NICKEL ALLOYS AND

STAINLESS STEELS FOR

ELEVATED TEMPERATURE
SERVICE: WELDABILITY
CONSIDERATIONS
D.J. TILLACK
NO 14053

Reprinted from Proceedings from Distributed by

Materials Solutions ’97 on Joining and NICKEL
Repair of Gas Turbine Components INSTITUTE
NICKEL ALLOYS AND STAINLESS STEELS
FOR ELEVATED TEMPERATURE SERVICE:
WELDABILITY CONSIDERATIONS

NO 14053

By D.J. Tillack, reprinted from Proceedings from Materials Solutions ’97

on Joining and Repair of Gas Turbine Components, ASM International,
September 1997, Indianapolis, IN.

Material presented in this publication has been prepared for the

general information of the reader and should not be used or relied
on for specific applications without first securing competent advice.

The Nickel Institute, its members, staff, and consultants do not

represent or warrant its suitability for any general or specific use
and assume no liability or responsibility of any kind in connection
with the information herein.
 Proceedings from Materials Solutions '97 on Joining and Repair of Gas Turbine Components
15 -18 September 1997, Indianapolis, Indiana

Nickel Alloys & Stainless Steels for Elevated Temperature Service:

Weldability Considerations
D. J. Tillack
Tillack Metallurgical Consulting, Inc.
Huntington, WV

ABSTRACT: occur during the welding operation, such as undercut,

The gas turbine is one of the most demanding porosity, slag inclusions, lack of fusion and insufficient
applications for materials, particularly the hot sections penetration. These are associated with the welding
of the turbine. The welds that join the various process but are also influenced by the material being
components of the turbine must withstand the same welded and the filler metal material. An example
high pressures and temperatures. Complicating this would be the relatively sluggish nature of a nickel alloy
requirement is the fact that gas turbine materials can weld puddle, which necessitates opening up of the
be metallurgically complex and can be a challenge to weld joint to allow proper manipulation of the filler
weld. The actual welding of these materials is not metal. The second group of weld-associated defects
particularly difficult as long as established guidelines are metallurgical in nature, such as microfissuring in
are followed, but microfissuring and strain-age the HAl or weld metal. There are times when a weld
cracking can be a problem. By being aware of the defect involves both categories, such as the centerline
role of residual elements and the effect of stress on cracking of a weld which can be part welding
the weld area, many of these materials can be procedure (improper weld bead contour, for example)
welded successfully. and part metallurgical (high levels of deleterious trace
elements, for example).

A MODERN GAS TURBINE ENGINE relies heavily on Austenitic Materials Used in

austenitic materials, primarily nickel-base alloys, to Gas Turbines
withstand the aggressive conditions encountered
during operation of the turbine. Not only do these The modern gas turbine engine has made
materials need to be strong at elevated temperatures, tremendous strides since Sir Frank Whittle developed
they also need to be able to withstand the corrosive the first gas turbine in the late 1930s. Temperatures,
environment of the combustion gas stream. There is pressures and stresses have increased steadily; these
also a need for metallurgical stability and reliability, advancements have been made possible by improved
since these components will be expected to provide design, new alloy developments and advances in
trouble-free service for thousands of hours. metal processing/fabrication. An example of the
While these austenitic materials do possess very influence of processing innovations is the
attractive properties, the expected design life of the improvements in alloy 718 properties created by triple
components fabricated from these alloys can only be melting.
achieved if the welds used in their construction are of Table 1 lists many of the alloys used in the
suitable quality. Not only must the design of the compressor, combustor and turbine sections of a
components be optimized to resist the stresses modern gas turbine engine. Included are designations
imposed during service, but the welds themselves as to whether the alloys are usually used in the
need to be deposited and positioned properly to wrought or cast condition and whether the
achieve desired results. compositions are solid solution or precipitation-
There are two main categories of weld- hardenable.
associated defects. The first group include those that

29
 Table 1a Compositions of precipitation-hardenable nickel and iron alloys for gas turbines

Alloy UNS Composition - Weight %

Name No.
Ni Co Cr Fe Mo Nb AI Ti W Zr B Other
706 N09706 42 16 40 2.9 .2 1.8
718 N07718 52 19 3 5.2 .5 .9
X-750 N07750 73 15.5 7 1 .7 2.5
MA754 N07754 78 20 .3 .5 .6 VP3
Re 41 N07041 55 11 19 10 1.5 3.1 .005
Re 95 61 8 14 3.5 3.5 2.5 3.5 .05 .010 .15C
U-500 N07500 54 18 18 4 2.9 2.9 .05 .006
U-700 53 18.5 15 5.2 4.3 3.5 .030
Waspaloy N07001 58 13.5 19.5 4.3 1.3 3 .06 .006
w 214 N07214 75 16 3 4.5 .1- .01-
o
N-155 R30155 20 20 21 30 3 1 .8 2.5 1.5Mn•. 15N
80A N07080 76 19.5 1.4 2.4 .06 .003
90 N07090 59 16.5 19.5 1.4 2.4 .06 .005
105 53 20 15 5 4.7 1.2 .10 .005
115 60 13 14 3.3 4.9 3.7 .04 .160
Discaloy K66220 26 14 54 2.7 .1 1.7 .005 .9Mn•.8Si
901 N09901 43 12 36 6 .2 2.8 .015
903 N19903 38 15 41 3 .7 1.4
909 N19909 38 13 42 4.7 1.5 .001 .4Si
783 R30783 29 34 3 26 3 5.4 .1
A-286 S66286 26 15 54 1.3 .2 2 .015 1.3Mn..5Si
17-4PH S17400 4 17 75 .3 4Cu
\Iote: all cart on levels are U.1 UUfo or below _ urlless otherwise noted - maximum
Table 1b Compositions of wrought solid solution nickel, cobalt, and iron alloys for gas turbines

Alloy UNS Composition - Weight %

Name No.
Ni Co Cr Fe Mo Nb AI Ti W 8 Other
Hast. 8 N06635 67 16 1 15 .3 .02La
Hast. X N06002 47 1.5 22 18 9 2 .6
230 N06230 57 5' 22 2 .3 14 .005 .48i, .02La
242 65 8 25
556 R30556 21 20 22 29 3 .1 .3 2.5 .5Ta, .02La
600 No6600 76 15.5 8
601 N06601 61 23 14 1.3
617 N06617 55 12.5 22 9 1
625 N06625 61 21.5 2 9 3.6 .2 .2
L-605 R30605 10 51 20 15 1.5Mn
188 R30188 22 40 22 14 .03La
75 N06075 75 20 5 .4
263 N07263 51 20 20 6 .4 2 .13C
HR-120 N08120 37 25 33 .7 .004 .2N
HR-160 N12160 37 29 28 2 2.758i
800H N08810 33 21 46 .4 .4 .8Mn
330 N08330 35 19 45 1.28i
803 865803 35 27 37 .3 .4
Note: all carbon levels are 0.10% or below, unless otherwise noted , = maximum

Table 1c Compositions of cast polycrystalline nickel and cobalt alloys for gas turbines

I Alloy ~Cr ~ 8 IC I Other I

IN-100 64 15 10 3 5.5 4.7 .06 .014 .18 1V
IN-713 75 12 4.5 5.9 .6 .10 .010 .12 2Nb
IN-738 62 8.5 16 1.8 3.4 3.4 2.6 .10 .010 .17 1.8Ta..9Nb
IN-792 61 9 13 2 3.2 4.2 3.9 .10 .020 .21 3.9Ta
IN-939 49 19 22 1.9 3.7 2 .10 .009 .15 1.4Ta. 1Nb
8-1900 65 10 8 6 6 1 .08 .015 .10 4.3Ta
X-40 10 56 25 8 .010 .50
FSX-414 10 53 29 7 .010 .25
MAR-M 247 60 10 8 .6 5.5 1 10 .09 .020 .16 3Ta. 1.5Hf
MAR-M 509 10 49 24 .2 7 .60 7.5Ta

31
 Making the Weld Table 2. Effect of grain size on recommended
welding processes B
The shape and contour of the weld beads
themselves can be instrumental in whether or not the
weld will be crack free. Even if the welds are properly Gas Gas Shielded
made, residual stresses from the welding operation Grain Metal Electron Tungsten Metal
may cause problems, such as distortion or cracking. Alloy Size b Are c Beam Arc Arc
The effect of welding on the base material is another 600 Fine X X X X
potential source of problems, particularly with the Coarse X X
617 Fine X X X X
metallurgically complex alloys that are often specified
Coarse X
in gas turbines. Post-weld annealing or stress- 625 Fine X X X X
relieving practices are another potential source for Coarse X X
problems. 706 Fine X X X
Coarse X
The welding process that is used the most in 71B Fine X X X
joining gas turbine components is the Gas Tungsten Coarse X
Arc process, or GTAW. This welding process allows BOO Fine X X X X
greater control of the heat input and provides the Coarse X X X
AISI Type 316 Steel Fine X X X X
ability to use very low heat input, which is often Coarse X X
necessary when joining many of the more difficult-to- AISI Type 347 Steel Fine X X X X
weld turbine alloys. Also, this process uses bare wire Coarse X X
as the filler metal, which avoids slag-related problems
associated with flux coated electrodes used in the a. Processes marked Xare recommended.
Shielded Metal Arc process (SMAW). Another reason
b. Fine grain is smaller than ASTM Number 5; coarse grain is ASTM
for the limited use of the SMAW process is the Number 5or larger.
difficulty of transferring reactive elements, such as AI
and Ti, across the arc of a flux-shielded electrode. c. Spray transfer.
Many of the nickel alloys used in a gas turbine rely on
either AI or Ti, or both, to achieve their high strength
levels via precipitation-hardening. The SMAW process
is used to weld the solid solution nickel and stainless
alloys, particularly on industrial gas turbine structural Susceptibility to weld cracking in austenitic
components. stainless steels and nickel alloys is very dependant on
The spray transfer mode of the Gas Metal Arc the shape of the weld pool, which in turn is dependant
process, or GMAW, is seldom used for welding on the welding process and technique. In general,
components used in a gas turbine because of the high high heat inputs are more conducive to solidification
heat input inherent in the process. The cracking cracking but the shape of the weld pool is also very
problems that often occur when this process is used important. A tear-drop shaped weld pool, which is
on the metallurgically complex alloys used in a gas usually associated with automated welding, is more
turbine do not justify the attractive deposition rates prone to solidification cracking because of the
possible. Limited use of the pulsed mode of GMAW orientation of the solidifying grains. Figure 1 illustrates
transfer is found. The electron beam, or EBW, the difference between an undesirable tear-drop
process is also used to a limited extent and is an shaped weld pool and a desirable elliptical shaped
attractive method because of high production rates, weld pool (2). The solidification pattern of the tear-
ability to make narrow, deep-penetration welds, and a drop shaped weld pool results in centerline
lower heat input per unit length for a given depth of segregation that may be high in low melting point
penetration. However, there have been HAl elements that will be deleterious to weld hot strength.
microfissuring problems with high strength alloys, such On the other hand, the elliptical pool shape will have
as alloy 718, when using the EBW process, a much greater distribution of these elements, thus
particUlarly with coarse grain material. Table 2 minimizing their effect.
compares the effect of grain size on several welding The welding process and welding conditions
processes (1). This table does not take into determine the shape of the weld pool, with higher
consideration the thickness of the parts being joined travel speeds and higher heat inputs favoring the
nor the effect of stress on cracking tendency. A highly undesirable tear-drop shape weld pool. Accordingly,
restrained joint, such as with plate material, will be the GMAW and GTAW welding processes will more
more sensitive to cracking than thin sheet, if both likely produce the tear-drop shape weld pool while the
materials have the same large grain size. SMAW process will usually produce the favored

32
 Table 3 Probable weld pool shape for different welding conditions

Condition Process Consumable Voltage Current Travel Heat Probable Pool

Diameter, mm V A Speed, Input Shape
mm/mln kJ/mm

1 SMA 3.2 20 100 180 0.7 Elliptical

2 SMA 4.0 21 145 130 1.4 Elliptical

3 GMA (spray) 1.2 31 320 450 1.3 Teardrop

4 GMA (spray) 1.2 27 240 230 1.7 Elliptical

5 GMA (globular dip) 1.2 23 180 125 2.0 Elliptical

6 Submerged-Arc 2.4 28 270 250 1.8 Elliptical

7 Submerged-Arc 2.4 32 370 620 1.1 Teardrop

lower travel speed. One factor not taken into

consideration in this comparison is the effect of stress:
some austenitic alloys are routinely autogenously
welded at very high travel speeds that produce tear-
drop shape weld pools, such as in automatic welding
of alloy 800 (N08800) strip in the production of heater
element strip for electric ranges. Assisting in this
operation is the addition of compressive stresses
provided by the forming rolls used to form the strip

-
Tear-shape weld pool: growth of columnar grains
result in high solute centerline segregation concentration
into the tubular shape immediately prior to welding.
However, most welding operations do not benefit from
such compressive stresses. Usually, the strong
residual tensile stresses created during welding
operations will cause cracking along the centerline
condition formed in the tear-drop shaped weld pool.
One study of welding parameters and cracking
resistance compared welding current with welding
speed for the autogenous GTAW welding of austenitic

-
Elliptical weld pool: more favorable orientation of
grains, with less concentration of centerline solute
stainless steels in sheet form. Cracks were found at
low speeds and cracking became more pronounced as
the speed was increased. At medium speeds they
were replaced by center cavities. The tendency for
segregation
crack and center cavity formation increased with sulfur
content, with these defects being infrequent when the
Fig. 1 Effect of pool shape on solidification structure
sulfur content was below 0.003%. A reduction in the
(arrows indicate welding direction)
phosphorous level resulted in fewer cracks but did not
greatly affect center cavity formation. At lower welding
speeds the weld puddle is elliptical and cracking is
diminished, but when the welding speed is increased
the puddle becomes tear-drop shaped; in these tests
elliptically-shaped weld pool. Table 3 lists sever~1
on 2mm (0.079 in.) austenitic stainless steel sheets
welding processes with varying parameters and their
this transformation occurred at a speed of about 200
effect on pool shape. Travel speed stands out as a
mmlmin (7.9 in.lmin) (4). Heavier sections would be
very influential parameter in controlling pool shape - in
able to withstand faster weld travel speeds before the
some cases, a higher heat input produces the more
weld pool transforms to tear-drop shape because of
favorable elliptical pool shape when combined with
more favorable heat transfer characteristics.

33
 In addition to the two-dimensional shape of the intergranular precipitates, such as carbides; solid state
weld pool during welding, the cross-sectional contour deformation concentrated in the grain boundaries such
of the weld needs to be convex to provide as grain boundary sliding; constitutional liquation of
reinforcement during solidification. Concave weld sulfide inclusions; eutectic melting of the grain
beads may crack even though they have been welded boundaries due to elements such as sulfur; and the
with the desired elliptically shaped weld pool. For effect of liquid-solid surface tension on grain boundary
optimum results, the weld pool shape should be wetting (7).
elliptical, or rounded, at the trailing edge, and the weld A fusion weld is made by moving a very intense
contour should be convex. heat source along the material to be welded. In the
immediate vicinity of the are, the base metal is being
Problems Associated with Welding heated rapidly. Expansion of this material is
constrained by the cooler surrounding base material
Most gas turbine components need to be welded and the resulting compressive stress causes the HAl
sometime during their service life. If welding is not to be upset. As the arc passes and the base material
required during initial construction of the turbine (such and fusion weld area cools and attempts to contract,
as single crystal blading) they often need to be repair it is again constrained. This results in residual tensile
welded to extend their service life. Following is a stresses. The magnitude of stress can be affected to
discussion of several commonly-encountered weld some degree by the choice of welding process and
related problems. heat input; however the thermal stresses cannot be
Weld-associated cracking can be categorized by eliminated.
location or time of occurrence. Cracking usually One study (8) on the effect of microfissures on
occurs in the weld or HAl: mechanical properties found that microfissures up to
-during welding 0.070" in length had little or no effect on the fatigue
-during postweld heat treating strength of alloy 600 (N06600) weldments. No effects
-during service. were noted until the fissures exceeded 5% of the
Cracking during welding usually can be attributed to cross-section. Work with alloy 617 (N06617) agrees
incorrect welding procedures, such as improper with these data; little effect was seen with
welding parameters or travel speed. When welding microfissures up to 0.030" in length. This is
dissimilar metals, dilution problems that cause encouraging since most of the microfissures
metallurgically crack-prone compositions can be a encountered are less than 0.015" in length. One
source of cracking. reason for the minimal effect of microfissures is the
excellent ductility and toughness of high nickel alloys.
Hot Cracking Hot cracking, which is also called These results suggest that microfissures, although
solidification cracking, liquation cracking, fissuring, or certainly undesirable, are not particularly detrimental
microfissuring can be controlled in fully austenitic unless they occupy a significant amount of the cross-
materials by paying attention to welding parameters section.
(such as preheat, heat input, travel speed, etc.), joint In addition to Sand P, other elements known to
design, joint restraint control and welding technique. adversely affect hot cracking resistance in nickel alloys
There are numerous theories regarding the cause of are Si and B. Silicon is sometimes added to high
hot cracking. One theory is that cracking usually temperature alloys to enhance oxidation and
occurs when liquid films are present between carburization resistance and for improved castability in
solidifying grains such that the weld cannot cast alloys, but it has decidedly deleterious affects on
accommodate the strains caused by cooling (5). weldability. Nb was first used in Ni-Cr-Fe weld filler
These liquid films are heavily influenced by trace metals many years ago to counter the influence of
elements in the base material or filler metal. silicon on hot-cracking (9). Crack-free welds were
Solidification cracking may be caused by segregation obtained when the Nb/Si ratio for an alloy 600
or by the formation of second phase films, which are (N06600) weld composition was 4.5. The critical
bulk phases formed when the local impurity content is Nb/Si ratio required to prevent cracking is not the
above the solubility limit. Films are particularly same for all alloys, but generally tends to increase at
detrimental because they usually have lower inherent constant Cr level, as the Ni content of the alloy is
ductility than the surrounding region and they replace decreased. The improved melting techniques
a single interface (the grain boundary) with two available today have enabled metallurgists to lower
interphase boundaries that have lower interfacial the levels of numerous deleterious elements that
tension or bonding (6). Other theories include: liquid contribute to weld metal and base metal cracking.
grain boundary films due to the melting of

34
techniques and therefore in some respects are not as segregation, particularly of harrnfu I impurities
dangerous as service-related cracks, which are often such as Sand P, has a large effect on how the
not discovered until failure occurs. solidifying weld metal is able to cope wrth the stresses
of solidification. Figure 2 (18) shows one depiction of
The Sulfur Paradox For many years, metallurgists weld cracking sensitivity of austenrtlC steels with
were convinced that the lower the sulfur level of combined sulfur + phosphorous leveis as related to
austenitic materials the better. This is true when the Cr/Ni equivalents ratio. (The Cr and Ni are
"" eq
considering the impact of sulfur on hot-eracking, but values derived from the composition of the alloy. The
weldability studies conducted over the relatively recent Creq adds factored values of the ferrrte formers Cr, Mo,
past have shown that controlled amounts of sulfur can Si and Nb, while the Nieq adds factored values of the
have a positive effect on weld penetration. austenite formers Ni, C, and Mn).
One study (16) showed that several minor In a study of the effects of su~ur content on the
elements have an effect on the penetration of GTAW penetration of GTAW welds on thin 304SS sheet, a
welds on S30400 stainless steel. AI additions level of 50 ppm of sulfur was found to be necessary to
decreased penetration 14% when the AI was raised change the surface tension from negative to positive,
from 0.001 % to 0.015%; sulfur effects depended on thus increasing the penetration of the weld (19). The
the AI content: with <0.004% AI, there was no sulfur changes in penetration are controlled by
effect, but with 0.02-0.04% AI, there was increased thermocapillary (Marangoni) flow arising from
penetration with increasing S; both Si (with an temperature and surface tension gradients over the
optimum level of about 0.50%) and Mn (with an surface of the weld pool (20). The surface tension is
optimum level of about 1.0%) increased penetration; dependent on the concentration of soluble surface
while P, Cu and Mo had no effect on penetration. active elements, such as oxygen and sulfur, in the
In a study of residual element effects on S30400 fusion zone. When the soluble surface active
and S31600 (17), reduced weldability was attributed to elements are above a critical level, such as 50ppm for
a combination of low (0.001%) S levels and relatively S, the flow of liquid weld metal is swept to the bottom
high (0.002%) Ca levels. This study concluded that of the molten pool where melt-back produces a deeper
variations in heat-to-heat penetration could be reduced weld. This is in contrast to lower sulfur levels, where
by optimizing the welding procedures by using short the molten weld metal produces melt-back at the
arc lengths, Ar-5%H 2 shielding gas, low arc currents edges of the weld pool which results in a shallow
and low welding speeds to maintain a given heat weld. From a practical standpoint, higher sulfur
input. contents in the area of 50ppm can allow higher
welding speeds. However, the negative effect of
1. 48
sulfur on hot and cold formability must also be taken

010
. .. • Suscophbl•
• Som~~hat susc~ptibl.
o Not susuptlb'~
into consideration. There is also a problem with
obtaining consistent sulfur levels in commercial heats
. . • of material. For example, if a GTAW welding
0./6
• . ... "It
0
q,
0 0

0
08> 00
Q
procedure is established on material having an
0.008% sulfur content the welding parameters would
"$. 0./2
Iracking No cracking not produce the same penetration characteristics on a
. ..
~

.....
0

....
.,,- 0 heat of material containing 0.003% S. This can be a
0
• particular problem when welding the root pass of a
..-• ..... •
0.0/1
.. I.
e 0
pipe joint, where complete penetration is critical.
00 0
po~ .. 0
Actually, with modern melting technology, it is unlikely
.. .
0.04 ~ o~oO 0

o... ~."-
_ _..... rP 0 o ~C8 0
that sulfur levels will reach the 0.008% or higher level
~800
_
~ •• g 0
. 0 B 0
o .. 0
0
0 in the austenitic stainless and nickel alloys unless that
/.0 /.2 /.4 /.6 /./1 1.0 level is specifically requested, but a fabricator should
C'«II Hi,,!
be aware of the importance of minor element levels
and how these elements interact with one another to
Creq = (%Cr) + (%Mo) + 1.5(%Si) + 0.4(%Nb) influence weld characteristics and structures. As
Nieq = (%Ni) + 30(%C) + 0.5(%Mn) mentioned previOUSly, penetration differences caused
by variations in minor elements such as sulfur can be
minimized by careful control of welding parameters,
including heat input, gas shielding and arc length.
Figure 2. Relationship between P + S content
Selenium and tellurium are also able to increase
and Cre/Nieq in austenitic stainless
the weld penetration pattem in austenitic alloys.
steel during welding

36
 Additions of 40, 55, and 140ppm of sa were added to induced stresses generated by differential thermal
a 21 Cr-6Ni-9Mn austenitic stainless steel and the expansion in the weldment during heat treatment.
resulting electron beam weld penetration increased Additional stresses also are generated by the
81 %, 158% and 165% respectively (normal salevels dimensional changes caused by precipitation during
in the alloy were <20ppm). The sulfur analysis of the postweld heat treatment. Restraint during welding
three tests were 34, 29, and 30ppm. When Te was imposes stresses which can be exceedingly large (24).
added to the same 21-6-9 stainless steel base Strain-age cracking is very similar to stress-
composition, there also was a large increase in weld rupture fracture, and can actually be considered to be
penetration: when 43 and 62ppm of Te were added, a very short-term stress-rupture failure. As carbides
the weld penetration increased 81 % and 156% and hardeners precipitate, they generate large local
respectively (normal Te levels in the alloy were microstresses due to coherency, lattice mismatch, or
<5ppm). Oxygen has also been shown to increase shrinkage. The problem can be viewed in terms of
weld penetration(21). relaxation or stress relief. If the rate of relaxation is
A common thread in this discussion of effects of rapid in relation to the rate of strength change, stress
minor elements on weld penetration is that the relief occurs and there is no strain-age cracking.
elements that increase weld penetration are Group 6A Relaxation may occur either through diffusion (creep),
elements - 0, S, Se, and Te. It would be interesting or by plastic flow (shear). Relaxation is retarded,
to see if the other Group 6A element, polonium, also however, by the strengthening produced by aging.
has the same effect. Stress relief also occurs if the elastic modulus drops
While slight increases in sulfur content may assist rapidly with temperature because the magnitude of the
in weld penetration in an austenitic solid solution residual stress is proportional to the elastic modulus.
stainless steel, such as 316, it may not be advisable Unfortunately, the elastic moduli of precipitation-
to use such an approach to improve weld penetration hardenable, nickel-base alloys do not decrease rapidly
on a precipitation-hardenable alloy such as alloy 718. with temperature. The rate of precipitation also plays
Sulfur segregation to grain boundaries in wrought alloy an important part in strain-age susceptibility. Initially,
718 has been cited as the cause of HAl during welding, the more-rapidly hardening alloys age
microcracking (22). in the HAls and so there is a concurrent increase in
Increased penetration during GTAW welding can the yield strength and hence in the maximum possible
also be achieved by adding small amounts (less than residual stress. During postweld stress-relieving
5%) of H to the shielding gas (23). Increases in operations, additional aging takes place and the
penetration of over 50% are possible with H additions resultant strengthening of the grains inhibits relaxation,
to argon shielding gas. or stress relief (25). To minimize the possibility of
strain-age cracking in those alloys that precipitation-
Strain-Age Cracking Cracking that occurs after a harden rapidly, such as Waspaloy, the material should
weld has been completed has been called various be in the annealed condition prior to welding or repair
names, including relaxation cracking, postweld heat- welding and again annealed after welding has been
treatment cracking and strain-age cracking. It is completed. If these materials are not annealed after
usually associated with precipitation-hardenable alloys welding they will usually crack during the precipitation-
and the cracking normally is located in the HAl. hardening thermal cycle. Alloys that undergo a
Alloys differ greatly in their ability to resist this type of relatively sluggish precipitation response, such as alloy
cracking, with alloy 718 being quite resistant. This 718, are quite resistant to strain-age cracking, as
single characteristic - of being able to be welded and mentioned previously, and can often be welded/repair
heat treated without experiencing strain-age cracking - welded and then directly aged without receiving an
is a primary reason for its phenomenal success as a intermediate anneal.
gas turbine material. (Approximately 35% of the total This paper has concentrated on wrought material,
weight of a typical aero gas turbine consists of alloy because that's where most of the welding is done.
718.) The crack resistance of the alloy 718 HAl arises Castings, however, comprise a large percentage of
from a combination of its relatively sluggish material usage in a gas turbine (approx 25-40% by
precipitation-hardening response, and lower strength weight in aero gas turbines). Most casting
and higher ductility at the start of aging compared to applications have little fabrication welding done on
similar alloys, such as Waspaloy. This permits more them but they are often repair welded. Castings, by
rapid relaxation of stresses and crack-free their very nature, have poor weldability because of
accommodation of larger resulting strains. The their structure and composition (relatively large levels
stresses which produce the heat-treatment cracking of hardening elements). Figure 3 depicts the effects
result from residual welding stresses plus thermally of AI and Ti on the weldability of several wrought and
cast alloys (26).

37
 metal, which is subjected to the highest temperature,
will contract more than all other areas in the joint
during cooling. This contraction is hindered by the
6 0 ALLOY 713 C
cooler portions of the joint, resulting in high stresses
o IN 100 in the weld metal. The second source is in the
5 - thickness direction of the weld, with the surface layers
cooling more rapidly than the interior. This leads to
0 301
o U700
thermal stresses which can cause nonuniform plastic
:;;" 4- o deformations and thus to residual stresses,
::J
Z eft compressive at the surface and tensile ones in the
~ ~"f ~
8" interior. This is a factor in thick sections but not in
:3« 3 K500
0, , S
if 4:
0"
o U500
thinner sheet welds. The third source is from phase

!! <- '
o IN 939
transformations that could occur during cooling, which
are often accompanied by an increase in volume of
(;j..... ...........
S <ff
i'!'() 4:0"
0'
80A. ,
R 41
- 8 the material being transformed. This expansion is
restrained by the cooler material and thus causes
S
718
M2520
0. '
WASPALOY ,
, residual stresses (27).
O• X-750 ' , . Even if the welding operation is entirely
o O~..L-~----L--::--..L..-..----:----L---l4_.L-l---L:::",l6-J-.! satisfactory and there are no hot cracks, porosity,
TITANIUM. %
undercuts, etc., the expected design life of the welded
structure may not be realized if excessive stress is
in~u~ du.ring the welding and fabrication operation.

Fig. 3 Relatio~s.hip between estimated weldability !hls IS particularly true if the structure will be operating
In an Intermediate temperature region where little
of ~reclplt~tlon-hardenable nickel alloys and
stress-relief will occur during service. In these
their aluminum and titanium content, in wt %
situations, a stress-relief anneal will provide much
needed relief of life-shortening stresses (28).
A specific example is in a styrene production
component where the operating temperatures are in
Relaxation Cracking While strain-age cracking is
the 600-650°C (1100-1200°F) area and alloy 800H
~sually associated with precipitation-hardenable alloys
(N08810) is commonly used because of its superior
It also occurs in solid solution alloys. In such cases a
strength compared to 30455 (530400). One of the
more proper terminology would be 'strain-relaxation
problems with alloy 800H, however, is that its high
cracking', since an aging reaction plays a minimal role
creep strength in this intermediate temperature range
but excessive strain is the primary cause of the
prevents it from relaxing during exposure to this
cracking. Depending on the level of strain, cracking
temperature range. There have been weld-related
can occur very quickly (in a matter of minutes or
failures that have been attributed to the inability of the
hours) or it may not occur for months or years. A
un-stress relieved alloy to relieve itself of the stresses
good example of such cracking in a solid solution alloy
induced during fabrication and welding, during
is what has occurred with alloy 800H/800HT
expo~ure. in this 600-650°C (1 000-1200°F) range. The
(N0881 0/N08811) on numerous occasions during
combination of fabrication stresses, often aggravated
exposure to the 540-650°C (1000-1200°F) range.
by forCing components into alignment, and welding
Residual stresses are often the ultimate cause of
stresses are often higher than the creep strength of
cracking in components exposed to intermediate
the alloy at service temperature. With weaker alloys,
temperatures. Too often residual stresses are either
such as 30455, these fabricationlwelding stresses
ignored or dismissed, particularly if the components
would be relieved when first exposed to these
are being used in elevated temperature service, where
operating temperatures. But since alloy 800H is not
it is assumed that they will be eliminated during start-
rel~eved ~f stresses at these temperatures, the alloy
up of the unit. This mayor may not be true,
relieves Itself by cracking. Documented cases of
depending on the service temperature, the strength of
problems involving this alloy in these situations have
the material and the level of the residual stresses.
existed for decades (29), but there also have been
Residual stresses develop during welding due to
millions of pounds used successfully in these
the uneven distribution of nonelastic strains, and three applications.
sources of residual stresses can be identified. The
. ~voidance of this problem lies in controlling and
first source is the difference in shrinkage of differently relieVing stresses prior to putting the components into
heated and cooled areas of the weld joint. The weld

38
service. Parts should not be forced into alignment or with a concave profile. Weld penetration can be
otherwise mis-handled. After welding, stress relieving influenced by trace element variations. Sulfur, in
or annealing should be performed. Stress relieving particular, can dramatically increase weld penetration
can be done at 900°C (1650°F) for an hour, with rapid in austenitic alloys if present in quantities exceeding
heat-up and cool-down. There should be a minimum 50ppm. Precipitation-hardenable alloys are a
of time spent in the carbide precipitation range of 540- particular challenge because of the intermediate
815°C (1 000-1500°F) to avoid the precipitation of fine temperature transformations that occur during welding
carbides (30). Carbides are inevitable in alloys and heat treating. Microfissuring, which usually occurs
containing chromium and carbon, but their morphology in the HAZ, is promoted by large grain sizes and high
is critical. Carbide films are to be avoided because of heat input during welding. Strain-age cracking usually
their propensity for crack initiation and propagation. occurs during heat treatment and is influenced by alloy
The optimum morphology for carbides in material chemistry and precipitation reaction time. In all weld
exposed to intermediate temperatures is large and or HAZ cracking situations, stress plays a dominant
discrete. role. Whether the material is solid solution or
Annealing to remove fabrication stresses in alloys precipitation-hardenable, stress cannot be eliminated
used in the creep range can cause degradation in during welding. However, it must be minimized if
creep and rupture strength unless proper evaluation of crack-free, long-life weldments are to be realized.
the microstructure is performed to assure suitability for
elevated temperature service. Solid solution alloys References
used in high temperature applications are often given
a high temperature solution anneal at the mill, which 1 AWS Handbook, 8th Ed., Vol. 3. pg. 232, table 4.8
provides a large grain size conducive to optimum 2 Davies, G. J. and Garland, J. G., Int. Met. Rev., 20
creep/rupture strength. If the alloy is given a fairly (197),83-106, 1976
large amount of cold straining during fabrication, an 3 Gooch, T. G., Cont. Proceed., Weldability of Materials,
anneal can cause recrystallization and the resulting ASM, pg. 34, 1990
fine grain size can cause a large reduction in rupture 4 Kujanpaa, V. P., Conf. Proceed., Advances in Welding
Science & Technology, ASM, pg. 133, 1986
strength. For example, 10% cold work, in the form of
5 Gooch, T. G., Cont. Proceed., Weldability of Materials,
bending, will result in a recrystallization temperature of
ASM, pg. 31, 1990
about 940°C (1750°F) for alloy 800H (N08810) (31). 6 White, C. L. , Cont. Proceed., Weldability of Materials,
If material in this condition is annealed at 980°C ASM, pg. 65. 1990
(1800°F), recrystallization will occur in the cold worked 7 "Microfissuring in Ni-Based Alloy Welds", Marshall
area without grain growth, resulting in greatly reduced Space Flight Center, MFS-25815, 1983
rupture strength. In this scenario, the material would 8 Yeniscavich, W., Welding Journal, 3/66
need to be solution annealed in the 1150°C (2100°F) 9 Kihlgren, T., & Lacy, C., Welding Journal, 11/46, pg
area to assure sufficient grain growth in order to 769s
achieve the expected design strength. However, on- 10 Bologna. D., Metals Eng. Quarterly, ASM, 11/69
site annealing is difficult and often impossible. 11 Owczarski, W. A., Duvall, D. S., & Sullivan, C. P.,
Welding Journal, pg. 152s, 4/66
Therefore, fabrication sequences should be properly
12 Duval, D. S., & Owczarski, W. A., Welding Journal,
planned to allow for adequate postweld heat
pg.431s), 9/67
treatments. 13 Lucas, & Jackson, Welding Journal, pg. 53s, 2170
14 Valdez, P. J., Symposium Proceed., Effect of Minor
Conclusions Elements on the Weldabiilty of High-Ni Alloys, Welding
Research Council, 1969
The austenitic stainless steels and nickel alloys offer 15 Thompson, E. G., Welding Journal, 2/69
advantages of strength and environmental resistance 16 Pollard, B., Welding Journal, pg. 202s. 1988
in high temperature applications. To achieve design 17 Lambert, J. A, Welding Journal, pg. 41, 5/91
18 Matsuda, F., Conf. Proceed., First US-Japan
life, weldability of the material must be understood and
Symposium on Advances in Welding Metallurgy, pg.31,
optimized. The design of weldments needs to take
1990
into consideration the sluggish nature of the molten 19 Scheller, Brooks and Mills, Welding Journal, pg. 69s,
austenitic weld metal and the lower weld penetration 1/95
compared to ferritic materials. The welding operation 20 Heiple, C. R., and Roper, J. R., Welding Journal, 4/82
must be controlled to minimize weld cracking: an 21 Heiple, C. R., and Roper, J. R., Conf. Proceed.,Trends
elliptical, or rounded, weld puddle trailing edge will in Welding Research, pg. 489, 1981
minimize centerline segregation; and a convex bead
profile will minimize centerline cracking that can occur

39
22 Shira. C. S.. Morrison. T. J.• and Weisenberg. L. A..
Symposium Proceed.. Effects of Minor Elements on
the Weldability of High-Nickel Alloys, Welding
Research Council. pg. 47-68, 1969
23 Onsoien, Peters. Olson and Liu. Welding Journal. pg.
10s, 1/95
24 Duvall, D. S.. & Owczarski. W. A.. Welding Journal.
pg. 10s, 1/69
25 Prager. M. and Shira. C. S.. Welding Research Council
Bulletin 128. 2/68
26 Prager, M. and Shira. C. S.. Welding Research Council
Bulletin 128. 2/68
27 Masubuchi, K. and Agapakis. J., Conf. Proceed.•
Trends in Welding Research in the US, pg. 209. 11/81
28 Tillack. D. J. , Conf. Proceed.. 2nd International Conf.
on Heat-Resistant Materials. ASM. pg. 177. 9/95
29 Kohut. G. B., Journal of Engineering Materials &
Technology. pg. 316. 10175
30 Private communication. C. S. Tassen. Inco Alloys
International, Huntington. WV
31 Avery. R. E. and Valentine. H. L.. Chemical
Engineering Progress, pg. 89. 1/68

40