Phytopathology® r 2024 r 114:855-868 r https://doi.org/10.

1094/PHYTO-03-24-0079-FI

Disaster Plant Pathology: Smart Solutions for Threats to Global Plant

Health from Natural and Human-Driven Disasters
Berea A. Etherton,1,2,3,† Robin A. Choudhury,1,2,3,4 Ricardo I. Alcalá Briseño,1,2,3,5
Romaric A. Mouafo-Tchinda,1,2,3 Aaron I. Plex Sulá,1,2,3 Manoj Choudhury,1,2,3 Ashish Adhikari,1,2,3
Si Lin Lei,1,2,3 Nattapol Kraisitudomsook,1,2,3,6 Jacobo Robledo Buritica,1,2,3 Vinicius A. Cerbaro,7
Kwame Ogero,8 Cindy M. Cox,9 Stephen P. Walsh,9 Jorge L. Andrade-Piedra,10 Bonaventure Aman Omondi,11
Israel Navarrete,12 Margaret A. McEwan,13,14 and Karen A. Garrett1,2,3,†

1
Plant Pathology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A.
2
Global Food Systems Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A.
3
Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A.
4
School of Earth, Environmental, and Marine Sciences, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX, U.S.A.
5
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, U.S.A.
6
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Muban Chombueng Rajabhat University, Chom Bueng, Ratchaburi, Thailand
7
Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A.
8
International Potato Center (CIP), Mwanza, Tanzania
9
USAID Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance, Washington, DC, U.S.A.
10
International Potato Center (CIP), Lima, Peru
11
Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, Cotonou, Benin
12
International Potato Center (CIP), Quito, Ecuador
13
International Potato Center (CIP) Africa Regional Office, Nairobi, Kenya
14
Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
Accepted for publication 5 April 2024.

Abstract
Disaster plant pathology addresses how natural and human-driven disasters impact plant diseases and the requirements for smart management
solutions. Local to global drivers of plant disease change in response to disasters, often creating environments more conducive to plant disease. Most
disasters have indirect effects on plant health through factors such as disrupted supply chains and damaged infrastructure. There is also the potential
for direct effects from disasters, such as pathogen or vector dispersal due to floods, hurricanes, and human migration driven by war. Pulse stressors
such as hurricanes and war require rapid responses, whereas press stressors such as climate change leave more time for management adaptation
but may ultimately cause broader challenges. Smart solutions for the effects of disasters can be deployed through digital agriculture and decision
support systems supporting disaster preparedness and optimized humanitarian aid across scales. Here, we use the disaster plant pathology framework
to synthesize the effects of disasters in plant pathology and outline solutions to maintain food security and plant health in catastrophic scenarios.
We recommend actions for improving food security before and following disasters, including (i) strengthening regional and global cooperation, (ii)
capacity building for rapid implementation of new technologies, (iii) effective clean seed systems that can act quickly to replace seed lost in disasters,
(iv) resilient biosecurity infrastructure and risk assessment ready for rapid implementation, and (v) decision support systems that can adapt rapidly to
unexpected scenarios.

Keywords: disaster microbiology, disease surveillance, food security, global agriculture, humanitarian crises, natural disasters

†
Corresponding authors: B. A. Etherton; [email protected], and Funding: Support was provided by the CGIAR Seed Equal Initiative and the
K. A. Garrett; [email protected] donors and organizations which globally support its work through their con-
Current address for M. Choudhary: ICAR-National Center for Integrated Pest Man- tributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund; the Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance,
agement, New Delhi, India. United States Agency for International Development (USAID), under the terms of
award number BHA 720BHA22IO00136; U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
The opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily
NIFA grants 2015-51181-24257 and 2020-51181-32198; USDA Animal and Plant
reflect the views of the USAID, USDA, or the United States Government.
Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Cooperative Agreements 11-8453-1483-CA and
AP21PPQS&T00C195 and the W. M. Keck Foundation.
Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article
distributed under the CC BY 4.0 International license. The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

Vol. 114, No. 5, 2024 855

 Disaster Plant Pathology following a disaster (Fig. 1). The impacts of natural and human-
driven disasters on food security are well documented (De Haen
Natural and human-driven disasters threaten global food secu- and Hemrich 2007; Horsfall and Cowling 1978; Kunreuther et al.
rity and livelihoods (Prosekov and Ivanova 2018; Rosegrant and 2014; Pelling and Garschagen 2019; Zadoks 2017). A new synthesis
Cline 2003). Large-scale disasters cause widespread and severe of the effects of disasters and compound disasters on plant disease
damage and directly threaten human health. In the immediate after- can help to focus plant pathology to effectively provide solutions.
math of disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes, attention must Disaster plant pathology supports the interdisciplinary development
be focused on human health and safety. In system recovery from of smart management solutions to foster disaster preparedness and
disasters, attention to human, animal, and plant health is needed, prevention, reducing the risk for compounding crises.
as disruptions in agrifood systems pose long-term risks to human Recent decades have been defined by rapid ecosystem change,
health (van Bruggen et al. 2019; WHO 2017; Zinsstag et al. 2011). often accompanied by biodiversity loss, shifts in biotic niches, and
Rapid-onset disasters, such as droughts, floods, wildfires, political increased spread of invasive pests and pathogens (Bebber et al.
turmoil, conflicts, and wars, function as pulse stressors. Long-term 2014; Mayewski et al. 2004; Turvey 2009). New threats have in-
disasters, such as climate change, market instability, and food in- spired the development of disaster microbiology, addressing the
security, function as press stressors. These stressors disrupt food effects of disasters on microbial populations (Smith and Casadevall
systems, which may have direct or indirect impacts on commu- 2022), and disaster ecology and disaster psychiatry, addressing an-
nities (Fig. 1A), leading to famines and infrastructure destruction thropological contexts and extreme public health disasters (Shultz
(Table 1) (Harris et al. 2018; Savary et al. 2019). The consequences et al. 2009). Disaster science has historically addressed responses
of disasters are most severe for low-income populations, who are for public health (Haines et al. 2006; Noji 2000) and is gaining
already dealing with the impacts of food insecurity and poverty importance across disciplines as human activities become more in-
(Carter et al. 2007; Fothergill and Peek 2004). terconnected, especially under catastrophic scenarios. The increas-
Mitigating the impacts of disasters on global food systems re- ing occurrence of natural disasters, human travel and migration,
quires smart tools and predictive systems, the collective actions of and global trade of agricultural goods exacerbates the risk of pest
agricultural stakeholders, and the development of recovery strate- and pathogen movement and establishment (Banholzer et al. 2014;
gies, particularly for vulnerable populations. The deployment and Bebber et al. 2014; Benevolenza and DeRigne 2019; Paini et al.
use of these predictive tools and recovery strategies can help to 2016). Recently, there has been a substantial effort to develop smart
mitigate the cumulative stress a community or region experiences agricultural tools to help address the uncertainty surrounding plant

FIGURE 1
Disaster plant pathology addresses how natural and human-driven disasters impact plant disease and the requirements for smart management so-
lutions. The stress intensity over time for plant health is a function of the many impacts of disasters, from pathogen dispersal and plant wounding to
reduced capacity for disease management. A, Pulse stressors in rapid-onset crises such as hurricanes demand a rapid response, whereas press stres-
sors in slow-onset crises such as climate change provide more time for management adaptation. Most disasters have indirect effects on plant health,
such as by destroying infrastructure, and some disasters also have direct effects on plant health, such as introduction of new pathogens in hurricanes.
B, Rapid and effective response protocols can decrease plant health risk over time. C, An example timeline for pulse and press disasters, the timing
of preventive and response measures, and their potential impacts on cumulative stress exposure. Timelines vary by disaster type, where deploying
response protocols to press stressors may occur before the greatest potential stress intensity is reached.

856 PHYTOPATHOLOGY®
disease epidemics through computational decision support systems new pests and pathogens gain access to vulnerable plant populations
(DSSs) (Zhai et al. 2020). As these tools improve and are more (Torchin and Mitchell 2004), which may also facilitate pathogen
widely available, they can be used in times of crisis for rapid and invasions between wild and cultivated host landscapes (Lacomme
optimized disaster preparedness and recovery. et al. 2017). Given rapid growth in international commodity trad-
Disaster plant pathology provides a framework focusing on the ing, the probability of long-distance pathogen movement drastically
impact of disasters on plant health, plant pathogens, and agricul- increases (Bebber et al. 2014; Clavel et al. 2011; McGeoch et al.
tural systems for tailored solutions and informed decision-making. 2010). For example, Bebber et al. (2014) reported that more than
This framework promotes interdisciplinary collaboration, making it 10% of crop pests have spread to at least half of the countries grow-
of common interest for communities of plant pathologists, humani- ing their host. Climate conduciveness to pests and pathogens is also
tarian groups, economists, computer scientists, meteorologists, and projected to change, potentially resulting in shifts in the geographic
sustainable development strategists. Disaster plant pathology ad- distribution of pathogens, their host ranges, and their vectors (Elad
dresses the uncertainty surrounding both human-driven and natural and Pertot 2014; Shaw and Osborne 2011). The ranges of many
disasters and the resulting challenges in the context of plant health important plant pests and pathogens have already expanded, al-
and food security (Fig. 1). The objectives of this paper are to though concurrent shifts in moisture and host availability can result
(i) develop the disaster plant pathology framework, focusing on in nonlinear impacts on overall disease prevalence (Dudney et al.
the impact of natural and human-driven disasters on plant disease 2021). Understanding and management of the interactions of host,
and food security; (ii) provide an overview of smart agriculture so- pathogen, and environment are challenged by increasing exposure
lutions and effective practices for disaster planning and recovery; to natural and human-driven disasters in ecosystems (Thiery et al.
and (iii) recommend steps for the implementation of disaster plant 2021). To optimally manage disease, we must consider not only the
pathology tools. disease triangle but also the complexity of natural disasters and hu-
manitarian crises. Ultimately, we need to develop tools for decision
Global drivers of pathogen and pest spread makers to address the effects of these pulse and press stressors on
The factors that drive disease, in the presence or absence of dis- plant health.
asters, are host susceptibility, environmental conduciveness, and
pathogen competence, in the “disease triangle” (Garrett et al. 2022; Natural Disasters
Scholthof 2007). Combined with climate change, human activities
can also contribute to the proliferation of pest and pathogen species Links between natural disasters and plant health
to the detriment of agricultural systems (McKinney and Lockwood Wildfires and extreme weather events, such as floods, tropical
1999). If cropping regions expand or host susceptibility increases, cyclones, and droughts, severely impact agriculture, food security,

TABLE 1
Disasters can be categorized by the type of crisis: slow-onset (press stressor), rapid-onset (pulse stressor), and complex (adapted from
SEADS [2022], an important source of information for disaster recovery)a
Crisis Common crisis traits Examples
Slow-onset crisis (press • Gradual, increasing stress on livelihoods • Drought
stressors) • Specific geographical areas are known to be at risk, • Plant pests
low-level predictability • Plant diseases
• Early response is often nonexistent • Parasitic weeds
• Crop area coverage decreases, and crop performance • Pollution
gradually worsens • Salinization
• Reduced crop quality generates lower prices and • Climate change
therefore reduced grower income
Rapid-onset crisis (pulse • Occurs with little or no warning, most impact occurs • Floods
stressors) immediately • Earthquakes
• Specific geographical areas often have known risks • Typhoons
• Early response measures exist, though are with short • Volcanic eruption
notice • Tsunami
• Movement of goods and people needed to manage • Pest or disease outbreaks
crops is restricted • Cyberattacks
• Crop loss is excessive
• Infrastructure and physical assets are immediately
damaged
• Markets close due to infrastructure loss, border
closures, quarantine, lockdown, or conflict
Complex crisis (potentially both • Associated with protracted political instability and/or • Ongoing conflict with natural
press and pulse stressors) internal or external armed conflict disaster impacts
• A slow-onset or a rapid-onset crisis can also occur • Civil war
simultaneously, worsening the impacts of the ongoing • Terrorism alongside natural
complex crisis disasters
• Crop loss is excessive and low production can become • New types of complex crisis
chronic (such as COVID-19)
• Infrastructure and services to support production are
damaged
• Markets are disrupted on a wide scale
• Access to productive assets and labor availability is
disrupted
a The type of disaster determines the impact on social and agricultural systems and the response needed.

Vol. 114, No. 5, 2024 857

and natural ecosystems globally (Albrigo et al. 2005; Dale et al. pests and pathogens across a landscape and lead to higher trans-
2001; Irey et al. 2006; Smith et al. 2016). The number of extreme mission rates, resulting in rampant disease spread. Extreme natural
weather events that cause extensive damage has increased in re- disasters can cause temporary or long-term disruptions in critical
cent decades (Smith et al. 2016), including substantial increases infrastructure, limiting the ability of stakeholders to monitor and
in the United States (Fig. 2). These events strain the tightly wo- manage pest population outbreaks in the aftermath of a disaster,
ven socioecological systems that maintain modern agriculture and which puts pressure on decision makers evaluating how best to man-
threaten both human and natural environments. Ultimately, extreme age disease (Mitsova et al. 2019). Decisions in response to extreme
weather events can make agriculture less sustainable in some re- weather events can have long-reaching effects on agricultural pro-
gions, so that farmers lose market share to more competitive and duction and food security that are difficult to forecast or mitigate.
stable regions (Goodwin and Vado 2007; Meissner et al. 2009; Webb For instance, following the 2010 earthquakes in Haiti, providing
et al. 2002), or it can cause complete breakdowns in food systems, rice as disaster relief resulted in an influx of inexpensive imports,
resulting in demographic catastrophes such as the “great famine” in weakening Haiti’s domestic rice production (Katz 2010).
1984–1985 in Ethiopia (Kidane and Hailemariam 1989). Extreme Although most immediate attention following these events is rea-
weather events affect how governments can promote and support sonably focused on protecting human health and wellbeing, it is
agriculture by altering resource priorities for a region or driving important to recognize the interconnectedness of human and plant
enactment of new regulations in the face of disaster (Goodwin and health. Unintended consequences, such as the impact on domestic
Vado 2007). In smallholder systems, particularly, natural disasters rice production following earthquakes in Haiti, highlight the need
cause a shift in coping strategies, limiting agronomic and disease for a One Health approach to disease management. The One Health
management practices, and even leading to abandonment of farms. framework addresses the interconnections between human, animal,
Reduced regional management can cause rapid accumulation of plant, and environmental health (van Bruggen et al. 2019; WHO

FIGURE 2
The number of billion-dollar disasters
in the United States, adjusted for
inflation, as reported by the National
Centers for Environmental Information
(Smith 2021), has been increasing
since the 1980s. Cell colors indicate
the type of disaster.

858 PHYTOPATHOLOGY®
2017; Zinsstag et al. 2011). Integrating plant pathology in disaster caused by Ralstonia solanacearum. Pathogen propagules with a
management strategies can enhance resilient food systems in the high lipid content can remain buoyant during floods, allowing the
aftermath of these catastrophes. Here, we synthesize the literature pathogen to float to new hosts, farms, or regions. For example,
supporting disaster plant pathology, incorporating the mechanisms buoyant microsclerotia produced by Rhizoctonia solani can spread
that drive disease patterns and the impacts these patterns have on rapidly within a rice paddy, potentially causing stem blight on
social and ecological systems. rice (Feng et al. 2017). Similarly, the microsclerotia of Verticillium
dahliae can spread into new fields through flood irrigation events
The impacts of major storms and floods (Tjamos 1993), and flooding can spread the chlamydospores of
Extreme weather events such as cyclones, hurricanes, and ty- F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense into new regions, a particularly impor-
phoons can directly impact plant health by spreading invasive tant current threat because of Tropical Race 4 (Dita et al. 2018; Pegg
pathogens and pests into new regions (Brown and Hovmøller 2002; et al. 2019). Soil saturation from flooded conditions can also lead to
Irey et al. 2006; Lehman 1994; Pan et al. 2006), in addition to the disease by causing oxygen stress in affected plants and is a serious
indirect effects of infrastructure damage. Although it is difficult to complication for many plant diseases (Lipps and Bruehl 1978).
directly tie a single tropical storm event to a new invasion, there
The effects of droughts and wildfires
is compelling evidence for several recent outbreaks. For example,
Severe droughts can increase the risk of plant disease by disrupt-
the spread of citrus canker in Florida was exacerbated by hurricanes
ing the usual plant host responses to infection, generating favor-
early in the epidemic, with many new outbreaks occurring in the path
able environmental conditions for the survival of some pathogens
of the storm (Gottwald et al. 2007; Irey et al. 2006). Fusarium oxys-
(Naylor and Coleman-Derr 2018; Swett 2020; Wakelin et al. 2018).
porum f. sp. cubense Tropical Race 4, a new race of the causal agent
For example, prolonged drought increases susceptibility in forest
of Fusarium wilt of banana, may have been spread in Mozambique
trees to pathogenic Phytophthora spp., causing dieback disease and
by a cyclone, increasing the risk of further spread to adjacent farm-
facilitating the establishment of new infections (Desprez-Loustau
lands and neighboring countries in Africa (Dita et al. 2018; Pegg
et al. 2006). Prolonged drought can also upset underground or
et al. 2019). The soybean rust pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi was
aboveground ecological interactions that keep pests below eco-
first detected in the United States in Louisiana shortly after Hurri-
nomic injury levels, creating favorable conditions for increased pest
cane Ivan in 2004 (Pan et al. 2006). Hurricane Ivan moved north
dispersal in the subsequent growing seasons. For example, droughts
from the lower Caribbean near Colombia and potentially moved
have been associated with weakened underground predation, lead-
spores into the United States. Subsequent tropical storms in 2005
ing to the proliferation of plant-pathogenic nematodes and causing
likely exacerbated the epidemic, spreading the pathogen further
increased plant damage (Franco et al. 2019). Drought stress can
into the continental United States and making eradication func-
have an impact on microbial communities associated with plants,
tionally impossible (Kelly et al. 2015). Puccinia melanocephala,
leading to higher levels of mycotoxin production in some cases
causing sugarcane rust, is thought to have spread from West Africa
(Ferrigo et al. 2014). Prolonged drought increases the risk of wild-
to the Caribbean and North America during hurricane force winds
fires across forests and croplands, which may have multifaceted
in 1978, which carried Saharan dust clouds from Cameroon (Purdy
effects on agricultural production and plant health.
et al. 1985). Beyond spreading invasive pathogens, heavy rainfall
Wildfires can damage crops directly by burning plants in the dry
and high winds associated with these tropical storm events can de-
harvest season, such as for wheat, maize, or hay, and they can di-
stroy crops through lodging and damage tree structures in perennial
minish plant nutrient and carbon availability, stressing plant systems
crops (Gu Her et al. 2020). This damage can make crops more vul-
(Cobb et al. 2016; Yue and Unger 2018). Fire can damage forest
nerable to disease and pest infestations by wounding and tearing
ecosystems, leaving gaps that become habitats open to colonization
plants before harvest, causing both immediate and long-term yield
by invasive pests and pathogens. Fire-damaged trees are often more
loss (Albrigo et al. 2005).
susceptible to pathogens, depending on the temperature of the burn.
Insect pests can also travel long distances during strong wind
If damaged trees are left too long, they can pose a fire risk in later
events, although hurricane force winds may kill insects before they
seasons. Wildfires can also affect the quality of nearby crops, such
can establish in new areas. The invasive cactus moth (Cactoblastis
as wine grapes, affecting their flavor (Krstic et al. 2015). Wildfire
cactorum) has spread throughout the Caribbean and into Texas,
events have the potential to facilitate the spread of some pathogens
Florida, and Louisiana (Andraca-Gómez et al. 2020). Genetic anal-
through smoke-borne spores (Kobziar et al. 2018). For example,
yses of populations of C. cactorum suggest that the insects have been
Rhizina undulata, a pyrophilic pathogen, requires heat shocks (such
spread by both long-distance colonization events from hurricanes as
as forest fires) for ascospore germination (Jalaluddin 1967). Wild-
well as hitchhiking with commercial marine shipping in the region.
fires may also drive the diversification of soilborne fungi and other
Bean golden yellow mosaic virus was likely introduced to Florida
microbes (Fox et al. 2022). Post-wildfire restoration planting can
by Hurricane Andrew in 1992, which carried viruliferous whiteflies
introduce pests and pathogens. For example, wildfires in California
from the Caribbean islands (Thompson 2011). Bean golden yellow
devastated the coastal mountain range, and plants sourced from
mosaic virus caused the reduction or collapse of bean production
native plant nurseries to restore these areas were unknowingly con-
the following year and became established in Florida (Thompson
taminated with Phytophthora tentaculata, a quarantined pathogen
2011). Novais et al. (2018) reported that herbivorous insect pop-
(Rooney-Latham et al. 2019). This has led to more complications,
ulations flourished in the months after Hurricane Patricia struck
as forest managers now need to control both introduced diseases
portions of Jalisco state in Mexico in 2015. They hypothesized that
and future wildfires.
new leaves and shoots from recovering trees served as an abundant
food source for herbivorous insects and that dead trees and shrubs Climate change and compounding natural disasters
allowed xylophagous beetle populations to rapidly expand. Climate change is a key consideration in disaster plant pathology,
Flooding can also rapidly spread many pathogens among ad- likely increasing the frequency of extreme weather events (Stott
jacent farms and regions. Pathogens with flagella or swimming 2016) and shifting the locations where they occur, the speed at
stages, such as the oomycete pathogens Pythium, Phytophthora, and which they occur, their cost, the length of events, and their severity
Achlya, are able to disperse rapidly through flooded regions to new (Coronese et al. 2019; Mendelsohn et al. 2012). Climate change can
susceptible plants (Browne et al. 2021; de Silva et al. 1999; Nech- influence plant-pathogen interactions by modifying the physiologi-
watal et al. 2008; Wilcox and Mircetich 1985). Bacterial pathogens cal, biochemical, ecological, and evolutionary processes of disease
with flagella can also spread rapidly in flooded fields and through development in the plant host (Cheng et al. 2019; Singh et al. 2023;
waterways, leading to severe outbreaks of diseases such as those Trivedi et al. 2022; Velásquez et al. 2018).

Vol. 114, No. 5, 2024 859

 Under climate change, habitats with conducive temperatures for Humanitarian Crises
plant pathogens can shift to higher altitudes, and latitudes that were
previously unsuitable for pathogens may become more conducive The impacts of conflict and political unrest on plant health
to their survival and proliferation (Dudney et al. 2021). This leads The effects of socioeconomic disasters such as armed conflicts,
to an expansion of pathogen ranges and increased disease pressure political unrest, and poverty on plant disease and food security are
at higher elevations (Bebber et al. 2013). Rising temperatures and also important facets of disaster plant pathology. Poverty is central
shifts in precipitation patterns have created more favorable condi- to this discussion due to its impacts on population displacement
tions for the population growth and survival of snow fungi (Grem- and quality of life. Many crop pest and disease outbreaks occur in
meniella abietina and Phacidium infestans), leading to widespread low-income countries due to inadequate crop disease management
pine mortality at high elevations in the Central Alps (Barbeito et al. capacity (Klauser 2018; Ristaino et al. 2021; Savary et al. 2019). In
2013). Climate change can also modify food safety risks driven by 2021, 59% of people in low-income countries worked in agricul-
pathogens; for example, Aflatoxin B1 was predicted to be a greater ture, compared with 38% in lower-middle-income countries (World
problem in European maize under the most probable scenario for Bank 2021a, b), and agricultural workers in low-income countries
climate change (+2°C) (Battilani et al. 2016). must deal with the emergence of crop pests and diseases, lack of
The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) significantly influ- adequate infrastructure for disease management, and weak relation-
ences agricultural outcomes (Gelcer et al. 2018; Scherm and Yang ships among agricultural stakeholders (Etherton et al. 2024; Klauser
1995; Zhao et al. 2021). ENSO is a recurring climate pattern char- 2018). Plant disease epidemics, food insecurity, and famines further
acterized by abnormal sea surface temperatures in the equatorial exacerbate poverty. For example, Phytophthora infestans, the causal
Pacific Ocean, with warmer temperatures in El Niño years and agent of potato blight, spread through trade to Europe and was the
colder in La Niña years. ENSO effects are linked to flood risk, proximate cause of the Irish Potato Famine in the nineteenth cen-
tornado frequency, and wildfire, with knock-on effects in agri- tury, which led to mass emigration (Andrivon 1996; Fry et al. 1992;
culture. ENSO’s impact on plant diseases has been extensively Gómez-Alpizar et al. 2007; Ristaino 2002). The severe famine in
documented, as temperature and rainfall shifts associated with this Ireland was due in part to the near-total dependence on potato among
phenomenon create favorable conditions for the development and people living in poverty (Large 1940; Vurro et al. 2010). Other ex-
spread of many pathogens (Ramírez-Gil et al. 2020; Scherm and amples of plant pathogens exacerbating poverty include brown spot
Yang 1995). For instance, during El Niño events, Florida is expected of rice caused by Cochliobolus miyabeanus in East Bengal (Pad-
to experience increased rainfall and below-average temperatures manabhan 1973), and coffee rust, caused by Hemileia vastatrix, in
during winter and spring, with the more humid environment con- Sri Lanka (Mills 2012).
ducive to outbreaks of fungal diseases such as grey mold (Botrytis In the twenty-first century, poverty, political unrest, and ineffi-
spp.) and anthracnose fruit rots (Pavan et al. 2011). In 2018, El cient regulation have significantly influenced the development of
Niño led to a late rainy season in Guatemala that affected 70% major plant disease epidemics. For instance, the likelihood of oc-
of crops in the first harvest and a flood affecting 50% of the sec- currence of cocoa swollen shoot disease, devastating cacao trees
ond harvest (FAO 2021). In 2023, ENSO was associated with a in West Africa, correlates with lower household incomes, reduced
maximum July ocean temperature of 1.1°C above the twentieth- access to education and healthcare, and reliance on family la-
century average, the hottest ocean temperature on record (NOAA bor (Adopo et al. 2022). These socioeconomic factors exacerbate
2023), resulting in a tropical storm reaching Southern California. poverty cycles, further fueling the disease’s spread by limiting farm-
Intense El Niño events were predicted to double in the twenty- ers’ ability to implement effective disease management practices
first century due to climate change (Cai et al. 2014; Howden et al. (Adopo et al. 2022). In Venezuela, economic decline and weakened
2007). government institutions have led to a notable decline in phytosani-
Multiple extreme weather events often have compounding effects tary services (Marys and Rosales 2021), which has likely impaired
and can overwhelm mitigation resources at the local, regional, and the effective detection of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense Tropical Race
national levels. As extreme weather events become more frequent, 4. F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense Tropical Race 4 is of particular con-
many people experience disaster fatigue (also known as compas- cern given that it may have been present in Venezuela years before
sion fade), the tendency for decreased compassion and charitable its official detection in 2022 (Sequera 2023). Efforts to control major
acts as the number of people in need increases (Västfjäll et al. plant disease epidemics have the potential to be costly to farmers’
2014). This reduction in an individual’s or a group’s willingness livelihoods and obstruct humanitarian supply chains. For instance,
to help in the aftermath of subsequent storms can significantly af- policies in Malawi have been criticized for restrictions and mea-
fect the ability of an impacted area to fully recover. This was seen sures against banana bunchy top disease (which have been reported
in the aftermath of Hurricane Harvey in Texas, Hurricane Irma in to be unsuccessful in stopping disease spread yet have negatively
Florida, and Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico. Despite Hurricane impacted livelihoods) (Mikwamba et al. 2020) while simultane-
Maria causing more destruction than the former two hurricanes, ously creating phytosanitary laws preventing maize imports from
Puerto Rico received less federal recovery aid and lower public do- Tanzania that have been crucial after the food shortages caused by
nations (Willison et al. 2019). Hurricane Maria was noted as the Cyclone Freddy (Masina 2023, 2024). Although the import bans
worst natural disaster on record in Puerto Rico, and the ability to were intended to reduce the risk of introducing maize lethal necrosis
fully recover given limited federal aid was further hindered by sub- disease, they were withdrawn in 2024 after further review (Kwanza
sequent earthquakes in January 2020 and the COVID-19 global 2024). These dynamics illustrate the difficulties of complex crises
pandemic. These compounding disasters resulted in a major shift in (Table 1) in which governments and communities must simulta-
Puerto Rico’s wildlife biodiversity, land quality, and water quality neously address plant epidemics, poverty, political instability, and
(Keenum et al. 2021; Zimmerman et al. 2020). Similarly, shortly fol- phytosanitary measures. The interplay of these factors is a criti-
lowing the 2019–2020 bushfires that devastated agriculture-based cal topic in disaster plant pathology, from both the scientific and
communities, Australia redirected crisis recovery funding to pub- regulatory perspectives.
lic health practices in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic (Usher Armed conflict can also create conditions that are favorable to
et al. 2021). This pivot in funding severely impacted agricultural the dissemination and proliferation of plant pathogens, leading to
communities, which, at the time, had only partially recovered from devastating consequences for crop production, food security, and
the natural disaster. Disaster fatigue is relevant to all extreme events, overall stability in affected regions. Conflict may lead to the break-
not just natural disasters, and donations are likely to dwindle during down of agricultural infrastructure and systems; disrupted supply
compounding humanitarian crises as well. chains limit farmers’ access to critical inputs such as fertilizers, pes-

860 PHYTOPATHOLOGY®
ticides, and high-quality seed. In a historical example, during World how all countries are vulnerable to armed conflict, which not only
War I, Germany experienced a labor shortage for agriculture and leads to crop loss and disease spread but also disrupts the global
limited draft power, as horses and oxen were requested by the army, exchange of commodities. The invasion of Ukraine disrupted the
and access to copper to make Bordeaux mixture for management global wheat supply and caused a 50% increase in global fertil-
of potato late blight was limited because copper was used in bullet izer prices due to Russia’s significant role as a supplier, accounting
shells and electric wire (Zadoks 2008). for 13% of the world’s fertilizer production (Kee et al. 2023). The
Unrest may force farmers to rely on poor-quality seed, lead- Syrian civil war, as another example, threatened the seed bank col-
ing to low yields. Planting material saved on-farm often leads to lections at ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research
accumulation and spread of plant pathogens within farming com- in Dry Areas), forcing the ICARDA staff to quickly duplicate select
munities. For instance, the civil war in Burundi disrupted access to collections before fleeing (Westengen et al. 2020). The ICARDA ex-
agricultural inputs and services, which led to the rapid spread of ample emphasizes the importance of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault
Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum, causing banana bacte- as a backup for genetic conservation (Asdal and Guarino 2018).
rial wilt (Muskekuru 2016; Verwimp and Muñoz-Mora 2018). This The political instability in Venezuela has resulted in a significant
conflict also led to a breakdown in disease management efforts, decline in domestic agricultural production, in turn affecting the
where X. campestris spread to new areas through the movement of global oilseed market (Lavelle 2016). These regional crises have
planting material with fleeing victims (Blomme et al. 2017). The wide-reaching impacts, such as disrupted global agricultural pro-
outbreak of banana bunchy top disease in Rwanda and Burundi duction, price volatility, and increased global food insecurity. It
could be associated with the introduction of cultivars resistant to is important to consider global impacts during local crises and to
Fusarium wilt (race 1) from the Democratic Republic of Congo, safeguard agricultural regions to prevent global catastrophes.
such as Yangambi KM5. Resistant varieties were introduced to re-
place the Kayinja cultivars susceptible to Fusarium wilt to help these Smart Solutions
countries rehabilitate decimated banana plantations (Nakato et al.
2023; Nduwimana et al. 2022). Banana bunchy top disease was al- Using smart agriculture to support disaster recovery
ready present in the Democratic Republic of Congo in the late 1950s Smart agriculture, or digital agriculture, uses available technol-
(Kumar et al. 2011), and the subsequent spread of banana bunchy ogy and system-specific data to optimize crop production (Gebbers
top disease in this region could be linked to this conflict. and Adamchuk 2010; Klerkx et al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2002). Smart
Displacement of human populations during war often leads to systems can provide early warning information systems, risk assess-
unintentional movement of pathogen strains to new areas in plant- ment, crop monitoring, supply chain optimization, decision support,
ing material, further complicating disease management efforts. For real-time monitoring, and resilience strategies (Garrett et al. 2022;
example, wheat rust fungi in Syria were reported to be spread with Jaber et al. 2022; Wolfert et al. 2017). Artificial intelligence (AI)
plant material by displaced farmers (Stakman et al. 2015), and cas- performs tasks typically requiring human intelligence, particularly
sava mosaic disease spread in Liberia during the civil war from 1989 machine learning for improved algorithm performance in image
to 2003, severely impacting agricultural activities (Thresh 2003). In analysis for disease detection and diagnostics, as well as manage-
Central America, the Guatemalan civil war (1960 to 1996) had sig- ment decision support models. There is the potential for farmers
nificant effects on agriculture and led to the spread of H. vastatrix and phytosanitary authorities to use AI to make informed decisions
(Bielecki and Wingenbach 2019). Abandoned and untended farm- and facilitate recovery efforts, thus minimizing the impact of dis-
lands remain a key risk in the spread of banana diseases, such as asters on agricultural systems (Chandra and Collis 2021; Mehrabi
banana bunchy top disease and Fusarium and bacterial wilts (FAO et al. 2021; Talaviya et al. 2020). Through the integration of satel-
2002). For instance, abandoned banana plantations may serve as lite imagery, weather data, disease incidence reports, early warning
hubs for the dispersal of X. campestris pv. musacearum by bees and systems, and other relevant information, AI models can identify
nectar-feeding insects (Tinzaara et al. 2006). patterns and predict the trajectory of pathogen movement. Farmers
Wars lead to the collapse of government institutions and the loss and agricultural authorities can use these models to take preventive
of centralized control, significantly hindering disease monitoring measures in areas at high risk of infection, effectively managing the
and management efforts through disease surveillance, research, and spread of disease and accelerating recovery (Talaviya et al. 2020).
extension services. Farmers’ access to information about disease AI tools have great potential for designing and building smart
prevention and control is limited due to disruption of extension agricultural systems specifically tailored for disease management.
services, enabling plant pathogens to spread and exacerbating the AI tools are already being developed for early disease detection;
crisis. This is particularly problematic in low-income countries and disease diagnostics (Mohanty et al. 2016; Selvaraj et al. 2020);
for vegetatively propagated crops such as banana, cassava, potato, risk assessments (Chavez et al. 2015; Ghahari et al. 2019); op-
and sweet potato, where seed degeneration is a major problem for timizing the dosage, timing, and application of agricultural inputs
crop production (Thomas-Sharma et al. 2017). During wars, lo- (Abioye et al. 2022; Talaviya et al. 2020); and continuously monitor-
cal farmer seed systems can collapse, and external aid is needed; ing plant health, environmental conditions, and disease prevalence
however, external seed aid must be balanced to avoid undermin- (Bolten et al. 2010; Giraldo et al. 2019), with the potential to
ing the formal or informal seed systems that persist. Emergency use remotely sensed data from unmanned aerial vehicles or satel-
seed procurement systems need to pay special attention to seed lites (Clohessy et al. 2021; Mohanty et al. 2016; Selvaraj et al.
health to prevent unintentional dissemination of planting material 2020; Zhang et al. 2019). As an example of rapid risk assessment
infected with seedborne pests and pathogens (Sperling et al. 2004). (https://www.garrettlab.com/r2m/), Mouafo-Tchinda et al. (2024)
For example, the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo is home developed risk maps in Cameroon and Ethiopia for key potato
to multiple invasive species (such as banana bunchy top virus and and sweet potato pests and diseases as input for focused agricul-
cassava mosaic viruses), as conflict has made it difficult to coordi- tural investments and humanitarian aid during disasters (Etherton
nate programs for disease control, exposing neighboring countries et al. 2024). Such risk maps can be integrated into AI-driven DSSs,
to dispersal of pathogens through infected seed (Uganda in 2020). which can analyze large amounts of data, including historical dis-
ease records, crop health data, and expert knowledge (Bregaglio
The impacts of war on global food security et al. 2022; Jaber et al. 2022; Shtienberg 2013). Where these tools
War, political instability, and poverty contribute to the break- are available, they can be used, particularly during crises, to con-
down of local agricultural infrastructure, which can scale to impact struct strategies for disaster relief and aid for agricultural systems,
global food insecurity. The current war in Ukraine is an example of in combination with rapid assessment of crop pests and diseases,

Vol. 114, No. 5, 2024 861

and capacity-building programs for stakeholders: for example, rapid risks and recommend fungicide applications when conditions are
multiplication technologies for seed production, diagnostics for favorable for disease development. The Citrus Copper Application
seedborne diseases, seed regulation, and information about im- Scheduler employs models to predict fruit growth at early devel-
proved varieties (Andrade-Piedra et al. 2023). DSSs to anticipate opmental stages and the rate of copper residue decay, determining
slow-onset crises can support disease resistance breeding in prepa- when the copper residue on fruit is no longer sufficient for disease
ration for future disease priorities. management (Zortea et al. 2013). These tools have proven valu-
able to farmers in Florida, a region frequently affected by weather
AI for natural disasters variability driven by ENSO and extreme weather events such as
Acknowledging the challenges posed by climate variability and hurricanes (Gama et al. 2022; Perondi et al. 2020).
extreme weather events, governments are increasingly motivated to Predicting the occurrence of natural disasters, themselves, be-
support research and improved climate and weather information and comes more practical with advances in AI and machine learning.
services to help growers enhance their disaster preparedness and re- Long- and short-term forecasting of earthquakes is now available,
silience (Vedeld et al. 2020). However, accurate weather and climate using machine learning to predict the magnitude of these disas-
predictions are only valuable if accompanied by well-defined ac- ters (Bhatia et al. 2023). As another example, Avand et al. (2021)
tions that can be taken to mitigate potential losses (Jones et al. 2000). investigated the factors that impact flood damage and forecasted
DSSs can serve as valuable tools to assist stakeholders in making future flooding in the Tajan watershed in Iran. Historical trends
informed decisions regarding agricultural practices, resource allo- can also be used for training models for disaster prediction; for
cation, and risk management (McBratney et al. 2005; Zhai et al. example, the historical global distribution of wildfires, floods, and
2020). These systems can use machine learning to analyze fore- earthquakes shows the current vulnerabilities of regions to reoccur-
cast data with historical weather patterns, satellite imagery, and ring disasters (Fig. 3) (Brakenridge 2024; NASA Earthdata 2023;
crop models, providing farmers, policymakers, and researchers with Zomer et al. 2022). By continuously integrating new technologies
actionable insights (Breuer et al. 2008; Garrett et al. 2022). and high-quality weather and climate data, DSS capabilities can
Numerous DSSs have been implemented worldwide to address be expanded to help stakeholders address the challenges posed by
challenges in the agricultural sector, with some developed to moni- climate variability and extreme weather events in agriculture and
tor and alert stakeholders about risks of disease occurrence. Appli- many other sectors.
cations include monitoring for apple scab (Fernandes et al. 2011),
apple fire blight and downy mildew in grapevines (Firanj Sremac AI for humanitarian crises
et al. 2018), Fusarium head blight in wheat (Landschoot et al. 2013), Addressing the challenges posed by armed conflicts and political
and potato late blight (Small et al. 2015; Wharton et al. 2008). Agro- instability requires not only immediate responses to manage dis-
Climate is another example of a DSS designed to tackle weather- ease outbreaks but also long-term efforts to rebuild and strengthen
and climate-based risks in agriculture (Fraisse et al. 2016). Agro- agricultural systems and institutions in post-conflict scenarios, en-
Climate provides several tools to assist growers with plant disease hancing resilience to future plant pathogen challenges. It is essential
management. The strawberry (Pavan et al. 2011), blueberry (Gama to incorporate plant health considerations into relief operations,
et al. 2021), and citrus advisory systems (Perondi et al. 2020) cou- in balance with other humanitarian needs. This will often include
ple current and forecast weather data with disease models to predict implementing protocols to assess the phytosanitary status of seed

FIGURE 3
Global vulnerability of plant landscapes to extreme events based on historical event records for A, wildfires from 2000 to 2020 (Brakenridge 2024;
NASA Earthdata 2023); B, floods from 1985 to 2021 (Brakenridge 2024); C, earthquakes of magnitude 7 or greater from 1900 to 2022 (USGS 2023);
and D, aridity index (Zomer et al. 2022). Maps indicate higher frequencies of extreme event reports with lighter shading, while grey backgrounds
indicate absence of reports.

862 PHYTOPATHOLOGY®
(and potential quarantine measures), providing agricultural exten- may be damaged. This type of aid can mitigate the long-distance
sion services to promote disease awareness and control measures, spread of seedborne diseases, provide food security for these grow-
and ensuring proper disease surveillance and monitoring. By safe- ers, and help with crop and community resilience. National Plant
guarding plant health, disaster relief efforts can be more effective Protection Organizations are often left to deal with unmanaged pest
and sustainable in the long term. risk during an emergency due to phytosanitary breakdown, and seed
Early warning systems have been developed to help humanitarian aid may directly introduce plant pests and pathogens (Secretariat of
groups proactively prepare for disasters and can play a crucial role the International Plant Protection Convention 2021) or indirectly al-
in proactive preparedness. For instance, the African Standby Force, ter plant health by, for example, introducing long-maturing varieties
a “Continental Early Warning System,” was designed to rapidly aid to beneficiaries when fast-maturing varieties are better suited and
in political decision-making to prevent or mediate disputes (Cilliers farmer preferred, introducing serious weeds, and distributing mate-
2008; IPI 2010). The Integrated Early Warning System collects data rial that is not adapted to the crisis area or otherwise unacceptable to
regarding significant political events in a signal database and can farmers (Sperling and McGuire 2010). There have been significant
perform conflict modeling to forecast armed conflicts or political developments in low-cost and practical field-based quality assur-
unrest (Lockheed Martin 2014). Similarly, the Political Instability ance protocols (Sulle et al. 2022), an increasing recognition that the
Task Force, a domestic United States government database, can overwhelming majority of seed planted by smallholder farmers is
assess the value of potential predictor variables for estimating the sourced from local markets and farmers’ own fields (Sperling and
likelihood that conflicts arise (Goldstone et al. 2010). Although McGuire 2010) and thus largely beyond the scope of seed regulatory
these systems were not initially designed for agricultural stakehold- efforts. To that end, the Commission on Phytosanitary Measures has
ers, integrating systems such as these could significantly enhance adopted International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures and in-
preparedness and rapid response efforts for growers. FEWS NET, troduced guidance on risk management associated with commonly
or the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, analyzes crop pro- provided seed, food, and other humanitarian aid (Secretariat of the
duction, market prices, weather data, and other factors to predict the International Plant Protection Convention 2021).
likelihood of food insecurity (USAID 2023). FEWS NET can also Informal seed systems of roots, tubers, and bananas (RTB), based
predict natural disasters such as droughts and floods, which may on vegetative planting material, are an increasingly important fo-
lead to food shortages. cus in disaster response and recovery. Quality assurances in such
Disasters may disrupt or weaken seed systems across geograph- systems are challenging even when there are in situ diagnostics and
ical scales, and humanitarian seed aid often combines immediate strong regulations. The bulkiness and perishability of RTB planting
relief to vulnerable households affected by crises with activities that material often compels farmers to save their own RTB planting ma-
protect or rebuild crop-related livelihoods (SEADS 2022). It is im- terial year after year, although seed quality assurance innovations
portant for humanitarian aid to provide clean or disease-free seeds to in RTB seed systems are noteworthy (Sulle et al. 2022). Quality
seed producers following disasters, when agricultural infrastructure assurances in informal commercial seed systems are often based on

FIGURE 4
Key recommendations in disaster plant
pathology for designing pathogen and
pest management systems before
crises and iteratively improving them
during and after crises. (i) Regional and
global coordination and (ii) human
capacity building are key for successful
implementation. (iii) Effective clean
seed systems and (iv) resilient
biosecurity infrastructure and risk
assessment help systems prepare for
and recover from disasters. (v)
Decision support systems should
leverage data from disaster response
systems, with periodic reassessments
following current or ongoing crises to
ensure effectiveness.

Vol. 114, No. 5, 2024 863

reputation and trust within longstanding social networks (Sperling rapid-onset crises and to account for the many factors influenc-
and Almekinders 2023). Quality assurance schemes for seed out- ing the options for management in complex crises. (iii) Effective
growers and early-generation seed are only partial considerations, clean seed systems can replace seed stores lost in disasters with-
however, as repeated use of seed saved on-farm in subsequent out adding the risk of introducing pathogens. When pathogens or
seasons must be complemented by broader public awareness cam- pests are already endemic, seed with pathogen levels below appro-
paigns aimed at helping farmers to identify and take action against priate phytosanitary thresholds (Choudhury et al. 2017) can help
pests and pathogens. avoid regional disease buildup while maintaining more affordable
seed prices. (iv) It is important to implement a resilient biosecu-
Current status and next steps rity infrastructure and disease risk assessments before disasters so
DSSs and some types of AI tools for improving disaster relief and that labs are prepared for rapid diagnostic procedures when quickly
management allocation are not new ideas. These types of frame- moving food and seed in response to disasters. Ongoing assess-
works have been around since the late 1900s (Keen 1980; Sprague ment of gaps in rapid pest diagnostics, management, technologies,
1980), although they do not seem to be widely used, particularly dur- and management access is needed to improve response systems.
ing rapid-onset disasters. There are several reasons for this, includ- (v) DSSs should be integrated across available data and models to
ing limited accessibility to technological infrastructure, data con- support implementation of long-term strategies such as the develop-
straints and quality, maintenance, and a general resistance against ment of resistant varieties and short-term tactics such as decisions
these systems. Collective action of informed decision makers, along about on-farm pesticide use. In the context of disasters, DSSs must
with effective policies supporting disease management, is often nec- be ready to adapt rapidly to unexpected scenarios so that they can
essary for successful regional implementation (Etherton et al. 2023; support regional prioritization of limited resources for disease man-
Garcia Figuera et al. 2022). A key part of disaster plant pathol- agement in response to crises and should be reassessed regularly to
ogy is advocacy for these systems to be established, in conjunction ensure effectiveness. Effective altruism discussions make the case
with data collection from a range of key sources, facilitating for including consideration of low-probability existential threats,
decision-making. which in disaster plant pathology include compounded disasters in
One of the most significant obstacles to global implementation of the context of complex crises (Garrett et al. 2020). Ongoing assess-
these tools is their restricted availability. A lack of internet accessi- ment and improvement of DSSs should target both better disease
bility, data storage, and power supply may stop the use of DSSs that prediction and better recommendations for implementing disaster
rely on Bluetooth or internet connectivity to process data or stop responses, through lessons learned in a community of practice.
the use of early warning systems that are hosted online. As of 2022,
only 68% of the world’s population had internet access, with re- Conclusions
gional internet access rates reported as 55% in Asia, 65% in Central
America, and 41% in Africa (Argaez 2022). Internet accessibility The interactions between natural and human-driven disasters,
is often significantly lower in farming communities (Mehrabi et al. plant disease, and global food security are critical concerns that
2021). Internet access and decision support for disaster relief rep- demand expertise and knowledge from scientists working in disas-
resent a complicated effort. The infrastructure required includes ter plant pathology. This paper provides a framework for addressing
physical hardware (such as fiber optic cables and cellular towers), how the multifaceted relationships among these elements threaten
internet service providers, satellite communication, routers, data plant health, local and global economies, and food security. Dis-
centers, and, most importantly, the end user’s adoption of both the asters often occur simultaneously, such as when natural disasters
internet and a smartphone device. Many of these tools rely on the strike during an ongoing political crisis. Disasters may have a di-
availability and adoption of goods. Access to the internet has sev- rect impact on regional plant health, such as through the spread of
eral practical benefits. For example, rural farmers in India have used pathogens and plant wounding, causing immediate declines in crop
improved internet access for marketplace research, resulting in vis- health, and indirect effects through delayed stressors, such as loss of
ible increases in profit margins, through internet campaigns such as infrastructure, further complicating the timeline for appropriate dis-
Digital India (Jamaluddin 2013; Kaka et al. 2019). Internet access aster response. Interdisciplinary attention is needed to understand
can aid in disaster preparedness through access to early warning these complex interactions in disaster plant pathology.
systems and precise weather updates (Ray et al. 2017), as well as in To address these challenges, we need to actively integrate AI
disaster relief through funding programs facilitated through social and DSSs to continually improve disaster management, which is
media (Ogie et al. 2022). It is imperative that both local govern- a promising area of research in disaster plant pathology with di-
ments and humanitarian groups rally for comprehensive internet rect tangible outcomes. Through predictive analyses, early warning
access programs for all communities, ensuring crises preparedness systems, and real-time crop monitoring, humanitarian aid and gov-
and relief. ernmental interventions can help to ensure the quality and safety of
We highlight five key recommendations for designing plant agricultural production for growers. These intricate relationships
health management solutions in a conceptual framework for disaster require global cooperation, and in the face of climate change and
plant pathology (Fig. 4). (i) Regional and global cooperation across geopolitical complexities, a collective and proactive response is
international and national institutions is important for system suc- needed to protect plant health.
cess. For example, the proposed global surveillance system for crop
disease (Carvajal-Yepes et al. 2019) would help National Plant Pro- Acknowledgments
tection Organizations prepare for potential pathogen invasions and
We appreciate the helpful comments provided by Phytopathology re-
evaluate the risk of importing seed from specific countries. Coop-
viewers.
eration that is established and reinforced before disasters increases
preparedness so response times can be shortened. (ii) Human ca- Literature Cited
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