The T/W and W/S (wing loading) are the two most important parameters affecting aircraft

performance. Optimization of these parameters forms a major part of the analytical design
activities conducted after an initial design layout.

Low  large wing  enough volume for landing gear and fuel.
W

S
High  small wing  not enough volume for landing gear and fuel.
placement in the fuselage
increment of wetted area and additional drag force
W T
,  Take-off distance
S W W T smaller
For short take-off  large wing, small engine;   “Thrust”
S W
W T higher
 small wing, large engine;   “Thrust”
S W
It is frequently difficult to use historical data to independently select initial
values for T/W and W/S
The designer must guess at one of the parameters and use that guess to calculate the other
parameter from the critical design requirements.

W
 Critical design requirement; “stall speed” during the approach for landing.
S
(Approach stall speed is independent of engine size. )

Then, the estimated W/S can be used to calculate the T/W required to attain other
performance drivers such as “single-engine rate of climb.”
 1224 m
1524 m
1824 m
2124 m
2424 m
landing
Mcr

landing

landing
take-off
2.8
2.4
2.0
Cl max
Thrust to Weight Ratio
Thrust to Weight Definitions

quick accelaration T
rapid climb  W  ( fuel burning)   const
higher maximum speed
W
T
 higher turn rates
 T  T (h,V )
W
more fuel consumption
higher engine weight

Design T/W must be mean T/W during sea-level (zero-velocity), standard-day conditions at
design take-off weight and maximum throttle setting.

If a required T/W is calculated at some other condition, it must be adjusted back to take-off
conditions.
Power Loading and Horsepower to Weight

T W
Jet engine aircraft  Propeller-powered aircraft  “power loading”
W hp

Power loading for “most aircraft”: 10 – 15 [lb / hp]

Power loading for “aerobatic aircraft”: 6 [lb / hp]

Equivalent T/W for propellered aircraft:

T   p  P   550 p  hp 
        [ fps units]
W  V  W   V  W 
Statistical Estimation of T/W

Aircraft type Typical installed T/W Thrust to

Jet trainer 0.4 weight ratio.
Jet fighter (dogfighter) (afterburner) 0.9
Jet fighter (other) 0.6
At maximum power settings
Military cargo / bomber 0.25 at sea-level and zero-
Jet transport 0.25 - 0.4 velocity (static) condition.
(higher value for fewer engines)
( In mks units, the thrust force is found as (T/W)x(mass)x(g[9.807]) )

Typical P/W Typical power Power to

Aircraft type weight ratio.
hp/lb [watt/g] loading [lb/hp]
Powered airplane 0.04 [0.07] 25
Homebuilt 0.08 [0.13] 12
General aviation (single engine) 0.07 [0.12] 14
General aviation (twin engine) 0.17 [0.30] 6
Agricultural 0.09 [0.15] 11
Twin turboprop 0.20 [0.33] 5
Flying boat 0.10 [0.16] 10
At take-off weights: Modern jet fighter  T/W  1.0
At combat conditions (with fuel burning W): T/W > 1.0 capable of accelerating

T/W0 = aMCmax a C T/W0 vs Mmax

Jet trainer 0.488 0.728
Jet fighter (dogfighter) 0.648 0.594
Jet fighter (other) 0.514 0.141
Military cargo / bomber 0.244 0.341
Jet transport 0.267 0.363

P/W0 = aVCmax : hp/lb or [watt/g] a C P/W0 vs Vmax

Sailplane - powered 0.043 [0.071] 0 Knots or
[km/hr]
Homebuilt – metal/wood 0.005 [0.006] 0.57
Homebuilt – composite 0.004 [0.005] 0.57
General aviation (single engine) 0.025 [0.036] 0.22 Curve-fit equaitons based
General aviation (twin engine) 0.036 [0.048] 0.32 upon maximum Mach
number or velocity.
Agricultural aircraft 0.009 [0.010] 0.50
Twin turboprop 0.013 [0.016] 0.50 These can be used for first
Flying boat 0.030 [0.043] 0.23 estimation.
 Thrust Matching

For aircraft designed primarily for “efficiency during cruise”:

A better initial estimate of the required T/W can be obtained by “thrust matching”:

Comparison of the selected engine’s thrust available during cruise to the estimated aircraft drag.
Cruise flight condition:

L W T   D 1
    
T D  W cruise  L cruise L / Dcruise estimated value can be used.

This T/W is at cruise condition. T/W, for take-off at sea-level condition, must be calculated.
Swet / Sref

Cruise
Jet 0.866(L/D)max
Propeller (L/D)max
This method assumes that the aircraft is cruising at approximately the optimum altitude for
the as-yet-unknown W/S.

The method would be invalid if the aircraft were forced by the mission requirements to cruise
at some other altitude, such as sea level.

When the wing loading has been selected, the L/D at the actual cruise conditions should be
calculated and used to recheck the initial estimate for T/W.

The highest weight during cruise occurs at the beginning of the cruise. Fuel burned during
take-off and climb to cruise altitude can be calculated.
Mission segments
weight fractions

At the beginning of the cruise:

W cruisestart  0.956W takeoff

Thrust during cruise is different from the take-off value. Jet aircrafts are designed to cruise at
approximately at which the selected engine has the lowest specific fuel consumption (SFC),
typically 10000 m. While SFC is improved at these altitudes, the thrust decreases.
Also, the engine is sized using the thrust setting that produces the best SFC. This is usually
70-100% of the maximum continuous, nonafter-burning thrust.

T cruise  T takeoff
Required cruise T/W must be adjusted to obtain the equivalent take-off T/W.

 a subsonic, high-bypass ratio

turbofan for a transport aircraft:

20 - 25% of the T takeoff

 a low-bypass afterburning
turbofan or turbojet:

T takeoff
Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach,

40 - 70% of the Raymer D. P.

Thrust lapse
at cruise.
For a piston-powered, propeller-driven aircraft, the power available varies with the density
of the air provided to the intake manifold. If the engine is not supercharged, then the power
falls off with increasing altitude according to density ratio, :

A nonsupercharged engine at 3048 m will have about 73% of its sea-level power.

Piston engine power

To prevent this power variation with altitude
decrease, many piston
engines use a supercharger
to maintain the air provided
to the manifold at essentially
sea-level density up to the
compression limit of the
supercharger. Above this
altitude, the power begins to
drop off:

Piston powered aircraft Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach,

Raymer D. P.

typically cruise at about 75%

of take-off power.
With a turboprop, there is an additional, residual thrust contribution from the turbine
exhaust. It is customary to convert this thrust to its horsepower equivalent and add it to the
actual horsepower, creating an “equivalent shaft horsepower (eshp).”

For a typically turboprop engine installation, the cruise eshp is about 60 – 80% of the take-
off value.

The take-off T/W required for cruise matching can now be approximated:

T   T   Wcruise  Ttakeoff



   
 W takeoff  W cruise Wtakeoff  Tcruise
 

 0.956 should be obtained

from actual engine
data if possible.

After an initial layout has been completed, actual aerodynamic calculations are made to
compare the drag during cruise with the thrust available.
T/W is often determined by a climb requirement rather than by cruise conditions.

Common problem: The T/W for climb can be so large that the engines must throttled way
back during cruise, and an aircraft engine is usually very inefficient. This is especially true for
jet engines.
T/W for climb:
T  1
  
 W cruise L / Dcruise
(an extra thrust power required
(T/W for level flight) +
for the climb gradient)

T  1 Vvertical design
   
 W cli mb L / Dcli mb
requirement
V

For the first-pass estimate, the T/W (or P/W) should be selected as the higher of either the
statistical value obtained from the tables or the value obtained from the thrust matching.

After selection of W/S, the selected T/W should be rechecked against all requirements.
Wing Loading stall speed
climb rate
take-off distance
W W
 Take-off gross weight landing distance
S S turn performance
design lift coefficient
wetted area, wing span drag

Wing loading
Typical take-off (W/S)
W Historical ternds
  Larger wing lb/ft2 [kg/m2]
S
Sailplane 6 [ 30]
Homebuilt 11 [ 54]
Performance Drag  General aviation (single engine) 17 [ 83]
improvement Wtake-off 
General aviation (twin engine) 26 [127]
Twin turboprop 40 [195]
Jet trainer 50 [244]
Jet fighter 70 [342]
Jet transport / bomber 120 [586]
( In mks units, the thrust force is found as (T/W)x(mass)x(g[9.807]) )
T/W and W/S must be optimized together.

Initially estimation of W/S allow the designer to begin the layout with some assurance that
the design will not require complete revision after the aircraft is analyzed and sized.

To ensure that the wing provides enough lift in all circumstances, the designer should select
the lowest of the estimated wing loadings.

If an unreasonably low wing loading value is driven by only one of these performance
conditions, the designer should consider another way to meet that condition.

For example, if the wing loading required to meet a stall speed requirement is well below all
other requirements, it may be better to equip the aircraft with a high-lift flap system. If take-
off distance or rate of climb require a very low wing loading, perhaps the T/W ratio should
be increased.
Stall Speed

The stall speed of an aircraft is directly determined by the W/S and cL max.

Stall speed is a major contributor to flying safety, with a substantial number of fatal accidents
each year due to “failure to maintain flying speed.”

Also, the approach speed, which is the most important factor in landing distance and also
contributes to post-touchdown accidents, is defined by the stall speed.

 FAR23 certified aircrafts: W < 12500 lb (5670 kg)  Vstall < 61 knots (113 km/h)

 While not stated: (civilian trainer or other aircraft) Vstall < 50 knots (95.6 km/h)

The approached speed is required to be a certain multiple of the stall speed:

 Civil applications: Vtouch down  1.3Vstall

 Military applications: Vtouch down  1.2Vstall

Stall speed  flight with maximum lift coefficient

1/ 2
1 1  2(W / S )  W Vstall  SLcLmax 2
L  W  V ScL  SLV ScL  Vstall  
2 2
  
2 2   SLcLmax  S 2
 Wing geometry 
 Airfoil shape  ?
  A plain wing with no flaps 1.2 – 1.5
 Flap geometry 
  A wing with large flaps immersed in the propwash or jetwash 5.0
Span
cLmax  f  Short takeoff and landing aircraft 3.0
 Leading  edge slot 
  A regular transport aircraft with flaps and slats 2.4
 Re number  Other aircrafts with flaps on the inner part of the wing 1.6 – 2.0
 Surface texture 
  (The trim force provided by the horizontal tail will increase or reduce the
 Interference  maximum lift, depending on the direction of the trim force)

During landing, the flaps will be deployed the maximum amount to provide greatest lift.
However, for take-off the maximum flap angle will probably cause more drag force:

Typically, the take-off maximum lift coefficient is about 80% of the landing value.
A > 5  the maximum lift coefficient of wing will be approximately 90% of the airfoil
maximum lift coefficient at the same Reynolds number.

If partial-span flaps are used, their deflection will introduce a large, discontinuous twist into
the wing geometry that changes the lift distribution, thus the induced downwash, causing
the effective angle of attack to vary at different span stations.


 S flapped Sunflapped 

cLmax  0.9(cl max ) flapped  (cl )unflapped 

 Sref Sref  

The lift coefficient of the unflapped

airfoil at the angle of attack at which
the flapped airfoil stalls.

For a better initial estimation

of maximum lift, it is necessary
to resort to test results and
historical data.

(remember: the take-off maximum lift Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, Raymer D. P.
coefficient is about 80% of the landing value)
Takeoff Distance
“Ground roll” is the actual distance traveled before the wheels leave the ground.

The lift-off speed for a normal take-off is 1.1Vstall .

“Obstacle clearance distance” is the distance required from brake release until the aircraft
has reached some specified altitude.

This is usually 50 ft (15.24 m) for military or small civil aircraft and 35 ft (10.7 m) for
commercial aircraft.
“Balanced Field Length” is the length of the field required for safety in the event of an engine
failure at the worst possible time in a multiengine aircraft.

The speed at which the distance to stop after an engine failure exactly equals the distance to
continue the take-off on the remaining engines is called the “decision speed.” (V1)
 S LO 
 
1.44 W S

g SL 2cLmax  TSL W 

 

For initial estimation of the required W/S,

a statistical approach for estimation of
take-off distance can be used.
The take-off lift coefficient is the actual lift
coefficient at take-off, not the maximum
lift coefficient at take-off conditions as
used for stall calculation.
Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, Raymer D. P.

The aircraft takes off at about 1.1Vstall so

the take-off lift coefficient is the
(cL max / 1.21).
TOP

Required (W/S) to meet a given take-off

distance requirement: W   hp 
Propeller:    (TOP)cLTO  
S W 
W  T 
Jet:    (TOP)cLTO  
S W 
 Aircraft Takeoff Weight Takeoff Speed
Boeing 737 100,000 lb [45,360 kg] 150 mph [250 km/h, 130 kts ]
Boeing 757 240,000 lb [108,860 kg] 160 mph [260 km/h, 140 kts]
Airbus A320 155,000 lb [70,305 kg] 170 mph [275 km/h, 150 kts]
Airbus A340 571,000 lb [259,000 kg] 180 mph [290 km/h, 155 kts]
Boeing 747 800,000 lb [362,870 kg] 180 mph [290 km/h, 155 kts]
Concorde 400,000 lb [181,435 kg] 225 mph [360 km/h, 195 kts]
Speed Description FAR 25 Requirement
Vs Stall speed in takeoff configuration -
Vmc Minimum control speed with one engine inoperative (OEI) -
V1 OEI decision speed = or > Vmc
Vr Rotation speed 5% > Vmc
Vmu Minimum unstick speed for safe flight = or > Vs
Vlof Lift-off speed 10% > Vmu
5% > Vmu (OEI)
V2 Takeoff climb speed at 35 ft 20% > Vs
10% > Vmc
Catapult Takeoff

Most naval aircraft must be capable of operation from an aircraft carrier:

A catapult accelerates the aircraft to flying speed in a very short distance.

Catapults are steam-operated, and can produce a maximum force on the aircraft depending on
the steam pressure.

Therefore, a light aircraft can be accelerated to a higher speed by the catapult than a heavy one.

W  2 (cLmax )takeoff
  Vend  Vwod  Vthrust 
1
 
 takeoff 2
S 1.21

catapult wind-over-deck engine

Landing Distance
“Landing ground roll” is the actual distance the aircraft travels from the time wheels first
touch to the time the aircraft comes to a complete stop.

“Landing field length” includes clearing a 50 ft (15.24 m) obstacle while the aircraft is still at
approach speed and on the approach glidepath (normally 30).

Landing distance is largely determined by (W/S). A reasonable first-guess of the

Civil aircraft: Vapproach  1.3Vstall total landing distance:
0.3(Vapproach)2 [knots]
Military aircraft: Vapproach  1.2Vstall
Obstacle-clearence distance
 W  1 
  S a ( ft)
Slanding  80 
 S  cLmax 

 W  1 
  S a (m)
Slanding  5 
 S  cLmax 

Sa
With thrust reverser:
Airliner-type, 30 glideslope 1000 ft [305 m] 0.66 Slanding
General aviation -type, 600 ft [183 m]
power-off approach
Commercial aircraft “required safety margin”:
STOL, 70 glideslope 450 ft [137 m] 1.67  Slanding
Arrested Landing
Aircraft that land on Navy aircraft carriers are stopped by a cable-and-brake arrangement
called “arresteing gear.”

One of several cables strung across the flight deck is caught by a hook attached to the rear
of the aircraft.

The cable is attached at both ends to drum mechanisms which exert a drag upon the cable
as it is pulled by the aircraft, thus stopping it in a very short distance.

For carrier-based aircraft, the approach speed is 1.2Vstall . Carrier pilots do not flare and slow
down for landing. Instead, they are taught to fly the aircraft right into the deck, relying upon
the arresting gear to make the landing. By using this technique, the aircraft has enough
speed to go around if the cables are missed.

The figure can be used to determine

the allowable approach speed based
upon a first-guess of the landing
weight.

The approach speed divided by 1.15

defines the stall speed, which can
then be used to estimate the wing
loading.
Wing Loading for Cruise

Jet aircraft   0.015

Zero lift drag coefficient cD0  ? Clean propeller aircraft   0.02

Dirty, fixed-gear propeller aircraft   0.03

Fighter aircraft   0. 6 - 0.8

Oswald efficiency factor e?
Other aircraft   0.8
(measure of drag due to lift efficiency)

To maximize range during cruise  (W/S) should be selected

to provide a high (L/D) at the cruise conditions.
Cruise flight L W  0
 L  W  cL qS k  1
Cruise flight
Ae
W /S Jet Propeller
 cL 
q 0.866(L/D)max (L/D)max
1/ 2 1/ 2
 D 
c  cD0 
cLBR jet   0  cLBR propeller  cLEm   
 3k   k 
Maximum “jet range” Maximum “propeller range”
W W
 q AecD0 / 3  q AecD0
S S

Cruise flight  fuel burned  weight reduces  (W/S)  V

This can be eqalized  q  1
q  V 2  ;h “cruise climb flight”
2

Air traffic control does not like aircraft to keep gradually climb:
Aircraft sometimes allowed to perform ‘step climb’ during
cruise with h of 600 m or 1200 m.
Wing Loading for Loiter Endurance For most aircraft, th wing loading will be selected for
 20 minutes of loiter before landing “best cruise” or other requiremenys and the loiter
capabilities will be a secondary consideration.

Loiter flight
Jet Propeller
(L/D)max 0.866(L/D)max
1/ 2 1/ 2
 cD0   cD0 
cLBR jet  cLEm    cLBR propeller   
 k   3k 
Maximum “jet loiter” Maximum “propeller loiter”
W W
 q AecD0  q AecD0 / 3
S S
In the absence of better information, this ratio can be assumed to be about 0.85

If the loiter altitude is not specified: c  Jet aircraft: h =  30000 – 40000 ft [ 10000 m ]
Piston-propeller: h = limit altitude for turbocharger
h= sea level for non turbocharger
For initial design purposes: 1/ 4
 
1/ 2
Loiter velocity: 150-200 knots [325 km/h] for turboprops and jets V  V   2(W / S )  k
   
 SL   D 
 
loiter t
80-120 knots [180 km/h] for piston-props max
c 0
 g tan  g (n2  1)1/ 2
Turning Flight
  
V V
V V2 V2
r  

 g tan  g(n 2  1)1 / 2

 
V  , n 
rmtr 
 1/ 2
 2n(W / S)  g(n 2max  1)1 / 2
Vstall,turning    
 
 SL c Lmax  Vcorner
1/ 2
 2n max (W / S) 
Corner speed: Vcorner  
 SL c Lmax 

2
Vcorner
rcorner 
g(n 2max  1)1 / 2
 1/ 2
 T/S 
  n2 
1/ 2


V 1  1  2  nV
 SL c D0 
 
(E m [T / W]) 



T
Instantaneous Turn / Instantaneous Turn Rate - where a plane pulls max G's to turn quickly
for a short period of time, turn rate varies with speed , usually bested at the corner speed/
corner velocity of a given aircraft. A turn that quickly expels speed and possibly alt, while an
instantaneous turn is by definition unsustainable, most times to be no more than a 180
degree turn or change in direction. While usually bested at the corner speed of the given
aircraft, this turn can be performed at higher or lower speeds with less benefit.

Sustained Turn / Sustained Turn Rate - where a plane maximizes it’s smallest turn radius,
g - load, and speed to acquire the best possible turn rate and continuously sustains the turn
for long periods of time, without giving up alt, speed, or degrees of turn.

The difference between the two is the period of time you're able to maintain the rate of
turn.

While you can achieve a high instantaneous G-load by pulling back hard on the stick, you will
not be able to maintain that high rate of turn for very long because that high G-load will
increase drag and slow the aircraft, in return this will reduce the maximum G obtainable.

Conversely, a lower G-load produces less drag. Eventually you'll reach a point where thrust
will be sufficient to overcome the drag being produced. This will allow you to maintain the
current G-load and speed. This is called sustained turn rate.
Instantaneous Turn
An aircraft designed for air-to-air dog-fighting must be capable of high “turn rate”.

When air-to-air missiles are in use,

the first aircraft to turn towards the
d
   other aircraft enough to launch a
missile will probably win.
dt
In a guns-only dogfight, the aircraft
with the higher turn rate will be
able to maneuver behind the other.

A turn rate superiority of 2 0/s is considered significant.

“Sustained turn rate” is turn rate at which the thrust of the aircraft is just sufficient to
maintain velocity and altitude in the turn.
T D0
“Instantaneous turn rate” is the highest turn rate possible. If the aircraft turns at a quicker
rate, tha drag becomes greater than the available thrust, so the aircraft begins to slow down
or lose altitude.
TD
L
“Load Factor” or “g-loading” during a turn is the accelaration due to lift n [g ]
expressed as a multiple of the standard acceleration due to gravity. W
 W
L sin   V
g g tan  g (n2  1)1/ 2
  
V V
L cos  W
n
L
W
n
L

1  n2  1 tan   n2  1
cos W cos 
qcL 1
n
W /S
Instantaneous turn rate is limited only by the usable maximum lift, up to the speed at which
the maximum lift exceeds the load-carrying capability of the wind structure.

A fighter aircraft: nmax is 7.33 g, for newer fighters nmax is 8 - 9 g

The speed at which the maximum lift available exactly equals the allowable load factor is
called hte “corner speed” and provides the maximum turn rate for that aircraft at that
altitude. In a dogflight, pilots try to get to corner speed as quickly as possible it provides
best turn rate.

A modern fighter aircraft: corner speed is 300 – 350 knots [550 – 650 km/h]
 V 
Design specifications: n    1  nallowable
 2 
at combat conditions
?
not for landing
W qcLmax
The required (W/S) can be solved as: 
S n
- Mach number effect which reduces maximum lift at higher speeds.
- Buffeting or controllability considerations.

A fighter aircraft with only a simple trailing-edge flap for combat: cLmax  0.6  0.8

A fighter aircraft with complex system of leading and trailing cLmax  1.0  1.5
edge flaps which can be deployed during combat:

The resulting wing loading must be divided by the ratio of combat weight to take-off weight to
obtain the required take-off wing loading. Usually the combat weight is specified as the
aircraft design takeoff weight with any external fuel tanks dropped and 50% of the internal
fuel gone. This is approximately 0.85xWtake-off for most fighters.

The resulting wing loading is the maximum which will allow the required instantaneous turn.
High speed jet aircraft may suffer both high
and low speed stall buffet.

 The high speed buffet is caused by flow

separation from the wings as occurs behind
a shockwave at high altitudes and/or Mach
numbers.

 The low speed buffet is caused by the same

airflow separation as the aircraft
approaches the stall angle of attack.
Sustained Turn
The sustained turn rate is also important for success in combat. If two aircraft pass each
other in opposite directions, it will take them about 10 seconds to complete 1800 turn
back towards the other. The aircraft will probably not be able to maintain speed while
turning at the maximum instantaneous rate. If one of the aircraft slow down below corner
speed during this time it will be at a turn rate disadvantage to the other, which could prove
fatal.

Sustained turn rate is usually expressed in terms of the maximum load factor at some flight
condition that the aircraft can sustain without slowing or losing altitude. For example:

The ability for sustaining 4 or 5 g at 0.9 M at 30000 ft [9144 m]

If the speed is to be maintained: T D0

L T L
n 
W W D
1/ 2
T  L  cD0 
Load factor in a sustained turn is maximized by:   ,    cLEm   
W  D  k 

W q
cL 
L nW
 k
1
 AecD0 with regardless of thrust available.
qS qS Ae S n
The wing loading to exactly attain a required sustained load factor using all of the available
thrust can be determined:
T  D  cD qS nW
cL 
qS
 cL2  n 2W 2
T  qScD0  qS    qScD0 
 Ae  qSAe

T
 
W n 
qScD0
   
W T / W  
2 T / W  2

 4n 2cD0 / Ae 

W W / S S  qAe  S 2n 2 / qAe
(T/W) at combat conditions

T   Wtakeoff  Tcombat 
    
 W takeoff  Wcruise  
 Ttakeoff 

T / W 2  4n2cD / Ae  0 no solution T

 2n
cD0 available
Ae solution
0
W
W
 f (e,...) e  f (cL ) At high angle of attack the effective “e” value may
S be reduced by 30% or more. Be careful !!!
Climb and Glide
There are numerous climb requirements for FAR or military aircraft.

Engine-out
Landing gear position These specify “rate of climb”
Flap settings dh
 V sin 
dt

h
“Climb gradient” G (  sin  )  h
X
X
T  D  W sin  T  D  D T
G  G
W
L  W cos  W W

D


qScD0  qS cL2 / Ae   qc 
D0 W 1
W W W / S S qAe
available solution

W (T / W )  G  (T / W )  G2  4cD 

/ Ae T cD0
 0
G2
S 2 / qAe W Ae
Maximum Ceiling

W (T / W )  G  (T / W )  G2  4cD / Ae 

 0

S 2 / qAe
can be used to calculate the wing loading to attain some maximum ceiling, given the T/W at
those conditions. The climb gradient G can be set to zero to represent level flight at the
desired altitude.

W
 q AecD0 for minimum power
S
This may suggest a wing loading so low as to be impractical, and so should be compared
with the wing loading required to fly at a given lift coefficient:

W For efficiency during high-altitude cruise, the lift coefficient

 qcL should be near the airfoil design lift coefficient.
S
Typical airfoil: cL is 0.5
High altitude aircraft, new high-lift airfoils: cL is 0.95 – 1.0
Selection of Thrust to Weight and Wing Loading

From the W/S estimated above, the lowest value should be selected to ensure that the wing
is large enough for all flight conditions.

Don’t forget to convert all wing loadings to take-off conditions prior to comparisons.

A low W/S will always increase aircraft weight and cost.

If a very low W/S is driven by only one of the requirements, a change in design assumptions
(such as a better high-lift system) may allow a higher W/S.

When the best compromise for W/S has been selected, the T/W should be rechecked to
ensure that all requirements are still met.

The equations in the last section which use T/W should be recalculated with the selected
W/S and T/W.
 Aircraft W Take-Off W/S T/W T/W
First Flight Year
Type lbs lbs/ft sq Military Afterburner

CF105 68,602 56 0.56 0.76 1958

CF18A 35,800 90 0.60 0.89 1978

F-16C 26,536 88 0.57 0.94 1974

Mirage F1 25,530 94 0.44 0.63 1966

MiG-23 38,000 117 0.46 0.67 1967

MiG-29 35,000 88 0.64 1.05 1977

In International System F-15K F-15C Mig-29K Mig-29B JF-17 J-10 F-35A F-35B F-35C F-22

Engine(s) Thrust Maximum (kgf) 26,456 (2) 21,274 (2) 18,000 (2) 16,600 (2) 08,300 (1) 12,500 (1) 18,098 (1) 18,098 (1) 18 098 (1) 31,764 (2)

Aircraft Weight Empty (kg) 17,010 14,379 12,723 10,900 06,586 09,250 13,290 14,515 15,785 19,673
Aircraft Weight Full fuel (kg) 23,143 20,671 17,963 14,405 08,886 13,044 21,672 20,867 24,403 27,836
Aircraft Weight Max Take-off load (kg) 36,741 30,845 22,400 18,500 12,700 19,277 31,752 27,216 31,752 37,869
Total fuel weight (kg) 06,133 06,292 05,240 03,505 02,300 03,794 08,382 06,352 08,618 08,163
T/W ratio (Thrust / AC weight full fuel) 1.14 1.03 1.00 1.15 0.93 0.96 0.84 0.87 0.74 1.14