two types of mural paintings mentioned:

1. Ellora Paintings
- Location & Historical Context:
- Found in caves at Ellora, Maharashtra, dated to the 8th–10th centuries A.D.
- Monuments built under the Rashtrakuta and Yadava dynasties.
- Includes Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples.

- Main Features:
- Kailashnath Temple has the most preserved murals, found in five caves.
- Earlier Series (Contemporary with cave carving):
- Depict Hindu deities like Vishnu and Lakshmi, with Garuda amidst clouds.
- Figures are sinewy, sharp-featured with pointed noses, and pronounced eyes
(early Gujarati style).
- Subsequent Series (Later):
- Depicts a procession of Saiva holy men and graceful flying Apsaras.
- Compositions framed within rectangular panels with thick borders.
- Artistic Style:
- Departure from Ajanta’s classical norm with sharp angularities: sharp
twists in heads, angular arms, concave curves, long open eyes.
- Flying figures show swift movement through clouds (notable in Cave 32,
mid-9th century).
- Combination of classical rounded plasticity (Ajanta influence) with
medieval angularity.

- Other Features:
- Limited space and no "Ajanta-like" perspective; paintings are confined to
set frames.
- Decorative frescoes of Brahma and other deities.

### 2. Painting during the Pandyas

- Location & Historical Context:
- Pandya-era murals (9th century) found in rock-cut temples of Thirumalapuram
and Sittannavasal.
- Pandya frescoes are characterized by a sober color range and dynamic
depictions.

- Thirumalapuram Paintings:
- Features small secondary deities (gana), mythical creatures, and lotus
foliage.
- Use of colors: white, indigo, black, light blue.
- Decorated columns with dynamic scenes of hunters, girls, drum players, and
dancers.

- Sittannavasal Paintings:
- Two superimposed fresco layers were discovered, with a significant
inscription dating around 850 A.D.
- Important Frescoes:
- Lotus Tank: Central fresco depicting a lotus-filled pond with figures of
monks, animals, swans, and fishes. Represents the Samava-sarvana, a significant
Jain religious scene.
- Dancers and Couple: Frescoes of female dancers and a couple, showcasing
Chola painting influences.
- Artistic Technique:
- Fresco-secco method, using mineral-based pigments (lime, charcoal, ochre,
lapis lazuli, terre verte).
- Some compositions link the Ajanta style (4th–6th century) to Chola
paintings (11th century).
 - Notable Artistic Features:
- Sittannavasal frescoes exhibit a blend of Ajanta's line purity and Chola-
style simplicity.
- Intricate floral patterns and dynamic dance scenes, including symbolic
animals like ducks.
- Pandya king Srimara Srivallabha’s reverence shown in pillars with figurines.

These murals represent a fascinating blend of classical and medieval Indian

artistic traditions, transitioning from the fluid, rounded modeling of earlier
periods to the more angular, stylized forms characteristic of later periods.

the various painting traditions mentioned:

1. Chola Paintings
- Locations: Found in temples like Narthamalai, Malayadipatti, and Tanjore.
- Influence: Inspired by Ajanta but evolved into a distinct regional style.
- Technique: Known for fine fresco techniques; murals were dynamic, with a focus
on movement and vitality.
- Depictions: Includes religious themes, celestial dancers (apsaras), and Shaiva
scenes such as the wedding of Siva Tripurantaka.
- Key Example: The Brihadishvara Temple (Tanjore) features large frescoes along
the circumambulatory path, depicting Hindu mythology, Chola royalty, and courtly
life.
- Color Palette: The murals in Tanjore use lively, warm colors like ochers,
pinks, and golds, contrasting with darker tones seen in other regions like
Sittannavasal.
- Theme: Primarily religious, reflecting the synthesis of architecture,
sculpture, and painting in temple contexts.

2. Pala School of Painting (Bengal School)

- Period: 11th-12th centuries.
- Medium: Miniatures on palm leaves and paper.
- Characteristics:
- Sinuous lines and subdued colors (indigo, cinnabar, green, yellow).
- Naturalistic style, with influence from contemporary bronze and stone
sculptures.
- Iconographic themes, illustrating Buddhist deities, with attention to fine
detail.
- Key Work: *Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra* (11th century), a palm-leaf
manuscript from the Pala era.
- Influence: Pala style spread to Nepal, Tibet, Burma, and other parts of
Southeast Asia.

3. Jain School of Painting (Western India)

- Region: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Malwa (12th-14th centuries).
- Patronage: Commissioned by Jain kings, merchants, and aristocrats for
religious merit.
- Style:
- Highly stylized and conventionalized figures, with exaggerated features
(e.g., large eyes, breasts, and hips).
- Angular, flat figures with a frontal view and profile heads.
- Strong use of bright colors and vigorous lines.
- Key Themes: Depicted religious themes, often from Jain texts like *Kalpasutra*
and *Kalakacharya-Katha*.
- Influence: Persian style influenced the later works, with Persian facial types
and scenes of hunting appearing in some manuscripts.

4. Hoyasala Paintings
- Style: Characterized by fine detail and vivid depictions of religious
subjects, often linked to Jainism.
 - Key Example: Manuscripts like *Kalpasutra*, illustrating the life of Mahavira
(spiritual teacher in Jainism), with detailed miniature paintings.

These schools reflect a blend of religious themes, cultural synthesis, and regional
artistic innovations, with significant influence across India and be

Kashmir Temple Architecture during the Early Medieval period:

1. Overview of Kashmir Temple Architecture

- Period: Began in the 7th century A.D. and ended around 1337 A.D. with the
Muslim conquest.
- Two Main Types: Buddhist and Hindu temple architecture.
- Early temples were Buddhist; later, they were predominantly Hindu.
- Both types shared similar materials, ornamentation, and techniques but
differed in plan and elevation due to religious needs.

2. Influence of Buddhist Architecture on Hindu Temples

- Materials Used: Beautiful grey limestone, easy to carve and smooth when
dressed.
- Common Architectural Features:
- Both Buddhist and Hindu temples had a central chamber for divine images
(Buddha/Bodhisattva or Hindu deities).
- Both needed space for worshippers.
- Parihasapura: The only surviving example of a Buddhist chaitya (temple), which
influenced Hindu temples, especially with its pyramidal roof.

3. Key Rulers and Their Contributions

- Lalitaditya (724-760 A.D., Karkota Dynasty): Built both Buddhist and Hindu
temples.
- Avantivarman (855-833 A.D., Utpala Dynasty): Built Hindu temples, including
Vishnu and Shiva temples.
- Shankaravarman (885-902 A.D., Utpala Dynasty): Built Hindu temples.

4. Key Features of Kashmir Temple Architecture

- Early Architecture: Initially simpler, evolving to more elaborate forms.
- Temple Orientation: Temples generally face east or west.
- Roof: Straight-edged pyramidal roofs in two tiers (influenced by Buddhist
architecture).
- Main Shrine: A rectangular plan with a pyramidal roof for the garbhagriha
(sanctum).
- Unique Features:
- Gateway: Double-chambered with a pyramidal upper part and trefoil arches.
- Pillars: With moulded bases and capitals, often fluted.
- Courtyards: Rectangular courtyards surrounded by niche shrines, but without
curvilinear shikhara (tower).
- Shallow Tanks: Some temples, like Pandrethan, are placed in the center of
shallow tanks.

5. Notable Temples
- Martand Temple (by Lalitaditya):
- One of the greatest and most finished Hindu temples in Kashmir, dedicated to
the sun god.
- Located on a large courtyard with 86 fluted columns, featuring a sanctum,
antrala, and closed mandapa.
- Built of huge limestone ashlars.
- Avantishvara Temple and Avantiswami Temple (by Avantivarman):
- Both temples built in a panchayatana style (five shrines).
- The gateway is double-chambered, and the main sanctum is elevated on a high
platform.
 - Shankaracharya Temple (by Lalitaditya):
- Located near Srinagar, another significant Hindu temple.
- Shiva Temple near Srinagar (by Shankaravarman):
- Dedicated to Shiva, reflecting the typical features of Kashmir temple
architecture.

6. Distinct Features of Kashmir Temple Architecture

- Pyramidal Roofs: Influence of Buddhist chaityas on the design of Hindu
temples.
- Cellular Layout: Many temples have a central peristyle with multiple columns.
- Iconographic Influence: Both Hindu and Buddhist temples were rich in detailed
iconography, reflecting the religious themes of the time.

This architectural style reflects a blend of influences, primarily from Buddhism,

and later developed into a distinctive Hindu temple architecture in Kashmir.

Khajuraho Temple Architecture in Early Medieval India:

1. Overview
- Location: Khajuraho, Bundelkhand region (Central India).
- Time Period: Constructed between the 10th and 12th centuries by the Chandela
rulers.
- Architectural Style: Represents the Nagara style of temple architecture.
- Surviving Temples: Out of eighty-five, twenty-five temples survive today.
- Religious Dedications:
- Ten temples dedicated to Vishnu in various forms.
- Eight temples dedicated to Shiva.
- One to Surya (Sun God).
- One to the Chaunsath Yoginis.
- Five temples dedicated to Jainism.
- Notable temples include the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Shiva), Lakshmana
Temple (Vishnu), Chaturbhuja Temple (Vishnu), Chitragupta Temple (Sun), and
Adinatha Jain Temple.

2. Temple Construction Phases

- Phase I (Mainly granite):
- Important temples: Chausath Yogini Temple, Varaha Temple, Brahma Temple
(contains Shiva Linga).
- Phase II (Mainly sandstone):
- Important temples: Lakshmana Temple, Vishwanath Temple, Parswanath Temple,
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.
3. Distinctive Features of Khajuraho Temples
- Materials: Built primarily from fine-grained sandstone.
- Design: Compact, lofty temples on high platform terraces (jagati).
- Wall Sculptures: The jagati is adorned with bands of sculptures, and the walls
feature highly detailed carvings.
- Architectural Structure:
- Panchayatana System: Main shrine surrounded by four subsidiary shrines
(e.g., Lakshmana Temple, Vishwanath Temple).
- Temples generally consist of four parts: Mukha-Mandapa, Mandapa, Antarala,
and Garbha-Griha.
- Maha-Mandapa: Larger temples add lateral transepts with balconied windows.
- Pradakshinapatha: A pathway around the temple, with beautiful carvings.
- Shikhara:
- Curvilinear (Rekha Shikhara) above the Garbhagriha.
- Pyramidal structures for other parts.
- Shikhara Structure: Divided into four parts: Jangha, Chhapra, Amalaka, and
Kalasha. Some temples have two Amalakas (upper and lower).
 - Temples are seven-ratha (saptaratha) in plan, with a cubical portion divided
into segments.

4. Sculpture and Carvings

- Ornamentation: Both interior and exterior walls are ornately decorated.
- Themes:
- 10% of sculptures focus on sexual themes.
- The rest depict everyday life: women applying makeup, dancing, playing
games, musicians, potters, farmers, etc.
- Horsemen: Many sculptures depict horsemen, reflecting the transition from
horse-drawn chariots to cavalry, with some showing the use of saddles.
- Refinement: Khajuraho sculptures are more refined, graceful, and elegant than
those in Odisha.

5. Famous Temples and Sculptures

- Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Shiva):
- The largest and most intricate temple, built in 1029 CE.
- The shikhara symbolizes Mount Kailash, with 84 smaller shikharas.
- Lakshmana Temple (Vishnu):
- Main idol of Tri-headed Vishnu and sculptures of Varaha, Mahishasuramardini,
Ganesha, Narasimha, and others.
- Vishwanath Temple (Shiva):
- Notable carvings of a loving couple, dancing Ganesha, Parvati, flute-playing
woman, and Shiva Linga.
- Parswanath Temple (Jain):
- Dedicated to Parshvanatha, featuring Jain deities and inscriptions.
- Adinath Temple (Jain):
- Dedicated to Adinatha.
- Chausath Yogini Temple: A Hindu temple dedicated to 64 Yoginis.

6. Temple Layout
- Platform: Most temples are elevated on a high platform to provide a promenade
and ambulatory around the structure.
- Unified Design: The overall structure is compact and integrated, following a
rectangular ground plan.
- Sikhara Design: Each temple follows a symmetrical, layered layout, enhancing
the rhythmic aspect of the architecture.

7. Religious Affiliation and Timeline

- Temples dedicated to Hinduism and Jainism, with construction spanning from the
late 9th to 12th centuries.
- Timeline:
- Chausath Yogini Temple (885 CE)
- Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (1029 CE)
- Lakshmana Temple (939 CE)
- Vishwanath Temple (999 CE)
- Vishnu-Garuda Temple (1000 CE)
- Vamana Temple (1062 CE)
- Chaturbhuja Temple (1110 CE)

8. Significance
- Khajuraho temples are an epitome of Nagara style architecture, renowned for
their sculptural beauty, elegant proportions, and complex symbolism.
- Their combination of architectural innovation and detailed carving makes them
one of the finest examples of medieval temple architecture in India.

study of Odisha Temple Architecture in early medieval India:

Historical Context and Phases:

- Period: Built mostly between 750 AD to 1250 AD by the Eastern Ganga dynasty.
- Phases:
- Phase I (750–900 AD): Notable temples like Lakshmaneshwar, Bhuvaneshwar,
Ishwareshwar.
- Phase II (900–1100 AD): Key temples include Lingraj temple (Bhubaneshwar),
Jagannath temple (Puri), Puri temple (White Pagoda).
- Phase III (1100–1250 AD): Important temples include Raja Rani temple, Anant
Vasudeva temple (both in Bhuvaneshwar), and Sun temple (Konark, Black Pagoda).

Architectural Characteristics:
- Ground Plan:
- Square ground plan with projections at each side forming a cruciform shape
externally.
- Vertical divisions: Temples are divided into sections known as Rathas (vertical
divisions of the temple), e.g., Trirathas, Pancharathas, Saptarathas.

- Main Temple Structure:

- Garbha Griha (sanctum) and Shikhara (tower) form the core.
- In Odishan temples, the Garbha Griha is known as Deul or Srimandir, and the
Shikhara is called Rekha Deul.

- Additional Temple Parts:

- Mandap (hall) known as Jagamohan.
- Dancing hall: Nat Mandir.
- Offering hall: Bhog Mandir.
- The Shikhar of these parts is Pida Deul, which has a pyramidal-shaped roof.

- Khakhara Deula:
- A distinct style resembling the Dravidian Gopura design, with a barrel-vaulted
and elongated roof.
- Rectangular building with a truncated pyramid-shaped roof.
- Common in Sakta temples, e.g., Brahmi temple, Varahi Deula, Gouri temple.

Key Features:
- No Pillars: Unlike many other architectural styles, Odisha temples typically have
piers (pillars attached to the wall) rather than free-standing pillars.
- Hall Structure: Closed halls with plain interior walls; ornate exterior walls
with carvings.
- Sculptural Decorations:
- Erotic figures, deities, sacred animals, and human figures (dancers, musicians,
important women figures).
- Erotic sculptures are prominent, especially in the Konark Sun Temple.

Notable Temples:
- Konark Sun Temple (Black Pagoda):
- Built under King Narasingha Deva I (Eastern Ganga Dynasty) around 1250 CE.
- The temple's structure is shaped like a gigantic Sun Chariot, featuring 12
pairs of wheels with spoked patterns (8 broad and 8 thin).
- The temple is highly decorated with sculptural figures, including erotic
sculptures and free-standing animal figures.
- Three main parts: Deul, Jagmohan, and Natmandir.

Conclusion:
Odisha temple architecture is characterized by its unique style, with temples
following specific layout and architectural principles that distinguish them from
other regions of India. The temples often feature intricate sculptures and detailed
ornamentation, representing both religious devotion and everyday life. The Sun
Temple at Konark stands as the largest and most complex of these structures,
exemplifying the peak of Odisha temple architecture.
 Al-Biruni’s India

Al-Biruni’s Background
- Al-Biruni (c. 972-1048) was a Persian polymath from Khwarezm, now part of modern-
day Uzbekistan, who spent significant time in Ghazni, Afghanistan, the capital of
the Ghaznavid dynasty.
- He is recognized as one of the first Muslim Indologists and a key intellectual of
the 11th century. His fields of study included astronomy, geography, physics,
logic, mathematics, philosophy, religion, and medicine.
- Mahmud Ghazni’s patronage helped Al-Biruni’s intellectual journey, as he was
invited to the Ghaznavid court. Mahmud promoted scholarship to enhance his own
prestige, and Al-Biruni was brought to Ghazni for his expertise.

Kitab-ul-Hind (Tarikh-ul-Hind)
- Kitab-ul-Hind, written by Al-Biruni between 1017 and 1030, is an extensive study
of Indian life and culture based on his observations during his time in India.
- It covers 80 chapters, addressing subjects like religion, philosophy, social
customs, astronomy, and law.
- Al-Biruni used Sanskrit texts (including the *Bhagavad Gita*, *Vishnu Puran*, and
works by Patanjali and Aryabhata) and compared them with Greek philosophies.
- His method was scientific, focusing on a thorough and impartial analysis of Hindu
culture and thought.
- The structure of each chapter includes a question, a description based on
Sanskrit traditions, and a comparative analysis with other cultures.

Al-Biruni’s Methodology
- Al-Biruni was objective and free from religious prejudice in his writings,
recognizing the merits of both Hindu and Greek thought.
- He openly acknowledged gaps in his knowledge and clarified when he was uncertain.
- He analyzed both written and oral sources, emphasizing the importance of critical
examination of evidence in historiography.
- He avoided presenting his own interpretations or refutations of Hindu beliefs,
instead presenting them as they were.

Observations on Indian Society and Culture

- Caste System: Al-Biruni observed the rigid caste system in India, describing the
*Chatuh-varna* (four-fold division) and the lower castes, including the *antyaja*
and *untouchables*. He found similarities between the Indian caste structure and
social divisions in other cultures but disapproved of untouchability.
- Social Insularity: He criticized the closed nature of Indian society, with little
interaction between regions or social groups. He noted that the Brahmins, in
particular, maintained a sense of superiority and isolation.
- Stagnation of Knowledge: Al-Biruni lamented the decline of scientific inquiry in
India, comparing the state of Indian knowledge to a mixture of pearls and sour
dates, suggesting a lack of scientific rigor.
- Social Evils: Al-Biruni mentioned practices such as child marriage, *sati* (widow
burning), and the low status of women in Indian society.
- Indian Festivals: He recorded various Hindu festivals, highlighting their social
and religious significance, but noting that they were primarily observed by women
and children.

Al-Biruni’s Perspective on Hinduism and Islam

- He viewed Hinduism and Islam as fundamentally different but recognized that a
dialogue between the two cultures was necessary for mutual understanding.
- Al-Biruni’s sympathetic stance toward Indians was reflected in his writing, as he
sought to create a bridge of understanding between Muslims and Hindus, especially
in the realms of religion, science, and philosophy.
Conclusion
Al-Biruni’s work on India remains one of the most significant non-partisan accounts
of Indian society during the 11th century. His meticulous and scientific approach
to history and culture provides a detailed and insightful analysis of the social,
religious, and intellectual landscape of medieval India.

Al-Biruni's India

Religion and Religious Beliefs & Practices

- Concept of God: Al-Biruni discusses the Hindu belief in a singular, eternal God
(Isvara), who is self-sufficient and beneficent. Educated Hindus focus on abstract,
philosophical ideas, while the uneducated rely on simple, derived rules.
- Paradise and Hell: Hindus have varied beliefs about the afterlife, including
concepts like *Swarloka* (paradise) and *Narakloka* (hell), with each sin leading
to specific punishments in hell.
- Moksha and Transmigration: Al-Biruni draws parallels between Hindu and Sufi views
of liberation, noting the belief in transmigration of souls and the importance of
true knowledge for emancipation.
- Philosophical Diversity: He identifies various Hindu philosophies, including the
Samkhya school, and explores ideas about the soul, creation, and the nature of
existence.

Indian Polity
- Al-Biruni records the political conditions, including invasions, migrations, and
the decline of local kingdoms. He mentions dynasties like the Hindushahis and
Rajendra Chola.

Science in India
- Astronomy: Al-Biruni praises Indian astronomy, referencing works of notable
scholars like Varaha Mihira, Brahmagupta, Aryabhatta, and their contributions to
planetary motions, eclipses, and lunar stations (nakshatras).
- Mathematics: He acknowledges the Indian system of numbers, the concept of zero,
and calculations involving pi, though he sometimes critiques their scientific
rigor.
- Chemistry and Alchemy: Al-Biruni critiques Indian alchemy, linking it to
superstition but also acknowledging the medicinal value of some substances.
- Metrology and Arithmetic: He appreciates the Indian system of weights, measures,
and arithmetic, noting the extensive categorization of numbers in Sanskrit texts.

Criticism of Science in India

- Al-Biruni admires Indian knowledge in philosophy and mathematics but criticizes
the integration of science with religious beliefs and the insularity of the
Brahmans. He also condemns the hypocrisy of scholars who mislead the masses.

Geography and Indian Legal System

- Geography: Al-Biruni makes detailed observations about India's geography,
including rivers, mountains, and the role of water in shaping the land. He also
discusses the concept of *Madhyadesa* (central region) and maps distances between
key locations.
- Legal System: He provides insights into the practical aspects of Indian law,
comparing them to the theoretical expoundings in texts like *Manu Smriti*.

Criticism of Indian Literature and Cultural Practices

- Al-Biruni critiques the state of Indian literature, accusing scribes of
corrupting texts and misrepresenting history. He also notes the lack of critical
examination of Hindu texts.
- Despite his criticism, he admires Indian civilization, particularly its knowledge
in various scientific fields.
Barriers in Understanding India
- Al-Biruni identifies barriers such as language differences (between Sanskrit and
Arabic/Persian), religious beliefs, and the insularity of the local population,
which limited his understanding of India.

Limitations and Methodology

- Sources: Al-Biruni relied heavily on Sanskrit texts and Brahman sources,
neglecting non-Sanskrit texts like those of Buddhists and Jains.
- Geographical Mobility: His travels were largely confined to the Ghaznavid
Empire’s boundaries, and he sometimes relied on secondary sources, especially for
regions like Kashmir and Varanasi.
- Field Observations: While his descriptions of regions like Kashmir are detailed,
they may not always be based on firsthand observation, suggesting he gathered
information through local sources.

These points illustrate Al-Biruni's comprehensive but sometimes flawed approach to

studying India, combining admiration for its intellectual achievements with a
critical perspective on its scientific and cultural practices.

Sanskrit literature in Early Medieval India (750-1200):

Key Works and Scholars:

- Ramanuja: Wrote commentaries on the *Brahma Sutras*, emphasizing Bhakti.
- Jain Contributions: Deva Suri, a notable 12th-century Jain logician, contributed
to Sanskrit literature, and Jain scholars like Hemchandra Suri played a significant
role.
- Poetry and Drama: Works like *Gita-Govinda* by Jayadeva, *Harkeli Nataka*, and
*Prasanna Raghava* were written.
- Philosophical Works: Scholars wrote extensively in fields such as Yoga, Nyaya,
and Vaisesika systems.
- Law Literature: Important commentaries on *Dharmashastras*, such as *Mitakshara*
(by Vijnaneshwar) and *Dayabhaga* (by Jimuta Vahan), were produced.
- Astronomy: Bhaskaracharya (Bhaskara II) made contributions to the field.
- History: Kalhana's *Rajatarangini*, a history of Kashmir, was a key historical
work.

Patronage and Flourishing:

- Royal Patronage: Rulers like Hammir Deva, Kumbha Karna, and Krishna Devaraya
supported Sanskrit scholars.
- Educational Institutions: Specialized schools and academies flourished,
especially in the south, Bengal, and Mithila.

Decline of Sanskrit:
- Rise of Persian: The introduction of Persian during the Delhi Sultanate period,
along with the decline in Brahmanical influence, led to a reduction in Sanskrit's
status.
- Regional Languages: Vernacular languages, such as Hindi, gained prominence as
they were used for administration and literary expression, especially in the
context of the Bhakti movement.
- Cultural Shifts: The rise of non-Brahmanical and Bhakti movements further
contributed to the growth of regional literatures and the translation of key texts
into regional languages.

Influence of Bhakti:
- Bhakti saints translated or adapted key epics, Puranas, and the *Bhagavad Gita*
into regional languages, making them accessible to the masses.

These trends reflect both the continuance and transformation of Sanskrit literature
during the Early Medieval period in India.
 Sanskrit drama, lyric poetry, and prose literature:

Drama:
- Language Usage: Upper-class characters speak in Sanskrit, while lower-class
characters use various forms of Prākrit.
- Bhavabhuti:
- A Brahmin from Vidarbha, mentioned by Kalhaṇa in *Rajatarangiṇi*.
- Wrote three dramas: *Malati-Madhava*, *Mahaviracharita*, and
*Uttararamacharita*.
- *Mahaviracharita*: Depicts the early life of Rama, including the role of
Mālyāvān, Ravana’s minister.
- *Malati-Madhava*: The most famous of Bhavabhuti’s works.
- *Uttararamacharita*: The second part of Rama’s story.

- Rajasekhara (9th century CE):

- Wrote four dramas, including *Balaramayana* (related to the *Ramayana*) and
*Karpurmanjari*.

- Kshmisvara (9th-10th century CE):

- Wrote *Naishadhananda* and *Chaṇḍakausika*, the latter depicting the story of
King Hariśachandra and Sage Visvamitra.

- Other Dramatists:
- *Veṇisanihara* by Bhattanarayaṇa (based on Mahabharata).
- *Anargharaghava* by Murari (late 8th or early 9th century CE, based on the
*Ramayana*).
- *Chudamani* by Saktibhadra (Kerala).
- *Mahanataka* by Damodaramisra (court poet of King Bhoja of Malava).
- *Ramabhyudaya* by Yasovarmana (based on the *Ramayana*).
- *Kundamala* by Dimnaga (10th century CE, based on the *Ramayana*).
- *Kiratarjuniya* and others by Vatsraja (minister of Kalinjar ruler
Parmardideva, 12th century).
- *Karanasundari* by Bilhaṇa (11th century, about Chalukya prince Aṇhilavaḍ
Karṇa).

- Jayadeva (12th century CE):

- *Prasanna-raghava*, a drama on Rama’s life.
- Also known for *Gītagovinda*, a key lyric poem.

- Kshemendra and Somadeva:

- *Chitrabharata* by Kshemendra (11th century).
- *Kathasaritsagara* by Somadeva, based on Brihatkatha.

Lyric Poetry:
- Amarusataka by Amaru: A refined portrayal of love and sexual joy.
- Kuttanimata by Damodaragupta: Influenced by Harsha's *Ratnavali*.
- Bhallata-sataka by Bhallata (9th century CE): A collection of 100 stanzas in
different meters.
- Chaurapanchasika by Bilhaṇa (11th century CE): Describes love scenes, written in
a simple style.
- Govardhana (12th century): *Aryasaptaaati*, a poem with 700 erotic stanzas.
- Dhoyi: *Pawanduta*, written under the patronage of King Lakshmanasena (12th
century CE).
- Sarvajnamitra (8th century CE): *Sragdhrastotra*, dedicated to Tara, the Buddhist
goddess.
- Krishṇakarṇamrita by Lilasuka (11th century CE), also dedicated to Krishna.

Prose Literature:
- Categories:
- Romance: Akhyayika (historically based) and Katha (purely poetic creation).
- Fable: Includes popular tales, beast fables, and fairy tales, categorized into
Buddhistic and non-Buddhistic types.

- Key Works:
- *Madhavanala-Kamakandala-Katha* by Ananda: Likely composed during King Bhoja's
reign.
- *Tilakamanjari* by Dhanapala (1000 CE): Based on Baṇa’s *Kadambari*.
- *Gadya-Chintamaṇi* by Vadibhasiṁha: A work imitating *Kadambari*.
- *Udayasundarikatha* by Soddhala (11th century CE).

- The Brihatkatha Versions:

- *Slokasamgraha* by Buddhavsvamin (8th-9th century CE).
- *Brihatkathamanjari* by Kshemendra (1037 CE).
- *Kathasaritsagara* by Somadeva (1063–1081 CE).

- Beast Fables:
- *Hitopadesa* by Narayana Pandita (11th century CE), a classic beast fable.

This overview highlights the significant contributions to Sanskrit drama, lyric

poetry, and prose literature, outlining the thematic focus, authors, and time
periods associated with each work.

historical writings in ancient India:

1. Lack of Critical Historical Writings:

- Indian literature was rich in many genres, but historical writings were not as
developed. Early Indian historical writings were often intertwined with mythology,
legends, and imagination.
- The charge that Indians lacked historical sense was leveled by Alberuni,
though this is debated today.

2. Reasons for Limited Historical Writing:

- Various factors such as political conditions, the doctrine of Karma, belief in
destiny, the cyclical nature of creation and destruction, the caste system, and a
focus on religious or mythological themes may have contributed to the lack of
systematic historical writing.

3. Evidence of Early Historical Record-Keeping:

- Chinese traveler Hiuen-Tsang testified to the existence of official record-
keepers in India during the reign of King Harshavardhana in the 7th century, who
documented significant events.

4. Notable Early Indian Historians:

- Kalhana (12th century CE) is considered a prominent historian with his work
*Rajatarangini*, which chronicles the history of Kashmir.
- Hemachandra (1088–1172 CE), a Jain scholar, wrote the *Kumarapalacharita*, a
historical work on Gujarat and King Kumarapala.

5. Historical Kavya (Poetry):

- Early Indian historical writings were often in the form of *kavya* (poetry),
where history, myth, and legend blended together.
- Notable works include:
- *Navasahasanka-charita* by Padmagupta (10th century CE), which narrates the
history of his patron, King Navasahasanka.
- *Vikramankadeva-charita* by Bilhaṇa (11th century CE), detailing the life of
King Vikramaditya VI of the Chalukya dynasty.
- *Ramacharita* by Sandhyakara Nandin (11th-12th century CE), a historical
work on the Bengal ruler Ramapala.

6. Minor Historical Kavya:

- Other notable works include the *Prithvirajavijaya*, an epic detailing the
victories of King Prithviraja of Ajmer, and the *Rājendra Karṇapura* (11th century
CE), which praises King Harsha of Kashmir.

7. Epics with Historical Value:

- Various epics, such as those by *Sriharsha* (12th century CE) and *Kshemendra*
(11th century CE), while primarily mythological, also carry historical
significance, particularly in detailing contemporary events and figures.

8. Jain Contributions to Historical Literature:

- Jain writers, particularly in the 8th-11th centuries CE, produced epic works
with historical and biographical content, such as the *Trishashti-salakapurusa-
charita* by Hemachandra and *Harivansapuraṇa* by Jinasena.

9. Champu Literature:
- *Champu* literature, a mixture of prose and verse, became prominent in
Southern India from the 10th century CE, with examples like *Nalachampu* and
*Yasastilakchampu* by Somadeva Suri.

In conclusion, while India did not produce critical historians in the Western sense
during the ancient and medieval periods, historical writings did exist, albeit
often in poetic and mythological forms. These works offer valuable insights into
India's history, even though they were often entangled with legends and cultural
values.

other sources

Grammar:
1. Padamanjari by Haradyātta (12th century CE): A commentary on Paṇini's Sutras.
2. Durgata-vritti by Saraṇadeva (1172 CE): Commentary on difficult passages of
Paṇini's text.
3. Astadhyayi by Dharmakirti (11th century): Reorganization of Paṇini’s sutras into
topics.
4. Pradipa by Kaiyata (11th century): A commentary on Patanjali's Mahabhashya.
5. Bhasha-vṛitti by Purushottamadeva (12th century): Commentary on Paṇini's Sutras.
6. Siddha-Hemachandra or Haima Vyakaraṇa by Hemachandra (12th century): A grammar
of Sanskrit and Prākrit.
7. Sarasvati-Kaṇthabharaṇa by Bhojadeva (11th century): A significant work on
grammar.

Lexicography:
1. Amarakosa by Amarsiṁha (before 7th century CE): The standard Sanskrit lexicon
with numerous later commentaries.
2. Kamadhenu by Subhutichandra (1062-1172 CE): Commentary on Amarakosa.
3. Trikaṇḍasesa by Purushottamadeva (12th century CE): Supplement to Amarakosa.
4. Vaijayanti-kosa by Yadavaprakasa (c. 1050 CE): A lexicon with Vedic words.
5. Abhidhanachintamani-mala by Hemachandra (1088 CE): Synonyms, homonyms, and
botanical glossary.
6. Nanartharṇava-Samkshepa by Kesavasvamina (Chola period): A large lexicon.

Astronomy and Astrology:

1. Bhattotpala (10th century CE): Commentary on Aryabhatta’s Khaṇḍa-Khadyaka.
2. Siddhanta-Siromaṇi by Bhaskara (1150 CE): A major work in astronomy and
mathematics, divided into four parts.
3. Hora-sastra by Bhattopala (10th century): Astrological text with commentary.
4. Adbhutasagara by Ballalasena (1168 CE): Treatise on astrology.
Mathematics:
1. Gaṇita-sara-sarmgraha by Mahaviracharya (Rashtrakuta period): A work on
geometry.
2. Trisati by Sridhara (991 CE): Focused on quadratic equations in algebra.
3. Lilavati and Bijaganita by Bhaskara (1150 CE): Key works on mathematics.

Medicine:
1. Rasaratnakara by Nagarjuna (10th century CE): Comprehensive medicinal work.
2. Madhavanidana by Madhavakara (9th century CE): A key work on pathology.
3. Ayurveda-dipika by Chakrapaṇidatta (11th century CE): Commentary on Charaka’s
work.

Works on Erotics:
1. Nagara-sarvasva by Padamasri (10th century): Erotic treatise.
2. Panchasayaka by Jyotirisvara Kavisekhara (12th century): Erotic work divided
into five parts.

Works on Law:
1. Manubhashya by Medatithi (823-900 CE): Commentary on Manusmriti.
2. Mitakshara by Vijnanesvara (Deccan): Commentary on Yajnavalkya Smriti.
3. Smritikalpataru by Lakshmidhara (1105-43 CE): Digest of law for King
Gobindachandra.
4. Smritichandrika by Devaṇṇabhatta (1200 CE): A digest of law.

Philosophy:
1. Nyaya: Commentaries by Vachaspatimisra, Udayana, Jayanta Bhatta.
2. Vaiseshika: Commentaries by Vyomasivacharya, Sridhara, Udayana.
3. Samkhya: Tattva-kaumudi by Vachaspati Misra.
4. Yoga: Commentaries on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras by Vyasa, Vachaspati Misra, Bhoja.
5. Vedanta: Commentaries by Sankaracharya, Ramanuja, Nimbarka.

This provides an overview of key works and figures in grammar, lexicography,

astronomy, astrology, mathematics, medicine, erotics, law, and philosophy from the
early medieval period in India.

various works and authors related to *Arthashastra* and political theory:

1. The Nitisara of Kamandaka

- Written in verse, with a Kavya (poetic) character.
- Based on Kautilya's *Arthashastra* but is not merely a redaction.
- Mentions by Vamana (around 800 CE), placing it between 700-750 CE.
- Focuses on political wisdom and is a significant treatise after Kautilya.

2. Nitivakyamṛita by Somadeva Suri

- A Jaina political treatise from the 10th century CE, mixing ethics and
politics.
- Written in short aphorisms or sutras.
- While *Arthashastra* treats *dharma* in the context of acquiring *artha*,
*Nitivakyamṛita* considers *Niti* (political wisdom) in both ethical and political
terms.
- Aims at guiding rulers on state administration and securing pre-eminence in
inter-state relations.
- The language is simple, and Somadeva’s style is distinctive.

3. Laghuvar by Hemachandra (1088–1172 CE)

- A small manual of politics for Jaina readers.
- Hemachandra was a prolific writer on various subjects.
4. Manasollasa (Abhilashitartha-chintamaṇi) by King Somesvara
- Composed around 1131 CE during Somesvara's reign (1127–1138 CE).
- A comprehensive work discussing the qualifications of a king and royal policy.
- It serves as an encyclopaedia of polity and governance.

5. Nitisutras of Brihaspati
- Written in short prose, following a style used after the 6th or 7th century
CE.
- Discusses key aspects of governance and policy.

6. Agni-puraṇa
- Contains chapters on polity and governance.

7. Yuktikalpataru by King Bhoja

- Written by King Bhoja of the Paramara dynasty in the 11th century CE.
- A Niti text, though of lesser merit compared to others, but notable for
quotations and comments.
- Known for his critical insights into politics and governance.

8. Literature on Music
- Sangita-makaranda by Narada (11th century CE) discusses music and dance in two
parts.
- Manasollasa of King Somesvara (1131 CE) also touches upon music and
instruments.
- Sangitaratnakara by Sarangadeva (1210-1247 CE) is the most comprehensive
treatise on Indian music.
- Deals with musical notes, technical terms, melodies, measures of time,
instruments, acting, and dancing.
- Considered the first modern book on Indian music.
- Sarangadeva was a musician at the court of Yadava King Singhana of Devagiri.
- Sangita Samayasara by Parsvadeva, a Jaina, deals with all aspects of music.

These texts offer insights into the development of political and musical theory in
medieval India, blending ethics, governance, and artistic culture.

Cultural Traditions in India (750-1200), focusing on the literature in the newly

developing regional languages:

1. Emergence of Regional Identity (750-1200 CE)

- Unprecedented growth: During this period, regional identity grew in terms of
polity, society, and culture, marking a shift from a unified cultural model to one
defined by regional characteristics.
- Art and Architecture: Regional schools (e.g., Eastern, Orissan, West Indian)
and dynastic labels like Pallava and Chola reflected the regional context of
cultural activities.
- Languages and Literature: Literary works in regional languages reflected the
regional spirit, stemming from the local demand for more accessible mediums of
communication.

2. Development of Regional Languages

- Sanskrit to Prakrit and Apabhramsha: Classical Sanskrit evolved into four
regional Prakrits (Shauraseni, Magadhi, Paicachi, and Maharashtri), which later
degenerated into Apabhramsha. Over time, regional languages like Bengali, Oriya,
and Assamese developed from these forms.
- Indo-Aryan Languages: The Indo-Aryan group, including Bengali, Marathi,
Gujarati, and Oriya, emerged, whereas Dravidian languages (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada,
Malayalam) had already evolved earlier.

3. Bengali Literature
 - Influence of Buddhism: Bengali literature developed significantly through the
efforts of Buddhist monks, particularly in the form of the Charyapadas (songs of
the Siddhacharyas of the Mahayana Sect). These works were religious and doctrinal,
written in a form of Gauda-Prakrit (early Bengali).
- Brahmanic Criticism: Initially, Brahmanic scholars criticized the use of
Bengali for serious literature, considering it unworthy compared to Sanskrit.
However, the Buddhist literature in Bengali became the precursor to later forms of
Bengali religious songs.

4. Oriya Literature
- Brahmanic Revival: The decline of Buddhism in Orissa was marked by the rise of
Brahmanism, especially under the Sena rulers. Sanskrit became the dominant language
of courtly literature.
- Cultural Synthesis: Oriya, part of the Indo-Aryan language family, showed
influences from both Dravidian and Aryan cultures. The script evolved from the
Brahmi script, integrating features of Kalinga and Gupta scripts.
- Buddhist and Brahmanic Literature: Buddhist monks composed songs and psalms in
Eastern Indian Apabhramsha, which had a significant influence on Oriya literary
traditions.
- Sanskrit Overlap: Despite Sanskrit’s dominance, the common people still used
vernacular languages, which continued to evolve despite the rise of Brahmanism.

5. Assamese Literature
- Development of Early Assamese: Between the 6th and 10th centuries, the
Kamarupa Prakrit evolved into Kamarupi Apabhramsha, which later transitioned into
early Assamese around the 11th century.
- Folk Literature: Early Assamese literature includes folk songs and Bihu songs,
which were associated with the Bihu festivals. These songs were often pastoral
ballads or marriage songs and represented the region's cultural ethos.
- Dak Mahapurusa's Sayings: The aphorisms of Dak Mahapurusa form an early
collection of Assamese literature, providing insights into the region's customs,
beliefs, and Buddhist ethics.

6. Marathi Literature
- Early Marathi: Distinctive Marathi literature began to emerge around 1200 CE,
marked by folk songs and regional ballads.
- Cultural Expression: The Marathi literature was a reflection of the social and
religious changes taking place in the region, particularly influenced by the spread
of Bhakti movements.

7. Synthesis of Cultures and Faiths

- Religious Influence: Religion, particularly Buddhism, Tantric Buddhism, and
later Hinduism, played a crucial role in the development of regional languages and
literature. Tantric and Vajrayana Buddhism particularly influenced Bengali, Oriya,
and Assamese traditions.
- Hindu Revival: The period also saw the rise of prominent Hindu philosophers
like Sankara, Ramanuja, Madhva, and Nimbarka, who established Sanskrit as the
vehicle of religious expression, relegating vernacular languages to the margins of
high culture.

In summary, the period from 750-1200 CE witnessed a dynamic rise of regional

identities in India, marked by the growth of literature in newly developing
languages like Bengali, Oriya, Assamese, and Marathi, alongside the persistence of
Sanskrit. Regional languages were deeply influenced by local religious and cultural
practices, with Buddhism and Hinduism shaping the literary output of the time.

Marathi and Kannada literature:

Marathi Literature:
1. Early Development:
- Distinctive Assamese literature began with folk songs like Bihugeets, pastoral
ballads, marriage songs, and nursery rhymes. Assamese recorded literature began
around A.D. 1200.
- Marathi literature, influenced by Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, and Apabhramsha,
emerged as a medium for literary expression around the 11th century.
- Evidence for the evolution of Marathi from Maharashtri Prakrit is minimal, but
Apabhramsha influence is clear.
- Marathi is considered a re-sanskritized language by some scholars.

2. Historical Context:
- In the 9th century, with the revival of Hinduism, Marathi developed in
parallel.
- The Rashtrakutas, rulers of Maharashtra, promoted art and learning, but
Sanskrit was the main literary language.
- Marathi, spoken since around A.D. 600, was used in inscriptions but not yet as
a literary language.
- Early Marathi inscriptions (e.g., A.D. 983) have been found in Shravanbelgola
(Mysore), marking its development.
- By A.D. 1203, Marathi had become the language for official documents and royal
mandates.

3. Literary Growth:
- Marathi literature flourished during the reign of the Yadava kings, with
various types of literature such as folk tales, songs, Puranic stories, and
treatises on astrology, medicine, etc.
- Mukundaraj’s *Viveksindhu* is one of the earliest works in Marathi, focusing
on Hindu philosophy and the Yogamarga.
- Mukundaraj's other works include *Paramamrit*, *Paramvijaya*, and
*Mulastambha*.
- Marathi literature, especially in the twelfth century, was mainly religious
and philosophical in nature, composed in verse.

4. Nath Cult Influence:

- The Nath cult, which broke away from orthodox Hinduism, used Marathi for
religious practices and literature.
- Mukundaraj was part of the Nath sect and wrote extensively in Marathi.

Kannada Literature:
1. Twelfth Century Developments:
- In the twelfth century, several popular religious cults emerged, including the
Nath cult, which spread across India and used regional languages like Marathi and
Kannada.
- Kannada literature began to flourish with the rise of the Rashtrakutas,
Cholas, and other kingdoms, which supported the vernacular languages.

2. Notable Works and Authors:

- Nripatunga’s Kavirajamarga (A.D. 850): The first extant work on rhetoric in
Kannada, influenced by Sanskrit texts like *Kavyadarsa*.
- Syamakundacarya (A.D. 650): Early Jain writer, author of *Vaddaradhane*, a
prose work on Jain saints.
- Pampa (A.D. 941): A prominent Kannada poet who wrote *Adipurana* (on the life
of the first Jain Tirthankara) and *Vikramarjuna Vijaya* (Jain version of
Mahabharata).
- Ponna: Junior contemporary of Pampa, wrote *Santipurana* (history of the 16th
Tirthankara) and other works.
- Ranna: Known for works like *Ajitapurana* and *Gadayuddha*, contributing to
Kannada literature.
3. Influence of Jainism:
- Jain writers were instrumental in Kannada literature, especially in the
twelfth century.
- Chavundaraya (A.D. 978): Wrote *Cavundaraya Purana*, one of the earliest prose
works in Kannada.
- Nagavarma: Known for works on Kannada grammar and rhetoric, such as
*Kavyavalokana* and *Karnataka Bhashabhushana*.
- Nagachandra (A.D. 1105): Wrote *Mallinathapurana* and *Ramachandra
Charitapurana*, the Jain version of the Rama story.

4. Later Contributions:
- Pujyapada’s Kalyanakaraka: A work on medicine translated from Sanskrit into
Kannada.
- Nemichandra: Court poet under Vira Ballala, wrote *Lilavati* and began
*Neminathapurana* (unfinished).
- Jain, Vira-saivas, and Vaishnavas influenced Kannada literature from the
twelfth century onwards.

telugu literature
1. Origin and Early Development:
- Telugu country was historically called *Trilinga* (bounded by the three
lingas: Kalahasti, Srisailam, and Daksharama).
- The name "Telugu" is believed to derive from "tene" (honey) or "tennu" (way).
- Telugu language traces its beginnings to stone inscriptions from the 5th and
6th centuries A.D.
- Early Telugu shares affinities with Tamil and Kannada, and it relied largely
on Sanskrit for literary idiom.

2. Early Inscriptions and Literary Influence:

- Inscriptions from the 6th-7th centuries include a mix of Sanskrit, Prakrit,
and Telugu.
- Early literary works were strongly influenced by Sanskrit and were
predominantly in the form of inscriptions.
- Telugu literature evolved in parallel with Kannada, with poets like Pampa and
Ponna from Telugu regions contributing to Kannada literature.

3. Notable Early Works:

- The earliest well-documented Telugu literary works began with Nannaya’s
translation of the *Mahabharata* (around 1019-1061 A.D.), commissioned by King
Rajaraja Narendra.
- Nannaya is also credited with the *Andhra-sabda-cintamani*, a foundational
work on Telugu grammar, earning him the title "Vaganusasana" (law-giver of the
language).

4. Cultural and Religious Influence:

- From the 12th century, Vira-saivism (Shaivism) became a significant religious
force, and this sectarian movement influenced the literary culture.
- Poets of the period often supported Vira-saivism, such as Mallikarjuna
Pandita, who wrote *Siva-tattva-Saram* (an exposition of Vira-saivism).
- Nanne Choda, a Telugu-Choda prince, authored *Kumarasambhava*, a Mahakavya,
based on Kalidasa’s Sanskrit work.

5. Evolution of the Language:

- Telugu's early literary forms included *lalipatalu* (cradle songs),
*melukolupulu* (dawn songs), *mangala haratulu* (festivity songs), *kirtanalu*
(devotional songs), and *udupu patalu* (harvest songs), which formed the unwritten
popular literature of the masses.
- By the 12th century, Telugu had a more organized literary structure,
influenced by Sanskrit.
6. Literary and Scholarly Contributions:
- Vemulavada Bhima Kavi, a contemporary of Nannaya, was an important poet and
grammarian, writing *Kavijanasraya* and contributing to the literary canon.
- The 12th century saw a rise in works that were based on both local and
Sanskrit traditions.

7. Linguistic and Cultural Crossovers:

- Early Telugu was closely related to Kannada, and poets from both languages
often intermingled. Srinatha, a famous Telugu poet, referred to himself as a poet
in *Karnatabhasha* (Kannada language).

These points highlight the evolution of Telugu as a literary language, its early
foundations in religious and philosophical movements, and the development of its
literary traditions through key figures and works.

Tamil literature during the period 750-1200 A.D.:

1. Period of Transition (c. A.D. 500-850):

- The Sangam literature represents the earliest body of Tamil works.
- From c. A.D. 500-850, Sanskrit influence became more pronounced in Tamil
literature, particularly in terms of ethics, religion, and philosophy.
- Sanskrit texts and law codes were often translated into Tamil, and there was a
notable presence of Jain writers during this phase, with Jainism and Buddhism
influencing Tamil literature.
- Devotional literature emerged as a result of a Hindu revival, particularly
through the work of Saiva Nayanmars and Vaishnava Alvars.
- The devotional hymns were set to music and deeply impacted the common folk,
making the literature accessible to the masses.

2. Notable Literary Works (500-850):

- Tiruvalluvar's Kural: A comprehensive manual of ethics, polity, and love,
influenced by Jain and Sanskrit texts.
- Kar-narpadu: A love poem depicting a woman's sorrow in the absence of her
beloved.
- Naladi: Another prominent literary work from this period.
- Nanmanikkadigai (100 stanzas) by Vilambi Naganar: A highly regarded work of
literary merit, next only to the Kural.
- Asarakkovai: A Tamil *smriti* (law code) based on Sanskrit originals.

3. Age of Imperial Cholas (c. A.D. 850-1200):

- The period saw the rise of Prabandha literature (devotional poetry), which was
instrumental in spreading religious and philosophical ideas.
- The Saiva canon (compiled by Nambi Andar Nambi) and the Vaishnava canon
(compiled by Nathamuni) played a major role in organizing the devotional hymns of
their respective traditions.
- Prominent Saiva poets included Karaikkal Ammai, whose works began the
Prabandha literature and contributed to the Saiva canon.
- The Divyaprabandham (Four Thousand Sacred Hymns) of the Vaishnava Alvars was
compiled during this period.
- The Periya Puranam of Sekkilar (c. A.D. 1133-50) became a landmark in Tamil
Saivism and hagiography.

4. Key Authors and Works:

- Kamban: The celebrated author of the Tamil *Ramayanam* (or *Ramavataram*),
which is the greatest epic in Tamil literature.
- Jayangondar: Known for his war poem *Kalingattupparani*, which narrates the
Kalingawar of Kulottunga.
- Kuttan/Ottakkuttan: A poet laureate of the Chola court who composed poems
about the Chola monarchs.
- Tiruttakkadevar's Jivakacintamani: A Jain work from the early 10th century.

5. Jain and Buddhist Influence:

- Jainism and Buddhism continued to have a literary presence, though not as
dominant as before.
- Tolakavi wrote *Sulamani*, a Jain puranic theme poem, which is considered one
of the five minor kavyas of Tamil literature.

6. Religious Literature and Philosophical Treatises:

- The Saiva Siddhanta (Saiva philosophy) was systematically treated in
philosophical works.
- The literature from this period also includes many commentaries on religious
texts and philosophical treatises.

7. Grammatical and Lexical Contributions:

- The Yapparungalam and Yapparungalakkarigai, authoritative works on Tamil
prosody, were composed by Amitasagara, a Jain ascetic.
- Pingalam, a concise Tamil lexicon, was another significant work from this
period.

This period marks the golden age of Tamil literature, characterized by religious
devotion, the rise of Prabandha literature, and the development of literary canons
for both Saiva and Vaishnava traditions.

Kalhana's *Rajatarangini*:

Factors Favoring the Growth of Historiography in Kashmir

1. Distinct Geography and Cultural Identity: Kashmir's separation from mainland
India contributed to its unique cultural and regional identity, which fostered a
sense of local history.
2. Proximity to Central Asia and China: The influence of these regions, with their
long-standing traditions of history writing, helped inspire historiography in
Kashmir.
3. Buddhism: The strong historiographical and hagiographical tradition in Buddhism
contributed to the development of historical writing in Kashmir.
4. Turbulent Political Period: Kalhana wrote during a period of turmoil, following
the reign of Harsha, filled with wars and struggles. His work reflects the
instability of the time and serves as a moral commentary on the futility of earthly
pleasures.

Kalhana’s Sources and Methodology

- Kalhana utilized 11 previous chroniclers of Kashmir and contemporary records such
as royal charters, edicts, coins, inscriptions, and land grants for his work.
- His father Champaka had been a minister at the court of King Harsha, providing
Kalhana with important access to courtly information.

Content and Structure of *Rajatarangini***

- **Books I-III: These books cover the earliest history of Kashmir from the time of
the legendary king Gonanda I to the 6th century CE, mixing mythological and
historical elements. These sections are somewhat unreliable chronologically, but
include well-known figures like Asoka and Kaniska.
- Books IV-VIII: These books provide more historically reliable content, covering
the 7th to 12th centuries with accurate chronological details, focusing on
significant dynasties like the Karkota and Utpala dynasties.

Key Historical Figures in *Rajatarangini***

- **Lalitaditya (Karkota Dynasty): A powerful and influential ruler, known for his
military conquests and cultural patronage.
- Didda (Utpala Dynasty): A prominent queen who exercised political power for
nearly 50 years, both as regent and later as ruler. Kalhana describes her
ruthlessly but also acknowledges her contribution to Kashmir’s politics and
culture.
- Samgramaraja (Lohara Dynasty): A weak ruler, during whose reign the state was
largely controlled by the powerful minister Tunga.

Themes and Perspectives in Kalhana's Work

1. Political Criticism: Kalhana criticizes the bureaucracy, particularly the
Kayastha officials, for conspiracies and corruption.
2. Misrule and Social Conditions: Kalhana portrays the misrule during the decline
of Kashmir's political stability, describing the rise of feudal elements (Damras)
and social inequality, with rich citizens indulging in luxury while the poor
struggled.
3. Women in Politics: Despite his prejudices, Kalhana mentions the political
influence of women, such as queens and courtesans, who sometimes exercised power
behind the throne.
4. Social Life: He describes the social life in Kashmir, including differences in
lifestyle between the rich and poor, and introduces the attire and customs of the
time, such as the long coat introduced by Harsha.
5. Economic Life: Kalhana mentions agriculture, water works, and the role of
ministers in managing the economy, particularly in relation to the success of
Avantivarman’s rule.

Kalhana’s Legacy
Kalhana’s *Rajatarangini* is significant not just for the history it records but
also for introducing a modern approach to historiography, marking a departure from
mythological traditions to a more critical, empirical recording of history. His
work became a model for later historians in Kashmir and beyond.

Kalhana's Rajatarangini

Kalhana's Views on History:

1. Power of History: Kalhana emphasizes that history has the power to transport
readers to the past, offering an eye-witness perspective.
2. Creativity and Relevance: He suggests that history involves creativity that
remains relevant through time, surpassing mere storytelling.
3. Objectivity: Kalhana stresses that a historian should impartially judge past
events, unaffected by personal preferences. History must be unbiased.
4. Critical of Previous Historians: Kalhana criticizes earlier historians for
writing eulogies to please rulers and not presenting a true historical account.
- He criticizes works like "Nripavali" for lacking historical content and being
more literary than factual.
- Kalhana also critiques Suvrat's writings for being too compact and critical,
making them unclear and misleading.
5. Methodology and Sources: Kalhana emphasizes thorough research for writing
history, mentioning his use of various sources:
- Inscriptions, architectural records, royal eulogies, coins, monumental
remains, family records, and previous texts like *Harshacharita* and *Brihat-
samhita*.
- He lists 11 scholars who provided genealogical information on Kashmir's
rulers.
- He mentions utilizing myths, folklore, and legends to supplement historical
data.
6. Historical Explanation: Kalhana not only describes events but seeks to
understand and explain the conditions of the time, urging people to learn from past
mistakes.

Criticisms and Limitations:

1. Use of Sanskrit and Ornate Style: Kalhana’s choice of Sanskrit and ornate style
of writing occasionally blends fiction with historical facts.
2. Chronological Inconsistencies: There are inconsistencies in the chronology and
dates in the first three books of *Rajatarangini*, which span over 3000 years and
largely rely on Puranic sources and legends.
- Example: The reign of Ranaditya is exaggerated to 300 years.
3. Exaggeration of Military Conquests: Kalhana exaggerates the military conquests
of King Lalitaditya Muktapida in Book IV.
4. Regionalism: Kalhana erroneously includes the Maurya dynasty as rulers of
Kashmir, a mistake in historical accuracy.
5. Gender Bias: Kalhana shows gender bias, particularly in his negative portrayal
of Queen Didda, and his writing reflects a Brahmin-centric viewpoint.

Historical Importance:
- Despite the criticisms, *Rajatarangini* remains the only authentic source for the
history of early Kashmir.
- Kalhana’s work is considered qualitatively ahead of his time and unparalleled by
any other contemporary historian.
- His historiographical approach influenced later writers, like Jonaraja, though
their works were seen as inferior to Kalhana’s.

Conclusion:
Kalhana's *Rajatarangini* provides invaluable insight into the history of Kashmir
and its neighboring regions, forming the cornerstone of early Kashmiri
historiography. His approach combined creativity with meticulous research, making
him a pioneering historian despite some flaws in his work.

Madhva and Nimbarka:

Madhva:
1. Background and Early Life:
- Madhvacharya, born in the 13th century in Kalyanapur (near Udipi, South
Kanara), founded a religious sect based on the *Bhagavat Purana*.
- Early training in Shankara’s philosophy of Advaita (monism) led him to
eventually diverge from it, adopting a dualistic perspective.
- He became a sanyasi and was called *Purna Prajna* (fully enlightened).

2. Philosophical Development:
- Madhva engaged in a debate with an acharya of Sringeri, leading to his
persecution. He then traveled extensively across India, facing numerous hardships,
before writing a commentary on the *Vedanta-Sutras* in the Himalayas.
- He returned to Udipi, where he built a temple for Krishna and spent his life
preaching.

3. Teachings:
- Madhva’s teachings focused on *Bhakti* (devotion) to Krishna, with no place
for Radha, and acknowledged all incarnations of Vishnu.
- He also recognized Shiva and the five gods of the Smartas.
- Madhva founded the *Dvaita* (dualism) school of Vedanta, which emphasized the
eternal distinction between God and the individual soul, God and matter, individual
souls and matter, and between individual souls themselves.
- Madhva’s philosophy rejected Shankara’s *Advaita* (monism) and Ramanuja’s
*Vishishtadvaita* (qualified monism), asserting that liberation is achieved only
through the grace of God.

4. Impact and Influence:

- The *Dvaita* school founded by Madhva had a significant influence on the
Bhakti movement and Vaishnavism in medieval India.
- Madhva’s philosophy remains one of the three influential schools of Vedanta,
alongside *Advaita* and *Vishishtadvaita*.

Nimbarka:
1. Background and Early Life:
- Nimbarka, a contemporary of Ramanuja, was a Raghava Telugu Brahmin from
Nimbapura (Bellary district) who spent much of his life in Brindavan, Northern
India.

2. Philosophical Position:
- Nimbarka’s religious philosophy revolved around complete devotion to Krishna
and Radha. He elevated Radha as Krishna's eternal consort, not just a mistress, and
emphasized her centrality in divine worship.
- Nimbarka proposed a *bheda-bheda* philosophy, which posited that God, the
soul, and the world are both identical and distinct. This is a balanced position
between the extremes of monism and dualism.

3. Teachings and Contributions:

- Nimbarka's teachings are encapsulated in his commentary on the *Vedanta-
Sutras* and another key text, the *Siddhantaratna* (or *Dasaloki*).
- He founded the *Sanak sect* or *Hansa sect*, which was allied with but
distinct from Ramanuja’s tradition. Nimbarka’s teachings emphasized surrender
(*prapatti*) to Krishna, promoting total devotion to God.

Conclusion:
- Both Madhvacharya and Nimbarka were key figures in shaping the religious and
philosophical landscape of medieval India, especially within Vaishnavism.
- Madhva established a distinct dualistic approach (Dvaita), emphasizing the
difference between God and soul, while Nimbarka advocated for a more nuanced
dualism with his *bheda-bheda* philosophy, focusing on devotion to Krishna and
Radha.

Shankaracharya and Vedanta:

- Vedanta: A major school of Hindu philosophy, based on the Upanishads, Brahma
Sutras, and Bhagavad Gita. It deals with knowledge and liberation and includes
various sub-traditions.
- Sub-traditions of Vedanta:
1. Advaita – Established by Shankaracharya (788-820 CE)
2. Vishishtadvaita – Established by Ramanujacharya (1017-1137 CE)
3. Dvaita – Established by Madhvacharya
4. Bhedabheda – Established by Nimbarkacharya
5. Shuddhadvaita – Established by Vallabhacharya
6. Achintyabhedabheda – Established by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu

- Shankaracharya (Advaita Vedanta):

- Monism: Advocated for Advaita (non-dualism), claiming that the ultimate
reality, Brahman, is the only reality, and the individual self (Atman) is identical
to it.
- Maya: He taught that the world is an illusion (maya), and only Brahman is real.
- Ignorance (Avidya): The difference between the self and Brahman is due to
ignorance, and liberation (moksha) comes through realizing the oneness of Atman and
Brahman.
- Doctrine of Jagat Mithya, Brahma Satyam: The world is illusion, and Brahman
alone is real.
- Unification: He aimed to reconcile diverse religious cults, including Shaivas,
Vaishnavas, Shaktism, and Buddhism, within the Vedic framework.
- Influence: He is seen as having integrated the teachings of the Vedas with
various regional and religious practices, including the Puranic traditions.

- Political Role: Shankaracharya used philosophy to connect geographically

fragmented India and established pilgrimages that symbolized a unified India.

- Criticism: Some critics say his teachings were too complex, and his focus on
Sanskrit and his intellectual approach alienated the masses. His influence is
debated, with some scholars suggesting his fame grew posthumously.

Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita:

- Ramanuja (1077–1157 CE): A key philosopher of Sri Vaishnavism, Ramanuja is known
for his Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) philosophy.
- Vishishtadvaita: Unlike Shankaracharya's Advaita, Ramanuja argued that Brahman
is both one and distinct. The soul and matter are attributes of Brahman but are
distinct from it.
- Personal God (Sagun Brahman): Ramanuja rejected the idea of a formless Brahman
and argued that God has form and qualities, with Vishnu being the supreme deity.
- Prapatti (Total Surrender): The key to liberation is complete surrender and
devotion (bhakti) to God, particularly to Vishnu.
- Moksha (Liberation): For Ramanuja, moksha occurs when the soul returns to God,
remaining distinct but eternally united with him.
- Bhakti Marga: He emphasized devotion as the path to salvation and promoted
bhakti as the key to achieving moksha.

- Sri Vaishnavism: Ramanuja's teachings had a profound impact on the Bhakti

movement, highlighting the importance of personal devotion to Vishnu and his
consort Lakshmi.

- Social Reform: Ramanuja advocated for equal access to worship, and he did not
support caste discrimination. He worked towards eradicating untouchability, making
his teachings inclusive.

- Key Texts: His important works include:

1. Sri Bhashya: A commentary on the Brahma Sutras.
2. Bhagavad Gita Bhashya: A commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.

- Legacy: Ramanuja established a balance between orthodox Brahmanism and popular

Bhakti, making devotional worship accessible to all, including lower castes.