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National education in Nepal: between

the ‘local’ and the ‘global’, In H.
Letchamanan (Ed.) Education in
South As...
Uma Pradhan

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 9

he National Education in Nepal: Between the

‘Local’ and the ‘Global’
Uma Pradhan

Introduction

Nepal has come a long way since the British historian Daniel Wright (1877)
famously remarked that ‘the subject of schools and colleges may be treated
as briely as that of snakes in Ireland. here are none.’ According to the 2014
education statistics of the government of Nepal, there are a total of 34,806 schools
in Nepal, of which 29,133 are community schools (state-supported schools) and
5,673 are institutional schools (privately funded schools). Among them 895 are
religious schools, which include 745 madrasas (Muslim religious schools), 78
gumbas (Buddhist monastic schools) and 72 ashram schools (Hindu religious
schools). On average, the school – student ratio is 1:179 at the basic level (grades
1–8) and 1:145 at the secondary level (grades 9–12). he net enrolment rate is
87.6 per cent at the basic level and 34.7 per cent at the secondary level.
his rapid expansion of mass education in Nepal notwithstanding, the idea
and nature of national education has also served as a key site for instituting
varying political and development visions of the Nepali state. Many scholars
of education in Nepal have pointed out that the Nepali schools have been used
as spaces for promoting monarchy and Hinduism as Nepal’s national identity
(Caddell, 2007), institutionalizing Nepali monolingualism as nationalism
(Eagle, 1999) and inculcating Nepali nationalism through the construction of
a history of valour and bravery (Onta, 1996). hese ideas of education, as the
scholars point out, privilege a particular idea of ‘national’ through gradual and
systemic cultural politics in various institutions of education in Nepal (Onta,
1996). However, many other scholars have noted that while the idea of education
and the educated person is envisaged, on the one hand, as that of a ‘good citizen’

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 166 Education in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Islands

embodying the national identity (Skinner and Holland, 1996), on the other hand,
the Nepali education system also foregrounds the urbanized and Westernized
self as a vision of development (Pigg, 1992) and the idea of education as a
process of ‘modernizing’ the self (Valentin, 2011). As Liechty (1997) points out,
‘foreignness’ plays an important role in shaping contemporary Nepali identity.
his chapter will analyse education policies in Nepal to explore this dual,
and apparently divergent, interest instituted in Nepal’s ‘national’ education
system. In the current scholarship on education in Nepal, the ideas of ‘local’,
‘national’ and ‘global’ have received attention as separate dynamics. While this
approach allows us to understand each of these phenomena in greater depth,
more could be done to understand the interrelation between them. Drawing on
the provisions made in diferent education policies, this chapter will illustrate
that the national education system of Nepal has constantly sought to strike a
balance between varied conceptions of the ‘local’ and the ‘global’, in an attempt
to construct the ‘national’. First, this chapter highlights the juxtapositioning of
the ‘local’, ‘national’ and ‘global’, as it is embodied in school education, and how
the ideas were used and directed to the speciic political ends. Second, it shows
how the meanings of these ideas changed and impacted the way the education
system has evolved over the years in Nepal. his chapter also highlights the
discursive spaces created during the periods of major education reforms in
order to relect on the ways in which these policies have persistently negotiated
diverse inluence on the education system.

State, schooling and society

As the Nepal National Education Planning Commission (NNEPC, 1956, p. 80)

stated, ‘Education will be national,’ and ‘there will be only one system of public,
government-supported education, an integrated, unitary programme adapted
to the needs of our people and society’. he commission proposed that the new
education policy be known as National Education Plan, that new schools be
known as ‘national schools’ and the new curriculum as the ‘national curriculum’.
As an important project of the nation-building efort in the newly ‘democratized’
political system of 1951, the commission saw the prevalent education system as
‘scattered’ which needed to be ‘merged into a strong national unitary efort’ (p.
67). Dr Hugh Wood (1976, p. 155), the education specialist hired to design the
education system for newly democratized Nepal, observed:

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 he National Education in Nepal: Between the ‘Local’ and the ‘Global’ 167

As an educational program design specialist, I found a unique situation in 1953

when I was asked to assist in the development of an educational system for
Nepal. … An inventory of schools in Nepal in 1952 revealed about a. 50 gompas,
b. Sanskrit system including a few primary schools 3 secondary schools, and a
college, c. a British system for the Ranas and a few other elite, which included
a few primary schools, three high schools, and a college, d. increasing number
of perhaps 100 of vernacular schools near the Indian Border (following Indian
prototypes of British schools, but in the local language), and e. few basic schools
forgoing Gandhi’s indigenous schools in India.

he main point of departure for the NNEPC was not that it marked a beginning
of any form of education in Nepal, but that it set out to consolidate the existing
diverse system of education and establish a national education system as
an important part of state project. Various rulers in Nepal, till then, did not
perceive education as a primary function of the state. Traditionally, education
was imparted as religious training by the priests and monks to a select group
of people (Sharma, 1990). In the Rana period (1846–1951), in addition to the
continuation of these religious institutions, Durbar School, the irst Western-
style school, was established in 1854 as a private English institution for the
members of the Rana family. By 1892, this school was transformed into a fully
functioning educational institution with an objective of preparing ruling elites
to engage with the British in India efectively (Aryal, 1977, p. 123). his school
was opened to public in 1902 and during this period, the educated middle class
could send their children to Durbar School and to various cities in India for AQ: Please
note that “this
higher education (see Chapter 10 of this book). volume” has
he absence of a ‘public’ education system has led to this period being been changed
to “this book
popularly known as a ‘dark era’ in terms of Nepal’s education system. However, as per house
style. Please
it was during the Rana period that Prime Minister Dev Shamsher declared free conirm.
and universal primary education for the irst time in 1901. As a result, around
200 Nepali-medium schools (Bhasa Pathsala) were established across the
country (Sharma, 1990; Acharya, 1957). While Durbar School embodied the
strong interest to emulate the English system of education, the other parallel
education systems in Nepal ofered a variety of non-Western education to
some of its population. hus, the Ranas’ policy was not so much one of total
isolationism but rather, as Liechty (1997) points out, the ‘selective exclusion’ of
particular aspects of ‘foreignness’. he British India was an important inluence
on the Rana state and their vision of governance. On the one hand, the ruling
elite were given access to Western education and exposed to Western ideas

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 168 Education in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Islands

and institutions. his played an important role in the ways in which the Ranas
sought to enhance their own position within it and in the region (Caddell, 2007,
p. 3). On the other hand, the Ranas ensured that the activists in British India
did not ‘contaminate’ the political sentiments and sensibilities of Nepalis within
Nepal (Onta, 1997). hus, even during the ‘stagnant’ period of Rana rule, Nepal
carefully crated its education system under diverse inluences.
And yet, it was during the Rana period that the need to develop the nationalist
education system was irst articulated. In a very detailed biography of a well-
known literary igure Balakrishna Sama (1909–81), Onta (1997) draws our
attention to his Bintipatra (petition) to Prime Minister Bhim Shamsher that
he be allowed to teach Nepali literature and grammar in the Durbar School.
During his trips to Calcutta for the examination, he had been acutely aware of
the lack of ‘Nepali’ literature and history compared to the continued dominance
of English language in education and Hindi/Urdu theatre of the elite Ranas.
Onta (1997) highlights that Sama lamented that Nepal needs to move on from a
habit of copying the ‘Islamic civilization and culture’ previously and the ‘English
civilization and culture’ at present. He warned that this blind copying of other
cultures should not be understood as being ‘civilized’. Further in his petition,
he requested for Nepali-language-based education, ‘the one in which Nepali
history, literature and culture would also be taught’ (Onta, 1997). Similarly,
Chalmers (2003) discusses the key role played by Nepalis living in Banaras and
Darjeeling in this process of developing Nepali as a unifying language. hese
cultural discourses, developed in places like Banaras and Darjeeling by small
groups of people, were later adopted by the post-Rana and Panchayati states in
Nepal for the development of Nepali nationalism. hrough the discovery and
rediscovery of cultural icons such as Bhanubhakta Acharya (1814–69) by Moti
Ram Bhatta (1866–96), Nepali literature gradually developed due to various
literary activities (Chalmers, 2003; Onta, 1996; Hutt, 1988).
Ater the overthrow of Rana rule in 1950, the new political system (Panchayat
Period, 1962–90) provided the much-needed environment of the emergent
nationalist sentiments to prosper through education system. he education
system during this period sought to replace the existing ‘hotchpotch system’,
as expressed in Wood’s quote in the beginning of this section, and ‘stir up a
wave of national feeling’. he newly formed Ministry of Education and Culture
centralized all the education system in the country, introduced Nepali as a
medium of instruction and utilized education as an important arena for nation-
building (Caddell, 2007). Even during this period of high nationalism, he
NNEPC (1956, p. 2) envisaged that ‘the education programme to be formulated

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 he National Education in Nepal: Between the ‘Local’ and the ‘Global’ 169

should enlighten the very depths of Nepal’s soul and enrich it with the scientiic
knowledge of modern times to make the country self-suicient’. he education
policy that followed this vision, the National Education System Plan (NESP)
of 1971, recommended a complete switchover to Nepali as the medium of
instruction, of examination and of textbooks in the school system.
And yet, this was also a period when Nepal began to closely associate with
the international agencies to support its education system. As Maslak (2002)
points out, it shited the kingdom’s status in the scheme of development from
‘forbidden kingdom’ (isolated from the rest of the world) to a ‘developing
country’ (forward-looking nation aspiring to obtain the results of globalization
and modernization). he NNEPC report, which provided the basis for Nepal’s
irst ‘national’ education system, was thus heavily inluenced by the ideas from
the outside, while it attempted to coalesce the ideas of Nepali nationalism around
the ‘triumvirate’ of Nepali language, monarchy and Hindu religion as ‘uniquely’
Nepali. Other scholars (Awasthi, 2004) have also pointed out the parallels
between Macaulay’s education plan in India and Hugh Wood’s education plan
for Nepal. he need to engage with the international actors was clearly identiied
as one of the main challenges of the period.

We have become a part of the world, whether we like it or not. We can no longer
remain isolated; the world has come to us. How can we meet this world without
education? Must we, who once were the crossroads of civilization – bow our
heads in shame to our worldly visitors? (NNEPC, 1956, p. 74)

he end of Panchayat era in 1990 raised several questions on the ‘efectiveness’

of this national education system. he subsequent education policy, on the one
hand, sought to decentralize education through the establishment of various
school-level bodies through programmes such as Basic Primary Education
Programme (BPEP I, 1992–97) and BPEP II (1997–2002), EFA Programme
(2004–2009), Community School Support Project (CSSP, 2003–2007) and School
Sector Reform Programme (SSRP, 2009–15). On the other hand, it continued
to build on the core components of national education system and eforts to
internationalize the contents. Building on the ‘Education for All’ consensus from
Jomtien, the Education Master Plan 1991 outlined a package of improvements
to basic and primary education in which ‘improved curriculum, textbooks
and teaching/learning environments’ would ‘produce’ a ‘literate and numerate
population ready for further education, but also competent citizens who can deal
with problems at home and at work’ (MOE, 1991, p. 7). he newly elected Nepali
Congress government constituted a National Education Commission (NEC) in

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 170 Education in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Islands

1992 which emphasized the need to ‘live in harmony’ with the ‘modern age’ and
develop in ways that would not ‘jeopardize the identity’ and ‘national languages,
culture, literature, arts and heritage’ (Carney and Madsen, 2009; NEC, 1992).

he changing purpose of education

he ways in which various education policies of Nepal negotiated with the ideas of
local, national and global also inluenced the changing discourse in the purpose
of education. During the Rana period (1846–51), as already mentioned in the
earlier section, the ruling elite initiated the Western-style education to increase
their ability to participate efectively in negotiations with other states, especially
British India. he Rana-governed state limited its contacts with external powers
because of geographical factors and, most signiicantly, political restrictions
imposed by the Treaty of Sagauli, signed with the East India Company in 1815
(Burghart, 1996, p. 227). he establishment of the Durbar School was therefore
an important way in which the Ranas carefully engaged with the external powers.
hrough the English-inspired education, they tried to make sense of the powerful
political force in the neighbouring state while at the same time maintaining the
sovereignty by limiting the inluence of the external ideas, especially the Indian
nationalist and pro-democracy movements. As a response to this, the ruling elites
also experimented with sending the youth to Japan where they could learn the
‘modern methods of engineering’, the one that ofered the ‘elusive combination
of modernization and autocracy in a non-Anglo/European cultural package’
(Liechty, 1997, p. 22). he emergent education system was therefore highly
limited in its purpose and carefully maintained the image of an ‘isolated’ country
with a ‘pure’ Hindu identity. he Western-style education, though meant only for
the elites exclusively, included British history and English literature but did not
seek to develop Nepal’s own national history or that of the Indian subcontinent.
With the political change in 1950, the new ideas of engaging efectively with
‘democracy’ emerged as a new purpose of education. he signiicance of the NNEPC
(1956) was built on the claim that it sought to change the stated ‘policy of isolation’
that kept Nepal in ‘total darkness, uncontaminated by the present-day civilization’.
NNEPC saw that education is the ‘sine qua non of success of democracy’:

In order to make democracy a real success, we have to educate our people within
the shortest possible time, especially since universal adult sufrage has already
been proclaimed. he danger of dictatorship or civil war due to misuse of the right

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 he National Education in Nepal: Between the ‘Local’ and the ‘Global’ 171

to vote must be avoided and this is not possible in a country like ours without
proper education. he education programme to be formulated should enlighten
the very depths of Nepal’s soul and enrich it with the scientiic knowledge of
modern times to make the country self-suicient in everyday. (pp. 1–2)

An increased connection with the outside world, as highlighted in the education

policy discourse, was also related to the necessity of having a strong national
character to the state, with education envisaged as a crucial medium through
which this could be disseminated. Writing about the NESP of 1971, Mitchell (1976,
pp. 160–1) points out that though the education discourse increasingly used the
rhetoric of ‘opening up to the world from closed Rana regime’, the new education
plan was ‘clearly slanted towards developing a modern nation with a strong
economy relatively unencumbered by foreign commitments’ and the development
of citizens loyal to the crown. hus, as envisaged in NESP the new purpose of
education was now to ‘produce citizens who are loyal to the nation, monarchy and
national independence’, to ‘expand and extend such learning, science, technology,
and skill as may be necessary for the development of the country’ and to ‘preserve,
develop and propagate the national language and literature, culture and arts’.
By 1990, the Nepali government was increasingly becoming aware of the
limits of the highly centralized education system. With the shit in the political
arena to a multiparty democracy (from a single-party political system) the
education system opened up to the idea of community participation to inject
a ‘new sense of social cohesion’ (Carney and Madsen, 2009, p. 197). he new
purpose of education was now to ensure community accountability to increase
access and equity, enhance quality and relevance and improve the management
eiciency of primary education (BPEP, 1997, pp. 97–102). hus, through the
projects such as BPEP and CSSP, a ‘large-scale transfer to schools to local
community stakeholders was done’ (Bhatta, 2000). Carney and Madsen (2009,
p. 200) identiied a new set of semantics such as ‘community’, ‘autonomy’,
‘responsibility’, ‘ownership’ and ‘local’ that shaped the national and international
discourses on education in Nepal.

he school curriculum

School curriculum and textbooks was one of the areas of education that saw
immense changes as the country sought to manage various priorities. In the
initial years of formal education in Nepal, the school education was highly

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 172 Education in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Islands

inluenced by the English curriculum. he Durbar School curriculum in 1920

included history of India and Britain, English literature such as Wordsworth’s
Lucy Grey and some geography of the world (Liechty, 1997; Onta, 1997).
However, there was no attempt to inculcate the ‘educated sense of historical
and geographical Nepal as a nation’ (Onta, 1997, p. 77). hough Prime Minister
Dev Shamsher made an efort by introducing the irst language primer book
Aksharanka Siksha, which was published and distributed free by the state, it
was later discontinued by Chandra Shamsher (Acharya, 1957). It was not until
the cultural activism of intellectuals such as Balakrishna Sama that the Nepali
language and literature were introduced into school curriculum.
Even till the 1950s, Hugh Wood (1976), the USAID consultant for NNEPC,
reports the central role played by the ‘outsiders’ in education. He notes that Nepalis
have ‘traditionally relied on the porters for information from the outside world’
(p. 152). Commenting on the formal education, he notes, Ranas used English as
the medium of instruction, used English books, adopted English customs and
anglicized their trade. However, with the democracy movement in 1950s, the
Nepali state sought to reconstruct the idea of Nepal from a country that was
closed of from the rest of the world to one that was open to global interaction. he
education sector was utilized as a crucial tool by the Panchayat regime. Schools,
both as physical spaces and in terms of the curriculum promoted through them,
were regarded as a medium through which to propagate a particular vision of the
Nepali nation. Onta (1996, p. 214) also traces the making of monolithic historical
narrative through ‘self-conscious fostering of the Nepali language’ and the
‘celebration of selective historical icons’. his imagination of the nation and the
subsequent idea of identity and modernity had a heavy inluence on inter-group
and intra-group relations in Nepal. In her study of Panchayat school textbooks,
Pigg (1992) shows that the textbooks highlighted the ‘backwardness’ of ethnic,
rural and non-Hindu groups and placed them in an inferior position.
However, it was not until NNEPC (1956) that the school curriculum in Nepal
was systematically institutionalized. With the nationalization of education during
the 1950s till the 1980s, the government revised the existing school curriculum.
he commission noted that in the primary school, language teaching oten
occupies 40–80 per cent of the curriculum time. It also pointed out that most
schools were devoting an unwarranted amount of time for the teaching of
languages (foreign, as well as national and mother tongue) and preparing for inal
examinations (NNEPC, 1956, p. 40). hus, the commission recommended that

the medium of instruction should be the national language in primary, middle

and higher educational institution, because any language which cannot be made

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 he National Education in Nepal: Between the ‘Local’ and the ‘Global’ 173

lingua franca and which does not serve legal proceedings in the court should not
ind a place. … he use of a national language can bring about equality among
all classes of people, can be an anchor-sheet for Nepalese nationality and can be
the main instrument for promoting literature. (p. 56)

Gradually, the NNEPC made a complete overhaul of the education system (p.
101). It mandated that English and Hindi should not be ofered in primary schools
(p. 68). he new primary education curriculum included subjects such as Nepali
language, social studies, science, arithmetic, crats, aesthetic art and personal
development in grades 1–3 and introduced English as a subject only in the fourth
grade. Moreover, it also advised that ‘some of the unemployed educated youth
should be put to work translating English, Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit, Bengali and other
materials into Nepali for use as textbooks and other reading material’ (p. 70). his
emphasis on Nepali language was reiterated by the NESP 1971. Nepali language
now had the greatest importance in school curriculum with the total of 300 marks
associated with it, followed by 200 marks for arithmetic, 100 for social studies,
physical education and hygiene, and 50 for handicrats and drawing. Following
this, Nepali as an oicial language was gradually mainstreamed through various
public institutions such as state-owned media and by making it an essential
criterion for citizenship application and for the oicial records in Nepal.
his overt nationalization of education and disproportionate importance
attached to Nepali language was challenged mainly from two quarters. First,
English-language teachers also began to raise their voices as the government was
planning to introduce Nepali-medium education in universities as well. Malla
(1977, p. 2) highlighted that 78 per cent students failed their School Leaving
Certiicate (SLC) exam and most of these failures were due to failure in English.
By 1990s, the new political system revised the curriculum and brought English
back into primary education. he NEC (1992) recommended the following to
respond to the changing context:

he following steps should be taken to enable the individual to live in harmony

with the national and international environment without putting his identity
at risk: a) To give priority to the teaching of the English language as a subject
in view of its importance as an international language; b) To expand the scope
for teaching the languages of the neighboring countries and other foreign
languages; c) To encourage comparative studies of human behavior, culture, and
other aspects of human creativity in the national and international context.

Second, the ethnic groups launched the linguistic movement of 1965 against
the cancellation of news broadcasting in diferent languages in Radio Nepal. By

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 174 Education in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Islands

the 1980s, there were several researches that indicated the ‘systemic exclusion’
experienced by ethnolinguistic groups. hese studies primarily criticized the
highly centralized and top-down mechanisms in the education system that
undermined local realities. As Dastidar (2007) notes Muslim organizations such
as All Nepal Anjuman Islah also iled a petition to the Department of Education
in 1958 that the Muslim community be allowed to opt for elementary Urdu
and Persian instead of elementary Sanskrit in their SLC exam. Ragsdale (1989),
discussing the third-grade test in the Tarai region, demonstrated that the school
curriculum and examination had an inherent cultural content. He asserted,
‘Nepal’s small, elitist system of education had been expanded without regard
for its suitability to the country’s needs, leading to its functioning as a mere
psychosocial adornment’ (p. 15). Similarly, Webster (1994) conducted a study
on Nepali proiciency in rural Nepal using the Nepali Sentence Repetition Test.
He concluded that ‘those who are uneducated and illiterate are nowhere near as
proicient in Nepali as those who are educated and literate’ (p. 45).
With the Constitution changes in 1990, the languages spoken as a mother
tongue within Nepal were given the status of ‘national languages’ (rastriya bhasa)
and Nepali in the Devanagari script retained its position as the ‘language of the
nation’ (rastra bhasa) and the oicial language of government. he Constitution
also guaranteed the right to operate schools up to the primary level in mother
tongues. he earlier vehement refusal to even consider allowing diverse
languages in the public sphere was now reduced, but by no means eliminated.
Radio Nepal started airing ive-minute news bulletins in eighteen diferent
languages from diferent parts of the country. MOE (2003, p. 47) announced a
three-language policy to remove the language barrier in education and address
the rapid language shit among the younger generation of many ethnic groups.
his was further taken up by the School Sector Reform Plan 2009–15, which
placed a target of 7,500 schools using mother tongues in grades 1–3. Similarly,
NNPoA highlighted the objective to develop new policies or reorient the existing
ones on inclusion of ethnic, minority, Dalit and females on the development and
use of local languages and on cultural lexibility (p. 47).

Education for all?

As the country interacted with the global institutions on ensuring universal

education, the uneven distribution of education services became even more
stark. As discussed in the previous section, the select inclusion in education

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 he National Education in Nepal: Between the ‘Local’ and the ‘Global’ 175

was not new in the context of Nepal. he ‘foreign teachers’ in Kathmandu and
education in ‘foreign lands’ were exclusively meant only for the elites during the
Rana period, who were disproportionately from the high-caste group. hough
some of the population attended Bhasa Pathsalas established across the country,
the access to public education continued to remain abysmal (Acharya, 1957).
Moreover, the onus for any education provision was placed on the community.
Any community that could gather up to twenty-four children and arrange a place
could request the government to supply a teacher. hus, the public spaces such
as patis (roadside shelters for the travellers) generally doubled up as schools.
However, as Education Ordinance of 1939 required the school management
committees to raise funds above the grant of 1,200 per annum, sustaining public
education became even less inancially viable.
Moreover, the schools also emerged as a location where the social and
economic power relations became overtly visible. Despite the expansion of
education services and a gradual increase in the number of children attending
school, Stash and Hannum (2001, p. 376) shows that caste, ethnicity and gender
stratiication continued to ‘strongly condition entry into schooling’ and attrition
from primary school. Reed and Reed’s (1968, p. 82) observation on the education
in a rural village reveals the deep-rooted bias in education:

here are the children, who by birth into certain families can proit from
education, and then there are other, low caste, children. Education is not needed
by these latter, and indeed in the opinion of some Nepalis, education carries
dangerous potentialities, such as ruining the lower caste children for their role
in life or rousing them to active dissatisfaction.

It is not surprising that when the National Education Planning Commission

started its preparatory work in 1951, the literacy rate was less than 9.5 per cent
(male: 17.8 per cent and female: 1.3 per cent). he report noted that ‘98 percent
of the people are illiterate; only about 300 complete high school each year in all
of Nepal and only about 100 complete college’ (NNEPC, 1956, p. 23). As the
government of Nepal opened up to the idea of modernizing education system
with the help of international experts, the concern over the universal reach of
education increased. As a response, NNEPC mandated the local-level bodies
to actively increase the number of students. ‘Education must be universal’ and
‘compulsory’, so that it is not ‘reserved only for the minorities’ (p. 75). his active
interest in making education universal did show some positive efects. By 1970
the literacy rate had climbed to what was optimistically reported as 32 per cent.
And yet, as Mitchell (1976, p. 160) points out, the ‘balance tips in favor of those

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 176 Education in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Islands

who live in Kathmandu valley or near the larger towns such as Pokhara’. With
the Education Act of 1971, the government launched a national-level reform of
the education sector where all the public schools would be free, and the school
facilities, teachers and other education-related materials were provided by the
government through the Ministry of Education.
However, as mentioned in the earlier section, the centralization of education
was highly criticized for maintaining the dominant group’s advantage that
resulted in a huge disparity in access to education. hrough projects such as
BPEP I and II, the Nepali government did make an attempt to fulil the Education
for All commitments, and the literacy rates of Nepal had increased to 49 per cent
in 2001 (from 2 per cent in the 1950s), but the education statistics also reveal
huge gaps between various social groups. According to the 2001 Census, literacy
rates among some lower castes were as low as 10 per cent, whereas among high-
status Brahmins the rate was over 70 per cent. Yadava (2007) cites school-level
educational statistics compiled in Nepal in 2005, and shows that the dropout rate
for ethnic minority children in the irst grade was 50 per cent, which made them
signiicantly more at risk of academic underachievement. Similarly, Muslims
also had a very low literacy rate of 34.72 per cent in comparison to the national
literacy rate of 53.7 per cent (Census, 2001).
hese disparities came into spotlight even more with the declaration of People’s
War by the Communist Party of Nepal – Maoist in 1996. During the ‘People’s
War’, the Maoists routinely attacked school buildings, not only as symbols of state
institutions, but also as icons of ethnic subjugation and discrimination (Pherali,
2011). he interconnection of educational issues with political issues became
quite evident in the grievances articulated by the Maoists. Before declaring the
People’s War, the Maoists presented a list of forty demands that included issues
such as universal education, mother-tongue education and closure of non-proit
education (Pherali, 2011; Shields and Rappleye, 2008). hapa and Sijapati (2004)
also point out that approximately 3,000 teachers were displaced and this drove
the student – teacher ratio up to 70:1 in some areas. In order to address this issue
of education disparity, the decentralization of education was seen as an important
strategy, not only as a response to long-standing challenges to education but also
‘to enable schools themselves to address … equity, eiciency and quality’ (World
Bank, 2001, p. 27). Scrutinizing this trend on decentralization, Carney, Bista
and Agergaard (2006) report that these programmes have been motivated by
the rhetoric of empowerment rather than by a genuine commitment to greater
inclusion and therefore have remained highly inefective.

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 he National Education in Nepal: Between the ‘Local’ and the ‘Global’ 177

Moreover, the emergence of private education has given rise to another

dimension of inequality in education. International donors, such as the World
Bank, have been prompting private schools to increase enrolment in schools.
However, other authors have noted that private schools have been key in
reproducing class and geographical inequalities. English-medium instruction,
usually ofered by private schools, is fast emerging as a key dimension of
‘the selling of dreams’ (Caddell, 2006). Schools, through their medium of
instruction, are implicated in the reproduction and production of advantage in
society. Schools that ofer access to a high-status language are seen as ofering
better life chances for those who can take that language. Burnett’s (2012) study
of diferent schools in Kathmandu has also highlighted the perceived role of
English for greater chance of success. Bhatta and Budakothi (2013), in their
study on privatization of education in Nepal, concur that use of English in the
schools is one of the important factors in their popularity. English proiciency
is simultaneously seen as ‘the key to a better future, an index of social capital,
and a ticket out of Nepal’ (Liechty, 2003, p. 213). herefore, the socially and
economically advantaged groups increasingly prefer to send their children to
private schools. hough the education statistics show a gradual progress in the
education statistics, the disparities in education continue in diferent forms.

Managing education

As the idea and practice of public education began to assume importance,

the Nepali state also initiated various institutional arrangements to manage
educational provisions. he main concern of the ruling elite during this period
was to contain any inluence of the nationalist movement in India while
ensuring that the ruling elite received a Western education. he function of the
central educational institutions was therefore to maintain state control over the
educational provisions at the local level while carefully guarding them against
any foreign inluence. he Department of Education was established by Jung
Bahadur Rana in 1858 is one of the earliest records of an attempt towards a
systematic management of Western education delivered in Nepal. He appointed
one of his sons, General Babbar Singh, as the director and was entrusted to
oversee the Durbar School. However, as more Nepali educational programmes
such as Bhasa Pathsala were established, several attempts were made by the
Nepali state to centrally manage the disparate educational services provided

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 178 Education in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Islands

in Nepal. he early records of national and global education were attempted

by Chandra Shamsher in 1902 through Bandobasta Adda (the Controller’s
Oice). he oice had the responsibility of ensuring quality control under two
sections: the Nagari Phant (Nepali Section) and the Angrezi Phant (English
Section). Later the Siksha Istihar (Education Ordinance) of 1939 decreed that
all the schools seek permission from the government, all the school headmasters
and oicials register with the civil service and the headmasters report all the
decisions regarding the school management to the Department of Education,
thus bringing both administration and inance under the purview of the state.
herefore, the main function of the Oice of Inspector of Schools was to report
on any political activities (Sharma, 1990).
Ater the overthrow of the Rana rulers, the new government continued with
the centralized management of education while sharing some administrative
functions with the local bodies. he Nepal National Education Commission
of 1956 saw the Ministry of Education as the ‘organizing force’ to provide
‘uniformity’ and ensure ‘minimum standards’ but it also mandated that ‘each
village must take the major responsibility for education in its area’. Each village
was required to have an Education Committee to ‘organize and supervise
education in general’ (p. 84). Several tax measures were also suggested to cover
the cost of education from the internal revenues and through the funds raised at
the local level. With the adoption of NESP in 1971, the government established
a comprehensive framework for universal education and centralized all the
community-based schools. Mitchell (1976) commenting on this education
policy notes that NESP created a ‘paradoxical situation’. he emergent education
management system, on the one hand, recommended decentralization through
the Education Directorates at ive development regions and seventy-ive district
education oices. But, on the other hand, it also launched a ‘centralized top-down
management’ in the place of community-oriented management for education
reforms’ (p. 167). Increasingly, all educational institutions and educational
services were gradually brought within the central government’s control to
ensure a ‘national’ character to all the educational provisions.
By 1990s, there was a general disenchantment with the centralized education
system. he NEC of 1992 thus identiied the Ministry of Education as the
potential impediment to the goal of Education for All. he NEC recommended
that the ministry’s role be ‘limited’ to the national-level tasks such as drawing
up policies and ensuring the regular assessments of the programme. he local-

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 he National Education in Nepal: Between the ‘Local’ and the ‘Global’ 179

level bodies were entrusted with the implementation of the programme (p. 15).
he BPEP I and II embarked on the project of strengthening the capacity of
MoE to plan, manage and monitor education programmes, while at the same
time emphasizing on building the institutional or managerial capacity at the
school, cluster and district levels for the promotion of eicient and quality basic
and primary education. he need for increased decentralization of education
became even more paramount due to the ‘high degree of mismatch between
the people’s growing aspiration and the government’s available resources for
education’ (Khanal, 2013, p. 60). Since BPEP, the Ministry of Education has
continued to emphasize on the transfer of administrative functions to district
education oices and of monitoring functions to the locally elected bodies. his
has been reiterated in National Plan of Action (2003) and School Sector Reform
Programme (2009–15).
While BPEP I and II were the major programmes to formally institute the
centrality of ‘local’ in the management of education, they were also the ones that
attracted a high level of donor funding. hus, during this period the government
also introduced the uniied inancial system ‘to channel donor support’ and
‘a single set of monitoring, reporting, inancial tracking instruments ‘so as to
AQ: Please
ease the coordination by the Nepali government’ (BPEP, 1999, p. 52). As the provide
education sector continues to attract highest donor funding, the Ministry of the closing
quote for the
Education (2009) continues to facilitate interagency collaboration through its corresponding
opening quote
Foreign Aid Coordination Section.
“and
‘a single set of
monitoring...”

Conclusion

his chapter has presented an overview of the various education policies

in Nepal to argue that Nepal’s education system ‘is a response to multiple
realities’ (MoE, 2009, p. ii). On the one hand, the emerging social and political
changes inside the country have underpinned the agendas for transformation
and development in education. On the other hand, the international contexts
and commitment to global education goals have equally inluenced the
process of change. Nepal’s education system thus embodies the challenge
of promoting a particular vision of national identity, while managing the
inclusion of its diverse population and responding to the varied donor
interests simultaneously.

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 180 Education in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Islands

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