Chilika Lagoon

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief

Asish K. Ghosh*, Center for Environment and Development, Calcutta, India, [email protected]
Ajit K. Pattnaik, Chilika Development Authority, Bhubaneshwar, India, [email protected]

* Corresponding author

1. Introduction Unfortunately, Chilika was facing a series of problems by

the 1990s that impaired many of its uses. Major problems
The Chilika Lagoon (also referred to here as Lake Chilika, Chilika were related to a decreased salinity in the lagoon, caused
Lake, or simply “Chilika”) is the biggest lagoon on India’s by a narrowing of the lagoon mouth. The gradual choking
eastern coast (see Figure 1). Its size fluctuates substantially of this outlet to (and inlet from) the sea was a result of the
within the course of a year, with a maximum area of 1,165 km2 accumulation of sediment entering the lagoon from the
during the monsoon season and a minimum of 906 km2 during drainage basin. Because the tidal flux was disturbed, the
the dry season. It is of relatively recent origin, being formed lagoon’s salinity decreased, thereby altering the natural
several thousand years ago.
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Figure 1. The Chilika Lagoon Basin.
ecosystem. The area and depth of the lagoon decreased; 2. Background
the area covered by freshwater macrophytes increased;
biodiversity decreased; and fish catches declined. Some 2.1 Biophysical Features
lands near the lakeshore also were waterlogged at certain
times because the natural release of floodwaters through the The Chilika Lagoon, (19°28'–19°54' N latitude and 85°05'–
lagoon mouth was constrained. In addition to the clogging 85°38' E longitude), located in the east coast of the State of
of the lagoon mouth and the salinity-related problems, Orissa, India, is the largest lagoon in Asia (see Figure 1). It is
there also have been changes in the quantities and timing of separated from the Bay of Bengal by a sandbar whose width
freshwater flows because of upstream riverine impoundments varies between 100 m to 1.5 km; a long outer 32 km channel
for irrigation and flood control. There also has been a general connects the main lagoon with the Bay of Bengal near the
increase in pollution from agricultural, aquacultural and village of Arakhukuda. The pear shaped lagoon has a maximum
domestic sources in the drainage basin. linear axis of 64.3 km, with an average mean width of 20.1 km.

Traditional fisherfolk were particularly hard hit by these The lagoon is spread over three coastal districts of the State:
problems. The decline in fish catches led many to use a Puri, Khurda and Ganjam. In the early 20th century, the lagoon
smaller mesh size, thereby putting even greater pressure area is reported to have varied between 1,165 km2 in the
on the fisheries and further complicating the problems. monsoon season and 906 km2 in summer (Annandale 1915–
Pressure to maintain livelihoods seems to have contributed 1924); however, land reclamation for agriculture, aquaculture
to poaching of migratory birds and logging activities in the and human settlements, along with sediment inflow from the
watershed. Compounding the difficult situation was a change catchment, had reduced the average lagoon area to 760 km2,
in government policy regarding the lease of fishing grounds based on late-1990s satellite images. Figure 1 depicts the
(that affected fishing rights), resulting in the loss of access lagoon at its lower level.
by traditional fisherfolk to many fishing grounds and a rise of
commercial prawn culturing. Conflicts over this issue resulted Hydrologically, Chilika is influenced by three subsystems,
in violent clashes and several deaths. including the Mahanadi river system (See Figure 4 on the
last page of this brief ), rivers flowing in the lagoon from the
The Chilika Development Authority (CDA) was created in 1992 western catchment, and the Bay of Bengal. The lagoon receives
as a coordinating body between the wide range of institutions freshwater from a series of 52 channels, the larger ones being
and people with a stake in the lagoon and its basin. The CDA depicted in Figure 1. The Chilika drainage basin, including the
has worked closely with departments of the State Government lagoon itself, covers an area of over 4,300 km2 (Das and Samal
of Orissa to improve conditions in the lagoon. The most 1988). The watershed boundaries lie between water flowing
noticeable decision to date under the guidance of the CDA into the Mahanadi and Chilika in the north, while areas draining
was cutting of a new opening in 2000 to the Bay of Bengal, and into the Bhargavi River make up the northeast watershed; in
dredging the channel between the outer channel and the rest the west and southwest, the watershed boundary lies between
of the lagoon. The result was a restoration of the flow regime, streams flowing into the Rushikulya River and those flowing
leading to a dramatic improvement in the lagoon’s salinity into Chilika (Ram et al. 1994).
conditions and amelioration of many problems caused by the
declining salinity. As examples, fish and crab catches (and The long shore sediment transport (littoral drift) along the
income for fisherfolk) have markedly increased; macrophyte coast of the Bay of Bengal is estimated to be 0.1 million metric
coverage has declined; and some rare and endangered fish tons annually and tends to shift the lagoon mouth opening to
species have returned. A monitoring program was instituted, the sea every year, thereby adversely affecting tidal exchange.
a management plan was drawn up and environmental flow Although this phenomenon used to significantly affect the
releases are being negotiated from the upstream irrigation salinity regime, flushing pattern and consequent natural
impoundments. It is notable that the decision to open the new recruitment of biological species, a new mouth to the ocean
mouth and dredge the channel was based on both scientific has since been created, ameliorating the situation. The spatial
studies and extensive stakeholder consultations. and temporal salinity gradients, due to freshwater flows from
the riverine system and seasonal seawater influx, have given
Challenges undoubtedly remain. Addressing upstream Chilika unique characteristics of an estuarine ecosystem, and
problems (e.g., siltation, untreated sewage, changes in exercised a continuous, selective influence on the biota.
the hydrological regime) will require much effort. However,
conflicts over fishing have abated mainly due to enhancement The drainage basin in the northeast consists of a large tract
of the fishery resource. Furthermore, it is encouraging to of alluvial land with elevations less than 30 m above sea level
note that the Chilika Lagoon, after being placed on the (asl). An area of rolling plains, located 30–150 m asl lies in
Montreux Record (Ramsar’s list of sites undergoing ecological the north. Some higher hills, reaching up to 600 m, also are
degradation) in 1993, was awarded the prestigious Ramsar recorded in the northern and western parts. In this area of
Wetland Award in 2002 in recognition of the improvements and predominantly laterite soil, hill streams formed deep gullies
was removed from the Montreux Record due to the successful and ravines, often interspersed with depressions filled with
restoration of the lagoon ecosystem by the CDA. alluvium. The Eastern Ghat mountain range forms a part of

116 Chilika Lagoon

the west and southwest drainage area, with an elevation of international importance in 1981, thereby becoming a Ramsar
over 600 m and strands of forests of Sal (Shorea), Dillenia and site. Nalabana Island was declared a bird sanctuary in 1973.
Pterospermum spp. These hilly tracts serve as the headwater
region of several streams flowing into the lagoon (Asthana, The lagoon system now hosts over 211 species of birds in
1979). Along with the natural forest plantations of cashews, the peak migratory season, with 97 being intercontinental
casuarinas and eucalyptus are found around parts of the migrants from the Caspian Sea, Baikal, Aral Sea, remote parts
lagoon; the remaining catchment land is covered by human of Russia, Kirghiz Steppes of Mognolia, Central and Southeast
settlements or cultivated land (www.chilika.com). Asia, Ladakh and the great Himalayas (Dev 1990). Because it is
in the central Asia flyway, this list includes some rare birds. The
The catchment has a tropical climate, with average maximum important bird species of the lagoon are Anser clypeata, Aythya
and minimum annual temperatures of 39°C and 14°C, ferina, Anas querquedula, Anas penelope, Anas fuligula, Anser
respectively. The southwest monsoon brings much rain during strepera, Limnodromus semipalmatus and Eurynorhynchus
June–September, while the northeast monsoon brings some pygmeus. Other interesting and threatened species include
rain during November–December. December–February is the the spoon-billed sandpiper (Eurynorhynchus pygmeus), Asian
winter season and March–May is the hot season. The average Dowithcher (Limnodromus semipalmatus), spot-billed pelican
annual rainfall is over 1,200 mm (www.chilika.com). The (Pelecanus philippensis), dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus
geophysical location of the lagoon dictates that the eastern crispus), and pallas fishing eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus).
periphery of the lagoon is exposed to the vagaries of the
Bay of Bengal; the lagoon experiences the impacts of trade The most recent account of the flora was made by Pattnaik
winds, as well as “Southeasters” and “Nor’westers”, and the (2003), who reported the existence of 726 species of
occasional cyclonic depression from the sea. The wind usually angiosperms, belonging to 496 genera under 120 families
blows from the south and southwest directions from February from the lagoon and its immediate neighborhood, including its
to September, and from the north and northwest during islands, sandbar and shorelines, which represents about one-
October to January. The southwest winds generate a clockwise fourth of the flora of the State of Orissa (estimated at 2,900
circulation at the lagoon, whereas the northwest wind creates species). The predominance of members of Leguminosae,
a counter clockwise circulation in the lagoon. The winds act as Poaceae and Cyperaceae was a striking feature of the flora.
the dominant mixing force, with the tidal effects apparently The occurrence of an apparent endemic species (Cassipourea
negligible. ceylanica) was recorded (in badly degraded condition) from
Barkuda and Sanakuda Islands, which is also known to occur
The salinity level in the lagoon is dictated by river discharges in the coast of Madras and Sri Lanka.
during different seasons, wind action, and the extent of tidal
influx carrying marine water from the Bay of Bengal. Before the A few mangrove associates, such as Aegiceras corniculatum,
new mouth was opened, the average salinity had been reduced Excoecaria agallocha, Salvadora persica, Pongamia pinnata,
by a third by late 1995–1996 (see section 3.1.2), severely and Cassipourea ceylanica have been recorded by Pattnaik
affecting the biota of this saline ecosystem. The seasonality (2003). The plant species recorded from Chilika during the
of rainfall also leads to large fluctuations in the size of the present CDA study under the category of rare, vulnerable
lagoon. Data from 1992–1997 on the maximum and minimum or threatened plants include Cassipourea ceylanica
depths of the lagoon are presented in Table 1, and demonstrate (Rhizophoraceae), Colubrina asiatica (Rhamnaceae), Capparis
the wide range of depths seen throughout the year, as well as roxburghii (Capparaceae), Maerua oblongifolia (Capparaceae),
inter-annual changes reflecting rainfall fluctuations between Macrotyloma ciliatum (Fabaceae), Indigofera aspalathoides
years. (Fabaceae), and Halophila beccarii (Hydrocharitaceae).

Lagoons generally are highly productive ecosystems, due to Pattnaik (2003) enumerated the economic and useful plants of
large nutrient inputs from their drainage basins, as well as high the lagoon and its environ, including medicinal and aromatic
nutrient cycling and a wide range of habitats supported by the plants, wild relatives of cultivated species, wild plants of
salinity gradient. Chilika is no exception and, in reflection of its horticultural importance and interesting plant groups like
important biodiversity, the lagoon was declared a wetland of insectivorous plants, epiphytes, parasites, and lithophytes,
among others.
Table 1. Average Depth of Chilika Lagoon (1992-1997).
The diversity and extent of seagrass distribution in Chilika
Year Maximum (cm) Minimum (cm) Lagoon has been assessed by Pattnaik (2003) and the
1992–93 340 74 occurrence of five species of seagrass in their true sense
1993–94 210 65 (Halodule uninervis, Halodule pinifolia, Halophila ovalis,
Halophila ovata, Halophila beccarii) have been reported.
1994–95 332 58
The occurrence of Halodule uninervis, Halodule pinifolia and
1995–96 382 60 Halophila ovata from the lagoon were new distributional
1996–97 142 42 records.
Source: Orissa Remote Sensing Agency (ORSAC).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief 117

2.2 Political and Socio-Economic Features of the fishery sources of the lagoon with the non fishermen
communities and 70% with the fishermen communities. The
The lagoon has a history spanning more than five thousand local fishermen resented this as the non-fishermen introduced
years, during which it provided livelihoods for local inhabitants, shrimp culture by virtue of this order. However in the mean
as well as inspiration for philosophers, poets and naturalists time the Supreme Court of India (the apex court) imposed
with its picturesque beauty and panoramic view of the Eastern a complete ban on ban on shrimp culture in the lagoon and
Ghats (hills) in the background. Tourists are drawn by the within 1000 meters periphery in 1996.
thousands every year. The lagoon was once a part of the Bay
of Bengal and was created through the process of embayment 2.3 Institutional and Management Features
due to the long shore sediment transport. The lagoon mouth
used to serve as an excellent port. Commercial boats used to Until 1992, management of Chilika Lagoon was basically
sail from the lagoon to Cambodia and Indonesia. To this day, related to the activities of two major stakeholder departments,
the villagers around Chilika observe an annual festival (“Bali namely, the State Fisheries and the State Tourism Departments.
Yatra”, which means “Journey to Bali” in Indonesian). A place In addition, the State Forest (Wildlife) Division was entrusted
called Manikpatna is considered as the port. with responsibility for the Nalabana Sanctuary within Chilika.
The lagoon was included in Ramsar’s Montreux Record
The local community also has deep religious attachments, due to change in the ecological character and degradation
with the Kalijai temple situated on yet another island at the of the lagoon ecosystem. In response, the Government of
middle of the lagoon; the goddess Kalijai is venerated in Orissa created the Chilika Development Authority in 1992.
folklore and legend. Ancient deities (e.g., Nabagraha located CDA is a registered society borne under the administrative
near the village Berhampur along the lagoon’s outer channel; jurisdiction of the Forest and Environment Department of the
the Shiva temple in the village Alupatna in the same area) also Government of Orissa. It is governed by a governing body
are venerated. chaired by the Chief Minister of the State. Secretaries from
the key departments, experts, eminent scientists, people’s
The Chilika Lagoon remains a vital lifeline for more than representatives (members of parliament and legislative
200,000 people who live around the lagoon in 141 villages. assembly) and representative of fisherfolk communities are
The historical records indicate the use of the lagoon system for members of the governing body. The CDA’s mandate includes:
capture fisheries through the formation of 92 primary fishery
cooperatives. Six types of traditional fishing methods used • To protect the lagoon ecosystem and its genetic
in practice (Table 2). The steady fish landing records provide biodiversity;
evidence of a sustainable fishing strategy, using ecological
zones, different contraptions and traditional experience. • To survey, plan and prepare a proposal for integrated
resource management in, and around, the lagoon;
In early 1990 the non-fishermen communities of Chilika filed a
petition in the High Court of Orissa to recognize their fishing • To understand multi-dimensional and multi-disciplinary
rights in Chilika, challenging the principle of the State of development activities;
Orissa’s Revenue Department which used to lease out the
fishing rights only to the traditional fishermen. The high court • To cooperate and collaborate with other institutions for
in a 1992 verdict, directed the state government to settle 30% development of the lagoon; and,

Table 2. Traditional Fishery Methods in Chilika.

Name Method Period
“Bahani” Net fishing Throughout year
“Jano” Enclosure in shallow region by spilt bamboo and net September–October
(Leased August–
February)
Trap fishery “Dhaudi” & “Baja” Box-type bamboo basket with or without lead line; Throughout year
Dhaudi is a large box; Baja is a small box.
“Dian” Upland near Jano areas (for non-fishermen June–July
communities), 100–200 yards from the shore.
“Uthapani” Near shore; in shallow water both by fishers and non- June–July
fishers.
Prawn Khatties For capturing prawns; a total of 70 were operative March–August
Notes: “Jano” and “Dhaudi-Baja” have been replaced by “Khonda”, popularly called “Disco-nets, “Khonda” has a “Barh” (wing) 20–60 cm
length net of 20–25 mm mesh that meet Bichni — a ten meter semi-circular net area with “zero-mesh” (very fine size) net with two
box type trap or puda (2 m x 1.5 m x 1.5m) with net of 10–15 mm mesh. The Bahani method also is being displaced by gill–cum–drag
netting.

118 Chilika Lagoon

• To restore the lagoon and its catchment with active a strategic framework for organizing existing scientific
community participation. information and knowledge about the lagoon ecosystem for
its incorporation into the planning of the restoration process.
Though created in 1992, CDA was almost in a moribund The adaptive management planning process for developing a
condition due to lack of effective networking, partnership and management plan was based on an explicit set of assumptions
coordinated action. To make more flexible procedures and and hypothesis about the elements and components of the
quicker decisions, an executive committee was constituted lagoon ecosystem as well as man-made systems and how
in 1998 with adequate delegation of financial power. The they function and interact. The flexible adaptive management
CDA is headed by a Chief Executive Officer (CEO) nominated plan provided an opportunity for learning by doing instead of
by the authorities for a fixed-term period; the current CEO waiting for the outputs from long-term scientific studies, which
(as of September 2005) is on deputation from the State are both time and cost intensive. The CDA achievements to
Forest Department, having served in the position since from date are discussed in Sections 4.1 and 4.2.
November 1997. This institutional structure has facilitated
integration and coordination between the stakeholder 3. Biophysical Environment
departments and organizations.
3.1 Past and the Present Conditions
The CDA executive body currently is delegated with adequate
financial power to make quick decisions. The institutional 3.1.1 Biodiversity
development was facilitated with additional funding support Chilika Lagoon’s faunal diversity was first studied between
received from the National Government’s 10th and 11th Finance 1915-1924 by Annandale and his colleagues from the Indian
Commissions (see sections 4.1 and 4.7). The restoration Museum and Zoological Survey of India. Their study results
was carried out through an adaptive planning process with indicate nearly 600 species exist in the aquatic, island and
active community participation. This was achieved through shore areas of the lagoon; the past records of 428 species

Table 3. Faunal Diversity in Lagoon Chilika: A Changing Profile (1914-15 to 1985-87).

Type Annandale (ed.) Ghosh (ed.) Comments
(1915–1924) (1995)
Protozoa Few 61
Porifera 7 2 Due to decline in salinity
Coelenterate 6 7
Platyhelminthes Digenia N.A. 29 2 new genera, 8 new species
Nematode 4 37 5 new species
Polychaetes N.A. 31
Crustacea Stmatopod 3 2 Due to decline in salinity
Crustecea Brachyura 36* 28 *[29 described as new by Kemp, 1915]
Crustacea Decapoda (Prawn 30 17
& Shrimps)

Animuran (Hermit Crabs) N.A. 8

Mollusks 74 87 Type locality for 60 species; 3 freshwater mollusks not
present in 1995 due to declining salinity; 50 species
recorded in 1916 not found now.
Sipuncula N.A. 1
Echiura 1 3
Echinodermata 5 [other study] 1
Protochordate N.A. 1
Pisces 217 [all sources] 69* [*24 freshwater species]
Amphibian & Reptiles 4 7
Amphibia
Reptilia 22 23* *8 species of 1915-24 not found in 1995
Birds N.A. 156
Mammals 18 18* [*5 new entrant in place of 5 earlier records]
Sources: Annandale (1915-1924) and Ghosh (1995).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief 119

shows a positive trend of species diversity, although earlier habitat change. At least 1 species of algae (Rosenvingea)
investigations on Platyhelminthes, Polychaetes, and birds and a species of mangrove Aegiceras corriculatum also are
have never been carried out systematically. At least 3 species considered threatened.
of brackish water porifera and a number of crustaceans
(Brachyura, Decapods) have disappeared over the past 60 At least 63 species and sub-species of plants reported
years. Of 74 species of mollusks, at least 50 species could between 1913–1988, could not be traced during the 1996–2000
not be traced during these year-long surveys, even though the period, with at least 15 being aquatic or semi-aquatic plants.
total number of species increased to 87. Of the 69 species of The impact of opening the mouth and increasing the salinity is
fishes noted in the lagoon during the 1980s, 24 species were likely to cause some changes in the aquatic vegetation of the
freshwater fishes — the decline in total fish diversity from the lagoon; only future research can provide information on the
earlier-recorded 217 species to 69 is perhaps most startling. changing profile. Because of the increasing salinity, the area
While the lagoon generally has been known as a type locality occupied by freshwater invasive species in the northern sector
(the place where a given species was first discovered) for is declining. Similarly, smaller fluctuations in salinity favored
nearly 30 species of crustaceans, and 60 species of mollusks the growth of seagrass in the central sector.
(besides others in the past that are no longer present), the
profile of species diversity has clearly changed over 60 years. The lagoon also provided a unique habitat for both resident
It may be noteworthy that, even in the 1980s, 8 new species and migratory avian fauna, which led to establishing the
of Platyhelminthes and 5 species of Nematode have been Nalabana Sanctuary. The peak bird population varied between
discovered in the lagoon (see Table 3). It also should be noted 447,511 (1985) to 756,396 (in 1993); according to Wetlands
that the Irrawady dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) is found in the International, it reached 1,454,186 in 1996 (noting that the
lagoon and is considered a “flagship” species. arrival of the migratory species is determined by many factors
starting from their home land that it is not wise to draw a
Similar accounts of flora over time unfortunately are not conclusion based on their number during a particular season).
available. However, the most recent account (Roy 2001) The tourists visiting the lagoon during the same period
of floral diversity (before the new mouth was opened in obtained the greatest benefit from the vast wetland habitat,
September 2000) provides a listing of 72 phytoplankton as did the waterfowl. At least 20 species of reptiles, birds
genera and 8 seaweed genera from different sectors of the and mammals recorded in Chilika, however, are considered
lagoon in different seasons, which plays a key role in the threatened or vulnerable.
food chain of the lagoon ecosystem. The phytoplankton
genera include Bacillariophyceae (35), Chlorophyceae (20), 3.1.2 Salinity
Myxophyceae (12), Dinophyceae (3) and Xanthophyceae Salinity is the most dominant factor determining the lagoon’s
(1). The seaweeds comprise 12 species under 8 genera ecology. As mentioned earlier, the lagoon is connected to the
belonging to Chlorophyceae (7 spp), Charophyceae (1 spp) Bay of Bengal by a narrow inlet and constricted outer channel.
and Rhodophyceae (7 spp) located only in the marine and In the past, the inlet frequently tended to shift to the north,
brackish water zone. The seagrasses include Halophila and affecting the tidal influx into the main lagoon. The mean
Ruppia. Aquatic macrophytes comprise Vittate (9), Rosulate surface salinity is affected by an influx of freshwater from
(1), Ptenstophyte (12), Epihydate (6), Hyperhydate (6) the western catchment (approximate average of 536 m3/s)
and Helophyte (33) growth classes, a total of 67 species. and from the distributaries of the Mahanadi River (mainly
Macrophyte concentration seems to be most dense in the the Daya, Nuna, Bhargavi Rivers; approximately average of
northern sector, followed by the outer channel and southern 850 m3/s). The sediment buildup at the mouth of Chilika and
sector. the Palur Canal in the Ganjam District connecting the lagoon
with the ocean had reduced the saline water influx over time,
It is further reported (Roy 2001) that the Chilika Lagoon system as illustrated in Table 4.
harbors at least 185 species of plants in the aquatic and
terrestrial islands of known medicinal properties. Of the total The reduced salinity has caused a significant change in the
floral diversity in the lagoon area, at least 10 species are used fish catch composition and quantity (see section 4.2.2).
as local vegetables, 15 as fodder, 6 for thatching, 12 as fish Such changes can be attributed to the gradual decline in the
food, 56 for bird feeding and nesting, in addition to the 185 for
medicinal purposes. Such use plant resources provide a vital Table 4. Overall Average Salinity for the Whole of Chilika
resource base for the local community, as well as for birds, Lagoon.
fishes and other biota. Year Salinity
(ppt, parts per thousand)
In summary, of 389 species of flora, (Dicots – 288, Monocots 1957-58 22.3 ppt
– 80, Pterydophytes – 9, Seaweeds – 12), 84 species belong
1960-61 13.2 ppt
strictly to aquatic plant categories. Of the aquatic plants, 5
species of sea grasses (Halophila becarii, Halophila minor, 1961-64 9.4–11.8 ppt
Halophila ovalis, Ramamurtiaoa, Ruppia maritima) are 1995 1.4–6.3 ppt
considered threatened from extensive prawn culture and Source: Chilika Development Authority.

120 Chilika Lagoon

recruitment rate of marine elements, due to blockade at the Siltation, declining salinity and nutrient inflows led to
mouth and the inhospitable habitat of lower salinity. extensive macrophyte growth. Free-floating invasive species
(e.g., Azolla, Eichhornia, Pistia) and emerging species (e.g.,
3.1.3 Sedimentation Ipomea) have become a common sight. Weed infestation
The major silt load to the lagoon is carried by the Daya, increased from 20 km2 in 1973 to 440 km2 in 1998. Paspalum
Bhargavi and Nuna Rivers, distributaries of the Mahanadi vaginatum, Paspalidium punctatum, Potamogetom nodosus,
River system. A sediment flow monitoring program initiated and Potamogeton pectinatus dominate the macrophyte
by the Department of Water Resources in five rivers (Bhargavi, community; Potamogeton alone accounts for 78% of the
Daya and Malaguni in the northern sector; Kusumi and Salia invasion. A Utkal University study (1998) indicated that,
in the western sector) showed that approximately 1.5 million while a positive correlation can be established between
tons/year of sediment enters the lagoon in the north from the macrophyte growth and total phosphorus and nitrate-nitrogen
distributaries of the Mahanadi River and 0.3 million tons/year concentrations, the pH level had no apparent influence
enter the lagoon from the Western Catchment (Pattnaik 2002). on macrophyte growths (CDA monitoring shows that the
The vertical accumulation of sediment has exceeded the nitrate-nitrogen concentration is 0.0062 to 1.321 mg/L and
relative sea level (RSL) rise. The fate of the lagoon depends orthophosphate is 0.003 to 0.533 mg/L (CDA 2005)).
on a combination of accretion and the local RSL rise, which
determines the lagoon’s volumetric capacity. Finally, to make an assessment of the impact of the
proposed Naraj barrage upstream of the River Kathajuri, an
The upstream erosion and sedimentation process in the environmental flow assessment study is being carried out to
lagoon directly contributed to the loss of lagoon bed depth, as assess the amount of fresh water essential to maintain the
well as the choking of the mouth. In turn, this led to a declining ecological integrity of the lagoon.
salinity. Further, introduction of prawn culture, gheri or bund
fishery in 1991 led the process of changes in hydrology and 3.2 Lake and Drainage Basin Resource Conflicts
sediment transport, due largely to the use of split bamboo
and very fine mesh nets, encircling the culture area, which A major conflict in the Chilika Lagoon resulted from a
prevented free sediment flow. reallocation of fishing rights from traditional fishermen to
include the local non-fishermen. Table 5 summarizes four main
The siltation and reduced salinity resulted in rapid growth of phases of allocation of the fishing rights at Chilika. Before
the invasive weed species in the northern sector, and restricted the change in the allocation of the fishery sources (1990s),
the free movement of juveniles of prawns and mullets from traditional fisherfolk had developed a complex system of rights
the sea into the lagoon. The breeding and spawning grounds and restrictions (on techniques, gear, etc.) that led to more-or-
of many important fishes, mollusks and paenid prawns have less sustainable fishing in the lagoon. Over time, however,
been affected due to siltation. prawn farming became more and more lucrative because of
the significant increase of the price of the tiger prawn in the
3.1.4 Other Issues international market, attracting the interest of outsiders. In the
High nitrate concentrations are observed in winter months, lagoon area itself, conflict began with a change in basic policy,
resulting from land drainage carrying agricultural fertilizers. entitling the non-fishermen community to use water-spread
Data collected at 8 monitoring stations for the years 1986–87 areas for traditional culture fishery. Major conflicts began
to 1997–98 indicate that the use of fertilizer has nearly doubled when large investments poured in from other parts of the State
within a decade. Agriculture runoff became severe, due to of Orissa and even outside the State. The functioning of the
lack of adequate soil conservation measures. Additionally, Primary Fishermen Co-operative Societies gradually deceased,
untreated wastewater from the capital city in Bhubaneshwar almost ceasing to work.
finds its way to the lagoon. However, as with agricultural
runoff, it is difficult to estimate how much of the amount The agitated fishermen made writ petition, organized
generated makes it to the lagoon and how much is settled out themselves under the banner of “The Chilika Matsyajibi
or otherwise transformed along the way. Mahasangh”, submitted a memorandum to the government
demanding abolition of unauthorized shrimp culture within
the water-spread area of the lagoon. The national Supreme

Table 5. Major Changes in Fishery Rights in Chilika.

Period System
Zamindar & Jagirdary period (British colonial rule) Royalty to Raja of Purikud, Raja of Kalikote, Jagirdars.
Anchal Adhikari of Chilika (1953–1959) Open auction lease mostly to fishermen.
Central Fishermen Cooperative Marketing Society (CFCMS) Lease out to Primary Fishermen Co-operative Societies;
(1959–1988) Limited access to non-fishermen.
Orissa High Court verdict in 1992 30% of rights to non-fishermen.
Source: Ghosh (1999b).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief 121

Court (through their 1996 verdict) banned the shrimp culture declined significantly, adversely affecting the livelihood of the
in the lagoon and within 1,000 meters from the high water line local communities.
of Chilika; however, the State Government unfortunately could
not implement the courts order effectively. Implementation 4. Management Environment
of this restriction could have stopped all prawn culture
activities. This brewed discontent among the fishermen as 4.1 Lake Management Programs and Processes
the unauthorized shrimp culture is mostly carried out by the
non-fishermen. Two incidences of police firing leading to loss Management issues associated with restoration of this
of life (the last one in May 1999), led the Government to issue complex ecosystem were so vast in scale ecologically,
an executive instruction banning all culture fishery in the hydrologically and socio-economically, that meticulous
lagoon in 1999. During this period (in early 1990s), the house integrated planning was necessary to address them. Until the
of Tata’s, one of the top three industrial houses, had proposed mid-1990s, lagoon management activities were limited and
a large aquaculture project. Local agitation, however, forced fragmented. To address this, CDA facilitated a consultation
the government and the investor to withdraw. The conversion process at national and international level with an objective
of capture fishery (locally called “Jano”) in fringe areas of the to initiate key targeted studies essential to a management-
lagoon in Puri district during 1988–92 led to 61 new culture directed understanding of the ecosystem and to trace out
ponds; the district administration in Puri allowed 30% of the the root cause of its degradation, and appropriate corrective
area to be changed to culture fisheries, which also fuelled measures to restore the ecological integrity and functionality
agitation by traditional fishermen. of the lagoon and its drainage basin.

Overall, the repetitive administrative failure to arrive at a firm An integrated management plan was formulated with wide
policy decision, alleged nexus between politicians and prawn stakeholder consultation with an adaptive approach. It relied
culturists, and denial of rights to the traditional fishermen heavily on the participation of stakeholders to establish goals
community for their livelihood sustenance, led to gunfire on 29 and targets, to manage competing objectives, and to weigh
May 1999, resulting in the death of 4 fishermen. options and tradeoffs. Formulation of a credible management
plan paved the way for funding support from the Government
Finally, several upstream-downstream issues also may be of India. CDA received an amount of 270 million INR from
seen as “resource conflicts”. For example, land-use practices a “special problem grant” from the Ministry of Finance,
in the upper catchment that lead to high sedimentation Government of India under the 10th Finance Commission
rates in the lagoon adversely affected the direct uses of the (1996-2000) for restoration of the lagoon. This was followed
lagoon. Additionally, changes in the hydrological regime, due up by a further grant of 300 million INR from the 11th Finance
to barrages on upstream rivers, also have an impact on the Commission for consolidation of the activities carried out with
natural lagoon ecosystem. Although these issues have not the support from the 10th Finance Commission. The strategy
caused bloody conflicts, like the fishing rights issue, they adopted was for a more ecologically beneficial hydrologic
nevertheless represent different users impacting each other regime to improve water quality, recovery of the lost habitat
in unfavorable ways. Due to land degradation and the change of the important species, enhancement of the productivity and
in the land use pattern in the drainage basin, productivity had controlling the invasive species in the lagoon and an integrated

Table 6. Consolidated Plan of Action for Chilika Lagoon as per Recommendation of the 10th Finance Commission (1996–
2000).
No. Activities Cost (106 Indian
Rupees)
1 Catchment area treatment; Control of silt-load by plantations and soil moisture conservation 24.78
measure with the active participation of local community.
2 Improvement of water exchange and salinity gradient including cost of dredging equipment. 151.24
3 Restoration of ecosystem of Nalabana Island for migratory birds. 4.68
4 Creation of mass awareness and publicity program including environmental education. 5.00
5 Improvement of socio-economic condition and allied economic activities by providing 10.00
communication facilities.
6 Improvement of road network and construction of bridges. 47.00
7 Fishery development including training for avoiding gherries and prawn culture. 4.30
8 Research Center of Wetland Management at Balugaon near Chilika shore. 21.00
9 Weed management. 2.00
Total 270.00 (approx.
US$6.0 million at
1 US$ = 45 INR)

122 Chilika Lagoon

water resource management practice in the drainage basin. formally adopted, many of its components were nevertheless
The results of these programs are presented in Section 4.2. taken up.
Details of activities carried out under these two major grants
can be found in Table 6 and Table 7, respectively. The restoration strategy adopted by CDA derives its
uniqueness from the strong participation by local communities,
Additionally, the World Bank-supported Orissa Water Resource grassroot-level NGOs, Community Based Organizations,
Consolidation Project (OWRCP) recognized “Lake Chilika” as a strategic partnerships with various national and international
component of the OWRCP, allocating funds for hydrobiological organizations and experts, government agencies and
monitoring of the lagoon with an objective to assess the stakeholder government institutions. The key to the success
impact of the Naraj barrage by the water Resource Department has been strategic partnership built up through networking,
with the funding. In addition to this, a specialist consultancy consultation and coordination with the stakeholders. For
to prepare an “Integrated Management Action Plan for Chilika example, Chilika Development Authority maintains institutional
Lagoon” was also supported. Although that plan was not linkages with 7 state government organizations, 33 NGOs and
CBOs, 3 national government ministries, 6 other national

Table 7. Consolidated Plan of Action for Chilika Lagoon as per Recommendation of the 11th Finance Commission (2001–
2004).
No. Activities Cost (106 Indian
Rupees)
1 Catchment area treatment; Control of silt-load by plantations and soil moisture conservation 47.29
measure with the active participation of local community.
2 Desiltation of the outer channel of the lagoon for improvement of the Water Exchange and 180.33
Salinity gradient including excavation of Palur Canal and procurement of dredging equipment.
3 Restoration of Nalabana (Chilika) Sanctuary. 6.77
4 Creation of mass awareness and publicity program including environmental education. 11.15
5 Socio-economic development; Construction of salinity embankment, jetties, fish-landing 15.05
centers etc.
6 Weed management through remote sensing application studies in collaboration with NRSA, 2.95
Hyderabad and SAC, Ahmedabad.
7 Fishery resources development; Fish stock assessment study and carrying capacity through 7.55
CIFRI, Barrakpore; Removal of illegal prawn gherries through district administration.
8 Communication network; Provision of ferry services between Satapada and Janhikuda. 9.86
9 Center for Wetland Management; Completion of the Wetland Research and Training Center and 19.05
installation of laboratory in situ research.
Total 300.00 (approx.
US$6.7 million at
1 US$ = 45 INR)

Table 8. Activities of the Chilika Development Authority in Collaboration with Other Organizations.
Activities Groups Engaged
Improvement of water exchange and salinity gradient by Central Water and Power Research Station–Pune (CWPRS–
dredging, with support of mathematical model and bathymetry Pune), Ocean Engineering Center, IIT Chennai, CDA
data
Environmental Impact Assessment of Chilika Lagoon for dredging National Institute of Oceanography in Goa (NIO), CDA
of outer channel by water and sediment quantity study, eco-
biological quality study and circulation of siltation process
Weed Management and Eutrophication study RRL (Regional Research Laboratory) (CSIR), Bhubaneshwar
Catchment area afforestation and soil conservation State Forest Department, Soil Conservation Department,
Watershed associations
Public Awareness, eco-development in peripheral areas CDA/CEE (Center for Environment Education), Community
Based organizations, NGOs
Research and training CDA
Fisheries development Fisheries Department, stakeholders, CIFRI (Central Inland
Fishery Research Institute)
Bird sanctuary management Forest Department, Bombay Natural History Society

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief 123

organizations, 11 international organizations, 13 research organizations and NGOs at the outset, and a series of need-
institutions, and 55 different categories of community groups. based training programs to facilitate an integrated and holistic
This difficult task of coordinating and strategic partnership management of micro-watersheds by the community. The
could be accomplished through strong net working. Table 8 goal was to facilitate the community to manage and reverse
identifies some major groups involved in different activities. degradation of life support systems within the watershed,
particularly land and water, to enhance the productivity,
Additionally, an innovative participatory micro-watershed resulting in alleviation of poverty and promoting improvements
management concept was adopted with a “sustainable rural in livelihood of agricultural communities. To achieve this, an
livelihood” approach for holistic management of natural innovative grassroots approach was adopted by the CDA, by
resources. The drainage basin of the lagoon that spreads formulating a micro-plan, blended with indigenous knowledge
over 4,100 km2 was the logical starting point for planning and appropriate experts’ input, for optimum utilization of the
and management actions for sustainable management. The natural resources in a sustainable manner and to increase
objective of this concept was to facilitate the community productivity and provide equal opportunity for livelihood for
through empowerment to take decisions and build capacity the landless, marginal farmers and women.
to work collectively. The participation of local communities
and stakeholders in planning and implementing management CDA also addressed the issue of illegal bird hunting by working
of natural resources and in sharing the responsibilities of with local NGOs and CBOs and the wildlife wing of the Forest
decision-making is a key feature of the ecosystem approach Department of Orissa to form “Bird Protection Committees”
adopted by CDA for management of the drainage basin. The which has assisted in developing alternative economic
local community has considerable, relevant knowledge of the activities through soft loans. The current CDA policy to link
ecosystem and ways in which it can be sustainably managed. socio-economic activities in support of local communities
The basic approach was to create an enabling environment, has been commended by a Ramsar Mission visiting Chilika
through capacity building of the community, community-based from 9–13 December 2001, which stated “CDA has developed

Figure 2a. Salinity Variation in Chilika Lagoon in May 2000 (Source: Chilika Development Authority).

124 Chilika Lagoon

an integrated approach to managing the lagoon which can water to spawn) (Pattnaik 2000). Detailed improvements in the
be regarded as an excellent example of the whole ecosystem lagoon environment are discussed below.
approach.” The previously discussed participatory micro-
watershed management is one such program. 4.2.1 Improved Flow Regime

4.2 Reduction in Stressed and Lake Environment Dredging of the lead channel, and opening the new mouth on
Improvements 23 September 2000, have significantly changed the lagoon’s
hydrology, returning it to a more natural state than existed
The basic program of opening a new lagoon mouth, a major before excessive siltation affected the tidal flows in and out
recommendation from studies by the National Institute of of the lagoon. The management intervention to improve the
Oceanography (NIO) and Central Water and Power Research tidal influx and salinity in the lagoon can be assessed by the
Station (CWPRS), can be considered a first step in improving remarkable change in salinity between May 2000 (shown in
the lagoon environment. Interestingly, this was also a long- Figure 2a) and May 2001 (in Figure 2b).
standing demand of the local communities, reflecting the
value of local knowledge. Environmental Impact Assessments, Furthermore, the opening of the mouth, and consequent
undertaken before and after the artificial mouth was opened, changes in tidal flux, led to significant flushing of sediment
showed marked improvement in terms of salinity flux, weed- from the channel, thereby increasing its depth to the 30–45 cm
free areas, recruitment of marine elements, flushing of silts and, level. The newly-restored hydrological system also led to rapid
finally, increasing productivity for both fish and shellfish. The freshwater discharges through the new mouth. Consequently,
new mouth also reduced the distance between the lagoon and peripheral and island villages were not affected by floods and
the sea by 18 km, facilitating migration of both catadromous water-logged land after 2001. Before the intervention, the
species (fish that migrate from fresh to saline water to spawn) peripheral villages suffered from inundation, especially in the
and anadromous species (fish that migrate from saline to fresh

Figure 2b. Salinity Variation in Chilika Lagoon in May 2001 (Source: Chilika Development Authority).

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief 125

Kanas and Bramhagri Development Block areas, leading to (approximately US$15.1 million). The average annual income
crop loss of over more than 50,000 hectares of paddy fields. per family increased by INR 50,000 (approximately US$1,100).

4.2.2 Improved Fish Catches and Recruitment of Marine 4.2.3 Decrease in Weed Coverage
Species Improved salinity conditions resulted in a significant decrease
Opening of the new mouth had a dramatically positive effect in the coverage of invasive freshwater weeds, with the infested
on fish catches and, therefore, on fisherfolk’s incomes. Figure area declining from 523.01 km2 in October 2000 (just before
3 shows how fish, prawn and crab catches declined, but then opening of the new mouth), to 351.01 km2 by May 2001. The
made a dramatic comeback after the hydrological intervention
Table 9. Declining Weed Cover in Chilika.
of 2000. The main reasons for this occurrence have been
the restoration of salinity regime improved autorecruitment Weed Category October 2000 May 2001
from the ocean and free breeding migration. More than 75% (Area in km2) (Area in km2)
economic species of the lagoon maintain a phased life cycle Emergent weeds 86.07 71.62
The fish landing data reached an all-time low at the most Free floating weeds 110.74 51.81
degraded lagoon condition in 1997–1998 (1,600 metric tons (Eichhornia, Salvinia,
(Mt)); after the intervention, a record yield of 11,878 Mt was Nymphea)
attained in 2001-2002. The crab landing data also showed a Submerged weeds 170.76 122.24
10-fold increase, from 10 Mt to 111.07 Mt. (Potamogeton, Hydilla)
Other submerged weeds 155.44 105.34
The recruitment of marine species, especially Mugil cephalus (Najas, Hydrilla)
and Liza macrolepes, which became increasingly rare during
Weed-free area 333.82 505.82
the lagoon’s degraded period, has markedly increased.
About 40% of the typical fish catch originally had depended Total 856.83 856.83
on seawater migration; this proportion has been reportedly Source: CDA database — www.chilika.com.
restored after the intervention. Recruitment during February to
May became highest, because of the opening of the outlet. The reason is because the freshwater macrophytes have difficulty
seaward migration of prawn and lakeward migration of mullet existing in the higher-salinity water (details provided in Table
fingerlings are now ensured through the Muggermukh area 9).
because of dredging and de-siltation. The fish and crab landing
data further indicate a significant level of increase in auto- 4.2.4 Improved Biodiversity and Return of Threatened
recruitment from the sea into the lagoon after intervention. Species
The shrimp species (Paenaus indicus) alone showed a record The lagoon system hosts over 160 species of birds in the peak
yield of 438 Mt, higher than any other figure in the previous migratory season, with at least 97 being inter-continental
decade. migrants (Ram et al., 1994). The Bombay Natural History
Society has been conducting a study since December 2001,
Important for the local economy, the total financial return using birds as a bioindicator. After implementation of the
due to enhanced fish, prawn and crab yield, based on restoration program, the Society’s team recorded nesting
average weighted price, increased by nearly INR 680 million colonies of Gull-billed Tern in Nalabana, establishing its
southern breeding range extension. During
the same period (2002), the Indian River
12000
160 Tern, a lesser-studied group, was found
to nest on Nalabana Island (540 nest
Total Fish and Prawn Landing (metric tons)

Fish and Prawn 140

records). These records further established
Total Crab Landing (metric tons)

10000 Crab
120 the significant positive changes in the
lagoon’s environment, illustrating that
8000 100
the management program’s component
80 on Nalabana Bird Sanctuary Habitat
6000 Improvement Program yielded some
60 positive results within a short period of
4000
40
time.

2000 20 In addition to the return of flagship mullet

species, a shrimp species (Paenaeus
0
0
indicus) reappeared in the lagoon system
1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 because of environmental improvement,
Year constituting nearly 50% of the total shrimp
landing. The crustacean species, which
Figure 3. Changes in Fish, Prawn and Crab Landings. were rare during the period of degradation,

126 Chilika Lagoon

comprised 2,486 Mt (20.51%) of the total catch of 11,989 Mt funding for treating wastewater of the capital city, although
in 2001. The crustacean landings further increased to 2,629 only on a limited scale.
Mt during 2002-2003, accounting for 24.13% of the total
landings. It also is noteworthy that six other fish species once The Orissa Water Supply and Sewage Board, Government of
considered threatened have reappeared in the lagoon during Orissa, has formulated a proposal for the Integrated Sewage
the post-intervention period, including Hilsa (Tenuealosa) and Waste Disposal scheme for abatement of pollution in the
ilisha, Chanos chanos, Megalops cyprinoids, Elops machnata, River Kuakhai and Daya, draining into Chilika at Bhubaneswar
Rhabdosargus berda and Rhinomugil corsula. City, at a cost of US$108 million.

The restoration process helped improve seagrass meadows 4.3.2 Runoff from Upstream Lands
and their species diversity, with improved water level variations Despite plans within the Agricultural Intensification Program
during tidal cycle turning the lagoon into a pulsating mode. (AIP) and OWRCP, fertilizer-laden runoff water still flows into
Finally, Irrawady dolphins have again become well distributed the lagoon from the basin, as pointed out in Chilika Report
in the central and southern sectors of the lagoon, while they under OWRCP (1998; 1999). The interest of drainage basin
were previously mainly reported only in the outer channel. inhabitants in the delta, especially agricultural farmers, is
apparently not high because it is difficult to highlight their
4.2.5 Reduction in Silt Loading from Catchment linkage to lagoon-related resource management. The current
The lagoon environment is also directly linked with the land- efforts to involve NGOs (e.g., “Campaign for Conservation of
use patterns and agricultural practices in the basin area. The Chilika Lagoon” and Pallishree), however, may help motivate
drainage basin is delineated into micro-watershed based on the upstream people to adopt sustainable agricultural practices.
latest satellite imagery. The most degraded micro-watershed
are treated based on the experience from a participatory 4.3.3 Palur Canal restoration
micro-watershed management which was initiated on a pilot The OWRCP plan not only recommended dredging of the
basis in three villages, covering 640.45 ha, with the objective mouth, but also 17 km Palur Canal, a connecting link from the
of capacity-building at the community level through a series Ganjam side (see Figure 1), which is now under control of the
of training programs directed toward integrated and holistic Minor Port and Harbour Department. The canal provides an
management of micro-watersheds. This model is already extra inlet both for saline water intrusion into the lagoon and
providing encouraging results, in terms of effective training recruitment of marine species. Due to siltation of the canal bed
for income generation activities through proper water resource and extensive interventions along the entire canal length, the
management. In conjunction with trapping of significant silt dynamics of the system had reached a moribund condition. The
loads at the Naraj Barrage, this will likely reduce the annual silt Palur Canal was renovated in 2004 which is likely to improve
flow into the lagoon. the fishery resources of the southern sector of the lagoon.

4.3 Remaining Problems 4.3.4 Eco-tourism

The present tourism activity at Chilika is focused around
While the above story clearly shows that the management Rambha, Barkul and Satpada. During the OWRCP study, a
interventions at Chilika have had much success, resulting tourism growth rate of nearly 30% was recorded between
in direct improvements in the lagoon environment and local 1987–1997. Introduction of motorized boats in the lagoon
economy, it is incorrect to assume that all problems have been (in contrast to conventional sail boats), and lack of a
successfully addressed. Some remaining issues are discussed specifically-demarcated channel to Nalabana Island, has
below. led to uncontrolled tourist activity. A report on tourism
development, prepared by Tata Consultancy Services (TCS)
4.3.1 Wastewater Treatment and Pollution Control in 1993, focused on eco-tourism. Wetland International also
An important area requiring attention is the prevention of subsequently prepared a document on ecotourism in Chilika.
inflow of untreated domestic wastewater from each of the 5 More meaningful dialogue must be established between the
sewage discharge zones of the capital city, Bhubaneshwar CDA and the State Tourism Department, in order to implement
(approximately 25 million gallons/day), as well as untreated a community-based ecotourism program at Chilika (Lenka
domestic wastewater from the 141 villages around the lagoon. 2002). The Tourism Department of the Government of Orissa
A positive suggestion in this regard was given in OWRCP commissioned the services of a consultant for developing an
plan; namely, a possible linkage with the Bhubaneshwar ecotourism master plan, and an orientation/training program
Development Authority and Orissa State Pollution Control for boatmen transporting tourists in the lagoon has been
Board. Analysis of the capital city’s wastewater indicates started.
suspended solids (SS) concentrations of roughly 275 mg/L,
well over the permissible limit of 30 mg/L; the BOD likewise 4.3.5 Environmental Flows
shows an average value of 110 mg/L, well over the permissible The total impact of the projected 49 irrigation projects, involving
limit of 20 mg/L (OSPCB 1998). “Project Water” is currently dams and barrage constructions in the Mahanadi basin of
being launched with Indo Canadian Environment Facility (ICEF) Chilika, has not been linked with the Chilika Management Plan,

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief 127

even though it was mentioned in the 2nd Technical Report on These federal acts and policies, along with the State Marine
Chilika Lagoon under OWRCP (Ghosh 1999a). Fisheries Act and Fishing in the 2002 Chilika Bill, provide a
strong foundation for implementing a process of conservation
In particular, the construction of the Naraj barrage upstream and sustainable use.
has the definite potential to affect the hydrology of the
lagoon. To determine the optimum flow allocations and other 4.5 Stakeholder Involvement, Awareness and Access
key ecological functions, an environmental flow assessment to Information
supported by the World Bank has been initiated and is currently
underway (as of September 2005). For arriving at different After the hydrological intervention there has been a steady
flow scenarios due to the construction of the Naraj barrage, increase in the fish landing which facilitated self initiated
hydrological, hydrodynamic, biological, and socioeconomic good practices (e.g., regulation of mesh size, discouraging
modeling as well as stakeholder consultation was carried juvenile catches) propagated by the fisher community using a
out involving the Water Resource Department, Wetlands public address system. A better linkage has been established
International South Asia, Central Water and Power Research between CDA and the fisherfolk following implementation of
Station, Department of Fishery Resources, World Bank, Center the action plan.
for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM),
a number of NGOs, CBOs and an expert from CSIRO Australia A network of the NGOs and CBOs working in and around
(William Young), with extensive stakeholder consultation. Chilika has been developed, and an outreach program is
carried out through this network. The work of ‘Pallishree’, a
4.4 The Critical Policy and Institutional Framework for grassroots-level NGO working with the support of the Japan
Management Fund for Global Environment, Ramsar Center Japan–Asia and
Chilika Development Authority, can be cited as a good example
The institutional framework for Chilika is based on a principle of creating public awareness. The NGO has established 10
of multi-sectoral collaboration, with the CDA playing the small centers, one for four villages in and around the Chilika
role of central coordinating authority. The earlier problem area. These centers (called “Center for Environment Awareness
of overlapping areas of authority, and the conflicts arising and Education”; CEAE) provide both non-formal education
thereof, will be further addressed with the newly-proposed through trained facilitators and formal education through
bill of Government of Orissa, “The Orissa Fishing in Chilika school-level textbooks in the local language on the Chilika
(Regulation) Bill”. While acknowledging the right of the Lagoon environment, Birds of Chilika, Fishes of Chilika and
District Collector to grant leases to the Orissa State Fishermen Plants of Chilika. Each center has a small museum and library,
Cooperative Federation Ltd. in regard to the entire leasable audio-visual material, facilities for environmental games, etc.
area, the bill also made it mandatory to communicate the A quarterly newsletter in the local language also is published
details of such leases or sub-leases to the CDA. The bill regularly, with most of the articles contributed by the local
identified the CDA as the central authority for all other matters, stakeholders.
empowering it to make regular inspections, demolish illegal
structures, search and seize any article of objection, and The launch of Chilika website (www.chilika.com) provided a new
seek the help of the police wherever needed. The present CDA source for detailed information on wetland studies sponsored
activities show a clear perception about the importance of by the CDA; restoration history, ecological characteristics,
functioning with civil society organizations, both in the basin socioeconomic features, forests and agriculture in the basin
and the lagoon area, ensuring a positive role of the CDA as an area, physical characteristics, and a special focus on birds
institution. and dolphins. The website www.chilika.com could be used
as a vehicle to keep other organizations and the public aware
The policies and laws that can be correlated with the of progress with Chilika restoration and protection. A visitor’s
administration of Chilika include: center has been established at Satapada, a major entry point
to the lagoon. The entire Chilika ecosystem is showcased
• Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972; at the center, via interactive exhibits. Wetland education
programs also are presented in the center for school children
• Water Act, 1974; and stakeholders.

• Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980; 4.6 Linkages with Other Programs

• Coastal Zone Regulation Rules, 1991; Management of Chilika Lagoon is dependent on a successful
partnership between at least 8 government departments.
• National Water Policy, 2002; Thus, while coordination by the CDA for acceptance by each
stakeholder may appear time consuming, it is nevertheless
• Biological Diversity Act, 2003. essential.

128 Chilika Lagoon

4.7 Past and Ongoing Financial Investments a mechanism of equitable benefit sharing. The decision of
the Supreme Court to change the fishing rights led to the
The largest investment to date has been the Special Problem loss of some rights held by traditional fisherfolk. The opinion
Grants of the National Government’s 10th and 11th Finance of the traditional communities was ignored, with the Fishery
Commissions, as described in Tables 6 and 7. The total Department of the State Government forced to play a minor
amount of money was approximately INR 570 million (or side role as well. The earlier reports showed the involvement of
US$12.7 million). Furthermore, the Orissa Water Resource the Fishery Department in lagoon management had a positive
Consolidation Project (OWRCP) made INR 10 million (US$0.22 effect on fish yields.
million) available to the CDA for the hydrobiological monitoring
of the lagoon. 5.2 Vital Role of Science

A major key to achieving complete success of the planned One of the most significant lessons learned from the Chilika
activities is the timely flow of funds and availability of experience was the vital role scientific information can
resources. Thus, while the success of many of the management play toward achieving the goal. The data generated on the
plan components can be lauded, failure to implement some freshwater flow, silt load, nature and characteristics of weed
vital components indicates the need for more concerted infestation, salinity and nutrients, depth and possible impacts
efforts, with the failure likely due more to lack of financial of dredging constitute a vital research output. For effective
resources, rather than lack of concept and willingness by management of the drainage basin, delineation of the most
the executing agency. To this end, it would be worthwhile to degraded micro-watershed was done based on the satellite
determine the feasibility of undertaking work through self- imagery. The application of remote sensing and GIS has been
financing from fisheries and eco-tourism. used as an important management and monitoring tool.
Scientific results obtained from the targeted studies and the
The CDA itself is supported by funding from both the State and modeling provide vital clues for restoring the salinity gradient.
Central Government. The human resource and institutional The prediction of a rapid salinity return was then put to test,
development aspect can be judged from the existing staff demonstrating the connection between research and the
component of the CDA at the capital city of Bhubaneshwar, management initiative.
which does not exceed 10 at any given time. The linkages
with more than 40 national and regional institutions is a The post-operative phase already has resulted in significant
clear example of an integrated collaborative approach. The changes in the lagoon environment, increasing prawn and fish
emerging results are encouraging. This process of multi- yields, and the active participation of stakeholders. The lesson
institutional involvement can be sustained only through a learned from this exercise illustrates how scientific research
well-planned program and funding support. However, since can lead to better management of wetland ecosystems.
each department has its own agenda and annual work plan, Amelioration of the ecosystem, both in the lagoon and in the
the expectations from these agencies for carrying out work basin, resulted in enhancement of lagoon productivity, thereby
relevant to lake management can only be realized through leading to poverty alleviation as well.
annual budgetary allocations for outsourcing work.
5.3 Importance of Coordination and Diverse Funding
5. Lessons Learned
Despite the ineffectiveness of the CDA in the early-1990s,
5.1 Danger of Unilateral Decisions on Established attempts to establish sustainable institutions to address
Rights of Stakeholders multi-sectoral issues and multi-stakeholder interests finally
seemed to succeed during the post-1997 period. That lack
Unless the government is well-informed about the existing of coordination can create more chaos is a positive lesson
lagoon management, and takes account of the interests of learned. Thus, strong linkages and scheduled monitoring are
local communities and their informal management methods, most welcome.
it can cause biophysical and social destruction. The history
of management of Chilika Lagoon clearly shows that clear It is worthwhile to mention here that the Chilika Lagoon is
perception and strong political will ensure better management located in a province of a developing country with a severe
results. Effective and strong coordination could be possible resource crunch. With appropriate entrepreneurial skill and
because of the governing body headed by the Chief Minister. strategic partnership, the huge restoration task could be
Some of the bold decisions like the ban on shrimp farming and accomplished with the limited resource available. It will not be
strong commitment of the state government for sustainable out of place to mention here that this could be achieved without
management of the lagoon resources is possible because of any overseas funding or loan from any financial institutions.
strong political commitment. With the strategic planning and sound financial management
and the very limited available resources available in from of
The fisher community traditionally had a positive role in grant from the government of India, the entire restoration task
managing the lagoon, through indigenous and sustainable could be accomplished.
fishing systems. The fishermen co-operatives further ensured

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief 129

5.4 Need for Long-term Policies increasing lagoon productivity. However, no quantified data is
available, and an investigation regarding this topic would be
No comprehensive “lagoon management policy” for Chilika worthwhile.
has yet been publicly announced. That the absence of a lagoon
management policy can create a crisis, even in the future, Although the process of good management for the Chilika
should be a lesson learned from the immediate past. Thus, it is Lagoon has been started, it still has “miles to go.” Much
essential to formulate a long-term policy on Chilika to ensure remains to be done, particularly in the area of basin
its sustainable management. The management program since management, ecotourism and installing mechanisms of self-
1999–2000 emphasized stakeholder participation in major financing. Nevertheless, the Chilika story shows how effective
decision-making. Indeed, a key lesson from the conflict in 1999 the application of scientific and technological methods can be
was that unilateral decision can create serious problems for in the context of a well-financed management intervention
both people and the lagoon. The changed policy emphasizing process, especially when they are supported by local
stakeholder involvement and agreement led to recovery of participation.
the lagoon, thereby ensuring benefits to the stakeholders.
The “Chilika Fishery Regulation Act” is now under the active 6. Acknowledgements
consideration of select committees of the Orissa Legislative
Assembly. The Act prohibits culture fisheries in Chilika and, if The authors are grateful to Dr. Masahisa Nakamura, Project
approved, will further reinforce the executive instruction by the Manager, and Dr. Thomas Ballatore of ILEC for providing this
Revenue Authority of Orissa banning shrimp culture, in effect opportunity to share experiences on Chilika Lagoon. Thanks
from the year 2000. also are due to the Chilika Development Authority for readily
supplying data on recent developments and other courtesies.
5.5 Stakeholder Participation Can Lead to Self- The authors also are thankful to all the participants at the
Initiated Good Practices Asian Regional Experience Sharing and Review Workshop held
at Manila (September 2003) for their valuable comments.
The network of the NGOs and CBOs, widespread stakeholder
consultation, and watershed associations are some of 7. References and Further Reading
the positive elements in the participatory management
approach adopted by the CDA. Due to very good rapport Annandale, N. (ed.). 1915-1924. “The fauna of Chilika lake.”
with the local communities and the community-based Mem. Ind. Mus. 5(1-13): 1-1003.
organizations, the restoration activities carried out by CDA
were strongly supported and endorsed by the community as Asthana, V. 1979. Limnological studies on Chilika Lake: Final
they are consulted and taken in to confidence at all stages. Project Report. MAB-India, Project No. 112, Department of
Communication, education and public awareness were used Science and Technology: New Delhi.
as tools for enhancing the knowledge and thereby empowering
them. To achieve community participation, exchange of Bandyopadhyay, S. and B. Gopal. 1991. “Ecosystem studies and
information, mutual enhanced understanding, and facilitation management problem of a coastal lagoon, the lake Chilika.” In
of cooperation between different users groups were ensured B. Gopal and V. Asthana (eds). Aquatic Sciences in India. Indian
through the outreach program. The self-initiated good Association for Limnology and Oceanography.
practices (e.g., mesh-size restrictions) are indications of the
confidence stakeholders have regained regarding the lagoon Das, N.K. and R.C. Das. 1998. “Environmental Survey of
ecosystem. Chilika.” In S.N. Patro (ed.). Chilika, The Pride of our Wetland
Heritage. Orissa Environmental Society: Bhubaneshwar.
5.6 Links between Poverty Alleviation and Ecosystem
Restoration Ghosh, A.K. (ed.). 1995. “Fauna of Chilika Lake.” Wetland
Ecosystem Services, Zoological Survey of India 1: 1-672.
Investments for the restoration of the Chilika ecosystem
also provide a lesson of positive return, in terms of fishery Ghosh, A.K. 1998. Interim Technical Report on Chilika Lake
productivity and poverty alleviation. In addition to the benefits under Orissa Water Resources Consolidation Project, 30
from the fishery sector, tourism for Chilika Lagoon is expected November 1998. Water Resource Department, Government of
to exhibit an upwardly mobile trend from 3 different streams Orissa.
of visitors; namely, winter tourism in the Nalabana Sanctuary
for viewing migratory birds, tourists coming from other states Ghosh, A.K. 1999a. Second Technical Report on Chilika Lake
round the year for aesthetic and recreational purposes, and under OWRCP, April 1999. Water Resource Department,
local pilgrims visiting Kaliaji Temple and other places of Government of Orissa.
worship. Investments for promoting eco-tourism, by training
local boatmen, would be a worthwhile venture. Investments Ghosh, A.K. 1999b. Integrated Management Action Plan
from the private sector on boats, nets, ice factories and for Chilika Lake under World Bank aided Orissa Water
transportation of produce is likely to increase with the

130 Chilika Lagoon

Resources Consolidation Project. Water Resource Department, CWPRS. 1992. Mathematical Model Studies for Chilika Lake.
Government of Orissa.
CWPRS. 1995. Mathematical Model Studies to assess the
Lenka, S.K. 2002. “An approach to community based effect of proposed channel on flow circulation and salinity in
ecotourism planning for Chilika lagoon.” In the Proceedings Chilika Lake.
of International Workshop on Sustainable Development of
Chilika Lagoon, 12-14 December 1998. Chilika Development CWPRS. 1997. 2-D Mathematical Model Studies to assess the
Authority. effect of proposed channel on salinity improvement in Chilika
Lake.
Nayak, B.U., L.K. Ghosh, S.K. Roy and R.S. Kankara. 2002. “A
Study on Hydrodynamics and Salinity of Chilika Lagoon.” In CWPRS. 1998. Mathematical Model Studies to assess the
the Proceedings of International Workshop on Sustainable effect of proposed channel on flow circulation and salinity in
Development of Chilika Lagoon, 12-14 December 1998. Chilika Chilika Lake, Orissa.
Development Authority.
Das, G. S. 1993. Report of the fact finding committee on Chilika
Panda, P.C. and S.N. Patnaik. 2002. “An enumeration of Fisheries submitted to the Honorable High Court, Orissa on
the flowering plants of Chilika lagoon and its immediate 16th August, 1993.
neighbourhood.” In the Proceedings of International
Workshop on Sustainable Development of Chilika Lagoon, 12- DOWR. 1998. Report on Naraj Barrage.
14 December 1998. Chilika Development Authority.
NIO. 1992. Studies on waves and long shore sediment
Patnaik, S. 1978. “Distribution and abundance of some algal transport along coastline of Chilika Lake.
forms in Chilika lake.” J. Inland Fisheries. Soc. India 10: 56-67.
NIO. 1994. Characteristic of existing Chilika Lake Inlet
Pattnaik, A.K. 2000. “Opening of a new mouth – A step to Channel.
restore the ecosystem of Chilika lagoon – A Ramsar site of
India.” In the Proceedings of the Workshop on Environmental NIO. 1996. Studies on volume of Dredging of Chilika Lake.
Management and Wise Use of Brackish Water Lakes, Lagoons
and Shallow Bays: 9th International Conference on the ORSAC. 1992–1996. Report on Chilika Database for the year
Conservation and Management of Lakes. ILEC: Otsu, Japan. 1991–92, 1994–95, 1995–96.

Pattnaik, A.K. 2003. Phytodiversity of Chilika lake, Orissa, ORSAC. 1994–1996. Environmental Monitoring of Chilika
India. Ph.D. Thesis, Utkal University. Lagoon, 1994, 1995, 1996.

Pattnaik, S.S. 2002. “Estimation of sediment flow into Chilika RRL. 1994. Investigation on Eutrophication problems in Lake
Lake.” In the Proceedings of International Workshop on Chilika.
Sustainable Development of Chilika Lagoon, 12-14 December
1998. Chilika Development Authority. Utkal University. 1996. A Socio-Economic study of peripheral
villages of Chilika Lake — A Preliminary Report. Anthropology
Ram, R. et al. 1994. Ramsar Sites of India: Chilika Lake. World Department.
Wide Fund for Nature: New Delhi.
Utkal University. 1998. A Report on present status of Weeds in
Ramsar Bureau. 2001. Removal of Chilika Lake Ramsar Site, Chilika Lagoon, Botany Department.
India from Montreux Record. Ramsar Advisory Mission, No.
50. Disclaimer

Roy, A. 2001. Ecological Investigations on the plant resources The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
of the Lake Chilika, Orissa, India. Ph.D. Thesis, Botanical in this report are the views of the authors and do not
Survey of India, University of Calcutta. necessarily represent the views of The World Bank and its
Board of Directors, or the countries they represent, nor do
Unpublished Reports they necessarily represent the view of the organizations,
agencies or governments to which any of the authors are
CDA. 1991. Sustainable Development of Chilika Lake, Orissa. associated. Also, the colors, boundaries, denominations, and
classifications in this report do not imply, on the part of The
CDA. 2005. Monitoring Reports. World Bank and its Board of Directors, or the countries they
represent, and the organizations, agencies or governments to

Experience and Lessons Learned Brief 131

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132 Chilika Lagoon