethical values and variables that may hinder
the organization from engaging in ethical practices (Brodhead et al., 2018). Working within
organizations that value ethical and evidence-based practices minimizes dealing with ethical
dilemmas related to service delivery and may protect behavior analysts from committing
ethical violations (Brodhead et al., 2018).
Brodhead et al. (2018) recommended starting the process of identifying the ethical values of
organizations and engaging in questionable practices by potential employers at the beginning
380 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

FIGURE 22.2 An example curriculum vitae.

of the job search. The applicants may start the process by searching for information on the
reputation of the organizations of interest from a number of sources that may include mentors,
graduate school professors, previous employees at that organization, the Better Business
Bureau (if applicable), and online review platforms (e.g., Yelp and Google; Brodhead et al.,
2018). The search for organizational practices can include access to professional development,
how the organization provides case support and staff training, and the amount and mode of
direct staff supervision. A critical factor in getting answers is organizational practices that
respect cultural values, practices, and expectations for behavior analysts to provide services
to individuals outside of behavior analysts’ scope of practice (Brodhead et al., 2018). If the ap-
plicant finds that the answers to any of these variables are negative, we recommend that the
applicant refrain from applying for employment with the organization. In Quick Reference
Guide 22.2, we have provided a list of steps to screen organizations before applying for a job.
 22 Applying, Interviewing, Securing a Position, and Growing Professionally  381

QUICK REFERENCE 22.2. REVIEW THE ORGANIZATION’S WEBSITE

AND OTHER ADVERTISEMENT MATERIAL FOR THE FOLLOWING:

 See if there is an organizational chart or a list of employees and their positions to deter-
mine whether the credentials those employees hold match or are close to the minimum
criteria outlined in the Practice Guidelines provided by The Council of Autism Service
Providers [Link]
 Does the organization provide employees with ongoing training and professional development
opportunities in behavior analysis?
 Does the organization refrain from advertising or offering treatments that are popular but
not evidence-based? (See the National Standards Project Report, 2015, for a list of evi-
dence-based treatments for autism spectrum disorder [ASD]; [Link]
org/national-standards/phase-2-2015/)
 Does the organization include testimonials only from clients no longer receiving services?
 Does the organization have job descriptions for behavior analysts that are accurate
and describe Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and their services in a manner that is
conceptually systematic with the science of behavior analysis?

PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW

Before the Interview

The interview process not only includes questions directed toward the applicant but also
an opportunity for the applicant to ask questions to the potential employer. To prepare to
answer questions posed by the employer, develop questions that an employer might ask by
speaking with peers who have gone through an interview process or doing an online search of
common questions asked by employers during interviews. After creating potential interview
questions, program everyday stimuli by engaging in a role-play of mock interviews with a
family member or peer. In Quick Reference 22.3, we list some common questions employers
may ask at an interview.

QUICK REFERENCE 22.3. COMMON INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

 What experiences have you had that prepared you for this position?
 Can you tell us about yourself and why you selected this site?
 What are your immediate and long-term goals?
 What strengths will you bring to our organization?
 What would you say are some of your weaknesses?
 Scenario-based questions intended to see how you speak about the situation and solve a
problem (e.g., tell us about a conflict you faced and how you handled it; describe a problem-
atic case and how you handled it.)
 What questions do you have for us?

To prepare questions to ask the potential employer, the applicant may review the informa-
tion obtained about the organization from a thorough search of the organizational practices.
Brodhead et al. (2018) recommended developing questions to be asked during the interview
about professional development, training and supervision, collaboration with colleagues
and non-behavior analytic professionals, culturally sensitive practices, and how much the
382 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

organization values having behavior analysts to adhere to the Behavior Analyst Certification
Board’s ethics code. Quick Reference 22.4 provides some sample questions that address the
recommendations made by Brodhead et al. (2018).

QUICK REFERENCE 22.4. GOOD QUESTIONS TO ASK

DURING AN INTERVIEW

 What growth opportunities are available in your organization for someone like me?
 How much time is usually devoted to assessment and to direct and indirect services?
 Are there opportunities or support for participating in professional development activities?
 Any plans to work with individuals with different needs?
 What are the company policies for collaborating with schools and other professionals that
provide services to the clients?
 When working with clients that have different cultural backgrounds, what are the expectations
for supervising behavior analysts to provide services by considering cultural practices?
 Please refer to Brodhead et al. (2018) for additional sample questions

Prepare to answer common questions, like the ones listed in Quick Reference 22.3, but
do not memorize your answers. That way, you can adapt your answers to the interview
questions. Also, be mindful of the function of the interview, which is to determine if you
have the prerequisite skills and the determination to be worth the investment the organiza-
tion has to put forth to supervise you.

The Interview Date

During the interview process, experienced interviewers look for behaviors applicants dem-
onstrate that can predict how one would perform the job. Promptness and timely arrival to
scheduled meetings is indicative of good time management and on-time attendance to sessions
and meetings. Arriving early to the site will allow sufficient time to find the location, find
the interviewer’s office, and check out the organization as a whole—professional conduct,
including how one dresses and presents during the interview, influences the outcomes of
the interview. How the applicant communicates during the interview is a good predictor of
how they will present themselves to caregivers and clients. Dressing professionally for the
interview demonstrates to the interviewer that the applicant put time and effort and values
professional conduct. Greeting everyone while introducing oneself shows how the applicant
may initiate first contact with caregivers, clients, and teachers.
During the interview, using active listening is the best way to ensure that the questions
or answers provided by the interviewer are straightforward and understood. Often, an
interviewer’s wording of a question or follow-up to a response may offer a clue as to the
function of a question. Paying careful attention to the interviewer’s needs as a listener by
attending to their tone of voice and body language may help to identify when to provide
more information about questions.
When there is an opportunity to ask the potential employer questions, have a list of
questions ready (these should be based on the research conducted on the organization).
When asking questions, Brodhead et al. (2018) recommend using an appropriate context
for the questions. For example, it will be an excellent opportunity to ask questions about
the cultural practices of the organization when the interviewer asks a question about the
 22 Applying, Interviewing, Securing a Position, and Growing Professionally  383

applicant’s experience working with individuals from different backgrounds. Asking

questions to which one can find answers by conducting a quick web search is a poor use of
valuable time with the interviewer. The questions asked during the interview demonstrate
the level to which time and effort are put into knowing the organization and show respect
for the interviewer’s time.

OTHER VARIABLES TO CONSIDER

After the interview, if the employer considers the applicant a good fit, the applicant will be
offered the position and contract. We strongly recommend reviewing the contract before
accepting it. Broadhead et al. (2018) recommended evaluating the contract’s absence of
non-compete clauses (NCCs), clarifying job roles, and clearly stating the caseload amount of
monthly billable hours. NCCs may prohibit an employee from competing with a previous
employer after leaving the company by working for a competitor within a given timeline
(Brown et al., 2020). NCCs purpose is to help an organization protect its human capital or
intellectual property and have been in use for hundreds of years (Brown et al., 2020). Brown
et al. (2020) conducted a survey study that 33.1% of respondents working within private
organizations were given employment contracts containing NCCs. Broadhead et al. (2018)
recommend that behavior analysts obtain legal counsel when given contracts with NCCs. For
example, suppose the contract lacks clarity about job duties, billable hours, or caseloads. In
that case, the applicant should ask the potential employer to include details of the informa-
tion provided during the interview on the contract (Broadhead et al., 2018). Before signing
the contract, having it reviewed by a mentor, friend, or family member with experience will
always help make informed decisions.

CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

After obtaining certification or licensure to practice as a certified or licensed behavior ana-

lyst, the practitioners must stay current on practices related to their work. Maintaining the
most current practices is called “professional development” (Kranak et al., 2023). Earning
continuing education units (CEUs) is how behavior analysts document continued profes-
sional development. Kranak et al. (2023) found that respondents to their survey indicated
that they engaged in professional development activities by reading peer-reviewed articles,
attending in-person conferences, and by webinars approved by the Authorized Continuing
Education (ACE) program. Currently, there are many opportunities for continuing education,
but not all provide high-quality, evidence-based, practical information. As with anything
else, sometimes the bells, whistles, and bling may sway audiences. We recommend that the
newly certified behavior analyst identifies a list of areas for self-improvement and seeks
presentations or webinars that provide further training in those areas.

CONCLUSION

In this chapter, we discussed the process of preparing, applying, and interviewing for a job
as a behavior analyst. Appropriate preparation and practice can make a huge difference in
selecting an ethical employer, job satisfaction, and working experience trajectory. To par-
aphrase a quote from Benjamin Franklin, one is likely to fail when working as a behavior
analyst if one fails to prepare for a process.
384 FIELDWORK AND SUPERVISION FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS: A HANDBOOK

A robust set of instructor resources designed to supplement this text is available for qualified instructors
by emailing textbook@[Link].

REFERENCES

Brodhead, M. T., Quigley, S. P., & Cox, D. J. (2018). How to identify ethical practices in organizations prior
to employment. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 11(2), 1–9. [Link]
Brown, K. J., Flora, S. R., & Brown, M. K. (2020). Noncompete clauses in applied behavior analysis: A
prevalence and practice impact survey. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 13(4), 924–938. [Link]
/10.1007/s40617-020-00469-0
Kranak, M. P., Andzik, N. R., & Falligant, J. M. (2023). Evaluating sources of continuing education and
professional development used by behavior analysts. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 16(3), 849–859.
[Link]