Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-019-01121-z

ORIGINAL

The effect of tree age on the chemical composition

of the wood of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) in Poland

Hubert Lachowicz1 · Hanna Wróblewska2 · Rafał Wojtan3 · Magdalena Sajdak2

Received: 15 October 2018 / Published online: 24 September 2019

© The Author(s) 2019

Abstract
The article presents the results of a so far most extensive study on the effect of tree
age on variation of the chemical structure of silver birch wood carried out in Poland.
Field studies took place in 12 forestry districts distributed throughout the country.
In each district, study sites were selected with stands aged approximately 30, 50,
and 70 years in fresh broadleaved forest habitats, as well as in five districts in fresh
mixed broadleaved forest habitats. Analyses were made of the contents of substances
soluble in cold and hot water, ethanol and 1% NaOH, as well as the contents of cel-
lulose, lignin, pentosans and ash, and the pH, of wood from 306 silver birch trees.
Tree age was shown to have a significant effect on the contents of cellulose, pen-
tosans, ash, and substances soluble in 1% NaOH. In the case of the other character-
istics, age was found to have no significant effect. The cellulose content was lowest
in 30-year-old stands and increased with tree age. Similar observations were made
regarding ash content. Contents of pentosans and substances soluble in 1% NaOH
were highest in the wood of the youngest trees. Since birch wood is used by the pulp
and paper, board and energy industries, the knowledge of its chemical composition,
depending on the age of the trees, can be of potential practical importance for its
further application.

* Magdalena Sajdak
[email protected]
Hubert Lachowicz
[email protected]
Hanna Wróblewska
[email protected]
Rafał Wojtan
[email protected]
1
Department of Forest Utilization, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW),
Nowoursynowska Str 159, 02‑776 Warsaw, Poland
2
ŁUKASIEWICZ Research Network - Wood Technology Institute, Winiarska Str 1,
60‑654 Poznan, Poland
3
Laboratory of Dendrometry and Forest Productivity, Warsaw University of Life Sciences
(SGGW), Nowoursynowska Str 159, 02‑776 Warsaw, Poland

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1136 Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155

Introduction

Wood is one of the main sources of feedstock for the production of pulp and
paper, boards and furniture, as well as increasingly popular biorefinery products
(biochemicals, biomaterials, biofuels, and others). The currently growing market
demand for naturally derived compounds and the need to replace synthetic ones
have led to the increasingly efficient utilisation of wood (reuse, recycling, recov-
ery), as well as increasing interest in studying the individual chemical compo-
nents of wood and identifying novel application pathways and value-added solu-
tions for particular bioactive molecules (Pietarinen et al. 2006; Roitto et al. 2015;
Routa et al. 2017; Royer et al. 2012).
The structural compounds of wood are natural biopolymers such as cellulose,
hemicellulose (carbohydrates), and lignin, which together account for 90–95%
of the mass of absolutely dry wood. The remaining 5–10% consists of nonstruc-
tural components such as mineral substances, substances soluble in organic sol-
vent (extractives) and water (Prosiński 1984). Cellulose is a linear carbohydrate
with a crystal structure. Hemicelluloses are noncellulosic carbohydrates that dif-
fer from cellulose in their composition and structure. Softwood hemicellulose
consists of pentosans and hexosans, but hardwood hemicellulose consists mainly
of pentosans. Lignin is an amorphous polymer with a complex structure, mainly
consisting of three phenylpropane monomers: p-hydroxyphenyl, guaiacyl and
syringyl. The extractives consist of fats, fatty acids, resins, resin acids, terpenes,
waxes, alcohols, phenols, steroids, wood gums, etc. The composition and amount
of extractives depend on the solvent used (e.g. ethanol–benzene mixture, ethanol,
acetone, dichloromethane, and ethyl ether). The ethanol–benzene mixture gives
the highest level of wood extractives, but because of the high toxicity of benzene,
other solvents like acetone and ethanol are commonly used. Substances soluble in
cold and hot water include mineral salts, sugars, tannins, dyes, pectins, free acids,
and others (Fengel and Wegener 1989; Han and Rowell 1997; Prosiński 1984).
The proportions of particular components in wood tissue depend on the spe-
cies, the habitat conditions, the climate, the part of the tree from which samples
are taken (trunk, branches, roots, sapwood or heartwood, bark, juvenile, or mature
wood), the time of year, and the health of the tree (Bikovens et al. 2013; Miranda
et al. 2017; Szczepkowski et al. 2007; Zobel and Sprague 1998). Another factor
for the variation of the chemical structure of wood and its possible uses is the
age of the tree, as has been documented for certain species (Berrocal et al. 2004;
Fidelis et al. 2013; Healey et al. 2016; Miranda and Pereira 2002; Rencoret et al.
2011; Uprichard and Lloyd 1980). However, these studies have not included the
silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.), which is one of the dominant broadleaf spe-
cies in Poland, accounting for 669,000 ha of Polish forests (GUS 2017).
The relationship between tree age and the properties of wood has long been
a topic of interest to many researchers. Efforts have been made to explain the
mechanical properties of wood with reference to its anatomical and chemical
structures, which change as trees grow and mature. Research has been carried
out to determine the age at which trees should be felled so that their wood is of

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Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155 1137

suitable quality for the use in construction, industry or energy production, and
currently also for biotechnological applications (Karnaouri et al. 2016; Morais
and Pereira 2012; Prosiński 1954; Stolarski et al. 2011; Testova et al. 2009;
Uprichard and Lloyd 1980).
The results of the studies on the chemical composition of silver birch wood may
be found in a number of publications (Fabisiak 2005; Fengel and Grosser 1975;
Galewski and Korzeniowski 1958; Helińska-Raczkowska and Fabisiak 1995; Nikitin
1962; Nurmi 1997; Surmiński 1964; Tullus et al. 2014; Wagenführ and Scheiber
2007; Wanin 1953; Voipio and Laakso 1992). However, a significant number of
these studies are based on a small number of samples, often of undocumented ori-
gin. In view of the growing economic importance of birch wood in Poland, studies
on its physical, mechanical, structural, and fuel properties were carried out, which
showed that most of the studied parameters are significantly affected by location,
habitat, age, and tree thickness (Lachowicz 2010a, b, 2011a, b, 2015; Lachowicz
and Paschalis-Jakubowicz 2011; Lachowicz et al. 2018a, b, 2019a). The influence of
tree stand location and the forest habitat type on the chemical composition of birch
wood was also previously studied by Lachowicz et al. (2019b). The results of this
research showed a statistically significant influence of stand location on all inves-
tigated components of the chemical structure of birch wood. On the other hand, no
statistically significant influence of the forest habitat type on the chemical composi-
tion of birch wood was found.
The aim of this study was to analyse the influence of the age factor on the content
of selected chemical components of silver birch wood in Poland. Currently in Poland
as well as in Europe there is strong competition between the pulp and paper, fibre-
and chipboard industries, and the energy industry, which is increasing its demand
for wood as a renewable energy source (Hytönen and Nurmi 2015; Nurmi 1997).
Therefore, knowledge of the influence of tree age on the chemical composition of
wood may have important practical significance from the point of view of rational
management and use of wood for particular branches of industry. The results of this
study may also serve as a knowledge base for identifying suitable naturally derived
compounds for biorefinery products or for other future industrial applications.

Materials and methods

Study sites

The research was carried out on tree stands belonging to the Polish State Forests.
Samples were taken from birch trees aged approximately 30, 50, and 70 years, grow-
ing in habitat types classified as fresh broadleaved forest (FBF) and fresh mixed
broadleaved forest (FMBF). In these two habitat types, birch stands are dominant in
Poland in terms of both area covered and wood volume. The studies were carried out
in 12 forestry districts distributed throughout the country. Figure 1 shows the loca-
tions of the forestry districts where study sites were established, and the country’s
main growing areas of silver birch.

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1138 Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155

Fig. 1  Locations of study sites and main growing areas of silver birch in Poland. Dark grey areas—loca-
tion of forestry districts where the study sites were established; light grey areas—forestry districts in
which the area of tree stands with birch as the dominant species exceeds 1000 ha

Sampling and analysis

To select trees for analysis, the breast height diameters of all trees on the study sites
were measured (Wolski 1969). The sample trees were selected from those whose
diameter exceeded 7 cm, using Hartig’s method, which is based on the average
breast height cross section. According to Hartig’s method, trees on a sample plot are
arranged in such a way that all diameter groups have equal total basal areas. Next, an
equal number of test trees is assigned to a particular diameter group. In this study,
the average breast height cross section of the measured trees was assigned to the
three thickness classes: class 1—the thinnest trees; class 2—trees of moderate thick-
ness; and class 3—the thickest trees (Graves 1906; Grochowski 1973).
From each study site, six trees—two from each thickness class—were selected
and felled. In total, material for analysis was taken from 306 trees. From each felled
tree, two or three round timber sections were taken, each of length 50 cm. Starting
from breast height (130 cm), one section was cut from the trunk in a downward
direction, and one or two sections in an upward direction (towards the crown). These
sections were then cut into split logs and labelled with appropriate descriptions,
which allowed for their identification in further stages of the study. Next, the wood
was debarked and split open in order to increase the uniformity of drying. Wood
from the internal part of the split log was cut out such that the test samples could be

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Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155 1139

obtained from the outer part of the trunk (mature wood). At the same time, the mate-
rial was sorted to obtain healthy wood without defects such as knots, construction
defects, colouring, insect or fungal infections and without reaction wood.
The split logs were stacked and seasoned outdoors under shelter in natural condi-
tions from September to March until the MC was about 15%. The wood was then
prepared for analysis in accordance with applicable standards. Samples with dimen-
sions of 20 × 20 × 30 mm were cut out from the internal part of the split logs of
all 306 test trees. Next, the material from each study site (six trees representing all
thickness classes) was ground in a Pulverisette 15 cutting mill (Fritsch, Germany)
and sieved to the required granularity: 0.5–1.0 mm for the chemical analysis, and
0.25–0.5 mm for pH determination using an Analysette 18 analytical sieve shaker
(Fritsch, Germany) in order to obtain 51 homogeneous lots, from which random
samples for analysis were taken. A more extensive description of the sampling pro-
cedure can be found in other papers (Lachowicz et al. 2018a, b, 2019a, b).
The chemical composition was determined in 51 samples of birch wood. These
were labelled with numbers denoting the district and habitat type, from 1 to 17 (1
Płońsk FBF, 2 Sokołów FBF, 3 Biała Podlaska FBF, 4 Płaska FBF, 5 Giżycko FBF,
6 Giżycko FMBF, 7 Górowo Iławeckie FBF, 8 Elbląg FBF, 9 Mircze FBF, 10 Bobo-
lice FBF, 11 Bobolice FMBF, 12 Łobez FBF, 13 Łobez FMBF, 14 Lipinki FBF,
15 Lipinki FMBF, 16 Rudziniec FBF, and 17 Rudziniec FMBF) and with numbers
denoting the tree age: 70 (66–72) years, 50 (40–53) years, and 30 (26–33) years.
In the birch wood, the content of main components like lignin and carbohydrates
(cellulose, hemicelluloses) together with mineral substances (ash) and extractives
(substances soluble in cold and hot water and in ethanol) as well as pH value was
determined by classical methods (Browning 1967; Gray 1958; Prosiński 1984;
TAPPI 1996–1997). None of the methods used in the analysis of wood provides the
quantitative separation of wood components, because of the existence of an ultra-
structural and chemical association between the macromolecules of the cell wall.
That is why it is difficult to achieve a sum close to 100% for all examined compo-
nents. In the case of overlapping results, the sum of the components can be much
higher than 100% (Fengel and Wegener 1989; Prosiński 1984).
The content of chemical components was analysed in two parallel determinations
as follows:

• moisture content, by a drying and weighing method at a temperature of

103 ± 2 °C (Prosiński 1984);
• content of substances soluble in cold water, using extraction with distilled water
at room temperature for a time of 48 h (Prosiński 1984; TAPPI 1996–1997);
• content of substances soluble in hot water, using extraction with distilled water at
100 °C for a time of 3 h (Prosiński 1984; TAPPI 1996–1997);
• content of extractives soluble in ethanol (95%), 8 h in a Soxhlet apparatus
(Browning 1967; Prosiński 1984);
• content of substances soluble in a hot 1% aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide
(Prosiński 1984; TAPPI 1996–1997). The weak hot alkali solution extracts low
molecular weight carbohydrates consisting mainly of hemicelluloses and degraded
cellulose. A characteristic feature of hemicelluloses is solubility in alkali solutions.

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1140 Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155

This determination is not equivalent to quantification of hemicelluloses, as some of

it does not dissolve in alkaline solutions.
• cellulose content, by Seifert’s method using acetyl acetone and dioxane (Browning
1967; Prosiński 1984);
• content of Klason lignin, insoluble in sulphuric acid, by the TAPPI method based
on hydrolysis of the carbohydrate wood components with 72% sulphuric acid and
quantitative determination of the remaining lignin (Prosiński 1984; TAPPI T 222
om-02 2002);
• content of lignin soluble in sulphuric acid, in the filtrate following determination of
insoluble lignin, using UV spectrophotometry at a wavelength of 205 nm using a
UNICAM UV/VIS model UV2 spectrometer (UK) (TAPPI UM 250 1991);
• pentosans content, using Tollens’ method—hydrolysis of pentosans to furfural with
a solution of hydrochloric acid, precipitation of furfural phloroglucide with phloro-
glucinol, and gravimetric determination of the quantity of that substance (Prosiński
1984). Pentosans are the main noncellulosic carbohydrates (hemicelluloses) of
hardwoods;
• ash content—content of mineral substances remaining following complete burning
of the wood at 575 ± 25 °C (Browning 1967; Prosiński 1984);
• pH, using Gray’s method—1 g pulverised wood is immersed in 5 ml distilled water,
and the pH is measured after 20 min (Gray 1958). The ORION 900A pH meter
(USA) with Ag/AgCl ORION Triode model 91-57 BIN was used.

The percentage contents of chemical components of birch wood were calculated in

relation to oven-dried wood.

Statistical analysis

The influence of age on the chemical composition of wood of silver birch was ana-
lysed using the Kruskal–Wallis test, which is a nonparametric alternative to analysis
of variance. This method was chosen because the data did not meet the homogeneity
of variance criterion (result of Leveneʼs test p < 0.001), and in some of the analysed
groups, the data were not normally distributed. When statistically significant differ-
ences between the analysed categories were found, a multiple range rank test was per-
formed to identify groups having similar values of the analysed characteristics (Bruch-
wald 1989; Kala 2009).
Additionally, for trees of the same age, the significance of differences in the aver-
age values of features characterising the chemical structure of wood depending on the
forest habitat type was examined. The analysis was performed using the t test with the
Cochran–Cox adjustment, due to the heterogeneity of variance in some of the com-
pared groups (Cochran and Cox 1957).

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Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155 1141

Results and discussion

Results

The 51 samples of birch wood obtained from 17 particular study sites constituted
averaged material from six trees (two in each of the three thickness classes—the
thinnest trees, moderately thick trees, and the thickest trees). The mean results for
each sample are listed in Table 1. The subsequent Table 2 presents the average
results of particular analyses for the age classes: 70, 50, and 30 years, taking into
account the different locations, the two forest habitat types, and the three thick-
ness classes of silver birch trees.
The content of substances soluble in cold water ranged from 0.14% in sample
14 (70 years) to 1.77% in sample 7 (50 years) (Table 1). The mean content of sub-
stances soluble in cold water for the whole of the analysed material was 0.60%,
with a minimum value of 0.13% and a maximum of 1.82% for single determina-
tions (Table 2).
The content of substances soluble in hot water ranged from 0.86% in sample
3 (30 years) to 2.76% in sample 7 (50 years) (Table 1). For the whole of the ana-
lysed material, the mean content of substances soluble in hot water was 1.45%
(2.4 times more than substances soluble in cold water), with a minimum value of
0.84% and a maximum of 2.77% for single determinations (Table 2).
Comparison of contents of substances soluble in cold and hot water between
age classes showed an absence of statistically significant differences (p = 0.44 and
p = 0.21, respectively) between the analysed groups.
In contrast to the results presented here, studies of other tree species by differ-
ent authors have shown an effect of tree age on the content of water-soluble sub-
stances (Glixelli and Prosiński 1951; Rencoret et al. 2011; Stolarski et al. 2011).
In the tested birch wood, contents of extractives soluble in ethanol ranged
from 1.08% in sample 13 (50 years) to 2.57% in sample 4 (30 years) (Table 1).
The mean content of these substances for the whole of the analysed material
was 1.49%, with a minimum value of 1.07% and a maximum of 2.61% for single
determinations (Table 2).
Comparison of contents of substances soluble in ethanol between age classes
showed an absence of statistically significant differences (p = 0.3334) between the
analysed groups.
The effect of tree age on the content of extractives in wood has been the sub-
ject of many investigations. Some of them have shown a decrease and some have
shown an increase in the content of extractives as the age of trees increased (Glixelli
and Prosiński 1951; Miranda and Pereira 2002; Mohammadi et al. 2011; Morais and
Pereira 2012; Rencoret et al. 2011; Stolarski et al. 2011; Waliszewska et al. 2015).
The contents of substances soluble in 1% NaOH (hemicelluloses soluble
in alkali) ranged from 13.18% in sample 6 (70 years) to 17.58% in sample 7
(50 years) (Table 1). The mean content for the whole of the analysed material was
14.87%, with a minimum value of 12.81% and a maximum of 17.62% for single
determinations (Table 2).

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 Table 1  Chemical composition of samples of silver birch wood depending on location and tree age, expressed as percentages of absolutely dry wood (means of two repeti-
1142

tions)
Location Age Content of substances soluble in: Content pH

13
Cold water Hot water Ethanol 1% NaOH Cellulose Lignin Pentosans Ash

1 Płońsk FBF 70 0.82 1.34 1.47 13.89 42.35 23.23 24.80 0.18 4.42
50 0.45 1.07 1.61 14.35 42.13 23.48 24.99 0.18 4.29
30 0.70 1.61 1.57 14.97 41.98 22.43 25.04 0.11 4.72
2 Sokołów FBF 70 1.17 1.68 1.89 14.72 43.50 23.04 24.31 0.18 4.33
50 1.52 2.33 1.76 15.71 43.43 22.17 24.11 0.26 4.37
30 0.24 1.16 1.40 14.85 42.72 22.25 25.20 0.10 4.71
3 Biała Podlaska FBF 70 1.30 2.22 1.89 14.79 43.48 23.36 23.74 0.26 4.71
50 1.26 1.87 1.84 14.70 43.13 23.24 24.61 0.29 4.68
30 0.23 0.86 1.23 15.27 42.71 21.25 24.90 0.20 4.61
4 Płaska FBF 70 0.90 1.65 1.77 15.84 42.66 21.39 24.71 0.24 4.47
50 0.88 1.88 1.65 15.16 43.72 22.13 24.36 0.29 4.55
30 0.54 1.34 2.57 17.16 41.00 22.40 25.70 0.23 4.58
5 Giżycko FBF 70 0.85 2.29 1.70 14.35 42.66 23.51 24.84 0.25 4.59
50 0.81 2.12 1.49 14.95 43.28 22.19 23.98 0.23 4.62
30 0.63 1.40 2.53 14.52 41.15 22.41 24.98 0.18 4.49
6 Giżycko FMBF 70 0.46 1.13 1.45 13.18 43.77 22.37 24.32 0.18 4.65
50 0.41 1.22 1.55 14.64 43.40 23.00 24.36 0.20 4.58
30 0.57 1.43 1.33 15.36 42.38 21.06 24.99 0.18 4.55
7 Górowo Iławeckie FBF 70 0.88 2.26 1.73 15.89 42.34 21.66 25.14 0.21 4.53
50 1.77 2.76 2.35 17.58 41.24 23.13 24.95 0.26 4.36
30 0.59 1.40 1.60 15.37 41.76 22.47 25.63 0.17 4.62
8 Elbląg FBF 70 0.56 1.39 1.45 14.57 41.85 23.37 25.11 0.17 4.70
Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155
 Table 1  (continued)
Location Age Content of substances soluble in: Content pH
Cold water Hot water Ethanol 1% NaOH Cellulose Lignin Pentosans Ash

50 0.56 1.53 1.34 15.11 43.30 22.61 24.63 0.16 4.68

30 0.74 1.48 1.40 16.06 41.73 23.02 24.85 0.18 4.60
9 Mircze FBF 70 0.62 1.36 1.53 13.77 42.88 22.50 24.89 0.19 4.64
50 0.71 1.41 1.67 14.35 42.53 23.58 24.92 0.19 4.83
30 0.66 1.44 1.57 14.88 42.35 22.36 25.29 0.16 4.73
10 Bobolice FBF 70 0.57 1.42 1.28 14.28 43.33 23.19 24.54 0.23 4.65
50 0.34 1.04 1.16 15.52 42.10 21.32 24.87 0.26 4.62
30 0.50 1.46 1.67 16.30 41.56 23.10 25.02 0.16 4.35
11 Bobolice FMBF 70 0.31 1.23 1.13 13.93 43.66 22.85 24.58 0.16 4.85
Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155

50 0.57 1.35 1.59 16.48 41.81 23.04 24.67 0.18 4.65

30 0.55 1.28 1.21 15.17 42.60 23.57 24.78 0.18 4.73
12 Łobez FBF 70 0.45 1.11 1.13 13.88 42.77 22.72 24.14 0.10 4.69
50 0.41 1.10 1.16 14.76 43.03 24.08 24.89 0.05 4.65
30 0.46 1.08 1.35 16.62 40.77 23.66 25.74 0.11 4.65
13 Łobez FMBF 70 0.57 1.36 1.15 13.76 43.90 22.38 24.53 0.10 4.63
50 0.41 1.29 1.08 15.09 42.99 23.67 24.57 0.10 4.59
30 0.28 1.12 1.23 15.55 41.77 22.45 25.24 0.19 4.65
14 Lipinki FBF 70 0.14 0.95 1.26 13.28 43.97 21.40 24.61 0.21 4.64
50 0.27 1.12 1.13 13.93 43.47 22.16 24.36 0.19 4.60
30 0.65 1.51 1.49 15.98 41.65 23.46 25.00 0.16 4.46
15 Lipinki FMBF 70 0.28 1.34 1.40 13.31 43.19 20.97 25.01 0.21 4.61
50 0.31 1.17 1.20 14.54 42.49 22.66 24.25 0.14 4.78
30 0.34 1.27 1.35 14.83 42.18 22.68 25.18 0.14 4.72
1143

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 Table 1  (continued)
1144

Location Age Content of substances soluble in: Content pH

Cold water Hot water Ethanol 1% NaOH Cellulose Lignin Pentosans Ash

13
16 Rudziniec FBF 70 0.60 1.41 1.36 13.65 43.98 23.77 24.23 0.19 4.80
50 0.45 1.44 1.41 14.22 43.22 24.29 24.19 0.19 4.77
30 0.30 1.32 1.23 14.63 42.35 22.64 24.73 0.19 4.79
17 Rudziniec FMBF 70 0.43 1.62 1.32 13.80 43.56 23.40 24.25 0.24 4.70
50 0.30 1.40 1.34 14.88 42.93 24.11 24.75 0.21 4.64
30 0.48 1.16 1.19 13.88 42.30 24.84 24.57 0.04 4.62
Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155
 Table 2  Chemical composition of silver birch wood depending on tree age, expressed as percentages of absolutely dry wood
Age Group size (N) Statistics Content of substances soluble in: Content pH
Cold water Hot water Ethanol 1% NaOH Cellulose Lignin Pentosans Ash

30 years 34 Mean 0.49 1.31 1.52 15.37 41.94 22.71 25.11 0.16 4.62
Min 0.19 0.84 1.17 13.81 40.76 20.96 24.48 0.03 4.35
Max 0.74 1.65 2.61 17.44 42.75 25.20 25.81 0.24 4.80
SD 0.16 0.20 0.41 0.825 0.590 0.927 0.348 0.05 0.11
50 years 34 Mean 0.67 1.53 1.49 15.06 42.83 22.99 24.55 0.20 4.60
Min 0.25 0.91 1.07 13.90 41.21 21.16 23.93 0.05 4.19
Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155

Max 1.82 2.77 2.37 17.62 43.79 24.39 25.09 0.29 4.84
SD 0.44 0.49 0.32 0.885 0.681 0.872 0.321 0.06 0.15
70 years 34 Mean 0.64 1.51 1.46 14.17 43.17 22.65 24.57 0.19 4.62
Min 0.13 0.94 1.11 12.81 41.78 20.67 23.67 0.09 4.30
Max 1.30 2.30 1.90 15.95 44.15 24.02 25.31 0.26 4.89
SD 0.31 0.40 0.25 0.798 0.652 0.893 0.391 0.05 0.13
Total 102 Mean 0.60 1.45 1.49 14.87 42.65 22.78 24.74 0.18 4.62
Min 0.13 0.84 1.07 12.81 40.76 20.67 23.67 0.03 4.19
Max 1.82 2.77 2.61 17.62 44.15 25.20 25.81 0.29 4.89
SD 0.33 0.39 0.33 0.974 0.822 0.901 0.435 0.05 0.13
p value 0.44 0.21 0.3334 0.0001* 0.0001* 0.2557 0.0001* 0.001* 0.8

*Statistically significant at the 0.05 level

1145

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Comparison of contents of substances soluble in 1% NaOH between age

classes showed the existence of statistically significant differences (p < 0.0001).
The lowest values were found in the oldest tree stands (70 years), where the con-
tent of substances soluble in 1% NaOH differed statistically significantly from the
other groups. No statistically significant differences were identified between the
results obtained for the 30-year and 50-year age classes.
The content of pentosans in the analysed samples of birch wood ranged from
23.74% in sample 3 (70 years) to 25.74% in sample 12 (30 years) (Table 1).
The mean content of pentosans for the whole of the analysed material was
24.74%, with a minimum value of 23.67% and a maximum of 25.81% for single
determinations (Table 2).
A comparison of the contents of pentosans between age classes showed the exist-
ence of statistically significant differences (p < 0.0001). The largest values were
recorded for the youngest tree stands (30 years), where the pentosans content dif-
fered statistically significantly from the other groups. No statistically significant dif-
ferences were identified between the results obtained for the 50-year and 70-year age
classes.
The maximum content of the main component of wood—cellulose (determined
by Seifert’s method)—in the analysed samples of birch wood was 43.98% in sam-
ple 16 (70 years), and the minimum cellulose content was 40.77% in sample 12
(30 years) (Table 1). The mean content of cellulose for the whole of the analysed
material was 42.65%, with a minimum value of 40.76% and a maximum of 44.15%
for single determinations (Table 2).
Comparison of contents of cellulose between age classes showed statistically sig-
nificant differences (p < 0.0001). The lowest values were found in the case of the
youngest tree stands (30 years), where the cellulose content differed statistically sig-
nificantly from the other groups. No statistically significant differences were identi-
fied between the results obtained for the 50-year and 70-year age classes.
A higher content of cellulose in older trees compared with younger trees of the
same species was reported by Glixelli and Prosiński (1951), Guidi et al. (2009),
Mohammadi et al. (2011), Rencoret et al. (2011), Stolarski et al. (2011), Uprich-
ard and Lloyd (1980), Waliszewska et al. (2015) and Wróblewska et al. (2009). An
exception to this rule was presented by Prądzyński et al. (1994) and Prosiński et al.
(1955).
The total content of acid-soluble and acid-insoluble lignin ranged from 20.97%
in sample 15 (70 years) to 24.84% in sample 17 (30 years) (Table 1). For the whole
of the analysed material, the mean total lignin content was 22.78%, with a minimum
value of 20.67% and a maximum of 25.20% for single determinations (Table 2).
The mean contents of lignin insoluble in sulphuric acid in the three analysed age
classes were 18.83% (30 years), 18.81% (50 years), and 18.70% (70 years). The con-
tents of soluble lignin were 3.88%, 4.17%, and 3.95%, respectively.
Comparison of lignin contents between age classes showed an absence of statisti-
cally significant differences (p = 0.2557) between the analysed groups.
Other authors have revealed that in some species, older trees contained more
lignin than younger ones, although in some studies, the reverse was found to be
the case (Glixelli and Prosiński 1951; Guidi et al. 2009; Miranda and Pereira 2002;

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Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155 1147

Mohammadi et al. 2011; Prądzyński et al. 1994; Rencoret et al. 2011; Stolarski et al.
2011; Uprichard and Lloyd 1980; Waliszewska et al. 2015; Wróblewska et al. 2009).
The content of ash (mineral substances) took a minimum value of 0.04% in sam-
ple 17 (30 years) and a maximum of 0.29% in sample 4 (50 years) (Table 1). For the
whole of the analysed material, the mean ash content was 0.18%, with a minimum
value of 0.03% and a maximum of 0.29% for single determinations (Table 2).
Comparison of ash contents between age classes showed statistically significant
differences (p = 0.001). The lowest values were recorded for the youngest tree stands
(30 years), where the ash content differed statistically significantly from the other
groups. No statistically significant differences were identified between the results
obtained for the 50-year and 70-year age classes.
The results presented here as well as data from the literature show that the ash
content in different species of wood depends on the age of the tree. In silver birch
(Betula pendula Roth.) trees aged 30, 50, and 70 years, the amount of mineral sub-
stances (ash) increased with the age of the trees. Opposite results—the younger the
tree, the higher the content of mineral substances—were observed in E. globulus
(Rencoret et al. 2011), Eucalyptus camledulnnesis (Mohammadi et al. 2011), and in
spruce, pine, and fir wood (Glixelli and Prosiński 1951; Prosiński et al. 1955).
The analysed samples of birch wood were acidic, with pH ranging from 4.29 for
sample 1 (30 years) to 4.85 for sample 11 (70 years) (Table 1). The mean pH for the
whole of the analysed material was 4.62, with a minimum value of 4.19 and a maxi-
mum of 4.89 for single determinations (Table 2).
Comparison of pH between age classes showed an absence of statistically signifi-
cant differences (p = 0.8) between the analysed groups.
More than 100 different species of wood have pH values between 4.0 and 6.0, and
one of them is birch. Packman (1960) and Dietrichs (1972) reported for birch wood
a pH value of 4.60, Wróblewska and Zieliński (1994) reported for silver birch a pH
value of 4.4, while Fengel and Wegener (1989) and Wagenführ and Scheiber (2007)
gave 4.8. The acidity of wood, among others, is of practical importance in the manu-
facture of composite wood products, especially particle boards and MDF. It affects
the gelling and hardening of resins used for gluing boards, the susceptibility of chips
to glue, as well as the emission of formaldehyde (Frąckowiak 1999; Johns and Niazi
1980; Zenkteler 1979).
Table 3 presents average values of components characterising the chemical struc-
ture of birch wood for wood aged 30, 50, and 70 years, depending on the forest habi-
tat type. A significant effect of forest habitat type was found only for 30-year-old
trees in the case of cellulose and ethanol-soluble substances. It is important to note
the low standard deviation for cellulose in 30-year-old trees; within forest habitat
types, the mean values of this component for particular locations were very close to
each other.
The influence of the age of trees from two different forest habitat types—fresh
broadleaved forest (FBF) and fresh mixed broadleaved forest (FMBF)—on the con-
tent of main components and soluble substances of silver birch wood is presented in
Figs. 2 and 3.
The sum of the contents of the main components of wood—cellulose, lignin, and
pentosans (hemicelluloses)—did not show any significant differences between the

13
 1148

13
Table 3  Average values of components characterising the chemical structure of wood for the studied ages of trees depending on forest habitat type; results are expressed as
percentages of absolutely dry wood
Age FHT Group size (N) Statistics Content of substances soluble in: Content pH
Cold water Hot water Ethanol 1% NaOH Cellulose Lignin Pentosans Ash

30 years FBF 10 Mean 0.51 1.35 1.65 15.61 41.49 23.05 25.09 0.16 4.55
SD 0.13 0.17 0.49 0.92 0.56 0.65 0.37 0.03 0.16
FMBF 10 Mean 0.44 1.25 1.26 14.95 42.25 22.92 24.95 0.14 4.65
SD 0.12 0.13 0.08 0.63 0.31 1.37 0.30 0.06 0.07
p value 0.28 0.14 0.03* 0.08 0.00* 0.79 0.36 0.49 0.08
50 years FBF 10 Mean 0.46 1.36 1.27 14.67 43.02 22.81 24.46 0.18 4.65
SD 0.20 0.43 0.16 0.60 0.53 1.28 0.39 0.07 0.07
FMBF 10 Mean 0.40 1.28 1.35 15.13 42.72 23.29 24.52 0.16 4.65
SD 0.10 0.09 0.21 0.74 0.58 0.69 0.22 0.04 0.08
p value 0.43 0.57 0.33 0.15 0.25 0.31 0.68 0.54 0.86
70 years FBF 10 Mean 0.52 1.43 1.34 13.89 43.34 22.92 24.47 0.20 4.67
SD 0.24 0.49 0.20 0.44 0.61 0.99 0.28 0.06 0.07
FMBF 10 Mean 0.41 1.33 1.29 13.59 43.61 22.39 24.53 0.18 4.69
SD 0.11 0.17 0.14 0.39 0.27 0.91 0.29 0.05 0.10
p value 0.21 0.56 0.50 0.13 0.22 0.23 0.62 0.41 0.66

FHT forest habitat type, FBF fresh broadleaved forest, FMBF fresh mixed broadleaved forest
*Statistically significant at the 0.05 level
Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155
Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155 1149

100
90
Content of wood components [%]

22.39
22.92
22.81

23.29
22.92
23.05
80
70
60

24.53
24.47
24.46

24.52
24.95
25.09
50 Total lignin

40 pentosans

30 cellulose

43.61
43.34
43.02

42.72
42.25
41.49

20
10
0
30 FBF 50 FBF 70 FBF 30 FMBF 50 FMBF 70 FMBF
Age of trees and forest habitat type

Fig. 2  Content of main components of silver birch wood depending on tree age and forest habitat type:
fresh broadleaved forest (FBF) and fresh mixed broadleaved forest (FMBF)

3.5
Content of soluble substances [%]

2.5
1.65

1.34
1.27

1.29

2
1.35
1.26

1.5 ethanol
hot water
1
1.43
1.36
1.35

1.33
1.28
1.25

0.5

0
30 FBF 50 FBF 70 FBF 30 FMBF 50 FMBF 70 FMBF
Age of trees and forest habitat type

Fig. 3  Content of water and ethanol-soluble extractives in silver birch wood depending on tree age and
forest habitat type: fresh broadleaved forest (FBF) and fresh mixed broadleaved forest (FMBF)

forest habitat types and ages of trees (Fig. 2). The total content of substances extracted
with water and ethanol was higher in particular age groups for birch wood from FBF
in relation to wood from FMBF (Fig. 3). For 70-year-old trees from FBF, it was 2.77%
compared with 2.62% from FMBF; for 50-year-old trees, the same value of 2.63% was
recorded from both FBF and FMBF; and for 30-year-old trees, the value was 3.00%
from FBF compared with 2.51% from FMBF.

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1150 Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155

Discussion

The limited literature reports on the influence of the age of birch trees on the
chemical composition of its wood prompted us to extend the discussion using the
results obtained for other species of wood.
Rencoret et al. (2011) studied the wood of clones from a plantation of euca-
lyptus (E. globulus) at ages of 1 month, 18 months, and 9 years and observed an
increase in the content of crystalline cellulose and acid-soluble and acid-insol-
uble lignin, along with a decrease in the content of extractives, water-soluble
substances, and ash. They reported that as the eucalyptus matures, not only does
the lignin content increase, but there is also a change in its chemical structure.
Uprichard and Lloyd (1980) studied older specimens of radiata pine with ages of
25 and 50 years and found the content of extractives to be higher in 50-year-old
than in 25-year-old trees. The older radiata pine trees also contained more cellu-
lose and less lignin.
In the wood of basket willow shoots aged from 1 to 6 years, it was found that the
lignin content increased, and the cellulose content decreased, with increasing age
(Prądzyński et al. 1994). Other authors have reported that the younger wood of both
broadleaf and coniferous species contains less cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose
than the wood of older trees (Guidi et al. 2009; Rowel et al. 1997; Wróblewska et al.
2009).
In studies on the chemical composition of wood from 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old shoots
of five new willow varieties, Stolarski et al. (2011) found that the older shoots had
a statistically significantly greater content of cellulose (by 4–5%), and lower con-
tents of lignin (by 1–3.3%), pentosans (by 0.5–1%), hemicellulose (by 4–7.5%),
substances soluble in cold water (by 2–2.5%), substances soluble in hot water (by
2–4.5%), and extractives (by 1–2%).
Glixelli and Prosiński (1951) studied the wood of spruce aged between 37 and
81 years, pine between 27 and 150 years, and fir between 25 and 80 years, and found
with increasing age a decrease in the contents of ash, substances soluble in cold
and hot water, in an ethanol–benzene mixture and in 1% NaOH, together with a rise
in contents of lignin, cellulose, and pentosans. Prosiński et al. (1955) studied sam-
ples of spruce wood collected 2 m above ground from trees aged 38, 52, 60, and
75 years, growing in different regions of Poland. They showed that the ash content
in spruce wood depended on the age of the tree (the younger the tree, the higher the
content of mineral substances). They did not find any impact of age on the contents
of cellulose and lignin in the studied wood. This was probably related to the larger
number of variables influencing the content of these components, such as the soil
quality and the forest habitat type.
Miranda and Pereira (2002) reported an increase in the content of extractives and
lignin, and a fall in the content of polysaccharides, with increasing age of trees of E.
globulus from 2 to 6 years. Morais and Pereira (2012) reported a higher content of
extractives in trees of E. globulus, which had reached felling age (18 years).
Examination of chemical composition of Eucalyptus camledulnnesis at the age of
6, 8, and 10 years showed that the amount of cellulose and its degree of polymerisa-
tion, as well as contents of lignin and extractives, increased as the age of the trees

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Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155 1151

increased, but the amount of hemicellulose and ash decreased (Mohammadi et al.
2011).
The cited research by the above-mentioned authors confirms the impact of tree
age on the content of structural compounds and extractives in wood. The results
reported in the literature refer to specific studies and tree growing conditions, as well
as their age, species, and the parts of the tree from which samples are taken (Bao
et al. 2001; Cown and McConchie 1982; Dietrichs 1972; Han and Rowell 1997;
Hytönen and Nurmi 2015; Miranda et al. 2017; Mohammadi et al. 2011; Morais
and Pereira 2012; Piispanen and Saranpää 2001; Rencoret et al. 2011; Uprichard
and Lloyd 1980; Waliszewska et al. 2015). These results cannot be generalised, and
it is not possible to formulate on their basis a general rule for the dependence of the
chemical composition of wood on tree age for all species and for the entire range of
ages, from young saplings to 100-year-old trees.
In all of the reported studies, only the contents of substances soluble in cold and
hot water were higher in young trees and lower in older trees. Another common find-
ing was the increase in cellulose content as trees develop, but even here, exceptions
have been noted (Prądzyński et al. 1994; Prosiński et al. 1955). The literature shows
that the impact of the age of trees on lignin content in wood is not distinct. Accord-
ing to some researchers, the content of lignin in wood increases with the age of trees
(Glixelli and Prosiński 1951; Guidi et al. 2009; Miranda and Pereira 2002; Moham-
madi et al. 2011; Prądzyński et al. 1994; Rencoret et al. 2011; Rowel et al. 1997;
Wróblewska et al. 2009), and according to others, it decreases (Healey et al. 2016;
Stolarski et al. 2011; Uprichard and Lloyd 1980; Zobel and Sprague 1998). One may
sum up similarly the effect of tree age on the contents of extractives, pentosans, ash,
and substances soluble in 1% NaOH. This variability in the results may be ascribed
to various other factors affecting the growth and condition of trees, including the
species, weather conditions, soil quality, forest habitat type, whether the wood came
from a plantation or a natural forest, and even differences in the age of the trees
studied (very young and much older), the part of the tree from which samples were
taken, the time of sampling, etc.
In the studies carried out at the Wood Technology Institute, the observations
of other authors have been confirmed only in relation to cellulose (Glixelli and
Prosiński 1951; Mohammadi et al. 2011; Rencoret et al. 2011; Stolarski et al. 2011;
Uprichard and Lloyd 1980; Waliszewska et al. 2015). The mean content of cellulose
in samples of birch wood collected from all 17 sites was lowest in the youngest trees
(30 years). In the case of lignin, the mean content was almost identical in all age
groups, lying between 22.65 and 22.99%. The mean contents of pentosans (hemicel-
luloses) and substances soluble in 1% NaOH (alkali-soluble hemicelluloses) were
highest in the wood of the youngest trees, being 25.11% and 15.37%, respectively.
The position was reversed as regards the contents of substances soluble in cold and
hot water, which were found to be lowest (0.49% and 1.31%, respectively) in the
youngest (30-year-old) trees. This group was also found to have the lowest mean
ash content: 0.16%, compared with 0.20% in the 50-year-old trees and 0.19% in the
70-year-old trees. The average content of extractives (substances extracted with eth-
anol) was almost identical, at around 1.5%, in birches of all age classes. The studied
wood samples were found to be acidic: the mean pH for all age groups was 4.62.

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1152 Wood Science and Technology (2019) 53:1135–1155

Conclusion

From the analysis of the results obtained for the chemical structure of silver birch
wood depending on the age of the tree, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Tree age was shown to have a statistically significant effect on the contents of
cellulose, pentosans, ash, and substances soluble in 1% NaOH.
2. Tree age was found to have no statistically significant effect on the content of
lignin, substances soluble in cold and hot water, and substances soluble in ethanol
in the wood of silver birch. There was also no statistically significant influence
of the age of the trees (30, 50, and 70 years) on the pH (acidity) of silver birch
wood.
3. Cellulose content was lowest in 30-year-old tree stands, and rose as the age of the
trees increased. A similar pattern was obtained for ash content, which was also
lowest in the youngest of the studied trees (30 years).
4. The contents of pentosans and substances soluble in 1% NaOH (hemicellulose)
were highest in the wood of the youngest trees (30 years) and lowest in the wood
of the oldest trees (70 years).
5. Due to the higher cellulose content, producers of cellulose, paper and fibreboard
can use wood aged between 50 and 70 years. However, wood of this age, with
higher technical quality, is currently bought by the plywood, sawmill and veneer
industries. Therefore, the cellulose and fibreboard industry can use birch raw
material of 50–70 years of age but of lower quality, with more wood defects.
6. Wood at age 30 with a lower content of minerals, the presence of which causes
the blunting of tools and hinders processing during drilling, milling, sawing, and
grinding, should potentially be favoured more by the wood-based panel industry.
7. Wood from FMBF at age 30 is potentially more suitable for the pulp and paper
and fibreboard industries, due to its higher cellulose content.

Acknowledgements This work was supported by the General Directorate of State Forests in Poland
(Grant Number EO-2717-13/13).

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Interna-
tional License (http://creat​iveco​mmons​.org/licen​ses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,
and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

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