Independent Group Design (also known as Between-Subjects Design) is a research design

commonly used in experimental psychology and other fields. It involves comparing different
groups of participants who each experience only one condition of the experiment. Here’s a
detailed look at this design:

1. Concept and Structure

In an independent group design, participants are randomly assigned to different conditions or

groups. Each group is exposed to a different treatment or condition, and comparisons are
made between these groups. For example, in a study investigating the effects of different
teaching methods on student performance, one group might use traditional lectures, another
might use interactive activities, and a third might use online modules.

2. Key Features

 Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to different groups to

ensure that each group is equivalent at the start of the experiment. This helps control
for confounding variables.
 Independent Groups: Each participant is only exposed to one condition. This means
that the results from one group do not influence the results of another group.
 Comparison of Means: Differences between the groups are analyzed to determine if
the treatment or condition had a significant effect. This is typically done using
statistical tests like ANOVA or t-tests.

3. Advantages

 Avoidance of Carryover Effects: Since participants are only exposed to one

condition, there are no carryover effects or contamination between conditions.
 Simplicity: The design is relatively simple to implement and analyze, especially when
dealing with straightforward experimental conditions.
 Clear Causal Inferences: Because each group experiences only one condition, it's
easier to make causal inferences about the effects of the different treatments or
conditions.

4. Disadvantages

 Requires Larger Sample Size: Each condition needs its own group of participants,
which can require a larger overall sample size compared to designs that use the same
participants in multiple conditions (like within-subject designs).
 Individual Differences: Differences between individuals in different groups can
affect the results. Although random assignment helps mitigate this, some variability
may still occur.
 Potential for Unequal Group Sizes: Random assignment might lead to unequal
group sizes, which can complicate statistical analyses and interpretations.

5. Applications

 Clinical Trials: Often used in clinical trials to compare the efficacy of different
treatments.
  Educational Research: Used to compare different instructional methods or curricula.
 Behavioral Studies: Applied to study the effects of different interventions on
behavior.

6. Example

Suppose researchers want to test the effect of a new cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
technique on reducing anxiety. They might use an independent group design with three
groups:

1. Group A: Receives the new CBT technique.

2. Group B: Receives a traditional CBT approach.
3. Group C: Receives no treatment (control group).

After a specified period, the researchers compare the anxiety levels of the three groups to
determine the effectiveness of the new CBT technique compared to the traditional approach
and no treatment.

7. Statistical Analysis

Data from independent group designs are typically analyzed using statistical tests that
compare the means of the groups, such as:

 t-Test: Used when comparing the means of two groups.

 ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): Used when comparing the means of three or more
groups.

In summary, independent group design is a fundamental approach in experimental research

that provides a clear way to compare the effects of different treatments or conditions, though
it does require careful consideration of sample size and individual differences.

TYPES:

1. Random Group Design (Between-Subjects Design)

Concept: Random group design is a type of between-subjects design where participants are
randomly assigned to different groups. Each group is exposed to a different condition or
treatment, and the goal is to compare the effects of these conditions.

Key Features:

 Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to groups to ensure that

each group is comparable at the start of the experiment.
 Independent Groups: Each participant is exposed to only one condition, minimizing
the risk of carryover effects.
 Analysis: Statistical tests, such as t-tests or ANOVA, are used to compare the means
of the different groups.

Advantages:
  Reduces Bias: Random assignment helps reduce selection bias and ensures that
groups are comparable.
 Clear Results: Helps in making clear causal inferences about the effects of different
conditions.

Disadvantages:

 Requires Large Sample Size: To achieve statistical power, a large number of

participants may be needed.
 Individual Differences: Differences between individuals in different groups can still
affect the results.

Example: In a study comparing the effectiveness of three different study techniques on exam
performance, participants are randomly assigned to use either Technique A, B, or C. The
exam scores of the participants are then compared across the three groups.

2. Matched Group Design

Concept: Matched group design involves pairing participants based on specific

characteristics (e.g., age, gender, baseline scores) and then randomly assigning each member
of the pair to different experimental conditions. This design aims to control for variables that
could influence the outcome.

Key Features:

 Matching: Participants are matched based on key variables before assignment to

different groups.
 Random Assignment Within Pairs: After matching, participants are randomly
assigned to the experimental conditions to ensure balanced groups.

Advantages:

 Controls for Confounding Variables: By matching participants on relevant

variables, it helps control for these variables' potential influence on the outcome.
 Reduces Variability: Less variability within groups compared to a purely random
assignment.

Disadvantages:

 Complexity: Matching can be complex and time-consuming, especially when many

variables need to be controlled.
 Limited Matching Variables: It may be difficult to match on all relevant variables,
which can leave some confounding factors uncontrolled.

Example: In a study investigating the impact of a new teaching method on student

achievement, participants might be matched based on their prior academic performance. Each
pair is then randomly assigned to either the new teaching method or the traditional method,
ensuring that both groups are similar in terms of prior academic performance.

3. Naturalistic Design (Naturalistic Observation)

Concept: Naturalistic design, or naturalistic observation, involves observing subjects in their
natural environment without manipulating or controlling the situation. The goal is to gather
data on behavior as it occurs naturally.

Key Features:

 Non-intrusive Observation: Researchers observe participants without interfering

with their natural behavior.
 Real-World Context: Provides insights into how behavior occurs in real-world
settings.
 Qualitative Data: Often involves collecting qualitative data, though quantitative data
can also be gathered.

Advantages:

 Ecological Validity: Provides a high level of ecological validity because observations

occur in natural settings.
 Unbiased Data: Observations are not influenced by experimental manipulation, so
they reflect natural behavior.

Disadvantages:

 Lack of Control: Researchers cannot control variables, which makes it difficult to

establish causality.
 Observer Effect: The presence of the observer may influence participants' behavior,
although efforts are made to minimize this effect.

Repeated Measures Design (also known as Within-Subjects Design) is a research design

where the same participants are exposed to multiple conditions or treatments. Each
participant acts as their own control, allowing researchers to examine how different
conditions affect the same individuals over time. Here's a detailed look at this design:

1. Concept and Structure

In a repeated measures design, each participant undergoes all the experimental conditions or
treatments. For example, in a study assessing the impact of different types of music on
concentration, participants might be exposed to classical music, rock music, and no music,
and their concentration levels are measured in each condition.

2. Key Features

 Within-Subjects: Each participant is exposed to all conditions. This means that the
same individual provides data for each level of the independent variable.
 Order Effects: Since participants experience multiple conditions, their performance
might be influenced by the order in which conditions are presented. This can be
controlled using counterbalancing.
 Counterbalancing: A method used to control for order effects by varying the order of
conditions across participants. For example, some participants might experience
condition A before B, while others experience condition B before A.
3. Advantages

 Reduced Variability: Since the same participants are used across all conditions,
individual differences are controlled, which reduces variability and makes it easier to
detect treatment effects.
 Fewer Participants Needed: Typically requires fewer participants than between-
subjects designs because each participant provides data for all conditions.
 Efficient: More statistical power for detecting differences because each participant
serves as their own control.

4. Disadvantages

 Order Effects: The order in which conditions are experienced can influence results.
This can include practice effects (improvements due to repeated testing) or fatigue
effects (decline in performance due to repeated testing).
 Carryover Effects: Previous conditions might influence participants' responses to
subsequent conditions, complicating the interpretation of results.
 Complex Analysis: Data analysis can be more complex due to the need to account for
the within-subject correlations.

5. Applications

 Psychology: Used to study how different psychological treatments or conditions

affect the same individuals, such as the impact of various therapeutic techniques on
mood.
 Medicine: Common in clinical trials where the same patients are exposed to different
treatments over time.
 Education: Used to evaluate the effectiveness of different teaching methods by
assessing the same students' performance under various instructional techniques.

6. Example

Consider a study examining the effects of different study techniques on learning outcomes.
Participants might use three different techniques: summarization, self-explanation, and
retrieval practice. Each participant uses all three techniques in a randomized order, and their
performance on a test is measured after each technique. This design allows researchers to
compare the effectiveness of each technique within the same individuals.

7. Statistical Analysis

Data from repeated measures designs are typically analyzed using statistical methods that
account for the within-subject nature of the data, such as:

 Paired t-Tests: Used when comparing two conditions.

 Repeated Measures ANOVA: Used when comparing three or more conditions. This
test helps determine if there are significant differences in means across the conditions
while accounting for the fact that measurements come from the same participants.

8. Counterbalancing Methods
  Complete Counterbalancing: Every possible order of conditions is used, which can
become impractical with a large number of conditions.
 Partial Counterbalancing: A subset of all possible orders is used, often achieved
through techniques like Latin squares.

9. Practical Considerations

 Design: Careful planning is required to ensure conditions are adequately spaced to

minimize carryover effects.
 Implementation: Consider the feasibility of having participants complete all
conditions and the potential for practice or fatigue effects.

In summary, repeated measures design is a powerful tool in experimental research, offering

insights into how different conditions affect the same individuals. However, it requires
careful design and analysis to account for potential biases and effects.

Quasi-Experimental Design is a type of research design that resembles an experimental

design but lacks random assignment of participants to treatment and control groups. Quasi-
experimental designs are often used when random assignment is not feasible due to practical,
ethical, or logistical reasons. Here's a detailed look at quasi-experimental designs:

1. Concept and Structure

Quasi-experimental designs aim to evaluate the impact of an intervention or treatment but do

not use randomization to assign participants to different groups. Instead, these designs use
naturally occurring groups or existing structures to study the effects. The primary focus is on
the relationship between the treatment and outcomes, though without the full control
provided by random assignment.

2. Key Features

 Lack of Random Assignment: Participants are not randomly assigned to groups.

Instead, groups are often preexisting or self-selected.
 Comparison Groups: The design typically involves comparing a group that receives
the treatment or intervention with a group that does not.
 Control for Confounding Variables: While random assignment is absent,
researchers try to control for confounding variables through various methods.

3. Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs

1. Nonequivalent Groups Design:

o Description: Involves comparing an experimental group (that receives the
intervention) with a non-equivalent control group (that does not receive the
intervention).
o Example: Evaluating the impact of a new teaching method by comparing test
scores from a class using the new method with scores from a class using the
traditional method, where classes were not randomly assigned.
2. Regression Discontinuity Design:
 o Description: Participants are assigned to different conditions based on a cutoff
score on a pre-intervention measure. This design examines the effect of the
intervention at the cutoff.
o Example: Studying the impact of a scholarship program by comparing
students just above and below the eligibility cutoff score on academic
performance.
3. Interrupted Time Series Design:
o Description: Involves collecting data at multiple time points before and after
an intervention to assess its impact.
o Example: Analyzing crime rates before and after the implementation of a new
policing strategy, using monthly data to evaluate trends.
4. Before-After Design:
o Description: Measures the outcome before and after the intervention in the
same group of participants.
o Example: Assessing the effectiveness of a health campaign by measuring
health behaviors in a community before and after the campaign.
5. Propensity Score Matching:
o Description: Participants are matched based on similar characteristics to
create comparable groups, even though random assignment is not used.
o Example: Comparing outcomes between participants who chose to use a new
job training program and those who did not, matching participants on
characteristics such as age and prior experience.

4. Advantages

 Practical and Feasible: Often used in real-world settings where random assignment
is impractical or unethical.
 Flexibility: Can be adapted to various research contexts and settings.
 Useful for Exploratory Research: Helps in understanding the impact of
interventions where controlled experimental designs are not possible.

5. Disadvantages

 Lack of Randomization: Without random assignment, there is a higher risk of

selection bias and confounding variables influencing the results.
 Lower Internal Validity: It is more challenging to establish causality compared to
randomized controlled trials.
 Potential for Confounding: Differences between groups that are not controlled for
can affect the outcomes.

6. Applications

 Educational Research: Evaluating new teaching methods or educational programs

where random assignment is not possible.
 Public Health: Studying the impact of health interventions in communities or
populations.
 Social Sciences: Assessing policy changes or social programs where controlled
experiments are not feasible.
7. Statistical Analysis

 Statistical Techniques: Analysis methods vary based on the design. Common

techniques include regression analysis, difference-in-differences, and various
matching techniques.
 Controlling for Confounding: Statistical controls are used to account for potential
confounding variables.

8. Practical Considerations

 Design Selection: Choose a design based on the research question, available data, and
the feasibility of implementation.
 Data Collection: Collect data systematically to ensure that pre- and post-intervention
measures are reliable and valid.

9. Example

Imagine a researcher wants to study the impact of a new policy on employee productivity.
The policy is implemented in one department but not in others. The researcher measures
productivity in the department before and after the policy implementation and compares these
measures to productivity in other departments that did not receive the policy. This design
helps assess the policy's effect despite the lack of random assignment.

In summary, quasi-experimental designs are valuable for evaluating interventions and

treatments in real-world settings where randomization is not possible. While they offer
practical solutions, researchers must carefully address potential biases and confounding
factors to make valid inferences about the effects of the interventions.

In experimental research, ensuring both internal and external validity is crucial for drawing
reliable and generalizable conclusions. Here’s a detailed look at the threats to each type of
validity:

Threats to Internal Validity

Internal validity refers to the extent to which an experiment accurately measures the effect
of the independent variable on the dependent variable, without interference from confounding
factors.

1. Selection Bias:
o Description: Occurs when there are systematic differences between the
groups being compared that could affect the outcome.
o Example: If participants self-select into treatment and control groups, the
groups may differ in ways that influence the results.
2. History Effects:
o Description: Refers to events occurring outside the study that could impact
the dependent variable.
o Example: A major event (e.g., a natural disaster) happening during an
intervention might affect participants' responses.
3. Maturation Effects:
 o Description: Natural changes over time in participants that could affect the
outcome.
o Example: Participants might improve in a skill simply due to the passage of
time, rather than the intervention.
4. Testing Effects:
o Description: Changes in participants' scores due to repeated testing or
measurement.
o Example: Participants may perform better on a test due to practice effects
rather than an actual improvement from the intervention.
5. Instrumentation Effects:
o Description: Changes in measurement tools or procedures that affect results.
o Example: If a scale is recalibrated or changed midway through the study, it
may impact the results.
6. Experimental Mortality (Attrition):
o Description: Loss of participants during the study, which can bias results if
the dropout rate differs between groups.
o Example: If participants drop out of one group more than another, the
remaining participants might not be comparable.
7. Diffusion of Treatment:
o Description: Occurs when participants in different groups communicate and
share information about their respective treatments.
o Example: If participants in a control group learn about the intervention from
those in the experimental group, it can affect their responses.
8. Demand Characteristics:
o Description: Participants may alter their behavior based on their perception of
the study’s purpose.
o Example: Participants might change their responses to meet perceived
expectations of the experimenter.
9. Confounding Variables:
o Description: Variables other than the independent variable that may influence
the dependent variable.
o Example: If a study on a new teaching method does not control for prior
knowledge, differences in outcomes might be due to initial knowledge rather
than the method.

Threats to External Validity

External validity refers to the extent to which the results of an experiment can be
generalized to other settings, populations, and times.

1. Sampling Bias:
o Description: Occurs when the sample is not representative of the larger
population.
o Example: A study conducted only with college students may not generalize to
older adults or people from different cultural backgrounds.
2. Ecological Validity:
o Description: Refers to whether the study conditions and environment are
similar to real-world settings.
 o Example: Laboratory settings might not accurately reflect real-world
conditions, affecting the generalizability of the results.
3.
4. Temporal Validity:
o Description: Concerns whether the findings are applicable to other time
periods.
o Example: Results from a study conducted during a specific historical period
might not apply to different times or eras.
5. Interaction Effects:
o Description: When the effect of the independent variable differs across
different subgroups or conditions.
o Example: A treatment that works well for young adults might not be effective
for older adults due to age-related differences.
6. Situational Factors:
o Description: Factors related to the specific conditions of the study that might
not generalize.
o Example: A study conducted in a particular geographic location may not
generalize to other locations with different environmental or cultural factors.
7. Test Materials and Procedures:
o Description: If the materials or procedures used in the study are unique, they
might not generalize to other settings.
o Example: A specialized test or intervention may not be applicable outside of
the specific study context.

Addressing These Threats

1. Randomization: Helps minimize selection bias and confounding variables.

2. Control Groups: Provides a baseline for comparison to identify the effect of the
independent variable.
3. Blinding: Reduces demand characteristics and biases from both participants and
researchers.
4. Counterbalancing: Helps manage order effects and testing effects.
5. Replication: Repeating studies in different contexts and with different samples
enhances external validity.

In summary, addressing threats to both internal and external validity is essential for
conducting rigorous and reliable research. Researchers must carefully design their studies and
employ appropriate methods to control for potential biases and confounding factors to ensure
that their findings are both accurate and generalizable.

….………………………………………………………………………………………………

The Case Study Method

A research approach that involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a single individual or
a small group of individuals. This method utilizes qualitative data from various sources,
including naturalistic observations, archival records, interviews, and psychological tests. Case
studies aim to provide comprehensive insights into the complexities of an individual's
experiences, behaviors, and psychological processes.
Characteristics:
 Intensive descriptions and analyses of single individuals.
 Uses qualitative data from sources such as naturalistic observations, archival records,
interviews, and psychological tests.
 Clinical case studies describe symptoms, treatments, and outcomes for individual
patients.
Advantages:
 Hypothesis Generation: Generate new hypotheses and ideas about behavior.
 Clinical Innovation: Provide opportunities to develop new clinical techniques.
 Study of Rare Phenomena: Allow for the intensive study of rare phenomena.
 Theoretical Challenges: Can challenge and provide tentative support for scientific
theories.
 Complement to Group Research: Complement the nomothetic approach (study of
groups) with an idiographic approach (study of individuals).
Disadvantages:
 Lack of Control: Often lack control over variables, making it difficult to infer
causality.
 Observer Bias: Potential biases from the observer and data sources can affect
findings.
 Limited Generalizability: Findings from case studies have limited generalizability
due to the study of single individuals.
 Potential Biases: Self-reports may be distorted to present the individual in a
favorable light, and memory inaccuracies can affect retrospective accounts.
External Validity:
 Findings from case studies have limited external validity and cannot be generalized to
the broader population.

Single Case Designs

Definition: A research method focusing on an in-depth examination of a single subject or small
group using controlled experimental methods to assess intervention impacts.

Example: A researcher evaluates the effectiveness of a new educational intervention on a single

student’s reading skills, measuring performance before, during, and after the intervention.

Advantages:

 Provides rich, contextual insights into specific cases.

 Allows for detailed assessment of interventions over time.

  Useful for pilot studies before larger-scale research.

Disadvantages:

 Limited external validity due to the focus on single cases.

 Difficult to control for all extraneous variables.

 Risk of bias in interpretation of qualitative data.

Single-Subject (Small-n) Experimental Designs

These designs focus on the intensive study of an individual or a small group of individuals.
They involve manipulating variables to observe the effects on behavior, often with the aim of
identifying functional relationships between variables. These designs are characterized by
their emphasis on experimental control and the systematic observation of changes in behavior
in response to interventions.

Characteristics:
 Originated from B. F. Skinner’s experimental analysis of behavior.
 Focus on individuals or small groups, commonly used in applied behavior analysis.
 Emphasize experimental control by manipulating variables and observing behavior
changes.

ABAB Design:
Definition: A single-subject experimental design that alternates between a baseline phase (A)
and a treatment phase (B) to assess the effects of an intervention by observing changes in
behavior during and after the treatment.
Example: A researcher observes a child’s reading fluency for a week (A), introduces a
reading intervention for another week (B), then removes the intervention and measures
reading fluency again for a week (A), and finally reintroduces the intervention for a final
week (B). The changes in fluency during the treatment phases help determine the
effectiveness of the intervention.
 Structure: Involves alternating baseline (A) and treatment (B) stages to determine the
effect of the treatment.
 Challenges: Difficulty interpreting causality if behavior does not revert to baseline
after treatment withdrawal and ethical concerns with withdrawing beneficial
treatment.

Multiple-Baseline Design:
Definition: An experimental design that measures behavior across multiple baselines
(individuals, behaviors, or settings) and introduces the treatment at staggered intervals to
demonstrate treatment effects without withdrawing it.
Example: A teacher measures the classroom behavior of three students over several weeks
(baseline), then introduces a behavioral intervention for one student (first baseline) while
continuing to observe the other two without intervention. After a few weeks, the intervention
is introduced for the second student (second baseline) while the first continues, and so on.
This staggered approach allows the teacher to see the effects of the intervention across
different students.
 Structure: Establishes several baselines and introduces treatment at different times
across individuals, behaviors, or situations.
 Challenges: Variability in behavior change and generalization of treatment effects.
Problems and Limitations:
 Baseline Variability: Excessive variability in baselines can complicate interpretation.
 External Validity: Lack of generalizability due to the focus on single individuals.
 Replication: Essential to replicate findings across different individuals to establish
generalizability.
Advantages Over Group Designs:
 Individual Focus: Directly evaluates treatment effects for individual clients.
 Ethical Considerations: Avoids ethical issues of withholding treatment from control
groups.
 Practicality: Suitable for situations with limited participant availability.

Specific Experimental Design refers to a tailored approach used in research to

investigate the effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable while controlling
for extraneous factors. It is characterized by its systematic structure, which allows researchers
to draw causal inferences from their findings.
Key Characteristics:
1. Controlled Conditions: The design typically involves controlling variables to isolate
the effects of the independent variable.
2. Random Assignment: Participants are often randomly assigned to different
conditions to reduce bias and ensure that groups are comparable.
3. Manipulation of Variables: The independent variable is deliberately manipulated by
the researcher to observe changes in the dependent variable.
4. Clear Hypotheses: Specific experimental designs are guided by clear hypotheses,
which define the expected relationship between variables.
Types of Specific Experimental Designs:
1. Between-Subjects Design: Different participants are assigned to different conditions,
ensuring that each group experiences only one level of the independent variable.
 o Example: Testing a new medication by giving one group the drug and another
group a placebo.
2. Within-Subjects Design: The same participants are exposed to all levels of the
independent variable, allowing for direct comparison of effects within the same
individuals.
o Example: A study where participants try two different diets in separate phases
to assess weight loss.
3. Factorial Design: Examines the effects of two or more independent variables
simultaneously, allowing researchers to investigate interactions between variables.
o Example: Studying the effects of both diet type and exercise level on weight
loss by having participants follow different diets while varying their exercise
regimens.
Advantages:
 Causality: Allows researchers to infer causal relationships between variables due to
controlled manipulation.
 Precision: Provides precise measurements of the effects of the independent variable.
 Replicability: Can be easily replicated by other researchers, enhancing the reliability
of findings.
Disadvantages:
 Artificiality: Controlled conditions may not accurately reflect real-world scenarios,
limiting ecological validity.
 Complexity: Designing and implementing experiments can be complex and resource-
intensive.
 Ethical Concerns: Manipulating certain variables may raise ethical issues, especially
in sensitive areas like health and psychology.
Qualitative Research Design in Case Studies

Qualitative research design in case studies involves investigating and understanding complex issues in
their real-life context. It primarily uses non-numerical data to gain deep insights into the subject of
study. Here are three main approaches used in qualitative research design for case studies:

Exploratory Approach

 Definition: The exploratory approach investigates phenomena in a natural setting to explore

complex issues that are not well understood.
 Purpose: To gather preliminary information that can help define problems and suggest
hypotheses for future research.
 Example: A researcher studying the impact of remote work on employee productivity during
the COVID-19 pandemic might start with an exploratory case study to identify key factors
affecting productivity and the challenges employees face while working from home.

Descriptive Approach
  Definition: The descriptive approach provides a detailed description of the subject being
studied, capturing the nuances and context of the case.
 Purpose: To offer a thorough and detailed account of the phenomena, events, or situations
under investigation.
 Example: A case study describing the daily operations and management practices of a
successful startup. The study would detail the company’s culture, leadership style, employee
interactions, and unique strategies that contribute to its success.

Explanatory Approach

 Definition: The explanatory approach aims to explain causal relationships within the case,
identifying underlying principles and mechanisms.
 Purpose: To uncover the cause-and-effect relationships and explain why and how certain
events or phenomena occur.
 Example: A researcher might conduct an explanatory case study to understand how a
specific educational intervention (like a new teaching method) improves student
performance. The study would investigate the implementation process, student reactions,
and the direct effects on learning outcomes.

Case Study Method

Contents:

1. Introduction

2. Case Study

2.1 Definition

2.2 Characteristics

2.3 Difference between Case study Vs Case history

3 Techniques used for case studies

4 Sources of data for case studies

5 Types of case Studies

6 Advantage and limitation

Summary

Learning Objectives:

 To learn what is case study and distinction from case history; identify the application of case
study;
 To discuss how to plan case study; and
 To understand the advantage and limitation of case study

1. Introduction
Among the various methods of data collection, case study is certainly one popular form of qualitative
analysis involving careful and complete observation of a case. A case is a social unit with a deviant
behavior, and may be an event, problem, process, activity, programme, of a social unit. The unit may
be a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group, a community or even an entire society (Kothari,
2014). But it is a bounded system that has the boundaries of the case. Case Study therefore is an
intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. It is extensively used in psychology,
education, sociology, anthropology, economics and political science. It aims at obtaining a complete
and detailed account of a social phenomenon or a social event of a social unit. In case study, data can
be collected from multiple sources by using any qualitative method of data collection like interviews,
observation and it may also include documents, artifacts etc. Case study method is a type of data
collection that goes in depth understanding rather than breadth. Case study can be descriptive as we
observe and write in description as well as it can also be an exploratory that is we wrote what was
said. Pierre Guillaume Frederic Le Play (1855), a mathematician and natural scientist, is considered as
the founder of case study method as he used it for the first time in his publication Les Ouvriers
Europeens.

2. Case Study

2.1 Definitions of Case Study Methods

Case study has been defined differently by different scholars from time to time. Some of them are
presented below.

1. Young, P.V. (1984): Case study is a comprehensive study of a social unit, be it a person, a
group of persons, an institute, a community or a family.
2. Groode and Hatt (1953): It is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit
3. Cooley, C.H. (2007): Case study depends our perception and gives clear insight into life
directory.
4. Bogardus, E. S. (1925): The method of examining specially and in detail a given situation
5. Robson C. (1993): A strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a
particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of
evidence.

So critical analysis of these definitions, reveal that case study is a method of minute and detail study
of a situation concerning a social unit in an intensive and comprehensive manner in order to
understand the personal as well as hidden dimensions of human life.

2.2 Characteristics of Case Study

The main characteristics of the case study are (www.studylecturenotes.com):

A descriptive study:

1. The data collected constitute descriptions of psychological processes and events, and of the
contexts in which they occurred.
 2. The main emphasis is always on the construction of verbal descriptions of behavior or
experience but rarely quantitative data may be collected. In short case study is more of a
qualitative method rather than quantitative method.
3. High levels of detail are provided.
4. The behavior pattern of the concerned unit is studied directly wherein efforts are made to
know the mutual inter-relationship of causal factors.

Narrowly focused:

1. Typically a case study offers a complete and comprehensive description of all facets of a
social unit, be it a single individual or may be a social group.
2. Often the case study focuses on a limited aspect of a person, such as their
psychopathological symptoms.

Combines objective and subjective data:

Researchers may combine objective and subjective data. Both the data are regarded as valid data for
analysis. It enables case study to achieved in-depth understanding of the behavior and experience of
a single individual.

Process-oriented:

1. The case study method enables the researcher to explore and describe the nature of
processes, which occur over time.
2. In contrast to the experimental method, which basically provides a stilled ‘snapshot’ of
processes, case study continued over time like for example the development of language in
children over time.

2.3. Difference between Case Study and Case History

The Case study method helps retaining the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real life events –
such as individual life cycles, small group behavior, etc. It is like a case history of a patient. As a
patient goes to the doctor with some serious disease, the doctor records the case history. Analysis of
case history helps in the diagnosis of the patient’s illness
(http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-case-study-and-vs-case-history).

Although most of us confuse case study and case history to be the same, however, there exists a
difference between these two terms. They are being used in many disciplines and allow the
researcher to be more informative of people, and events. First, let us define the word case study. A
case study refers to a research method where a person, group or an event is being investigated which
is used by researchers whereas a case history, on the other hand, refers to a record of data which
contributes to a case study; usually case history is used by doctors to investigate the patients. This is
the main difference between a case study and case history.

(i) What is a Case Study?

 A case study is a research method used to investigate an individual, a group of people, or a
particular phenomenon. The case study has been used in many disciplines especially in social
science, anthropology, sociology, psychology, and political science. A case study allows the researcher
to gain an in-depth understanding of the topic. To conduct a case study, the researcher can use a
number of techniques. For example, observation, interviews, usage of secondary data such as
documents, records, etc. It usually goes on for a longer period because the researcher has to explore
the topic deeply.

The case study method was first used in the clinical medicine so that the doctor has a clear
understanding of the history of the patient. Various methods can be used in a case study for example
a psychologist use observation to observe the individual, use interview method to broaden the
understanding. To create a clear picture of the problem, the questions can be directed not only to
the individual on whom the case study is being conducted but also on those who are related to the
individual. A special feature of case studies is that it produces qualitative data that are rich and
authentic.

(ii) What is a Case History?

Unlike the case study that refers to a method, a case history refers to a record of an individual or
even a group. Case histories are used in many disciplines such as psychology, sociology, medicine,
psychiatry, etc. It consists of all the necessary information of the individual. In medicine, a case
history refers to a specific record that reveals the personal information, medical condition, the
medication that has been used and special conditions of the individual. Having a case history can be
very beneficial in treatment of disease. However, a case history does not necessarily have to be
connected to an individual; it can even be of an event that took place. The case history is a recording
that narrates a sequence of events. Such a narrative allows the researcher to look at an event in
retrospect.

3. Techniques used for Case Studies

The techniques of case studies includes –

(i) Observation

It is a systematic data collection approach. Researchers use all of their senses to examine people in
natural settings or naturally occurring situations. Observation of a field setting involves: prolonged
engagement in a setting or social situation.

(ii) Interview

It is questioning and discussing to a person for the purpose of an evaluation or to generate

information. (iii) Secondary Data

Secondary data refers to data that was collected by someone through secondary sources. (iv)
Documents

Any writing that provides information, especially information which is of official in nature.

(v) Records
Anything that provides permanent information which can rely on or providing an evident officially.

Sources of Data for Case Study

In case study, information may be collected from various sources. Some of the important sources
include:

 Life histories
 Personal documents
 Letters and records
 Biographies
 Information obtained through interviews
 Observation

5. Types of Case Study

The following are the types of case study according to the Graham R Gibbs (2012) –
1. Individual case study: This study was first done by Shaw, Clifford R.
(1930). In individual case study, life of a particular person, his activities
and his totalities were accompanied.
2. Set of individual case study: Group of person that practice different
culture was studies. As for instance those lives in rural area and those
living in urban area there will different cases between them.
3. Community studies: In community studies, it may include hundreds of
people from a community that picked upon for some reason.
4. Social Group Studies: Group of people that defined their social position,
for example a group of musician or a group of drugs taker
5. Studies of organizations and institutions: Study for a particular
organizations or an institutions
6. Studies of events, roles and relationships: Similar to individual case
study but more focus on events, roles and relationships that involved.
For example we can take the role of a housewife.
Identifying a Case Study:

Determine if a case study will answer your research question

Identify the case and find out what type of case study method or technique will be employed

When the researcher makes interpretations, the researcher should be able to learn the meaning of
the case data while interpreting

How to plan a case study?

The following points are required to plan a case study such as –

Conceptual Framework: based on the theory it displays the important features of a case study and
show relationships between features.
Research Questions: Consist of conceptual framework which is consisting of focused and answerable
questions.

Research Design: Plan out of what to include or what not to include before data collection

Methods and Instruments: an appropriate method should be employed to answer the research
question

Analysis of Data and interpretation: Collected information should be analysed using statistical tools
and interpret the findings incorporating the ideas and knowledge gathered during data collection

6. Advantages and Limitations

6.1 Advantages of Case Study

The following are some of the advantages of case study –

a) It facilitates intensive study and in-depth analysis of a social unit which help in contradicting
established theory.

b) In-depth and comprehensive information are collected through this method which helps in
stimulating new research.

c) It is suitable for collecting data pertaining to sensitive areas of a social phenomenon.

d) It helps to collect details regarding the diverse habits, traits and qualities of the unit under
investigation (Kothari, 2014).

e) The researcher can understand better the social change of different facets of a social unit every
now and then.

f) This study can be a means to understand the past of a social unit because of its emphasis of
historical analysis.

g) The researcher can used any type of methods like interview, questionnaire, documents, self-
reports etc.

h) Case study enables to generalize the knowledge amusing from the information collected.

i) A real personal experience can be recorded which enlighten and reveal the real man’s inner
determined.

j) The data obtained through case study is useful for formulation of hypothesis and preparation of
schedule and questionnaire for such types of study and for further research (Kothari, 2014).

k) It helps in enhancing his/her experience, ability and skill in content analysis of the data.

l) It is useful for therapeutic and administrative purposes, particularly in diagnosis, treatment and
therapy etc.

6.2 Limitations of Case Study

a) Case history records could be open to errors due to faulty selection of case and inaccurate
observation (Kothari, 2014).
b) There are chances of inaccuracy of the data as no uniform and standardized system of recording
case histories has been developed.

c) Data collected from case study usually based on several assumptions which may not be very
realistic at times

d) This method is mainly qualitative rather than quantitative, hence there may be question of
subjectivity.

e) It is very difficult to draw generalizations on the basis of a few cases.

f) Sampling is not possible in case study as this method can be used only in a limited unit.

g) The information collected from case study is incomparable since each informant gives his/her own
opinion. Therefore, replication is not possible.

h) Since this method is fully based on the informant, sometimes the informant himself thinks that
he/she have the full knowledge and the information given by them may include some fake also.

i) The investigator’s bias might distort the quality of the case study (Kothari, 2014).

j) Case Study is time-consuming and costly in certain cases.

k) This method cannot be effectively used in big and complex societies (Kothari, 2014).

Summary

Case study is an important method employed for collection of qualitative data for an in depth,
intensive and comprehensive scientific study of a social unit. This social unit can be an individual, a
family, a community, a group or even an entire society. Case study is quite different from the case
history which focuses on the recording of personal information. Different methods of case study such
as individual, community, social group, organization and events using appropriate techniques
(observation, interview, secondary data like documents and records) are used based on the
objectives of the research problem. The main sources of data in case studies includes life histories,
personal documents, letters and records, biographies, information obtained through interviews and
observation. Case studies facilitate intensive study and in-depth analysis of a social unit contradicting
established theory. It helps in contradicting established theory and stimulating new research.
However, difficulties arises in case studies due to a number of reasons which includes inconsistency
in data, not possible to replicate the findings, interviewing key and right informants, expertise of the
investigator, constant monitoring of interaction between the theoretical issues being studied and
collected data, and interpretation of the data needs to be carefully considered.

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https://www.enago.com/academy/cross-sectional-and-longitudinal-study/

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Successive Independent
Aspect Cross-Sectional Research Longitudinal Research
Research

To examine data at a
To study changes in the To study trends over time
single point in time
Purpose same group of individuals by using different samples
across different groups
over time. at each time point.
or populations.
 One-time data collection, Data collected over an Data collected at multiple
Data Collection
usually over a short extended period, often time points, but each time
Timing
period. years or decades. from a different sample.

Passive role after data Involves regular data

Active role in tracking and
Researcher's collection; interpretation collection at different
maintaining the sample
Role focuses on differences points with independent
over time.
between groups. samples.

Findings may not be

Can generalize findings Generalizes trends over
Generalizabilit generalizable beyond the
to the population at that time but not individual
y sample but can reveal
specific time. changes.
trends over time.

Quick and efficient; can Tracks actual changes in Allows analysis of

compare different individuals; allows for population trends over
Strengths
groups or variables at detailed analysis of time without needing to
one time. development or change. follow individuals.

Time-consuming,
Cannot track changes Doesn’t track individual
expensive, and requires
Weaknesses over time; only provides changes; only provides a
long-term commitment
a snapshot. broad view of trends.
from participants.

May have cohort effects May suffer from sample May have cohort effects if
Bias and (results influenced by attrition (people dropping different samples do not
Confounding differences between age out over time), leading to accurately reflect the same
groups). biased results. population over time.

Surveys, questionnaires, Repeated surveys, Surveys or interviews

Data Collection
or observational data interviews, or observations administered to different
Methods
collected once. with the same individuals. samples at different times.
 Useful for understanding Ideal for studying changes,
Useful for tracking societal
the state of a population development, or long-term
trends over time (e.g.,
Applicability or issue at a specific time outcomes (e.g., studies on
market trends, public
(e.g., public opinion aging, disease
health).
surveys). progression).

Moderate cost, as multiple

Higher cost due to long-
Low cost, as data is samples are collected, but
Cost term tracking and
collected at one time. individuals are not
repeated data collection.
followed.

Requires long-term Moderate time, as new

Shorter time to analyze
Time Required commitment to collect and data is collected at
data since it's collected
for Analysis analyze multiple data intervals, but analysis can
at one point.
points over time. be done in waves.

Widely used in
Commonly used in cross- Often used in political
developmental
Use in Social sectional surveys, health science, sociology, and
psychology, sociology, and
Sciences assessments, and economics to track trends
medical research tracking
demographic studies. or changes in populations.
changes over time.

High internal validity for

High external validity at
tracking individual Good for identifying trends
one point in time, but
Validity changes, but sample but may miss individual
cannot infer changes
attrition can reduce variations.
over time.
reliability.

Surveying 1,000 people

Conducting surveys every
about their exercise Following the same group
five years with different
habits at one point in of children over 10 years
Key Example groups to measure changes
time to assess the to track their cognitive
in public opinion on climate
current state of physical development.
change.
activity.

Correlational Research in Psychology

Correlational research involves studying the relationship between variables without manipulating
them. This type of research helps in identifying patterns and associations. There are three main types
of correlational research designs: Cross-Sectional Studies, Longitudinal Studies, and Successive
Independent Samples Designs.

Cross-Sectional Studies
Definition: Cross-sectional studies are observational research methods where data is collected from
different subjects at one point in time.

Duration: These studies are quicker to conduct as they are carried out at a single point in time.

Causation Relationship: Cross-sectional studies cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Characteristics:

1. Conducted at a single point in time.

2. No manipulation of variables.
3. Examines multiple characteristics simultaneously.
4. Suitable for descriptive research.
5. Can be used to identify prevalence of conditions or behaviors.

Advantages:

1. Efficient and cost-effective.

2. Quick results, suitable for urgent research.
3. Resource-friendly with limited tracking.
4. Identifies associations between variables, generating hypotheses for further research.
5. Less time-consuming compared to other designs.
6. Suitable for studying large populations.
7. Can capture a snapshot of a population's health or behavior.

Limitations:

1. Cannot provide cause-and-effect relationships.

2. Lacks context about past or future events.
3. May not capture the complexity of real-life situations.
4. Observed relationships could be temporary or situation-specific.
5. Less control and precision in measurement.
6. Potential for selection bias.
7. Can be affected by cohort effects.

Cost: Generally inexpensive.

Types: Includes case-control studies, ecological studies, experimental studies, and cohort studies.

Subject Areas: Used in economics, developmental psychology, medicine, social science, biology,
public health, and sociology.

When Is It Used: To describe the current state of a community and infer relationships for further
research.

Data Analysis: Analyzes aggregate data to observe societal changes but lacks individual-level insights.

Example: Analyzing diet and food choices across different age groups in a retail store.
Longitudinal Studies
Definition: Longitudinal studies involve gathering data from the same subjects over an extended
period.

Duration: These studies span from a few years to decades, requiring revisiting the participants
multiple times.

Causation Relationship: Longitudinal studies are more likely to suggest cause-and-effect

relationships.

Characteristics:

1. Conducted over an extended period.

2. Uses both quantitative and qualitative methods.
3. Establishes a sequence of events or experiences.
4. Provides insights into developmental trends.
5. Can identify long-term effects and patterns.

Advantages:

1. Tracks changes over time.

2. Studies processes unfolding over long periods (e.g., language development, aging effects).
3. Subjects serve as their own control.
4. Studies rare phenomena and developmental patterns, informing interventions and policies.
5. Can provide more reliable data on changes and developments.
6. Allows for studying cause-and-effect relationships.
7. Helps in understanding life-long developmental processes.

Limitations:

1. Risk of selection bias among participants.

2. Expensive and time-consuming.
3. Uncontrolled changes may influence outcomes.
4. Requires sophisticated statistical analysis to detect changes.
5. Difficulty in retaining participants over many years.
6. Potential for participant dropout, affecting results.
7. Complex data management and analysis.

Cost: Expensive.

Types: Includes panel studies, retrospective studies, and cohort studies.

Subject Areas: Used in psychology, sociology, medicine, market research, and political science.

When Is It Used: To assess patterns of continuity or change within the same group.

Data Analysis: Allows individual-level analysis to understand changes over the study period.

Example: Studying how diet affects weight by observing individuals over ten years.

Successive Independent Samples Design

Definition: This design involves taking multiple samples from a population at different points in time,
but with different individuals in each sample.

Duration: Conducted over various points in time.

Causation Relationship: Like cross-sectional studies, it cannot establish cause-and-effect

relationships.

Characteristics:

1. Different samples are taken at different times.

2. Tracks changes in a population over time without tracking the same individuals.
3. Useful for observing trends and societal changes.
4. Can compare cross-sectional data across different time points.
5. Allows for the study of generational or period effects.

Advantages:

1. Tracks changes in a population over time.

2. Less expensive than longitudinal studies.
3. Avoids the issue of participant dropout over time.
4. Provides trend data for large populations.
5. Can quickly adapt to changing research needs.
6. Reduces the problem of participant fatigue.
7. Easier to administer and analyze compared to longitudinal studies.

Limitations:

1. Cannot track individual changes.

2. Risk of sample differences affecting results.
3. Cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.
4. Potential for differences in sample characteristics over time.
5. Data may be influenced by external events or changes.
6. Less detailed data on individual development.

Cost: Moderate.

Types: Used in market research, public health, and social sciences.

Subject Areas: Economics, sociology, psychology, public health.

When Is It Used: To observe trends and changes in a population over time.

Data Analysis: Analyzes data from different samples to observe trends and changes.

Example: Surveying different groups of people about their media consumption habits every five
years.

These enhanced notes provide a comprehensive understanding of correlational research designs,

making it easier to remember and apply them in your studie

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Qualitative Research:
Qualitative research explores and understands the meaning behind human experiences, behaviors,
and social phenomena. It uses non-numerical data, like interviews, observations, or texts, to gather
in-depth insights into people's perspectives and emotions.

 Example: A researcher conducts in-depth interviews with 10 teachers to explore how they
manage work-life balance. The study seeks to understand the challenges and coping
strategies of each teacher, without focusing on numbers.

Quantitative Research:

Quantitative research involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to quantify variables and test
hypotheses. It focuses on measuring phenomena and establishing relationships between variables
through statistical analysis.

 Example: A researcher surveys 500 students to determine how many hours they study per
week. The goal is to statistically analyze the data and identify if study hours are related to
academic performance across a large group.

Aspect Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

To explore and understand complex

To test hypotheses, measure variables, and
Purpose phenomena through detailed
establish general patterns or trends.
narratives.

Nature of Non-numerical (e.g., words, interviews, Numerical (e.g., counts, percentages, statistical
Data observations) data)

Unstructured or semi-structured
Data Collection Structured questionnaires, surveys,
interviews, focus groups, observations,
Methods experiments, clinical trials
document reviews

Type of Open-ended (e.g., “Why did this Closed-ended (e.g., “How many?” or “What
Questions happen?” or “How do you feel?”) percentage?”)

To interpret meaning, understand To test a theory, quantify a problem, and

Objective
context, explore experiences. identify relationships between variables.

Thematic analysis, grounded theory, Descriptive statistics, inferential statistics (e.g.,

Analysis
narrative analysis, content analysis regression, ANOVA)

Numerical results and generalizable

Outcome Context-rich descriptions and insights.
findings.

Sample Small, purposive, or theoretical sampling Large, representative samples (for

Size (focusing on rich information) generalization)

Flexible, iterative, can evolve as the study Rigid, structured, predetermined at the start of
Flexibility
progresses the study

Use of Often used to generate new theories, Primarily used to test and validate existing
Theory frameworks theories

Researcher’s Researcher is an active participant, Researcher remains objective and detached

Role interpretation is subjective from data collection

Research Natural settings (e.g., participants’ real Controlled settings (e.g., labs, controlled
Setting environments) conditions)

Findings are context-specific and not easily Findings are generalizable to larger
Generalizability
generalizable populations

Focuses on depth and complexity, Focuses on breadth, generalization, and

Focus
understanding individuals or small groups pattern identification across populations

Data Narratives, quotes, case studies, Graphs, charts, tables, and statistical
Representation observational descriptions summaries

Hypotheses may emerge after data Hypotheses are tested and verified
Hypothesis
collection (inductive approach) (deductive approach)

Complexity of Complex, often ambiguous and Data is clear-cut and can be easily reduced to
Data highly detailed numerical values

Highly focused on maintaining the

Ethical Focuses on privacy and anonymity but less
confidentiality and dignity of
Considerations personal interaction with subjects
participants due to personal nature

Low reliability due to subjectivity and High reliability if study is well-designed

Reliability
contextual differences (results are repeatable)

High validity for specific context and High validity if study is conducted properly
Validity
meaning of participants' experiences (measures what it is supposed to measure)

Data Presented in words, stories, or Presented through graphs, statistics,

Presentation descriptive reports tables, or models

Software NVivo, ATLAS.ti, MAXQDA for coding and

SPSS, SAS, STATA, R for statistical analysis
Used analyzing textual data

Used in social sciences, anthropology, Widely used in natural sciences, business,

Applicability education, health sciences for exploring psychology, public health for testing
perceptions and meanings theories and examining trends

Time Required for Time-consuming due to in-depth Faster if statistical methods and models
Analysis analysis and interpretation are pre-structured

Often requires triangulation (combining Less need for triangulation; relies on robust
Triangulation
multiple methods or sources for validation) data collection and statistical validation

Context Strongly considers the social, cultural, or Context is minimized to ensure objectivity
Sensitivity individual context of participants and generalization

Data Data collection continues until no new Sample size determined statistically
Saturation themes emerge (saturation) before data collection

Use of Researcher is the primary instrument for data Uses structured tools such as
Instruments collection (e.g., conducting interviews) questionnaires, measuring devices

Subjective bias is acknowledged and may Minimizes researcher bias through

Bias
affect the study’s interpretation standardization and objectivity

Manipulation of No manipulation; focuses on natural Manipulates independent variables to test

Variables behaviors and real-world settings their effects on dependent variables

Participant High level of interaction between Limited interaction, often only through
Interaction researcher and participants surveys or controlled settings

Context is integral to understanding Context is minimized to focus on objective

Role of Context
meaning and interpreting results measurement of variables

Exploratory vs. Exploratory research, often leading to Confirmatory research, aiming to confirm
Confirmatory the development of new theories or refute existing theories

Can be longitudinal (focusing on long- Often cross-sectional (focusing on one

Time Horizon
term changes and evolution) point in time) but can also be longitudinal

Less focused on identifying cause-and-effect Often designed to establish cause-and-effect

Causality
relationships relationships (through experiments)

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APA (American Psychological Association) Standard:

 Used primarily in social sciences (e.g., psychology).

 Features in-text citations with author and year (e.g., Smith, 2020).
 Includes a reference list with specific formatting for sources.
 Provides guidelines on document structure, headings, and margins.

BPA (British Psychological Association) Standard:

 Refers to guidelines from the British Psychological Society.

 Similar to APA but may include British spelling and terminology.
 Covers citations, references, and formatting specific to British conventions.

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Feature Thesis Journal Article

Generally lengthy (50- Typically shorter (3,000-

Length
300 pages) 10,000 words)

Depth of Comprehensive and Focused on specific

Research detailed findings or issues
JOURNAL ARTICLE Peer-
THESIS Evaluated by an
Review Process reviewed by experts in the
academic committee
field
Published in academic
Often limited to
Accessibility journals, accessible to a
academic institutions
broader audience
 May include original
Emphasizes original
Originality research or reviews
research contributions
existing literature
 Thesis: The primary audience for a thesis includes academic committees, faculty members, and
peers within the same field of study. It is primarily evaluated for academic purposes, such as degree
completion.

 Journal Article: The audience for a journal article includes researchers, practitioners, and
academics across various disciplines. The article is intended for readers who seek to stay informed
about the latest developments in the field.

Aspect Thesis (APA Style) Journal Article (APA Style)

- Title of the thesis - Title of the article
- Author’s name - Author(s) names
Title Page - Institution - Affiliation
- Degree - Running head (if required)
- Date
- 150-250 words
- 150-250 words
summarizing the
Abstract summarizing the study
research
- Keywords (optional) - Keywords (optional)
- Required for longer
theses - Not typically included in
Table of Contents
- Lists all sections and journal articles
page numbers
1. Introduction 1. Introduction
- Background - Background, research
information questions
- Research questions

2. Literature Review

- Overview of relevant
research

Main Body
Structure 3. Methodology 2. Method

- Participants,
- Participants, procedure,
procedure, materials,
materials
data analysis

4. Results 3. Results

- Findings with - Findings with

tables/figures tables/figures
4. Discussion
 - Interpretation,
5. Discussion
implications, limitations
- Interpretation of
findings, implications,
limitations

6. Conclusion 5. References
- Summary of findings
- List of sources cited
and suggestions for
(formatted in APA style)
future research
- Must include all
- Must include all sources
sources cited in the
cited in the article
References thesis
- Follow APA formatting - Follow APA formatting
rules rules
- Can include additional
- May include appendices
material (e.g., surveys,
for supplementary material
Appendices data)
- Numbered and - Numbered and referenced
referenced in the text in the text
- Generally longer (50+
- Typically shorter (5-30
Length pages, varies by
pages, varies by journal)
institution)
- Double-spaced - Double-spaced
- 1-inch margins - 1-inch margins
- Times New Roman 12 - Times New Roman 12 pt
Formatting
pt font font

- Page numbers included - Page numbers included

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Aspect Research Proposal Scientific Report

To outline a planned
To present the results of a
Purpose study and seek approval
completed study.
or funding.

- Title - Title
- Introduction - Abstract

- Literature Review - Introduction

Content
- Objectives - Methods
- Methodology - Results
- Significance - Discussion
- Timeline - Conclusion
 - References - References
- Appendices (if applicable)

Emphasizes the Emphasizes findings and

Focus rationale for the study analysis of completed
and proposed methods. research.

Usually longer (typically

Generally shorter (often
Length several pages to hundreds,
a few pages).
depending on the study).

Persuasive, convincing Objective, presenting

Tone the reader of the study's findings without personal
importance. bias.

Often intended for

Intended for the scientific
funding bodies,
Audience community, peers, and
academic committees,
stakeholders.
or supervisors.

Proposes to collect and Reports on data that has

Data Status analyze data (not yet already been collected and
collected). analyzed.

Contains sections
Contains sections focused
Sections focused on what will be
on what has been done.
done.

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