GRAMMAR

OVERVIEW
Grammar is the structure of written or spoken language. It refers to the parts
of speech and how they combine together to form sentences.
It is like the rulebook for a language. It helps us put words together in a way
that makes sense to others. It's not just about spelling and punctuation; it's
also about how we organize sentences and express ideas clearly. So, when
we talk about grammar, we're talking about the set of rules that guide how
we use words and construct sentences to communicate effectively.
Grammar is the set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses,
phrases, and words in any given language.
A common contemporary definition of grammar is the underlying structure
of a language that any native speaker of that language knows intuitively.
It includes several aspects of the English language, like the parts of speech,
phrases, clauses and sentences.
 OVERVIEW
Grammatical structures refer to the patterns and arrangements of words within a
language to form meaningful and coherent sentences. These structures are
governed by the rules and principles of grammar, which vary among languages.
Grammatical structures encompass various elements, including syntax, sentences,
clauses, phrases, modifiers, verb agreements and voice
Syntax refers to the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed
sentences in a language. It involves the study of sentence structure, word order,
and the relationships between different parts of a sentence.
Sentences are groups of related words serving as meaningful units and can be
simple, compound, complex or compound-complex.
Clauses are groups of words that contain a finite verb and can be either
independent or dependent.
Phrases lack subject-verb combination and function as nouns(noun phrases),
verbs(verb phrases), adjectives and adverbs(prepositional phrases).
Modifiers are the adjectives and the adverbs
Verb agreement ensures that the subject and the verb agree in number and in
person
Voice can be either active or passive.
 Formal Classification of Speech – SPEECH
COMPONENTS
Grammar includes Phonetics and Phonology(sound) which is the study of
the patterns of sounds. It's not just about individual sounds but also about
how they fit together in a language. So, phonology is about the rules for
arranging and combining sounds.
Morphology (system of word formation) sees words as building blocks.
Morphology is the study of these building blocks and how they come
together to form words. So, when we talk about morphology, we're talking
about the structure of words.
Syntax (patterns of word arrangement) refers to the arrangement of words
to make sentences. Syntax is like the order and structure of sentences. It
helps us understand how words should be put together to convey meaning.
Semantics (meaning) of a language is the meaning of words and sentences.
It's not just about putting words in order; it's about ensuring those words
make sense together. So, when we talk about semantics, we're talking about
the meaning behind the words and how they create understanding.
These are the essential speech components for the systematic description of
a language.
 PARTS OF SPEECH
There are various components to the speech act which are employed to
pass across our intentions when we speak or write. These components are
the words we know and use, our vocabulary., and we need to arrange
them in such a way as to make sense whenever we engage in the speech
act.
In order to fully engage our word stock, there is the need to understand
that there are certain rules governing the use of words to form the
sentences that we make daily. These sentences are only made possible
because we understand the functions that our words perform in the
speech or the text. This, therefore, brings us to the term ‘Parts of Speech’
Parts of Speech refers to the category to which a word belongs in the light
of its syntactic functions. It describes ‘the classes into which words are
divided in grammar’. There are eight parts of speech in the English
language: Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions,
Conjunctions and Interjections.
 NOUNS
A noun is a word that names something, such as a person, place, thing, or
idea.
It is a word used to identify any of a class of people, places, or things (
common noun ), or to name a particular one of these ( proper noun ).
The simplest definition of a noun is a thing and nouns are the basic building
blocks of sentences. These things can represent a person, animal, place, idea,
emotion – almost anything that you can think of. Dog, Sam, love, phone,
Chicago, courage and spaceship are all nouns.
They are the simplest parts of speech in the English language, little wonder
that they are the first part of speech to be taught in school.
They serve as the building blocks of sentences, providing the subject or
object. There are different sub-classifications of nouns: Common nouns,
Proper nouns, Concrete nouns, Abstract nouns, Collective nouns, and
Compound nouns.
Nouns are essential for effective communication, providing the foundation
for constructing sentences.
 PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun, avoiding unnecessary
repetition.
Pronouns contribute to clarity and efficiency in language by referring to
nouns without repeating them.
Pronouns replace nouns to reduce redundancy and link phrases together to
provide more information. The noun which the pronoun replaces is the
antecedent.
Pronoun Agreement
Pronouns must agree in number and gender with the nouns they replace.
• Example: "Each student must submit their assignment" (singular "each"
should ideally have a singular pronoun like "his" or "her").
They can be sub-classified into Personal pronouns, Demonstrative pronouns,
Relative pronouns, Interrogative pronouns, Indefinite pronouns, Possessive
pronouns and Reciprocal pronouns.
 PARTS OF SPEECH CONT’D
Verbs are the backbone of a sentence, conveying the action or providing the
link between the subject and the rest of the sentence. They are words that play
crucial roles by expressing actions, occurrences, or states of being.
They are the live-wire of the English language without which our sentences
would not make any sense. This is because every sentence needs at least one
verb.
The verb as the main part of the sentence is, also, the only part of speech that
changes to indicate time.
The verb, in simple terms, is the sense of the sentence.
Adjectives describe or modify nouns and pronouns. They provide more
information about the qualities, characteristics, or attributes of the nouns they
modify by adding detail, colour, and precision to language, allowing for vivid and
specific descriptions. They make language vibrant and expressive.
They function as descriptive words that give the noun/pronoun a definite
meaning. The adjective changes the information given by the noun and modifies
its referent which is the noun or the pronoun.
Adjectives, also give the standard for comparability.
 PARTS OF SPEECH CONT’D
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. It often provides
information about how, when, where, or to what degree an action is
performed.
They enhance the meaning of a sentence by providing additional
information.
They are words or phrases that modify or qualify adjectives, verbs, or other
adverbs or word groups, expressing the relation of place, time, circumstance,
manner, cause, degree, etc. (e.g., gently, quite, then, there ).
Conjunctions are words that connect words, phrases, or clauses within a
sentence. They help coordinate and combine ideas, creating relationships
between different parts of a sentence.
There are 3 types of conjunctions - Coordinating Conjunctions, Subordinating
Conjunctions and Correlative Conjunctions
Conjunctions are integral for building effective and well-connected
sentences.
 PARTS OF SPEECH CONT’D
Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun (or
pronoun) and other elements in a sentence. They often indicate
location, direction, time, or relationships. They provide essential spatial
and temporal context, helping to establish the positioning of elements
in a sentence.
They play a crucial role in providing context and clarifying relationships
in a sentence. The choice of preposition depends on the specific
context and the relationship being conveyed: "She is in the car" vs.
"She is sitting on the car.“
Interjections are words or phrases that express strong emotions,
reactions, or exclamations. They convey feelings or attitudes and are
often used independently.
Interjections add emotional depth and spontaneity to language. While
informal, they play a vital role in expressing feelings and reactions in
both spoken and written communication.
 LEXICAL WORDS
Lexical words, also known as content words, are words that carry significant
meaning and are used to express specific concepts or ideas. Examples of
lexical words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They are words
that convey meaning.
They have a concrete meaning related to an idea, action, state, or object in
the “real world“ and are easily defined, and generally are nouns, verbs,
adjectives and adverbs.
They are the basic building blocks of a language's vocabulary (its lexicon, in
other words).
They contribute to the overall content and meaning of sentences and belong
to the open-class words; meaning that new words can regularly be added to
these categories.
They form the core components that carry the essential meaning in any
language.
 GRAMMATICAL WORDS
Grammatical words, also known as function words, are words that are used
to indicate the grammatical relationships between lexical words. Examples of
grammatical words include articles, pronouns, prepositions, and
conjunctions.
Words for which the primary function is to indicate grammatical
relationships, as distinct from lexical words, the primary function of which is
referential (content words). Grammatical words include articles, pronouns,
prepositions and conjunctions. They indicate the structure of a sentence.
Grammatical (function) words" provide relationships between lexical words,
including case, and are primarily pronouns and prepositions but also articles
and auxiliary verbs.
A grammatical word is used to help create the syntax that relates the lexical
words, but, by itself, doesn't refer to a “thing”.
 LEXICAL VS GRAMMATICAL WORDS
Lexical Words:
1. Carry the main content and meaning of the sentence.
2. Provide specific information about actions, objects, qualities, and states.
3. Have a clear, definable meaning on their own.
4. Contribute to the primary message of the sentence.
5. Open class: new words can be added to these categories over time.
6. Typically receive stress in spoken language, highlighting their importance in
conveying the message.
7. Central to the sentence's content and meaning.
8. Provide details about who, what, where, when, how, and why.
 LEXICAL VS GRAMMATICAL WORDS
Grammatical Words:
1. Serve to structure the sentence and show the relationships between lexical
words.
2. Help form the grammatical framework of the sentence.
3. Have little lexical meaning on their own.
4. Express grammatical relationships and functions.
5. Closed class: new words are rarely added to these categories.
6. Typically not stressed in spoken language; they support the structure rather
than the content.
7. Essential for the grammatical correctness and cohesion of the sentence.
8. Connect and organize lexical words into a coherent structure.
Lexical words are “semantic” and Grammatical words are “syntactic”.
 LEXICAL VS GRAMMATICAL WORDS
Examples of Lexical words:
• Nouns: dog, city, book, happiness
• Main Verbs: run, eat, think, write
• Adjectives: happy, tall, red, quick
• Adverbs: quickly, very, yesterday, always
Examples of Grammatical words:
• Articles: a, an, the
• Pronouns: he, she, it, they
• Prepositions: in, on, at, by
• Conjunctions: and, but, or, because
• Auxiliary Verbs: be, have, do, will
• Determiners: this, that, some, any
• Quantifiers: some, many, few
• Particles: not, to (in infinitives)
• Modal Verbs: can, could, may, might
 SUMMARY
• Lexical words provide the core meaning and details in communication
and belong to open word classes, making them flexible and dynamic
in language use.
• Grammatical words serve to connect, organize, and structure the
sentence, ensuring grammatical correctness and cohesion. They
belong to closed word classes, maintaining the structural integrity of
language.