Springer Proceedings in Earth and Environmental Sciences

Danis Nurgaliev
Natalia Khairullina Editors

Practical and
Theoretical Aspects
of Geological
Interpretation of
Gravitational, Magnetic
and Electric Fields
Proceedings of the 45th Uspensky
International Geophysical Seminar,
Kazan, Russia
Springer Proceedings in Earth
and Environmental Sciences

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Danis Nurgaliev Natalia Khairullina
•

Editors

Practical and Theoretical

Aspects of Geological
Interpretation
of Gravitational, Magnetic
and Electric Fields
Proceedings of the 45th Uspensky
International Geophysical Seminar,
Kazan, Russia

123
Editors
Danis Nurgaliev Natalia Khairullina
Kazan Federal University Kazan Federal University
Kazan, Russia Kazan, Russia

ISSN 2524-342X ISSN 2524-3438 (electronic)

Springer Proceedings in Earth and Environmental Sciences
ISBN 978-3-319-97669-3 ISBN 978-3-319-97670-9 (eBook)
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Contents

Part I Theoretical Issues of Potential Fields Interpretation

1 Development of the Finite-Element Technologies
in Quantitative Interpretation of Geopotential Fields . . . . . . . . . . . 3
P. I. Balk and A. S. Dolgal
2 Pareto-Optimal Solutions of Inverse Gravimetry Problem
with Uncertain a Priori Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
T. N. Kyshman-Lavanova
3 Joint Interpretation of Magnetotelluric and CSAMT Data
on the Kola Peninsula (Kovdor Area) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
A. N. Shevtsov
4 Gridded Potential Fields Data Analysis Based on Poisson
Wavelet-Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
K. M. Kuznetsov, A. A. Bulychev and I. V. Lygin
5 Modified Method S-, F- and R-Approximations in Solving
Inverse Problems of Geophysics and Geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . 41
I. E. Stepanova, I. A. Kerimov, D. N. Raevsky
and A. V. Shchepetilov
6 Reflection of the Petrophysical Basement Rocks Models
in Geophysical Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
O. M. Muravina, V. N. Glaznev, V. I. Zhavoronkin and M. V. Mints
7 Continuous Method for Solution of Gravity Prospecting
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
I. V. Boikov, A. I. Boikova and O. A. Baulina
8 The Density Model of the Crystalline Crust the Southwestern
Part of the Lipetsk Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
T. A. Voronova, V. N. Glaznev, O. M. Muravina and I. Y. Antonova

v
vi Contents

Part II Modern Algorithms and Computer Technologies

9 Neural Network Algorithm for Solving 3d Inverse Problem
of Geoelectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
M. I. Shimelevich, E. A. Obornev, I. E. Obornev, E. A. Rodionov
and S. A. Dolenko
10 Optimization of Computations for Modeling and Inversion
in NMR T2 Relaxometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
L. Muravyev, S. Zhakov and D. Byzov
11 Field of Attraction of Polyhedron and Polygonal Plate
with Linear Density Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
K. M. Kuznetsov, A. A. Bulychev and I. V. Lygin
12 Allowance for the Earth’s Surface Topography in Processing
the Magnetic Field Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
A. S. Dolgal
13 Interpretation Algorithms for Hydrocarbon Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Yuri V. Glasko
14 Features of Localization of the Poles of the Gravity Potential
Regarding to the Field Sources and the Practical Implementation
of the «Polus» Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
G. Prostolupov and M. Tarantin
15 Two Approaches to the Solution of Inversion Problem
in the Bear Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
A. A. Zhamaletdinov, M. S. Petrishchev and V. Yu. Semenov
16 About the Numerical Decision of Problem Dirihle for Equation
Laplas in a Rectangle in Researches Under the Decision of a
Return Problem in Geophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Z. Z. Arsanukaev
17 Calculation of Spherical Layer with Variable Density Gravity
Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
K. M. Kuznetsov, A. A. Bulychev and I. V. Lygin
18 Possibility of Identification of Modeling in Complex Analysis
Geological and Geophysical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
O. M. Muravina, E. I. Davudova and I. A. Ponomarenko
19 “Native” Wavelet Transform for Solving Gravimetry
Inverse Problem on the Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
N. Khairullina (Matveeva), E. Utemov and D. Nurgaliev
Contents vii

Part III Deep Structure Studying

20 Earth’s Crust Magnetization Model of the Nether-Polar
and Polar Urals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
N. Fedorova, L. Muravyev and A. Roublev
21 Computer Modeling of Lateral Influence of the Ladoga Anomaly
(Janisjarvy Fault Zone) on the AMT Sounding Results . . . . . . . . . 181
A. A. Skorokhodov and A. A. Zhamaletdinov
22 Application of Frequency-Resonance Method of Satellite
Images Processing for the Oil and Gas Potential
Assessment of “Onisiforos West-1” Well Drilling Site
in the Mediterranean Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
S. Levashov, N. Yakymchuk, I. Korchagin and D. Bozhezha
23 Evolution of Ideas on the Nature and Structure of Ladoga
Anomaly of Electrical Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
A. A. Zhamaletdinov, I. I. Rokityansky and E. Yu. Sokolova
24 The Use of Gravimetry for Studying Shelf of the North
Barents Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
M. Chadaev, V. Kostitsyn, V. Gershanok, R. Iblaminov,
G. Prostolupov and M. Tarantin
25 An Iterative Solution of the 2-D Non-Linear Magnetic
Inversion Problem with Particular Attention to the Anisotropy
of Magnetic Susceptibility of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
A. B. Raevsky, V. V. Balagansky, O. V. Rundkvist and S. V. Mudruk
26 On 2D Inversion of MTS Data in Tobol-Ishim Interfluve
of Western Siberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
N. V. Baglaenko, V. P. Borisova, Iv. M. Varentsov, T. A. Vasilieva
and E. B. Fainberg
27 Non-hydrostatic Stresses Under the Local Structures
on Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
A. Batov, T. Gudkova and V. Zharkov
28 Deep Fluid Systems of Fennoscandia Greenstone Belts . . . . . . . . . . 239
A. A. Petrova, Yu. A. Kopytenko and M. S. Petrishchev
29 On Deep Electroconductivity of Tobol-Ishim Interfluve . . . . . . . . . 249
V. P. Borisova, T. A. Vasilieva, S. L. Kostuchenko
and E. B. Fainberg
viii Contents

Part IV Geological Interpretation

30 Study of the Magnetic Properties of Geological Environment
in Super Deep Boreholes by the Magnetometry Method . . . . . . . . . 259
G. V. Igolkina
31 Underground Water Flows Detection and Mapping
by Direct-Prospecting Geoelectric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
S. Levashov, N. Yakymchuk, I. Korchagin and D. Bozhezha
32 Areas of Negative Excess Density of the Earth’s Crust
as Sources of Energy for Ore Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
M. B. Shtokalenko, S. G. Alekseev, N. P. Senchina
and S. Yu. Shatkevich
33 Distribution of Sources of Magnetic Field in the Earth’s
Core Obtained by Solving Inverse Magnetometry Problem . . . . . . 285
V. Kochnev
34 Efficiency of High-Precision Gravity Prospecting
at Discovery of Oil Fields at Late Stage of Development . . . . . . . . 293
Z. Slepak
35 Geophysics in Archeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Z. Slepak and B. Platov
36 Using of Probabilistic-Statistical Characteristics
in the Interpretation of Electrical Survey Monitoring
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
L. A. Khristenko, Ju. I. Stepanov, A. V. Kichigin, E. I. Parshakov,
A. A. Tainickiy and K. N. Shiryaev
37 Multi-Electrode Electrical Profiling Results in the Northern
Ladoga Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
V. E. Kolesnikov, M. Yu. Nilov and A. A. Zhamaletdinov
38 The Indication in the Potential Fields of Structures Controlling
Diamondiferous Magmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
S. G. Alekseev, P. A. Bochkov, N. P. Senchina
and M. B. Shtokalenko
39 Horizontal Shear Zones and Their Reflection in Gravitational
Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
V. Philatov, L. Bolotnova and K. Vandysheva
40 Intermediate Conducting Layers in the Continental Earth’s
Crust—Myths and Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
A. A. Zhamaletdinov
Contents ix

41 A Map of the Total Longitudinal Electric Conductivity

of the Sedimentary Cover of the Voronezh Crystalline Massif
and Its Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
V. I. Zhavoronkin, V. Gruzdev, I. Antonova and Y. Austova
42 Geophysical Monitoring for the Preservation of Architectural
Monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Z. Slepak
43 Application of Detailed Magnetics in Intensive Industrial
Noise Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
P. N. Novikova
44 The Results of Numerical Simulation of the Electromagnetic Field
Within the Voronezh Crystalline Massif and its Framing . . . . . . . . 377
V. Gruzdev and I. Antonova
45 Predural Depression Structures in the Arctic Urals
Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
V. A. Pyankov and A. L. Rublev
46 Results of the Complex Airborne Geophysical Survey
in the Central African Ridge Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Yu. G. Podmogov, J. Moilanen and V. M. Kertsman
47 The Forecast of the Structural Surfaces Along the Top
of the Pre-Jurassic Base on the Gravitational Field and the
Evaluation of Productivity in the Poorly Studied Regions of
Western Siberia at Various Stages of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
N. N. Yaitskii, I. I. Khaliulin and M. V. Melnikova
48 Well Logging During the Processes of Field Development
of Native Bitumen and Super-Viscous Oil Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
S. I. Petrov, R. Z. Mukhametshin, A. S. Borisov and M. Y. Borovsky
49 Preliminary Results of a Satellite Image Frequency-Resonance
Processing of the Gas Hydrate Location Area in the South
China Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
S. Levashov, N. Yakymchuk, I. Korchagin and D. Bozhezha
 Part I
Theoretical Issues of Potential
Fields Interpretation
Chapter 1
Development of the Finite-Element
Technologies in Quantitative
Interpretation of Geopotential Fields

P. I. Balk and A. S. Dolgal

Abstract Brief description of the assembly method for solving the inverse problem
of gravimetry and assessing the reliability confidence validity credibility of inter-
pretational constructions based on the guaranteed approach is presented. It is
suggested to estimate the probability of detecting the sources of geopotential fields
within the studied geological space by analyzing the variety of the probable
interpretations and, then, to use this distribution for criterion-based selecting the
model carriers of mass. The synthetic examples of modeling the anomalous dis-
turbing objects are presented.

Keywords Gravimetry Interpretation
Assembly algorithm
Reliability
confidence validity credibility

Quantitative interpretation of gravity anomalies largely employs the fitting method

aimed at constructing the unique admissible solution of the inverse problem of
gravimetry (IPG) which is assumed to be the best solution. However, because of the
practical ambiguity of IPG, a single version of the spatial distribution of anomalous
masses is insufficient for objective estimating the accuracy of the interpretation
constructions. Such an estimate can only be obtained by a joint analysis of fairly
extensive (representative) set Q of admissible solutions of IPG (which ensure the
required residual e between the observed and model fields and satisfy the a priori
information about the shapes, sizes, and depths of the anomalous disturbing
objects). In the case of the ore-type IPG, set Q can be efficiently constructed by the
assembly algorithms which were conceptually introduced in (Ovcharenko 1975;

P. I. Balk
Institute of Applied Geodesy, Berlin, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
A. S. Dolgal (&)
Perm Federal Research Center, Ural Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Perm, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 3

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_1
4 P. I. Balk and A. S. Dolgal

Strakhov and Lapina 1976) and subsequently developed in the works of P. I. Balk
and other researchers.
In the core of the assembly method is integrity of finite-element description of a
density medium and a special technique for constructing the approximate solution
in the class of such models, not related to the nonlinear optimization methods. We
recall that regular tessellation of a plane is the tiling of this plane by a set of regular
closed polygons (tessellation elements or tiling elements or simply tiles) x where
the adjacent tiles share a full side; a configurational distribution of masses is the
distribution of masses with constant density r across domain X which is the
combination of a certain number of tiling elements x. Tiles x can be the square
bars infinite along the strike (in two-dimensional (2D) case) or cubes (in
three-dimensional (3D) case); the sizes of these elements are specified by the
interpreter.
The main operations in the class of configurational distributions of masses are
performed with the use of the notions of a core Я[Ω], shell O½X, inner core Я0[Ω],
and boundary C½X of the configuration X: Я[Ω] is the set of elements xa 2 X; O½X
is the set of all elements xa62Я[Ω] that border on the elements of the core Я[Ω]; Я0[Ω]
is the set of elements xa 2 X that only border on the elements of the same core; and
C½X is the set of the elements Я[Ω] that are not included in Я0[Ω].
In the simplest IPG statement for an isolated body S with the known density r,
the assembly principle of solving the inverse problem consists in the following:
proceeding from a given connected configuration X0 (whose role can be played by
the single element x0—the center of the crystallization), to construct a finite
sequence X0 ; X1 ; X2 . . . converging to a certain limiting configuration X the field
of which, with the fitted density r  rT , agrees with the measurements of the
gravitational field Dg. We note that the connectedness in the assembly algorithms
helps to separate the domains in the geological medium that are occupied by the
masses with different values of a physical parameter. The simple connectedness of
the anomalous bodies implies the absence of voids in them.
In the controlled directed crystallization (CDC) modification, a current
approximation is obtained by introducing into the core Я[Ωn] a certain (one) ele-


ment of O Xn1 that provides the minimal root-mean-square fitting error. The
conversion from configuration Xn1 to configuration Xn takes into account the main
a priori information about the location, shape, and size of the anomalous bodies that
is typically available for the interpreter.
By using the simplest logical operations with indices a of tiling elements
xa 2 C½X, we can easily and efficiently control the fulfillment of various a priori
constraints including those for the domain that surely contains the source of the
field XT and for the domain that surely does not contain this source; for the minimal
and maximal probable top and bottom depths of the anomalous object XT ; for the
vertical and horizontal thicknesses of object XT ; for the surface smoothness of
object XT , etc.
1 Development of the Finite-Element Technologies … 5

To make the CDC method more transparent, let us illustrate it by a simple model
example. As a carrier of masses with density r = 0.3 g/cm3 we consider an infinite
long horizontal prism S. The cross section of the prism is the configuration con-
structed of 88 squared tiling elements x with a side of 25 m. The “observed” values
of the gravitational field Dg are specified at 36 points on the profile with a step of
50 m and are contaminated by noise n with the mean value fairly close to zero and
rms deviation of about 0.015 mGal (Fig. 1.1). The noise is constructed by aver-
aging a sequence of a Gaussian random quantity in a moving window with a length
of 5 points. It is a priori assumed that the sought anomalous body is simply
connected, is limited by a sufficiently smooth boundary, its thickness is at most
1 km laterally and at most 0.5 km vertically; and the depth of its bottom is at most
1 km. The behavior of the residual and optimized density with increasing number
t of the iteration is illustrated in the graphs of Figs. 1.2 and 1.3 shows several
intermediate iterations approximations including the final IPG solution X .

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Fig. 1.1 Density model: 1—anomaly-forming prism; 2—center of crystallization; 3—model field
Dg; 4—“observed” field
6 P. I. Balk and A. S. Dolgal

Fig. 1.2 Graphs illustrating the behavior of the residual e between the observed and model field
(a) and density of current configurations Xi (b) obtained by CDC solution of the inverse problem
of gravimetry

Let us consider the set Q ¼ QðeÞ of the admissible solutions of the inverse
problem for one body in the finite-element class of the models S (denote the elements
of this class by Xi, i = 1, 2,…, m) and its two subsets: D1 ¼ Xm containing T all the
possible IPG solutions (the sum the union of the solutions) and D2 ¼ Xm con-
taining the fragments of the sources that pertain to the sought objects over the entire
set of the solutions (the intersection of the solutions). Set Subset D2 is a fragment
that is guaranteed to pertain to the disturbing object S whereas set subset D1 allows
us to delineate the spatial domain that can contain the sought object: D2  S  D1 .
The pair hD1 ; D2 i can be considered as an alternative representation of the results of
the quantitative interpretation, and the measure of e—equivalence can be estimated
by metric sðQÞ ¼ 1  lðD2 Þ=lðD1 Þ where l is the Lebesgue measure (Balk 1980).
Let us illustrate the application of the guaranteed approach in the case of joint
determination of the physical and geometrical parameters of the object from the
noised measurements of gravity. The gravity anomaly Dg is caused by an isolated
convex body S with excess density r = 0.2 g/cm3; the rms error in the gravity field
measurements D~gðxi Þ is at most 0.1 mGal (Fig. 1.4a). The results of the interpre-
tation with the residual between the observed and model field e  0.2 mGal in
terms of the pair hD1 ; D2 i for the case when the exact r value is specified a priori
are shown in Fig. 1.4b and for the case when it is only known that the true value is
located in a sufficiently wide interval ½0; 1; 0; 3 g/cm3 in Fig. 1.4c. In the second
case, as the additional information it is assumed that the maximal vertical thickness
of the body is at most 2 km (actually it is 1.75 km). It can be easily seen that in
these two variants, the sizes of domain D1 that is guaranteed to contain the
anomaly-forming body are commensurate. Domain D2 that is surely a part of the
unknown body S in the variant with the fuzzy a priori information about density is
1 Development of the Finite-Element Technologies … 7

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 1.3 Solution of the inverse problem of gravimetry by CDC method: a—20 iterations
(r = 1.248 g/cm3; e = 0.026 mGal); b—r = 40 iterations (0.656 g/cm3; e = 0.023 mGal); c—60
iterations (r = 0.439 g/cm3; e = 0.020 mGal); d—result of interpretation X*, 88 iterations
(r = 0.298 g/cm3; e = 0.016 mGal): 1—fitted model; 2—anomalous prism; 3—center of
crystallization

only by 15% lower than in the variant with the known density. That is how the
principle of interchangeability of the a priori information about the physical and
geometrical parameters of the field source (Balk et al. 2012) manifests itself.
The development of the guaranteed approach allows us to estimate the proba-
bility of the presence of disturbing masses within the domain D1/D2. By directly
checking each “elementary” volume xi of the density model, we can establish the
number mi of the constructed carriers Xm 2 Q for which this elementary volume is a
fragment. If the unknown true carrier of masses S is among these carriers, xi  S.
Correspondingly, the frequency with which the IGP solutions containing domain xi
occur among the entire set of n obtained admissible IGP solutions can be accepted
as the estimate of the sought probability pi ¼ mi =n. Let us refer to the function of
the spatial coordinates uðxÞ ¼ pðx; y; zÞ with the domain of definition [0,1] as the
localization function characterizing the structure of domain Q (Dolgal and
Sharkhimullin 2011). Also the other characteristics having the similar meaning can
be suggested, e.g., guarantee functions, confidence functions, and detection func-
tions (Balk and Dolgal 2016).
8 P. I. Balk and A. S. Dolgal

Fig. 1.4 Results of the interpretation of gravity anomaly (a) with the density of its source
specified by the exact value (b) and specified by the interval containing the true value (c):
1—“observed” gravity field; 2—fitted gravity field for one of the admissible IGP solutions;
3—anomaly-forming object (source); 4—individual admissible IGP solutions; 5—domain D1;
6—domain D2

Let us illustrate the construction principle and the possibilities of the localization
function uðxÞ in the 2D IGP statement. Here, the anomalous bodies are associated
with their vertical cross sections. Gravity anomaly Dg is caused by three bodies
having the effective densities r1 ¼ 0:15, r2 ¼ 0:20, and r3 ¼ 0:30 g=cm3 ; the
anomaly is measured with a step of 500 m on the profile with a length of 40 km; the
measurements are complicated by a weak noise. The model objects can be likened
to the certain horizontally extended intrusive bodies located in the graviactive
crustal layer with a thickness of about 10 km. The statement of the problem
includes the typical constraints: the admissible solutions of the inverse problem are
three local (connected) carriers ðS j ; j ¼ 1; 2; 3Þ (corresponding to the number of the
1 Development of the Finite-Element Technologies … 9

local maxima of Dg) each of which is simply connected (does not contain voids)
and has a sufficiently smooth boundary. The threshold residual e between the
observed and model field is 0.1 mGal.
By selecting different zero approximations for each of the three local bodies, we
constructed 1182 variants of density section (3546 admissible carriers S j ). A certain
idea of their scatter can be drawn from the following fact: the area (measure l) of
the region covered by these carriers is more than 2.5 times as high as the total area
of the real disturbing objects. Figure 1.5 shows the vertical map of the isolines of
function uðxÞ constructed from its discrete values within the tiling elements x—
squares with a size of 250 250 m. Of course, the interpretation results expressed
in terms of the localization function are much more informative than the individual
particular IGP solution. For verifying the anomaly by drilling, it is sufficient to
highly reliably identify one of the fragments of domain S occupied by the disturbing
masses in order to subsequently select the location and depth of the drilling well.
However, the results of the quantitative interpretation which do not describe the
supposed boundaries of the anomalous bodies are not always applicable. In par-
ticular, constructing the expected density boundaries is necessary for solving the
problems associated with studying the deep geological structure of the ore regions.
For constructing the particular interpretation models that are preferable over the
other ones from the set Q it is reasonable to use various criteria of the
decision-making theory (Balk and Dolgal 2015; 2017a). For instance, we may
select the IGP solution X1 consisting of m elements for which the average sum of
P
the values of the localization function H ¼ m 1 uðxÞ=m is maximal compared to
the other variants of the interpretation. This solution X1 corresponds to the criterion
of the maximum of the a posteriori probability (Balk and Dolgal 2017b) and gives
the residual of the fields e = 0.030 mGal (Fig. 1.6a). The traditional method for
selecting the “best” IPG solution that corresponds to the minimal residual of the
fields e = 0.026 mGal yields a noticeably worse result (Fig. 1.6b).

Fig. 1.5 Vertical map of the isolines of the localization function for the model of three of bodies.
Field sources and their numbers are shown in red
10 P. I. Balk and A. S. Dolgal

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 1.6 Solutions of the inverse problem of gravimetry: X1 (a), X2 (b), X3 (c). Red polygons
show the sources of the field

In addition to the visual estimate let us also quantify this advantage. As a

measure of the closeness between the true anomaly-forming object S and its model
X we consider the ratio of the area (measure l) of their common fragment to
the area of the zone whose points pertain to at least one of them:
qðS; XÞ ¼ lðS \ XÞ=lðS [ XÞ. In the idealized situation when the object and the
results of the interpretation completely coincide, the value of q(S, X) is maximal
and equal to 1; if the object and the results of the interpretation have no common
points, q(S, X) = 0. In our example, qðS; X1 Þ ¼ 0:55 (the area of the common
fragment of S and X1 is *71%), whereas qðS; X2 Þ ¼ 0:37 (here, the area of the
common fragment is *54%). However, the maximal value of metrics
q(S, X3) = 0.67 is provided by the solution X3 (the area of the common fragment of
S and X3 is *73%) which has a rather high residual e = 0.052 mGal (Fig. 1.6c).
Analyzing the entire set of the obtained admissible solutions of IPG, we see that
according to the results of the numerical experiment there is a fairly close
1 Development of the Finite-Element Technologies … 11

Fig. 1.7 Cross-plot and

linear regression dependence
q(S,X) = 1.195H − 0.268
(dash-dotted line).Color lines
show the parameters for each
tenth IPG solution of set Q

relationship between the quality of carrier q overall and the average value H of the
fragment-based estimates of its quality by the criterion of the maximum a posteriori
probability (Balk and Dolgal 2017b). Coefficient of the correlation between q and
H over the set of 1182 IPG solutions is 0.745 (Fig. 1.7). For comparison, the
coefficient of the correlation between q and residual e is as low as 0.277.
The described results of our study on estimating the accuracy of quantitative
interpretation of gravity anomalies suggests the following conclusions:
(1) As a new form of representation of the results of solving the ore-type IPG, it is
suggested to use the information package that includes several distributions of
the estimating functions such as uðxÞ and one or a few interpretation models
satisfying the optimality criteria (such as X1 ).
(2) It is obtained that in a number of the experiments, the set Q contains, inter alia,
the “best” solutions such as X3 which cannot be revealed without the exact
information about the initial model of the field sources. On one hand, this is an
additional argument validating the application of the criteria based on esti-
mating the closeness of two different solutions of IPG. On the other hand, this
provides potential to increase the accuracy of interpretation constructions by
assembling the new partial solutions from elements x 2 Q with the allowance
for the already existing estimates of the probability uðxÞ of these elements to
belong to the true carrier of masses S.
12 P. I. Balk and A. S. Dolgal

References

Ovcharenko, A.V. (1975), Fitting the cross-section of a 2D body based on the gravity field, Vopr.
Neft. Rud. Geofiz., Alma-Ata: Kazakh. politekh. inst., 1975, vol. 2, pp. 71–75.
Strakhov, V.N. and Lapina, M.I. (1976), Assembly method for solving the inverse problems of
gravimetry, Proc. Acad. Sci. USSR, 1976, vol. 227, no. 2, pp. 344–347.
Balk, P.I. (1980), On the reliability of the results of quantitative interpretation of gravity
anomalies, I Proc. Acad. Sci. USSR, Phys. Earth, 1980. no. 6, pp. 43–57.
Balk, P.I., Dolgal, A.S., and Khristenko, L.A. (2012), Localization of geological objects based on
the data of gravity prospecting with incomplete information about the density of rocks, Dokl.
Earth Sci., 2012, vol. 442, no. 2, pp. 262–266.
Dolgal, A.S. and Sharkhimullin, A.F. (2011), The increase of the interpretation accuracy for
monogenetic gravity anomalies, Geoinformatika, 2011, no. 4, pp. 49–56.
Balk, P.I. and Dolgal, A.S. (2016), Additive technologies of quantitative interpretation
gravitational anomalies, Geofizika, 2016, no. 1, pp. 43–47.
Balk, P.I. and Dolgal, A.S. (2015), A minimax approach to the solution of inverse problems of
gravity and magnetic prospecting, Dokl., Earth Sci., 2015, vol. 462, no. 2, pp. 648–652.
Balk, P.I. and Dolgal, A.S. (2017), Inverse problems of gravity prospecting as a decision-making
problem under uncertainty and risk, Izv., Phys. Solid Earth, 2017, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 214–229.
Balk, P.I. and Dolgal, A.S. (2017), New possibilities for increasing the informativity of
quantitative interpretation of gravity anomalies, Dokl., Earth Sci., 2017, vol. 476, no. 4,
pp. 461–465.
Chapter 2
Pareto-Optimal Solutions of Inverse
Gravimetry Problem with Uncertain
a Priori Information

T. N. Kyshman-Lavanova

Abstract The inverse problem of gravimetry under uncertainty of heterogeneous a

priori information is solved. An algorithm using the possibilities of deterministic
and probabilistic approaches is developed. In the framework of the probabilistic
approach, a priori distribution of model parameters described by fuzzy sets.
A deterministic approach is used to calculate fields from a given distribution of
model parameters and formalization of a priori information through natural
restrictions. Since the establishment of this algorithm is independent, it can be used
for solving a wide range of nonlinear geophysical inverse problems.

Keywords Inverse problem
Gravimetry
Uncertain a priori information

Introduction

The consistency of the method for solving the inverse problem is determined by its
ability to use both deterministic and statistical approaches to obtain new data on the
basis of available information.
In geophysical inverse problems, there are two types of uncertainty: the
uncertainty of the observed data is probabilistic, this is the result of random
observation errors. The uncertainty of the a priori information about model
parameters is often of a non-probabilistic nature, that is, it is associated with a lack
of knowledge about explored object. It should be described formally using an non
probabilistic measure of uncertainty.
The experience of successful application of non-probabilistic methods of
describing uncertainty is well known for the inversion of seismic data (Kozlovskaya
2000; Sambridge 1999; Tarantola 2005; Sambridge and Drijkoningen 1992; Stoffa
and Sen 1991). For problems of gravimetry, the paper (Balk et al. 2011), where the

T. N. Kyshman-Lavanova (&)
Institute of Geophysics, NAS of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 13

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_2
14 T. N. Kyshman-Lavanova

linear inverse problem of gravimetry and magnetometry is solved, is known within

the concept of combining deterministic and probability methods.
In the article presented, we show how the uncertainty of a priori information is
described by fuzzy sets, and how the non-probabilistic methods, that manipulate
uncertain information, can be adapted to solve the inverse nonlinear gravimetric
problem. The problem is formulated as a multicriteria optimization problem, a
priori information is one of the criteria, and the solution of the problem is a set of
interpretational models that satisfy a priori data with a given accuracy.

Description Undefined a Priori Information

The improbability measures to describe the uncertainties have been significantly

developed in the 1970s. In particular, some theories that generalize or complement
the probability theory were introduced during this decade (Sugeno 1977; Zadeh
1978).
The use of non-probability measures to describe uncertainty can provide a
convenient way of representing a priori information in the inverse problems and
build an efficient computer algorithm for inversion of geophysical data. It is
therefore advisable to elaborate on the possibility theory, based on the definition of
fuzzy sets because of its relative computational simplicity in comparison with the
theory of probability.
Fuzzy set theory is a well-developed area of mathematics. Its description can be
found in Zadeh (1978), Zimmermann (2001). We give the definition of fuzzy sets.
Let U—the so-called universal set, elements of which formed all the other sets
under consideration in this class of problems. Fuzzy set A is the set of pairs:

A ¼ fhx; lA ðxÞij x 2 U g;

where lA is the membership function, i.e. lA : U ! ½0; 1. The membership

function is an analog of the characteristic binary function in the normal sets.
The uncertainty of information about model parameters of the non-probabilistic
nature can be described by means of fuzzy sets. The advantage of this approach is
that it provides the possibility of incorporating a wide range of non-probabilistic a
priori information in the inversion procedure, and can be applied for the solution of
nonlinear problems (Kozlovskaya 2000).

Statement of the Problem

We formulate the problem based on the use of fuzzy sets.

Let geological objects under the earth’s surface belong to parameterized region,
i.e. described by a set of parameters m ¼ ½m1 ; m2 ; . . .; mk  2 M, where M is a
parametric space. Each model m is regarded as a point in a model space M.
2 Pareto-Optimal Solutions of Inverse Gravimetry Problem … 15

In n points of the earth’s surface the observed gravity field has a value
Dgobs ¼ ðg1 ; g2 ; . . .; gn Þ. A priori information about the geological object is derived
from some experimental observations. Probabilistic approach to inverse problem
describes a priori information about the model using the probability density func-
tion pðmÞ. The problem is to search a posteriori probability density distribution
pðdÞ of the vector m on the basis of observed data, the theoretical relationships
between model parameters and observed field, and a priori information (Tarantola
and Valette 1982):

pðdÞ ¼ k pðmÞ LðmÞ;

where k is the appropriate normalizing constant, LðmÞ—functional, which com-

pares the fit between observed and theoretical data.
In practice in most geophysical experiments it is assumed that both a priori and a
posteriori density is Gaussian.


1 1 T 1
pðmÞ ¼ exp  ½m  m0  CM ½m  m0 
ð2pÞL=2 jCM j1=2 2

 ð2:1Þ
1 1 T 1
pðdobs =mÞ ¼ exp  ½ gðmÞ  d obs  CD ½ gðmÞ  d obs 
ð2pÞL=2 jCD j1=2 2

where m0 —a priori model, CM and CD —the covariance matrix of the model and
observed data, respectively, jCM j and jCD j—the corresponding determinants.
With these assumptions, the maximization of (2.1) is equivalent to minimize the
following objective function:

LðmÞ ¼ ½gðmÞ  dobs T CD1 ½gðmÞ  dobs  þ ðm  m0 ÞT CM

1
ðm  m0 Þ ð2:2Þ

The minimization (2.2) can be performed efficiently in the case when gðmÞ
linear and matrix CM and CD diagonal. Since the model space is usually multidi-
mensional, then and appropriate a priori distribution is usually quite difficult.
If statistical estimates of a priori information are impossible, then the
non-probabilistic a priori information can be described by away more efficient than
using the probability density function PDF, namely, by fuzzy sets. An important
advantage is that the basic operations of fuzzy sets provide a rather convenient
combination of various precise and fuzzy constraints on the model parameters.
However, we must remember that the membership function cannot be used instead
of the a priori PDF in the classical formulation of the inverse problem, as it not only
express two different types of uncertain information, but also correspond to different
measures of uncertainty which should satisfy various axioms. To combine different
types of uncertainty in inversion scheme, we must change the formulation of the
inverse problem.
16 T. N. Kyshman-Lavanova

Transformation of Traditional One-Objective Geophysical

Inverse Problem in the Multi-objective Optimization
Problem

Let X is a fuzzy set of possible solutions defined in the parametric space with the
membership function lM ðmÞ and let pðdobs jmÞ be the conditional probability
density function of the experimental data (i.e., the probability of obtaining the
experimental data for certain values of model parameters).
Then the solution of the inverse problem should:
– to maximize the membership function of a fuzzy set of possible solutions
lM ðmÞ;
– to maximize the conditional probability density PDF of the observed data
pðdobs jmÞ.
This optimization problem is a multiple objective optimization with two
objective functions, that is

FðmÞ ¼ ðF1 ðmÞ; F2 ðmÞÞ; ð2:3Þ

where F1 ðmÞ ¼ pðdobs jmÞ, F2 ðmÞ ¼ lM ðmÞ.

It is important to note that in the case of one objective optimization problem, the
quality of the solution is estimated by the discrepancy function for each solution in
the parametric space. In the case of a multipurpose problem, each solution has L  2
estimated values, one for each objective function. Solutions with multiobjective
values we can to compare with the concept of non-dominance.
For a problem with more than one objective function (i.e., fj ; j ¼ 1; . . .; L and
L [ 1), two arbitrary solutions x and y can be in the following relations: one
dominates the other, or none of the solutions dominates the other.
The solution x dominates the solution y if
1. x is not less than y in all components, that is fj ðxÞ  fj ðyÞ, for all j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; L.
2. x is strictly greater than y, at least for one component, that is fj ðxÞ [ fj ðyÞ, for at
least one j ¼ 1; 3; . . .; L.
The solution is Pareto-optimal if it does not dominate in the target space by any
other solution, that is x 2 Rk , there is a Pareto-optimal or non-dominant solution of
the multipurpose inverse problem with the objective function vector
f ðxÞ ¼ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞ; . . .; fL ðxÞÞ, if and only if there is no vector x 2 Rk such that
fi ðx Þ  fi ðxÞ 8i 2 f1; 2; . . .; Lg and fj ðx Þ\fj ðxÞ at least for one j 2 f1; 3; . . .; Lg.
Pareto-set provides a compromise between the criteria for a non-dominant
solution: one criterion improves, the other deteriorates.
2 Pareto-Optimal Solutions of Inverse Gravimetry Problem … 17

Algorithm of Global Optimization

Using Pareto-Set Definition

For an effective search in a multidimensional parametric space, we use the approach

proposed by Sambridge (1999) in his neighborhood algorithm, that is, the
approximation of a parametric space by Voronoi diagrams.
Sambridge showed how Voronoi diagrams can be used in global optimization
algorithms to reduce the number of direct problem calculations and to increase the
resolution of the research area. The calculation of the direct problem is replaced by
the search for the nearest element of the Voronoi diagram. In the algorithm pro-
posed in the article, Voronoi’s division is used to determine the search area of
Pareto-optimal points. The search is performed in a manner similar to that described
in Sambridge (1999), that is, the search step is determined by the size and
boundaries of the Voronoi cell around the perturbed point.
We use the algorithm of global optimization, proposed by Kozlovskaya (2000),
which realized in three stages.
The first stage is the modeling of the initial population from the fuzzy set of
feasible solutions. Calculations of the forward problem are not required.
The second stage is the calculation of the initial Pareto-optimal set, which
requires the estimation of the misfit function and solution of the forward problem at
each point of the initial population.
The third stage is the perturbation of points from the obtained Pareto-optimal set.
The algorithm works until the neighborhoods of all Pareto-optimal points are
examined and the distance between the new generated point and its nearest
neighborhood becomes less than a certain threshold value. The choice of the final
solution from the set P obtained in the last stage can be done using a trade-off
analysis between the values of the fuzzy set membership function and misfit
function. It is also possible that the finite Pareto set contains only one solution.

Adaptation of the Algorithm to the Inverse Problem

of Gravimetry for Three-Dimensional Contact Surfaces

Consider a fairly simple model example to illustrate the action of the proposed
algorithm.
Consider the inversion of the nonlinear problem of gravimetry for one contact
surface in a limited area of investigation. It belongs to the class of incorrect
problems. A detailed statement of the problem is given in (Bulakh and Kyshman
2006), where it is solved by the method of gradient descent.
Here we briefly give the main points of the parameterization of the problem.
The contact surface is determined by the position of the horizontal plane f ¼ H0 .
At each point ½ðn0 ; g0 Þj ; j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; m the surface deviates from this fixed plane
by an amount
18 T. N. Kyshman-Lavanova

X
m
Q1j
Z ¼ Zðn; gÞ ¼ h ia ð2:4Þ
j¼1 1 þ Q2j ðn  noj Þ2 þ Q3j ðg  goj Þ2

The values of the parameters Q1, Q2, Q3 determine the surface configuration.
The parameter a is fixed, a = 2.
Thus, the contact surface is determined by the function

Hðn; gÞ ¼ H0  Zðn; gÞ ð2:5Þ

Let’s write down the parameters that define the geological model

P ¼ fjk; ½r; H0 ; W1; W2t ; t ¼ 1; 2; . . .; jkg ð2:6Þ

W1 ¼ ½a; m; ðn0 ; g0 Þj ; j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; m; W2 ¼ ½ðQ1; Q2; Q3Þj ; j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; m:

Here jk is the number of contact surfaces, r—the excess density of masses,

which are located below the interface, H0 —the horizontal plane, the zero level,
relative to which the marks of the relief of the contact surface are counted.
The membership functions for the variable model parameters are written as
follows:


1; if 0\Q1\1
lQ1 ðQ1Þ ¼
0; if Q1  0 ^ Q1  1


1; if 0\Q2\0:5
lQ2 ðQ2Þ ¼
0; if Q2  0 ^ Q2  0:5


1; if 0\Q3\0:5
lQ3 ðQ3Þ ¼
0; if Q3  0 ^ Q3  0:5

Let the a priori data on the depth to the contact surface described by the fol-
lowing possible statements:
1. it is possible that H0 it has values from 1 to 2 km, or less;
2. It is unlikely that H0 more than 4 km.
In this case, we can describe the parameter by a possible distribution associated
with a fuzzy set with the membership function.
8
< H0 ; 0\H0 \1
lH ðH0 Þ ¼ 1; 1  H0  2 ð2:7Þ
:
2  H0 =2; 2\H0 \4

It is obvious that the probability density function of a priori information in this

case cannot be considered Gaussian and it is asymmetrical, since H0  0.
2 Pareto-Optimal Solutions of Inverse Gravimetry Problem … 19

First construct fuzzy sets for different parameters of the models, then combine
them into one overall fuzzy set, using the definition of Cartesian product.
Ultimately, the membership function of the model will be written

lM ðmÞ ¼ minðlH0 ðH0Þ; lQ1 ðQ1Þ; lQ2 ðQ2Þ; lQ3 ðQ3ÞÞ ð2:8Þ

Equation (2.8) can be used to compute values of membership function of the

model. The second objective function can be written because it displays the location
of the Pareto sets in parametric space:

LðmÞ ¼ ½gðmÞ  tT CD1 ½gðmÞ  t ð2:9Þ

Equations (2.8) and (2.9) form the vector of objective function multi-purpose
optimization problem.
The model for the observed field is the uneven distribution of points on the
square 6  6 km, depth H0 ¼ 1 km, the excess density of 0.5 g/cm3. The other
parameters are given in Table 2.1.
The initial population of the models was modeled in the parametric space in
accordance with the membership function of a fuzzy set of possible solutions (step
1–3 of the algorithm). It was done 2 test model on regular network 6  6 with a
step of 1 km for different values of H0 , Q1, different amounts of points in the initial
population and different threshold values e (Table 2.2).

Table 2.1 The model parameters used to calculate the observed field
N x0 y0 Q1 Q2 Q3
1 −1 2 0.5 0.2 0.2
2 0 −1 0.6 0.2 0.2
3 0 0 0.3 0.2 0.2
4 1 1 0.2 0.2 0.2
5 2 0 0.3 0.2 0.2
6 3 1 0.3 0.2 0.2
7 3 2 0.5 0.2 0.2
8 3 3 0.3 0.2 0.2

Table 2.2 The parameters used to generate the initial population of the model problem
№ test The number of points e The parameters of
in initial population the membership
function of a fuzzy
set
H0 Q1j
1 60 0.8 1 0.4
2 80 0.7 1.2 0.3
20 T. N. Kyshman-Lavanova

The first test was done for 60 points of the initial population, and a wide region
of possible values of depth. Only one Pareto-point was selected from the initial
population. The final solution was obtained as the result of a direct search in the
neighborhood of this point (Fig. 2.1).
The second test was performed for the same region, but the number of points of the
initial population was more. The initial Pareto set, obtained in the second step of the

Fig. 2.1 Pareto-optimal solution for the first test. a given the topography of the contact surface;
b obtained surface topography. The function of residuals is 2.44. The membership function is 0.96

Fig. 2.2 The solution for the second test with two Pareto-optimal points. a given the topography
of the contact surface; b obtained surface topography. The functions of the residual F1 = 2.16,
F2 = 3.51. The membership function is 0.97
2 Pareto-Optimal Solutions of Inverse Gravimetry Problem … 21

algorithm contains two different Pareto-optimal solutions, obviously located in the

vicinity of two different local minima. Only one Pareto-optimal solution left after
performing a direct search in the vicinity of both points and update Pareto set (Fig. 2.2).
The previous two examples show, if the initial search region with equal prob-
ability is large, then the number of points in initial population should be large
enough in order parameter space during the search was studied in more detail and to
avoid the convergence of the algorithm to the same local minimum.
The test results show that the algorithm allows to obtain a satisfactory solution at
the stage of search of Pareto-set. Subsequent direct search in the surroundings of
Pareto-optimal points greatly reduces the function of the residuals and discards
some local minima.

Conclusion

The key idea of this work is to develop an algorithm for the inversion of gravity
data in terms of uncertainty of heterogeneous prior information, using the capa-
bilities of deterministic and probabilistic approaches. In the framework of the
probabilistic approach, the a priori distribution of model parameters described by
fuzzy sets. A deterministic approach is used to calculate fields from a given dis-
tribution of model parameters and formalization of a priori information through
natural restrictions.
Since the establishment of this algorithm is independent, it can be used for
solving a wide range of nonlinear geophysical inverse problems.

References

Balk P.I., Dolgal A.S., Michurin A.V. (2011) Mixed probabilistic and deterministic methods of
solving linear inverse problems of gravimetry and magnetometry. Geophysics 2:20–29.
Bulakh E., Kyshman-Lavanova T. (2006) Another approximation approach to solution of inverse
problems of gravimetry in the class of three-dimensional contact surfaces. Geophys J 28 (2):
54–62.
Kozlovskaya E. (2000) An algorithm of geophysical data inversion based on non-probalistic
presentation of a priori information and definition of Pareto-optimality. Inverse problem
16: 839–861.
Sambridge M. (1999) Geophysical inversion with a neighbourhood algorithm – I. Searching a
parameter space. Geophysical journal international 138 (2): 479–494.
Sambridge M., Drijkoningen G. (1992) Genetic algorithms in seismic waveform inversion.
Geophys J Int 109: 323–342.
Stoffa P.L., Sen M.K. (1991) Nonlinear multiparameter optimization using genetic algorithms:
inversion of plane wave seismograms. Geophysics 56:1749–1810.
22 T. N. Kyshman-Lavanova

Sugeno M. (1977) Fuzzy measures and fuzzy integrals: a survey. Fuzzy Automata and Decision
Processes. North-Holland, New York, p 89–102.
Tarantola A. (2005) Inverse problem theory and methods for model parameter estimation. SIAM.
Tarantola A., Valette B. (1982) Generalized nonlinear inverse problem using the least squares
criterion. Rev. Geophys. Space 20: 219–232.
Zadeh L.A. (1978) Fuzzy sets as a basis of a theory of possibility. Fussy Sets Syst 1: 3–28.
Zimmermann HJ (4th ed.) (2001) Fuzzy set theory—and its applications. Dordrecht, Kluwer.
Chapter 3
Joint Interpretation of Magnetotelluric
and CSAMT Data on the Kola Peninsula
(Kovdor Area)

A. N. Shevtsov

Abstract Both processes- and with a controlled source and fields of natural origin,
contain information about the Earth. The data of the CSAMT research and the results
of the AMT-MT measurements should complement each other. To this point of
view, in the Geological Institute of RAS has developed a set of programs for data
processing and interpretation of the results of joint data of the magnetotelluric
research and data of the frequency electromagnetic sounding with controlled sour-
ces. Presents the results of the joint inversion of CSAMT data at distances 50 km
from two mutually-orthogonal horizontal electric dipoles in the frequency range of
3.82–2185 Hz (“Kovdor-2015”) in west sector Kovdor-Jona area and AMT-MT
measurements of the 2016 year in point of the disposition of the dipole sources.

Keywords CSAMT
Magnetotelluric
Interpretation
Data processing

Introduction

In frequency electromagnetic sounding method (Frequency Sounding (FS)—in

Russia or Controlled Source Audio-Magneto-Telluric CSAMT—foreign jobs) with
controlled sources is used idea of harmonic process. As a rule, are assumed known
source parameters (geometry and current of the source as a function (harmonic or
represented by series harmonics) of time) (Vanyan 1997). In addition, when you use
linear grounded sources (electric dipole, a long grounded line) electromagnetic field
has a clear elliptical polarization. Processing of MT-AMT soundings requires to
abandon presentation of harmonic fields, as real magneto-telluric process is not
described by a model of the harmonic fields (Semenov 1985). Instead, it uses the
notion of a stationary stochastic process that satisfies a ergodicity condition.
Besides, assumes the existence of a linear relationship between the components of
the field and of magneto-telluric impedance constancy in a narrow frequency band.

A. N. Shevtsov (&)
Kola Science Center of RAS, Geological Institute, Apatity, Murmansk region, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 23

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_3
24 A. N. Shevtsov

During the measurements by method of FS (CSAMT) with broadband mea-

surement stations, along with the registration of the electromagnetic field compo-
nents are recorded and source fields of natural origin in the AMT-MT range that
when processing data are often perceived as interference and are filtered out.
In AMT measurements—AMT-MT fields often recorded with field of remote
sources ELF-VLF range that the standard processing procedures should be filtered
as interference of artificial origin (Zhamaletdinov et al. 2012).
But both processes and with a controlled source and fields of natural origin,
contain information about the Earth. The data of the CSAMT research and the results
of the AMT-MT measurements should complement each other. To this point of
view, in the Geological Institute of RAS has developed a set of programs for data
processing and interpretation of the results of joint data of the magnetotelluric
research and data of the frequency electromagnetic sounding with controlled sources
(Zhamaletdinov et al. 2015). In this work are presented the results of the joint
inversion of CSAMT data at distances 50 km from two mutually-orthogonal hori-
zontal electric dipoles in the frequency range of 3.82–2185 Hz (“Kovdor-2015”) in
west sector Kovdor-Jona area (Zhamaletdinov et al. 2017) and AMT-MT mea-
surements of the 2016 year in point of the disposition of the dipole sources.
The values of the components of the impedance tensor Zi;j ; i; j ¼ x; y are
determined from the estimates of spectral densities and the estimate of the errors
and the choice of the periods for processing is performed by the coherence values
Co2ij (Semenov 1985):

Data Treatment

Mathematical Model of the Measurement Data

As a mathematical model of the observed electromagnetic field, we use the gen-

eralized spectral representation of the measured components of the electromagnetic
field (Semenov 1985):
Z1 X
1
Xðt; jÞ ¼ exp(ixt) dZFx ðx; jÞ þ exp(ixk t) Xk
k¼0
1

here t—is the time, j—is the parameter called the elementary event, dZFx ðx; jÞ—is
the spectral measure, and the amplitude of the random process is the complex value
of the spectral measure. The set of all elementary events K is called a probability
space.
The first term is the Stieltjes integral in the Cramer representation. It is repre-
sented a random process with constraints imposed on it, including stationarity and
ergodicity, the continuity of all realizations, the continuous differentiability of the
distribution functions and the energy spectrum. In practice, this means the absence
3 Joint Interpretation of Magnetotelluric and CSAMT Data … 25

of periodic components in the process under investigation. The second term rep-
resents just the periodic components of the magnetotelluric field (Semenov 1985).
This also includes periodic signals of a controlled field source used for frequency
electromagnetic sounding. When processing AMT-MT fields, these components are
considered as interference and must be filtered out. When processing CSAMT,
random processes and periodic components with harmonics different from the
source harmonics are filtered out.

MT-AMT Data

In AMT-MT data treatment by the energy spectrum, the average value of the
spectral
  density in a certain  frequency band is determined: Sxx ðxÞ ¼ ðDxÞ1
M dZFx ðx; jÞdZFx ðx; jÞ
P
Here M ½Xðt; jÞ ¼ Ni¼0 Xðt; ji ÞPðji Þ—is a mathematical expectation for a
finite number of realizations (elementary events) ji ; i ¼ 1; . . .; RN, Pðji Þ—is prob-
ability of the event ji . In common case we have M ½Xðt; jÞ ¼ Xðt; jÞPðdjÞ.
In magnetotelluric data treatment, in addition to the spectral density for one
component, the mutual spectral densities of the two components are used
  
Sxy ðxÞ ¼ ðDxÞ1 M dZFx ðx; jÞdZFy ðx; jÞ

The spectral densities and mutual spectral densities are related by the
Wiener-Khinchin relations with the auto- and mutual correlation functions of the
random processes corresponding to these field components:
Zþ1 Zþ1
Sxx ðxÞ ¼ 1=2p Rxx ðsÞexp(  ixsÞds; Sxy ðxÞ ¼ 1=2p Rxy ðsÞexp(  ixsÞds
1 1
Zþ1 Zþ1
Rxx ðsÞ ¼ 1=2p Sxx ðxÞexp(ixsÞdx; Rxy ðsÞ ¼ 2p Sxy ðxÞexp(ixsÞdx
1 1
   2
ArgðZij Þ ¼ arctgðImðSij Þ=ReðSij Þ; Zij  ¼ ðSjj =Sii Þ1=2 ; Co2ij ¼ Sij  =ðSii Sjj Þ; i;j ¼ x;y:

Interpretation of the data of magnetotelluric data is carried by the frequency

amplitude-phase characteristics of the response functions obtained—either for the
components of the impedance tensor or for the apparent resistivity associated with
them by the relations.
 2
qTij ðxÞ ¼ ðxl0 Þ1 Zij  ; ArgðqTij Þ ¼ 2ArgðZij Þ:
26 A. N. Shevtsov

CSAMT Data

Frequency probing with a controlled source we be considered in a harmonic mode

(Vanyan 1997; Svetov 2008). As a source we use a grounded horizontal electric
dipole, in which the current intensity varies in time according to the harmonic law:

I ¼ I0 expðiðxt  uÞÞ:

The components of the field at the observation point depend on the time
according to the same law.

F¼c c0 expð iðxtÞÞ:

F0 expð iðxt  uFÞÞ ¼ F

Here the complex amplitude of the measured field component is

c
F0 ¼ F0 expðiuF Þ.
The field components are normalized by the amplitude of the current in the
source, and to the components of the source field at a given observation point over a
homogeneous half-space with a unit resistivity value - it is the normal field of the
source. The geometric coefficient for measured field component is the value recip-
rocal of the value of the corresponding component of the normal field at a given
point with polar coordinates-distance r from the source center and angle u, relative
to its axis, taking into account the frequency dependence. With the help of geometric
coefficients, the values of the apparent resistivity for the field components are
calculated.
For horizontal electric field components of a horizontal electric dipole (with
length jABj  r) in the conditions of the far zone, when the wavelength in the earth
k  r, can be written qEx ¼ KE E=I0 гдe E = Ex, Ey—are values of the amplitudes
of the Cartesian horizontal components of the electric field. Geometric coefficient
for the electric field component along the dipole is KEx = 2p r3/(|AB|(3cos2(h) − 2)),
and for the electric field component perpendicular to the dipole is KEy=2pr3/(|AB|
2
(3cos(h) sin(h)). For horizontal magnetic components qH x ¼ xl0 ðKH
H=I0 Þ , and
for a vertical magnetic component qHz x ¼ xl0 KHz
Hz =I0 . Here geometric coeffi-
cients are: for the horizontal component of the magnetic field along the axis of the
source dipole it is KHx = 2pr3/(|AB|(3cos(h) sin(h)) and for the horizontal compo-
nent of the magnetic field perpendicular to the axis of the dipole it is KHy = 2pr3/
(|AB| (1−3sin2 (h))). For the vertical component of the magnetic field we can write a
geometric coefficient as KHz ¼ 2pr 4 =ðjABj3sinðhÞÞ. There are h—is the angle
!
between dipole momentum ! p ¼ I AB and direction from dipole center to receiver,
r is the distance from dipole center to receiver. Besides, one can input apparent
 2
resistivity qx ðxÞ ¼ ðxl0 Þ1 Zij  by horizontal electric components divided by
ij

conjugated magnetic components similarly as the magnetotelluric impedance

components Zij = Ei/Hj (Shevtsov et al. 2017).
3 Joint Interpretation of Magnetotelluric and CSAMT Data … 27

Measured Data and Inverse Results

To obtain information on the horizontal inhomogeneity (anisotropy) of the under-

lying half-space in the Geological Institute under the scientific supervision of
Zhamaletdinov uses the technique of measuring at one point upon the earth surface
the field from two mutually orthogonal ground-based grounded horizontal electric
dipoles on the surface of the earth (Zhamaletdinov et al. 2017). For joint inter-
pretation of AMT-MT and CSAMT data, the obtained amplitude-phase frequency
curves of the response functions (of impedance or apparent resistivity) must be
concordance within the errors of the measured data. It is possible to estimate the
effect of galvanic distortions (“statics-shift”) at AMT-MT data by using the data of
the CSAMT, and the AMT-MT data allow expanding the frequency range of the
CSAMT data. Together with obtaining independent, more reliable estimates of the
response functions, this allows us to significantly narrow the equivalence domain
and increase the stability of the solutions of the inverse problem.
In Fig. 3.1 shows the results of a joint inversion of the CSAMT and AMT-MT
measurement data upon the western sector of the Kovdor-Jona area.
The data of the unique experiment “Kovdor 2015” (Zhamaletdinov et al. 2017)
with two mutually orthogonal dipoles of length 2 km with azimuths 99° and 179°
are presented, in the frequency range from 3.822 to 2185 Hz with spacing 50 km
from source and the results of measurements AMT-MT fields of 2016 made at the
location of a common electrode of dipoles of the source. Results of AMT-MT and
CSAMT measurements in Kovdor-Jona area, for the experiment “Kovdor-2015”,
the western sector are presented. For points of CSAMT the distances from dipoles
of the source are 50 km.
Top panel: a—Curves by the AMT-MT data obtained at the location common
electrode of the dipoles of the sources of the CSAMT experiment “Kovdor-2015”:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the effective resistivity qT ¼ qxy
qyx (Ohm m) from period T (seconds). The
panels b, c, d—are presented composite curves CSAMT-AMT-MT of the effective
pffiffiffi
resistivity qT with qx ¼ 4q? ?
xxy
qxyx
qxxy
qxyx obtained with the two
II II

mutually-orthogonal polarizations of the CSAMT source field for observation

points located, respectively, to the north, south and east of the supplying dipoles,
supplemented by AMT-MT data; b—to the north with azimuths from the sources
centers 92° for the equatorial (⊥) array and 11° for the axial (II) array; c—to the
south with azimuths 57° (⊥), 158° (II); d—to the east with azimuths 158° (⊥), 78°
(II). Low panels:—e—phase
 curve
 of effective impedance by AMT-MT data
uT ¼ 0:5
ArgðZxy Þ þ ArgðZyx Þ ; f, g, h—composite curves CSAMT-AMT-MT in
the same measured points—the phase of the effective impedance uT and
ux ¼ 0:25
Arg Zx?xy þ Arg Zx?yx þ Arg ZxIIxy þ Arg ZxIIyx
The results of the inversion by the conjugate gradients method presented on
Fig. 3.2.
28 A. N. Shevtsov

Fig. 3.1 Results of AMT-MT and CSAMT measurements Kovdor-Jona area, the experiment
“Kovdor-2015”, the western sector Points of CSAMT at the distances from dipoles of the source
are 50 km. Top panels: a—Curves by the AMT-MT data obtained at the location common
electrode of the dipoles of the sources of the CSAMT experiment “Kovdor-2015”: the effective
resistivity qT .(Ohm m) from period T (seconds). The panels b, c, d—are presented composite
curves CSAMT-AMT-MT of the effective resistivity qT with qx obtained with the two
mutually-orthogonal polarizations of the CSAMT source field for observation points located,
respectively, to the north, south and east of the supplying dipoles, supplemented by AMT-MT data
b—to the north with azimuths from the sources centers 92° for the equatorial (⊥) array and 11° for
the axial (II) array; c—to the south with azimuths 57° (⊥), 158° (II); d—to the east with azimuths
158° (⊥), 78° (II). The bottom panels: e—phase curve (degrees) of effective impedance by
AMT-MT data uT ; f, g, h—composite curves CSAMT-AMT-MT in the same measured points—
the phase of the effective impedance uT and ux (degrees)

On the panels a, b, c, d the initial approximation is shown as dashed lines, the

solution of the inversion is a solid line. The starting model for the composite curves
of CSAMT and AMT-MT data is the solution of the inverse problem for AMT-MT
curves.
The misfit estimated for MT-AMT data as
20 12 3
qTj !2
1 X
N
6@
log qT0 ðr;h;xj Þ uTj  qT0 ðr; h; xj Þ 7
Sðr; hÞ ¼ 4 A þ 5
N þ1 j¼0
dqj duj

And for CSAMT data it is

20 12 3
qxj !2
1 X
N
6@
log qx0 ðr;h;xj ;r;hÞ uxj  ux0 ðr; h; xj ; r; hÞ 7
Sðr; h; r; hÞ ¼ 4 A þ 5
N þ1 j¼0
dqj duj
3 Joint Interpretation of Magnetotelluric and CSAMT Data … 29

Fig. 3.2 The results of the inversion measured data presented on Fig. 3.1 by the conjugate
gradients method. On the panels a, b, c, d the initial approximation (uniform half-space for panels
a and c) is shown as dashed lines, the solution of the inversion is a solid line. The starting model
for the composite curves of CSAMT and AMT-MT data is the solution of the inverse problem for
AMT-MT curves

There are r—array of conductivities, h—array of the thickness of the layered

model, apparent resistivity qT0 ðr; h; xÞ, and phase of the impedance uT0 ðr; h; xÞ—
solution of the forward problem of MT-AMT sounding, qx0 ðr; h; x; r; hÞ—solution
of the forward problem of the CSAMT, j = 0,…,N index of the measured fre-
quencies, measured apparent resistivity values qTj ; qxj and measured phases of the
impedance uTj ; uxj for MT-AMT and CSAMT. dqj —relative error for apparent
resistivity, d/j —absolute error for phase of the impedance.

Conclusion

The results of joint inversion AMT-MT and CSAMT data in western sector of the
Kovdor-Jona area supported presence high resistivity relatively horizontally
uniformed media at this region. Besides, the conductive non-uniformed zone at
horizontal is detected at the depths range 0.7–6 km.

References

Semenov V.Yu. (1985) Data treatment of the magnetotelluric sounding. M.: Nedra, 1985. 133 p.
Shevtsov A.N., Zhamaletdinov A.A., Kolobov V.V., Barannik M.B. (2017) Frequency
Electromagnetic Sounding with Industrial Power Lines on Karelia-Kola Geotraverse. Zapiski
Gornogo instituta. 2017. Vol. 224. P. 178–188. https://doi.org/10.18454/pmi.2017.2.178.
Svetov B.S. (2008) Fundamentals of geoelectrics. Moscow: Publisher LKI, 2008. 656 p.
30 A. N. Shevtsov

Vanian L.L. (1997) Electromagnetic soundings. M.: Scientific World, 1997. 219 p.
Zhamaletdinov A.A., A.N. Shevtsov, E.P. Velikhov, A. A. Skorokhodov, V. E. Kolesnikov, T.
G. Korotkovaa, P. A. Ryazantsev, B. V. Efimov, V. V. Kolobov, M. B. Barannik,
P. I. Prokopchuk, V. N. Selivanov, Yu. A. Kopytenko, E. A. Kopytenko, e, V. S. Ismagilov, M.
S. Petrishchev, P. A. Sergushin, P. E. Tereshchenko, f, B. V. Samsonov, M. A. Birulya, M. Yu.
Smirnov, T. Korja, Yu. M. Yampolski, A. V. Koloskov, N. A. Baru, S. V. Poljakov, A.
V. Shchennikov, G. I. Druzhin, W. Jozwiak, J. Reda, and Yu. G. Shchors. (2015) Study of
Interaction of ELF–ULF Range (0.1–200 Hz) Electromagnetic Waves with the Earth’s Crust
and the Ionosphere in the Field of Industrial Power Transmission Lines (FENICS Experiment)//
Proceedings of the Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics, 2015, Vol. 51, No. 8, pp. 826–857.
Zhamaletdinov A.A., M.S. Petrishchev, A.N. Shevtsov, V.V. Kolobov, V.N. Selivanov, O.A.
Esipko, E.A. Kopytenko, V.F. Grigor’ev. (2012) Electromagnetic Sensing of the Earth Crust in
the area of the Super-Deep Holes, SDH-6 and SDH-7 in fields Natural and powerful controlled
Sources. // Doklady Earth Sciences, 2012, Vol. 445, No. 2, p. 205–209.
Zhamaletdinov A.A., Velikhov E.P., Shevtsov A.N., Kolobov V.V., Kolesnikov V.E.,
Skorokhodov A.A., Korotkova T.G., Ivonin V.V., Ryazantsev P.A., Birulya M.A.(2017)
The Kovdor-2015 Experiment: Study of the Parameters of a Conductive Layer of Dilatancy–
Diffusion Nature (DD Layer) in the Archaean Crystalline Basement of the Baltic Shield. //
Doklady Earth Sciences, 2017, Vol. 474, Part 2, pp. 641–645. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.,
2017.Original Russian Text © ISSN 1028-334X, https://doi.org/10.1134/s1028334x17060095.
Chapter 4
Gridded Potential Fields Data Analysis
Based on Poisson
Wavelet-Transformations

K. M. Kuznetsov, A. A. Bulychev and I. V. Lygin

Abstract Current article discusses a possibility of applying wavelets based on the

Poisson kernel for processing and interpretation the area potential fields. By ana-
lyzing their wavelet-spectrum, it is possible to determine the position of sources. It
is also possible to reconstruct or calculate the transformants of the original signal
using the inverse wavelet transform of the wavelet-spectrum.

Keywords Continuous wavelet transformation
Poisson wavelet

Potential fields

Bases of Wavelet-Transformation for 2D Data

Nowadays one of the most frequently used approaches in potential fields data
processing is based on their representation by trigonometric Fourier series. At the
same time, wavelet-transformations of signals become more important in various
sciences. In the works of various authors, the possibilities of singular points
localization for profile potential fields and their transformations based on wavelets
constructed with basis of the Poisson kernel (Utyomov et al. 2010; Obolenskiy and
Bulychev 2011; Kuznetsov et al. 2015; Pugin 2004).
Results of the expansion of functions into three-parameter wavelets can be used
in data processing with spatial gravity and magnetic fields. Generally, a continuous
wavelet-transformation can be described by a convolution in the following form
(Yudin et al. 2001):
Z1 Z1
Wðax ; ay ; x; yÞ ¼ gðn; gÞwax ;ay ;x;y ðn; gÞ dndg. ð4:1Þ
1 1

K. M. Kuznetsov (&)
A. A. Bulychev
I. V. Lygin

Department of Geophysical Methods of Earth Crust Study, Faculty of Geology,
Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 31

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_4
32 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

Function W(ax,ay,x,y) is wavelet-spectrum of function g(n,η). Wavelet wax,ay,x,

y (n,η) deduces from base (mother) wavelet w0(n,η):
 
1 nx gy
wax ;ay ;x;y ðn; gÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffipffiffiffiffiffi w0 ; ; ð4:2Þ
ax ay ax ay

where ax и ay—scale coefficients, x and y—parameters of wavelet’s shift. Function

w0(n,η) must meet certain requirements:
Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
w0 ðn; gÞ dndg ¼ 0; jw0 ðnÞj2 dndg\1: ð4:3Þ
1 1 1 1

For analysis of potential field’s signals, we can use wavelets based on the
Poisson kernel, as its partial derivatives:
0 1
@n þ m þ k B z C
K nx;my;kz ðx; y; zÞ ¼ @qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiA: ð4:4Þ
@ n x @ m y@ k z 3
ðx2 þ y2 þ z2 Þ

In this case, the normalizing coefficients ax and ay should be assumed equal and
will be denoted as h further. Then, Eq. (4.2) looks like:
 
1 nx gy
wh;x;y ðn; gÞ ¼ w0 ; ð4:5Þ
h h h

Poisson kernel (4.4), corresponding to the calculation of the first vertical

derivative at height z is represented by the relation (Gravimetry 1990):
!
1 2z2  x2  y2
Kðx; y; zÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð4:6Þ
2p ð x2 þ y2 þ z2 Þ5

By fixing z = 1 and omitting factor (1/2p) it is possible to write base wavelet:

2  n2  g2
wz0 ðn; gÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi ð4:7Þ
ð n2 þ g2 þ 1Þ5

Basing on this equation it is possible to construct wavelets of the 1st order

corresponding to the second vertical derivative of the potential:
  2 gy 2
1 nx gy 1 2  ðnx h Þ ð h Þ
wh;x;y ðn; gÞ ¼ w0
z
; ¼ r ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi !5
h h h h  2  
gy 2
nx
h þ h þ1
ð4:8Þ
1 2h2  ðn  xÞ2  ðg  yÞ2
¼ h3 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi :
h
ð ðn  xÞ2 þ ðg  yÞ2 þ h2 Þ5
4 Gridded Potential Fields Data Analysis Based … 33

It should be noted, that basing on expression (4.4) it is possible to construct

functions analogous to (4.8) corresponding to horizontal derivatives of the poten-
tial. Specifically, it can be written:

1 3hðn  xÞ
wxh;x;y ðn; gÞ ¼ h3 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð4:9Þ
h
ð ðn  xÞ2 þ ðg  yÞ2 þ h2 Þ5

Similarly, higher order wavelets based on Poisson kernel derivatives can be

constructed.
If initial function’s g(n,η) mean value equal zero and its wavelet-spectrum was
received by convolution with the axisymmetric wavelets, which obeying (4.3), than
to possible to reconstruct initial signal g(n,η) by having executed inverse contin-
uous wavelet-transformation to function W(h,x,y)by formula:
0 1 1 1
Z1 Z Z  
1 1 @1 nx gy
gðx; yÞ ¼ Wðh; x; yÞw0 ; dx dyAdh; ð4:10Þ
Cw h3 h h h
0 1 1

Cw—constant, that calculates by w0:

2
Z1 w
^ ðxÞ
0
Cw ¼ dx; ð4:11Þ
x
0

where w ^ ðxÞ—Fourier-spectrum of function w0(x,y).

0
It should be noted that by inverse wavelet-transformation with the Poisson
wavelets, which corresponds to horizontal derivatives, it is impossible to restore an
initial function. But, despite this, received on their basis spectrums allows to locate
singular points of the fields anomalies.

Localization of Anomalies Sources

3D wavelet-spectrum allow to fix position of potential field’s anomalies singular

points. Let’s consider model of a point source at depth 50 m and analyze
wavelet-spectrum of its magnetic field. In the Fig. 4.1a field DT is presented of
model. The results of wavelet-transformation with Poisson wavelet corresponding
to vertical derivative (4.10) is presented in the Fig. 4.1. Extremum of
wavelet-spectrum coordinates, coincide with position of point source.
34 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

Fig. 4.1 Results of wavelet-transform of point source’s field DT with Poisson wavelet of first
order (4.8). a—initial field DT, b—cross-section of wavelet-spectrum across line AA1, c—
cross-section of wavelet-spectrum across line BB1, d—slice of wavelet-spectrum at level 50 m

Fig. 4.2 Vertical slices of Vz field wavelet-spectrum for model of point source, calculated by
wavelet-transformation (4.8) with scale factors: a—1/h, b—1/h3/2, c—1/h2
4 Gridded Potential Fields Data Analysis Based … 35

Fig. 4.3 Results of wavelet-transforms of horizontal plate gravity effect with Poisson wavelets of
first order (4.8) and (4.9). a—initial gravity field, b—gravity field plot along line BB1, c, e, g—
cross-section of wavelet-spectrum calculated with wavelet (4.8) with scale coefficients 1/h3/2, 1/h2,
1/h5/2; d, f, h—cross-section of wavelet-spectrum calculated with wavelet (4.9) with scale
coefficients 1/h3/2, 1/h2, 1/h5/2
36 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

Now we will consider gravity effect of a point source. In the Fig. 4.2 the vertical
slices of wavelet-spectrum passing through a source and calculated by
wavelet-transformations of the field Vz by Poisson wavelet of the first order (4.10)
with different scale coefficients. At the picture it is possible to note, that extremum
of wavelet-spectrum coincides with position of source if to multiply an initial scale
factor with 1/h1/2. Thus for sources’ center of mass localization for gravity field it is
better to use a scale factor 1/h3/2.
Let’s consider model of a flat horizontal plate at depth of 20 m with width and
length—256 m. 3 vertical slices of the wavelet-transformations results along an
axis Ox and crossing model center are presented in the figure. Wavelet-spectrums
were calculated by wavelets which corresponds vertical (4.8) and horizontal (4.9)
derivatives with various scale coefficients. Corners of model can be localized in the
best way by wavelet-spectrums extremums in the Fig. 4.3h. It was calculated by
wavelet-transformations with wavelets corresponds horizontal derivative along an
axis Ox (4.9) with scale coefficients 1/h5/2. It should be noted that all results of
wavelet-transformations with the Poisson wavelets corresponding to horizontal
derivatives allow to localize lateral position of model’s borders.

Calculation of Equivalent Density and Magnetization

Distribution Calculation

Let’s function g(x,y) is the gravity anomalies field which is created by density
distribution r(h,n,η). Then it is possible to write down:

Z1 Z1 Zh
h
gðx; yÞ ¼ G rðh; n; gÞ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi3 dfdndg; ð4:12Þ
1 1 0 ðn  xÞ2 þ ðg  yÞ2 þ h2

where G is the gravitation constant.

Wavelet-spectrums of gridded gravity field can be connected with equivalent
density distribution. Let’s define function q(h, x, y), which is bound to the initial
field g(x, y):

Z1 Z1
1 2h2  ðn  xÞ2  ðg  yÞ2
qðh; x; yÞ ¼ gð; n; gÞ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi5 dn dg: ð4:13Þ
2p
1 1 ðn  xÞ2 þ ðg  yÞ2 þ h2

This equation coincides with calculation of the first vertical derivative at the
level h (Gravimetry 1990). In frequency domain it is possible to write (Bulychev
1985):
4 Gridded Potential Fields Data Analysis Based … 37

  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
^ðh; xx ; xy Þ ¼ ^gðxx ; xy Þ jxjejxjh ; where x ¼ x2x þ x2y :
q ð4:14Þ

Let’s give functions q(h, x, y) meaning of density distribution and calculate it’s
effect f(x,y). In frequency domain it is possible to write:

Zh
^f ðxx ; xy Þ ¼ G ^ðh; xx ; xy Þð2p ejxjh Þdh ¼ p G^
q gðxx ; xy Þ ð4:15Þ
0

Thus it turns out that function dðh; x; yÞ ¼ p1G qðh; x; yÞ describes density dis-
tribution (Kobrunov and Varfolomeev 1981), which matches g(x,y). Function
q(h,x,y) can be connected with W(h,x,y), calculated with Poisson wavelets (4.8) by
equation:

1 h
qðh; x; yÞ ¼ Wðh; x; yÞ: ð4:16Þ
2p h3

Then the equivalent density distribution d(h,x,y), which effect is g(x,y), can be
described as follows:

1 1 h 1 1
dðh; x; yÞ ¼ qðh; x; yÞ ¼ Wðh; x; yÞ ¼ 2 2 Wðh; x; yÞ: ð4:17Þ
pG 2p h3 p G 2p h G

Let’s consider one more way of transformation of wavelet-spectrum to density.

Let function g(x,y) is a vertical derivative of gravitational field Vzz, which is effect of
density distribution r(h,n,η) (Gravimetry 1990):

Z1 Z1 Zh
2h2  ðn  xÞ2  ðg  yÞ2
gðx; yÞ ¼ G rðh; n; gÞ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi5 dfdndg: ð4:18Þ
1 1 0 ðn  xÞ2 þ ðg  yÞ2 þ h2

If the initial field was expantioned to wavelet-spectrum by Poisson wavelet of

the 1st order, which corresponds vertical derivative, than it can be reconstructed by
reverse wavelet-transform (4.10) and it can be written:

Z1 Z1 Zh
2h2  ðn  xÞ2  ðg  yÞ2
gðx; yÞ ¼ G dðh; n; gÞ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi5 dhdndg; ð4:19Þ
1 1 0 ðn  xÞ2 þ ðg  yÞ2 þ h2

where
38 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

Fig. 4.4 3D cube of equivalent density: a—initial gravity field, b—initial gravity filed and
calculated field Vzz plots along line BB1, c—horizontal slice of density cube at level 50 m,
d—cross-section of density cube along line BB1

1
dðh; n; gÞ ¼ Wðh; x; yÞ: ð4:20Þ
GCw h

Thus function d(h,n,η) describes such spatial distribution of density, which effect
Vzz coincides with initial function g(x,y). It should be noted that both offered ways
allow to calculate only the equivalent to the true density distributions which do not
bear in themselves obvious geological meaning.
In the Fig. 4.4 it is presented results of transformation to density for gravity field
of the model which consists of prism and point source at the assumption that it is
the Vzz field. The imposed schedules of the initial and calculated fields are presented
in point b. The standard deviation between the initial field and calculated is less
than 1%.
4 Gridded Potential Fields Data Analysis Based … 39

The same approach can be used also for calculation of a cube of the equivalent
magnetizations for a magnetic field. Let function g(x,y) corresponds to a vertical
component of magnetic field Z(x,y), which is created by distribution of vertical
magnetization I(h,x,y). Then it is possible to write down in the SGS system:

Z1 Z1 Zh
2h2  ðn  xÞ2  ðg  yÞ2
Zðx; yÞ ¼ Iðh; n; gÞ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi5 dfdndg: ð4:21Þ
1 1 0 ðn  xÞ2 þ ðg  yÞ2 þ h2

If to compare this Eq. (4.21) with reverse wavelet-transformation (4.10), then it

is possible to write down:

1
Iðh; n; gÞ ¼ Wðh; x; yÞ: ð4:22Þ
Cw h

Upward and Downward Continuations

As it shown in previous paragraph it is possible to transform results of

wavelet-transformations W(h,x,y) with Poisson wavelets to equivalent density dis-
tribution or magnetizations (16, 20, 22) in the lower half-space which creates the
initial field. Then it is possible to calculate values of field or its derivatives at the
appointed height. Thus, it is possible to realize continuation of the field in the top
half-space.
In case of downward continuation between levels of initial field and continuation
at such approach there can be sources. By nullified these values of source function it
is possible to calculate direct gravity (magnetic) effect at the appointed level. At
downward continuation it is more preferable to consider an initial signal as the field
corresponding to higher partial derivatives of a gravity potential than the field Vz,
for example like field Vzzzz. In this case efficient masses will be located at larger
depths in comparison with a case of application of wavelet of the 1st order.

Filtering Gridded Potential Field Based on Poisson

Wavelet-Transformations

Separation of potential fields into components, which characterize particular studied

objects, is one of the major problem at interpretation of potential fields. It is pos-
sible to reconstruct initial field g(x,y) by revers wavelet-transformation (4.10) of
wavelet-spectrum values W(h,x,y). Thus the problem of filtration of the field (signal)
can be solved by various transformations and filtrations of the wavelet-spectrum. It
40 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

should be noted that at division of fields it is possible to use not only Poisson
wavelets, but also other types of wavelets which in some cases can be more.

References

Bulychev A.A. (1985) Methods of potential fields processing and interpretation based on the
apparatus of spectral transformations: Doct. Diss. Moscow., 1985. 145 pp. (in Russian)
Gravimetry. Reference book of geophysics (1990)/edited by E.A. Mudrecova, K.E. Veselov.
Moscow.: Nedra 1990. 607 pp. (in Russian)
Kobrunov A.I., Varfolomeev V.A. (1981) On one method of e-equivalent redistributions and its
use in the interpretation of gravitational fields. //Izv. AN SSSR. Fizika Zemli. 1981. № 10.
pp. 25–44. (in Russian)
Kuznetsov K.M., Obolenskiy I.V., Bulychev A.A. (2015) Potential fields transformations based on
continuos wavelet-transformation//Moscow University Bulletin. Series 4: Geology. — 2015. —
№ 6. — pp. 61–70 (in Russian)
Obolenskiy I.V., Bulychev A.A. (2011) Application of complex continuous Poisson
wavelet-transformations for sources of potential field’s anomalies determination. //
Geophysical research. 2011. vol. 12. №3. pp. 5–21 (in Russian)
Pugin A.V. (2004) Wavelets: a new tool for interpreting potential fields. //Gornoe eho. Vestnik
Gornogo inctituta UrO RAN. 2004. № 3. pp. 20–23 (in Russian)
Utyomov E.V., Nurgaliev D.K., Hamidullina G.S. (2010) Technology of gravity data processing
and interpretation based on the “natural” wavelet-transform, Uchenye zapiski Kazanskogo
universiteta. 2010. vol. 152, book 3. pp. 208–222 (in Russian)
Yudin M.N., Farkov Yu.A., Filatov D.M. (2001) Introduction in wavelet-analysis. Moscow.:
MGAA. 2001 (in Russian)
Chapter 5
Modified Method S-, F-
and R-Approximations in Solving
Inverse Problems of Geophysics
and Geomorphology

I. E. Stepanova, I. A. Kerimov, D. N. Raevsky and A. V. Shchepetilov

Abstract The connection of different modifications of the linear integral repre-

sentation method is studied. Solutions of the related inverse problems based upon
a «gibrid version of three approximations» of the topography and geopotential
fields enable more refined tuning of the method in solving the inverse problems of
geophysics and geomorphology and more complete interpretation for the a priori
information about the surface elevation data and elements of anomalous fields. The
technique for finding a stable approximate solution for the inverse problem of
determining the mass distributions equivalent to the external gravitational (or any
other potential) field is presented. The results of the mathematical experiment are
discussed.

Keywords Regularization
Integral
Representation
Modified

Optimal

Introduction

Over the last few years substantial progress has been achieved in measuring the
global gravity field using satellites. The new satellite system GRACE, launched in
2002, increased by almost two orders of magnitude the accuracy of the first
90 harmonics in the spherical expansion model of the global gravity field and for

I. E. Stepanova (&)
I. A. Kerimov
D. N. Raevsky

Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
A. V. Shchepetilov
Faculty of Physics, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 41

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_5
42 I. E. Stepanova et al.

the first time permits registration of its temporal variations. The new satellite
GOCE will provide high accuracy gravity field models containing 250 spherical
harmonics.
As it was stressed in (Stepanova 2008, 2009; Stepanova and Raevsky 2014;
Stepanova and Raevsky 2015a, b; Strakhov and Stepanova 2002a, b), the problem
of linear approximation of the gravity and magnetic field (potential) may be reduced
to the linear algebraic system:

Ax ¼ fd ¼ f þ d f ; ð5:1Þ

where, in general, the design matrix A is a full M  N matrix with real coefficients
aij ; 1  i  M; 1  j  N, x is the N-vector to be determined; f is the M-vector
describing the signal, fd denotes the given vector of the observed gravitational
functional that contains errors, df characterizes the M-vector of the noise, resp. of
the errors. The main problem of the gravity field modeling is to obtain stable
approximate solutions of linear algebraic equation systems (5.1).
There are various techniques for solving (5.1). Two versions (local and regional)
of the method of S-approximations (local and regional), F-approximation (based
upon Fourier-transform) and R-approximation are modifications of the method of
linear integral representations. The main characteristics of this method are presented
in our previous papers (Strakhov and Stepanova 2002a, b).
In the method of S-approximations, the known component of the gravitational
field is approximated by a sum of a simple and double layers which are distributed
on a certain set of areas (domains). In the local case, these areas are horizontal
planes, and in the regional version these are spheres or spheroids.
The solution obtained by the methods of R-, F- and S-approximations allows
efficient construction of the linear transforms of the field and can be used as zero
approximation for solving the nonlinear inverse problem on localizing the sources
(anomalous bodies).
In this work, we present the results of constructing analytical approximations of
the anomalous gravitational and magnetic field and surface topography in the local
version with the use of rectangular Cartesian coordinates. Here, an important fact is
that the S-, F- and R-approximations are closely interrelated with each other. This
prompts the idea to use jointly the three or two modifications of the method of
linear integral representations which were described in our previous papers in order
to construct more advanced models of the geoid and the anomalous potential fields.
The R-approximations can be useful due to their ability to «transilluminate» the
unknown sources (these sources become «transparent»), to derive the unknown
characteristics of the object from the integral information about it. The method of
R-approximations is particularly important in solving the problems of seismic
tomography, in processing large amounts of seismic profiling data, etc.
5 Modified Method S-, F- and R-Approximations … 43

Constructing the R-Approximations of the Elements

of Anomalous Potential Fields

For understanding why there is a close relationship between different modifications

of the method of linear integral representations, we recall the construction proce-
dure of R-approximations.
As was described in detail in (Stepanova 2009) for function f ðxÞ 2 SðRn Þ, where
SðRn Þ denotes the Schwartz space consisting of all continuously differentiable
functions steeply decaying at infinity, the Radon transform exists:
Z
^f ðx; pÞ ¼ f ðxÞdmðxÞ; ð5:2Þ
ðx;xÞ¼p

where x is identity vector and dm(x) is the measure on straight line ðx; xÞ ¼ p.
In the two-dimensional (2D) case, formula (5.2) has the following form:

Z1
^f ðx; pÞ ¼ f ðt sin s þ x1 cos u; t cos s þ x2 sin uÞds; x ¼ ðcos u; sin uÞ; x ¼ ðx1 ; x2 Þ:
1

ð5:3Þ

We should stress here the intimate relationship between the Radon transform and
n-dimensional Fourier transform:
Z
~f ðuÞ ¼ f ðxÞeiðx;uÞ dx; u 2 Rn : ð5:4Þ
Rn

We will use the integral representation (5.3) for finding the spatial distribution of
the elements and localizing the sources of gravitational field. Specifically, we record
the main formula of harmonic function theory for the halfspace bounded by the
plane x3 ¼ 0 (hereinafter referred to as the P-plane) (Strakhov and Stepanova
2002a, b):

Zþ 1 Zþ 1 Zþ 1 Zþ 1
q1 ðn1 ; n2 Þdn1 dn2 q2 ðn1 ; n2 Þx3 dn1 dn2
VðMÞ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffiþ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi ;
1 1 ðx1  n1 Þ2 þ ðx2  n2 Þ2 þ x23 1 1 ½ ðx1  n1 Þ2 þ ðx2  n2 Þ2 þ x23 3
M ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; n ¼ ðn1 ; n2 ; n3 Þ:
ð5:5Þ

We selected the coordinate system is such a way that the plane of the simple and
double layer be specified by equation x3 = 0. Then, the derivative of potential
V with respect to x3 taken with opposite sign has the following form:
44 I. E. Stepanova et al.

Zþ 1 Zþ 1
@V q 1 ð^nÞx3 d ^ n
 ðMÞ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
@x3
1 1 ½ ðx1  n1 Þ þ ðx2  n2 Þ2 þ x23 3
2

Zþ 1 Zþ 1
q 2 ð^
nÞð2x23  ðx1  n1 Þ2  ðx2  n2 Þ2 Þ2 d ^ n
þ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; M ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; ^
n ¼ ðn1 ; n2 Þ:
2 2 5
1 1 ½ ðx1  n1 Þ þ ðx2  n2 Þ þ x3  2

ð5:6Þ

Functions q1 ; q2 are not known. Let the components of the field be specified in a
ðiÞ ðiÞ ðiÞ
finite set of points Mi ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; N. We denote the integration
ðiÞ ðiÞ
function in the first term of (5.5) at point Mi by Q1 and in the second term by Q2 .
Hence, we obtain:

Zþ 1 Zþ 1
@VðMi Þ
ðq1 ð^nÞQ1 ð^nÞ þ q2 ð^
nÞQ2 ð^
nÞÞd ^
ðiÞ ðiÞ
  fi ¼ n; i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; N:
@x3
1 1
ð5:7Þ

It should be noted that formulas (5.4)–(5.7) are the backbone for constructing S-
approximations of the sought element of the anomalous potential field.
Let us subject the both sides of (5.5) to the Radon transform. In practice, the
components of the field are usually specified with some uncertainty therefore the
input information is the values of fi,d. Using the solution of the variational problem
(the variational statement in the general form is described in (Stepanova 2009;
Strakhov and Stepanova 2002a, b).

Zþ 1 Zþ 1 Z2p
XðqÞ ¼ dq ð^ ^22 ðx; qÞÞdpd/ ¼ min;
q21 ðx; qÞ þ q
q
0 1 0
82 3
Z2p
Z1 < Z1 ^ ðiÞ 0
1 ð Q Þ ðx; p  qÞdp
fi;d ¼ d/ 4 1 p 5q1 ðx; qÞ
2p : p
0 1 1
2 1 3 9
Z ^ ðiÞ 0 =
ðQ2 Þp ðx; p  qÞdp
þ4 5q2 ðx; qÞ dq
p ;
1

We obtain that the sought functions should have the form described in
(Stepanova 2009). Thus, we come to a system of linear algebraic equations (SLAE):

A k ¼ f d ; k ¼ ðk1 ; . . .; kN Þ; f d ¼ ðf1;d ; . . .; fN;d Þ ð5:8Þ

with easily computable matrix entries.

5 Modified Method S-, F- and R-Approximations … 45

We should remind a very important fact: integral representations of the

anomalous potential fields (i.e. the fields that are harmonic in some domains of the
space of sourcewise functions) are fairly closely linked with each other. If we recall
formulas for matrix elements in the method of S-approximations (Strakhov and
Stepanova 2002a, b):
( 2
)
zi þ zj ðzi þ zj Þð9q2i;j  6ðzi þ zj Þ Þ
aij ¼ 2p þ ;
q3i;j q7i;j ð5:9Þ
2 2 2
q2i;j ¼ ðzi þ zj Þ þ ðxi  xj Þ þ ðyi  yj Þ ; 1  i; j  N

We can conclude that the Radon transform yields exactly the same SLAE as the
local version of S-approximation in which the sought element of the field is rep-
resented in the form of the potential of the simple layer [it corresponds to the first
term in (5.5)]. What can we gain from the close linkage between the Radon
transform and S-approximation of the elements of anomalous fields and functions
describing the Earth’s surface topography? This interdependence of the different
integral transformations allows us to determine, based on the obtained SLAE
solutions, the important characteristics of the geological medium under study: we
can calculate the ray transform of the observations and reveal the structural pattern
of the Earth’s crust along the directions of interest for us. We can calculate the mean
value of the ray transform of the field element at a given point, etc. Hence, it
becomes possible to reconstruct the three-dimensional (3D) medium, i.e. to solve
the problem similar to the ones addressed by computer tomography.

Analytical Approximation of the Magnetic Field

from the Data of a Hydromagnetic Survey

The hydromagnetic survey’s data of the Kineret Lake were used for testing the
algorithm of modified S- and R-approximations (Fig. 5.1). The step of a grid is
h = 25 m. The total number of valid measurements is 264,442.
The magnetic field was represented with the sum of a simple and double layers
distributed on 4 planes at the depths of 250, 600, 1100 and 1100 m beneath the
depth of the survey (it was equal to —220 m) respectively. The constants limiting
the misfit’s square were set to d2min ¼ 6000 nTsl2, d2max ¼ 30; 000 nTsl2.
Let us represent the function describing the magnetic field by the sum of the
potentials from the simple and double layers distributed on the plane x3 ¼ H.
In this section we consider the technologies for constructing analyticl approxi-
mation based on the joint S- and R-approximations. In this case, the matrix ele-
ments for solving the SLAE can be calculated in the following way:
46 I. E. Stepanova et al.

Fig. 5.1 The difference map

of the magnetic field obtained
by combined S- and
R-approximations and real
anomalous magnetic field of
Lake Kinneret

aij ¼ aaSij þ ð1  aÞaRij ;

8   2 9
X R < z þ z  2H S
9q  6ðz þ z  2H S 2 =
Þ
zi þ zj  2Hr S i j r i;j i j r
aSij ¼ 2p þ ;
r¼1
: q3i;j q7ij ;
 2
q2ij ¼ zi þ zj  2HrS þ ðxi  xj Þ2 þ ðyi  yj Þ2 ;
X Q qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
  ffi
zi þ zj  2HkR R 2 þ ðx  x Þ2 þ ðy  y Þ2 ;
aRij ¼ 2p ; g ij ¼ z i þ z j  2H r i j i j
k¼1
g3i;j
ð5:10Þ

where 0  a  1 is the weighting coefficient, aSij are matrix elements for

S-approximation, aRij are matrix elements for R-approximation, M ¼ ðxi ; yi ; zi Þ;
1  i  N are the points of surface topography, HrS ; 1  r  R is the depth of the r-th
carrier of the simple and double layer in the method of S-approximations,
HkR ; 1  k  Q is the characteristics of the representation subspace of the Fourier
integral (i.e. it is assumed that the field is generated by the set of the functions that are
harmonic at z [ HkR ). It is more reasonable to set R ¼ K and HkR ¼ HrS in order to
represent the field in the form of the functions each of which is harmonic in a certain
domain. Hereinafter we assume that R ¼ K and HkF ¼ HrS ¼ Hr ,HkR ¼ HrS ¼ Hr :
For this model example, we carried out the corresponding calculations with the
different model parameters ða; R; Hr Þ. The SLAE was solved by the regularized
iterative Chebyshev method (CH). All computations were performed on the Intel
Core i7-4700HQ 2.4 GHz PC.
The difference map (Fig. 5.1) shows zones of maximal divergence between the
real and approximated fields.
5 Modified Method S-, F- and R-Approximations … 47

Conclusions

The linkage between the S-, F-, and R-approximations is demonstrated. It is shown
that the elements of SLAE matrix in the three considered cases are interrelated, and
based on the corresponding solution it is possible to find various characteristic of
the anomalous geophysical fields.

References

Stepanova, I. (2008). On the S-approximation of the Earth’s gravity field, Inverse Problems in
Science and Engineering. (16)5,. 547–566.
Stepanova, I. (2009). On the S-approximation of the Earth’s gravity field. Regional version,
Inverse Problems in Science and Engineering. (17)8, 1095–1111.
Stepanova, I. and D. Raevsky. (2014). On solving reverse problems of geophysics applying the
methods of the theory of dynamic systems. Geophysical Journal. (36) 3, 118–131.
Stepanova, I. and D. Raevsky (2015). On the solution of inverse Problems of gravimetry. Izvestiya
Physics of the Solid Earth. (51)2, 207–218.
Stepanova, I. and D. Raevsky (2015). The modified method of S-approximation. Regional version.
Izvestiya Physics of the Solid Earth. (51)2, 197–206.
Strakhov, V.N and I.E. Stepanova (2002). The S-Approximation Method and Its Application to
Gravity Problems. Izvestiya, Physics of the Solid Earth. (38)2, 91–107.
Strakhov, V.N. and I.E. Stepanova (2002). Solution of Gravity Problems by the S-Approximation
Method (Regional Version). Izvestiya, Physics of the Solid Earth. (38)7, 535–544.
Chapter 6
Reflection of the Petrophysical Basement
Rocks Models in Geophysical Fields

O. M. Muravina, V. N. Glaznev, V. I. Zhavoronkin and M. V. Mints

Abstract The problems of using petrophysical data for studying deep structure of
areas covered by sedimentary rocks are discussed. The correlation analysis of the
density and gravity anomalies values revealed a complex character of the reflection
of crystalline rocks of different density in anomaly of gravity field.

Keywords Petrophysics Density of rocks
Correlation analysis



Gravity field Voronezh crystalline massif

Geophysical data and drilling results are the basis for studying the deep structure of
areas covered by sedimentary rocks. As a rule, the study by drilling is extremely
uneven, which often leads to a simplified interpretation of geophysical fields due to
the lack of a reliable actual petrophysical basis. Geological mapping is carried out
by analogy in accordance with the images of physical fields without taking into
account the structural and geodynamic situation. Numerous studies performed on
the Voronezh crystalline massif (VKM) showed that the petrophysical character-
istics of rocks depend on the geodynamic conditions of their formation (Afanasiev
2012).
The spatial basis of petrophysical information of the VKM territory was
developed using GIS-technologies in the ArcView 3.2. This database in addition to
physical properties contains the necessary information about the geological
belonging of the core samples to certain types of rocks, indicated in a sufficiently
detailed classification. Thus, the database is the most representative petrophysical
description of typical crystalline and sedimentary rocks of the VKM territory. It
contains information on the results of more than 90,000 petrophysical determina-
tions of various properties of the rocks for 4418 wells (Fig. 6.1).

O. M. Muravina (&)
V. N. Glaznev
V. I. Zhavoronkin

Voronezh State University, Voronezh, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
M. V. Mints
Geological Institute of the RAS, Moscow, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 49

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_6
50 O. M. Muravina et al.

Fig. 6.1 Scheme of well locations

Density models of the sedimentary cover and the upper part of the lithosphere of
the VKM region and adjacent territories were created within the framework of the
formed petrophysical database on a geological basis at scale 1:500000 (Fig. 6.2)
(Muravina et al. 2013, 2014a, b; Muravina and Zhavoronkin 2015; Muravina et al.
2015, 2016). All of these materials were used for the analysis of geophysical fields
(Glaznev et al. 2012, 2013; Muravina and Glaznev 2013, 2014) and constructing
density models of the upper crust in the VCM region on the basis of new technic of
the interpretation approaches (Glaznev et al. 2014, 2015a, b, c; Muravina and
Glaznev 2015; Voronova and Muravina, 2017).
At present, work is underway to create similar petromagnetic models of the
region. Comparison of developed petrophysical models and corresponding geo-
physical fields allows to eliminate contradictions in the interpretation of geophys-
ical data. Correlation analysis, in which the values of density and gravitational field
were compared, revealed the features of the reflection of crystalline rocks of dif-
ferent density in the gravity field.
Figure 6.3 shows a schematic map of statistical probability density, which
demonstrates the complex nature of the relationship between the density of crys-
talline rocks and the anomaly of gravity field. For example, crystalline rocks with a
density of about 2.7 g/cm3, corresponding to gneisses of different composition,
correspond to both lower (down to −28 mGal) and elevated (up to +3 mGal) values
of the gravitational field. The average density of crystalline VCM rocks is 2.721 g/
cm3, which is typical for the Archaean crystalline rocks (Galitchanina et al. 1995;
Buyanov et al. 1995; Kozlov et al. 2006). The average value of the gravitational
field for the area is −10.74 mGal. At the same time, high-density crystalline rocks
are reflected in the gravitational field only by an insignificant increase with respect
6 Reflection of the Petrophysical Basement Rocks Models … 51

Fig. 6.2 Map of density distribution of crystalline rocks of the Voronezh crystalline massif

Fig. 6.3 Schematic map of

statistical probability density

to the mean values of the field (Muravina et al. 2016; Voronova and Glaznev 2014;
Voronova and Muravina 2014).
These results were taken into account when creating a complex model of the
VKM lithosphere (Glaznev et al. 2016; Muravina et al. 2016; Muravina 2016).
This work was supported by RFBR, grant No 16-05-00975.
52 O. M. Muravina et al.

References

Afanasyev, N. S. (2012). Petrophysics of the Earth’s crust VKM. Lithosphere of the Voronezh
crystalline massif by geophysical and petrophysical data. Ed.: N.M. Chernyshov. Voronezh:
Scientific Book, pp. 21–88. (in Russian).
Buyanov, A. F., V. N. Glaznev, F. P. Mitrofanov and A. B. Raevsky. (1995). Three-dimensional
modelling of the Lapland Granulite Belt and adjacent structures of the Baltic Shield from
geophysical data. Geology of the eastern Finnmark – western Kola peninsula region.
Geological Survey of Norway, Special Publication. Eds. D. Roberts, N. Nordgulen. V. 7,
pp. 167–178.
Galitchanina, L. D., V. N. Glaznev, F. P. Mitrofanov, O. Olesen and H. Henkel (1995) Surface
density characteristics of the Baltic Shield and adjacent territories. Norges Geologiske
Undersøkelse. Special Publication «Geology of the Eastern Finnmark - Western Kola
Peninsula Region» . Proceedings of the 1st. International Barents Symposium «Geology and
Minerals in the Barents Region» / Eds. D.Roberts, Ø.Nordgulen. V. 7, pp. 349–354.
Glaznev, V. N, M. V. Mints and O. M. Muravina (2016). Density modeling of the central part of
the East European platform. Vestnik KRAUNTS, Series of “Earth Sciences” T. 29, No. 1,
pp. 53–63. (in Russian).
Glaznev, V. N., O. M. Muravina, T. A. Voronova and V. M. Choline (2014). Evaluation of the
thickness gravy-active layer of the crust of the Voronezh crystalline massif. Bulletin of VSU,
Series “Geology”, No. 4, pp. 78–84. (in Russian).
Glaznev, V.N., Mints, M.V., Muravina, O.M., Raevsky, A.B., Osipenko, L.G (2015a). Complex
geological–geophysical 3D model of the crust in the southeastern Fennoscandian Shield:
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Tectonophysics. V. 6, № 2, pp. 133–170.
Glaznev, V. N., O. M. Muravina, T. A. Voronova and E. B. Kislova (2015b). Thickness of the
gravy-active layer of the upper crust of the Voronezh crystalline massif from the stochastic
analysis of the gravity anomalies. The materials of the 42 session of the international seminar
named D. G. Uspensky “The theory and practice of geological interpretation of geophysical
fields”. Perm: MI UB RAS, pp. 46–48. (in Russian).
Glaznev, V. N., T. A. Voronova, I. Yu. Antonova and O. M. Muravina (2015c). Methods and
results of the 3D density modelling in studding construction of the upper crust of the Voronezh
crystalline massif. The materials of the 42 session of the international seminar named D.
G. Uspensky “The theory and practice of geological interpretation of geophysical fields”.
Perm: MI UB RAS, pp. 49–52. (in Russian).
Glaznev, V. N., V. I. Zhavoronkin, M. V. Mints, O. M. Muravina and N. E. Hovansky (2013)
Petrodensity model and the gravitational effect of sedimentary cover of the Voronezh
crystalline massif and its borders. The materials of the 40st session of the international seminar
named D. G. Uspensky “The theory and practice of geological interpretation of geophysical
fields” Moscow: IPE RAS, pp. 107–112. (in Russian).
Glaznev, V. N., V. I. Zhavoronkin and O. M. Muravina (2012) Accounting of the gravitational
effect of sedimentary cover of the Voronezh crystalline massif. Materials II school-seminar
«Gordinskie chteniy». Moscow: IPE RAS, pp. 45–46. (in Russian).
Kozlov, N. E., N. O. Sorokhtin, V. N. Glaznev, N. E. Kozlova, A. A. Ivanov, N. M. Kudryashov,
E. V. Martynov, V. A. Tyuremnov, A. V. Matyushkin and L. G. Osipenko (2006). Geology of
Archaean of the Baltic Shield. Saint-Petersburg, Nauka, 329 p. (in Russian).
Muravina, O. M. (2016). Density model of the earth crust of the Voronezh crystalline massif.
Bulletin of VSU, Series Geology, No. 1, pp. 108–114. (in Russian).
Muravina, O. M. and V. N. Glaznev (2013) Some of the results of the statistical analysis of
Petrophysical parameters of the sedimentary cover rocks of the Voronezh anticline. Materials
14-th International Conference «Physical-chemical and Petrophysical studies in Earth
Sciences». Moscow: IPE RAS, pp. 190–193. (in Russian).
6 Reflection of the Petrophysical Basement Rocks Models … 53

Muravina, O. M. and V. N. Glaznev (2014). Structural-parametric models of Petrophysical

parameters of sedimentary cover of the Voronezh anticline. News of the SB RANS. V. 44, No
1, pp. 81–87. (in Russian).
Muravina, O. M. and V. N. Glaznev (2015) Methodology for integrated models of the lithosphere
platform areas in conditions of incomplete information. Materials III school-seminar
«Gordinskie chteniy». Moscow: IPE RAS, pp. 22–26. (in Russian).
Muravina, O. M., V. N. Glaznev and V. I. Zhavoronkin (2013). Petrophysical characteristics of
sedimentary cover of Voronezh anticlines. Bulletin of VSU, Series Geology, No. 1, pp. 189–
196. (in Russian).
Muravina, O. M. and V. I. Zhavoronkin (2015). Statistical analysis of the digital petrodensity map
of the basement rocks for Voronezh crystalline massif. Bulletin of VSU, Series Geology, No. 2,
pp. 94–99. (in Russian).
Muravina, O. M., V. I. Zhavoronkin and V. N. Glaznev (2014a). The petrodensity model of the
crystalline basement of the Voronezh crystalline massif. The materials of the 41st session of the
international seminar named D. G. Uspensky “The theory and practice of geological
interpretation of geophysical fields.” Yekaterinburg: IGF UB RAS, pp. 171–174. (in Russian).
Muravina, O. M, V. I. Zhavoronkin and V. N Glaznev (2014b). Spatial analysis of the density
distribution of Precambrian formations of the Voronezh crystalline massif. Collection of
materials of the XV International Conference “Physical-Chemical and Petrophysical Studies in
Earth Sciences”. Moscow, p. 171–173. (in Russian).
Muravina, O. M, V. I. Zhavoronkin and V. N Glaznev (2015). Correlation analysis of the digital
base map of the isodense of the Voronezh crystalline massif and the gravity field. The materials
of the XV International Conference “Physical-Chemical and Petrophysical Studies in Earth
Sciences”. Moscow, pp. 201–203. (in Russian).
Muravina, O. M., V. I. Zhavoronkin and V. N. Glaznev (2016). The Petrodensity Map of the
Voronezh crystalline massif. The materials of the 43-th session of the international seminar
named D. G. Uspensky “The theory and practice of geological interpretation of geophysical
fields”. Moscow: IFE RAS, pp. 133–136. (in Russian).
Voronova, T. A. and V. N. Glaznev (2014). Three-dimensional density model of the granite
massive from Hoper Megablock (Voronezh crystalline massif). The materials of the 41st
session of the international seminar named D. G. Uspensky “The theory and practice of
geological interpretation of geophysical fields”. Yekaterinburg: IGF UB RAS, pp. 82–84.
(in Russian).
Voronova, T. A. and O. M. Muravina (2014). Detailed density modelling of the upper crust for the
Voronezh crystalline massif. Bulletin of VSU, Series “Geology”, No. 2, pp. 150–154.
(in Russian).
Voronova, T. A. and O. M. Muravina (2017). Optimization solving the inverse problem of
gravimetry in the construction of detailed density model. The materials of the 44th session of
the international seminar named D. G. Uspensky “The theory and practice of geological
interpretation of geophysical fields”. Moscow: IPE RAS, pp. 114–116. (in Russian).
Chapter 7
Continuous Method for Solution
of Gravity Prospecting Problems

I. V. Boikov, A. I. Boikova and O. A. Baulina

Abstract The continuous operator method for solving operator equations is pre-
sented. An applications of the continuous operator method for solving linear and
nonlinear inverse problems of logarithmic and Newtonian potentials are given.

Keywords Inverse tasks
Gravity prospecting
Continuous method

Nonlinear models

Introduction

The tasks of gravity prospecting can be divided into two large classes: direct and
inverse problems.
The inverse problem is modeled by the operator equation

KðxÞ ¼ f ; ð7:1Þ

where K is an operator that maps a metric space M to a metric space D. Here M is

the metric space of the required model parameters, D is the metric data space.
In further, it is more convenient to consider Eq. (7.1) in Banach spaces,
assuming that K is an operator mapping a Banach space X into a Banach space Y:
In gravity prospecting problems under the spaces X and Y, it is natural to
understand the spaces of square summable functions.
The inverse problem consists in solving the operator Eq. (7.1). There are two
classes of inverse problems: correctly posed and incorrectly posed.
Recall, following (Zdanov 2002), the definitions of correctly and incorrectly
posed problems.

I. V. Boikov (&)
A. I. Boikova
O. A. Baulina

Faculty of Computer Engineering, Penza State University, Penza, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 55

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_7
56 I. V. Boikov et al.

Definition 1 Problem (7.1) is well posed if the following conditions are satisfied:
(7.1) the solution x of Eq. (7.1) exists; (7.2) the solution x of Eq. (7.1) is unique;
(7.3) the solution x depends continuously on f .
Definition 2 Problem (7.1) is incorrectly posed if at least one of the conditions
listed in Definition 1 is not satisfied.
In the case of linear problems, the correctness of the problem requires the
existence of a linear inverse operator K 1 :
It is known (Tikhonov 1977; Mudretsova 1990) that most inverse problems of
geophysics are incorrect.
This means that, in the case of linear problems, the operator K 1 either does not
exist or is not bounded.
In the case of non-linear problems of the form (7.1), the connection between the
linear invertibility of the Frechet derivative K 0 ðx0 Þ on the elements x0 2 X and the
ill-posedness of the problem (7.1) is more complicated.
To solve ill-posed problems, a large number of different methods have been
proposed, both general and narrowly specific, designed to solve specific problems.
Among the methods intended for solving linear ill-posed problems, the Tikhonov
regularization method (Tikhonov 1977), the iterative methods—the minimal residual
method, the generalized minimal discrepancy method and their various modifications
(Zdanov 2002), should be noted first. To solve ill-posed nonlinear problems, we use
the method of early descent, the method of directional search, Newton’s method, the
conjugate gradient method and their modifications (Zdanov 2002).
To implement the methods of speedy descent and the method of searching in the
direction it is required that the Frechet derivative of the operator KðxÞ is not
degenerate in some neighborhood of the solution. This requirement imposes certain
restrictions on the scope of the method of early descent and the method of searching
in the direction.
In order to realize the solution of Eq. (7.1) by the Newton–Kantorovich method

xn þ 1 ¼ xn þ ½K 0 ðxn Þ1 Kxn ; n ¼ 0; 1; . . .;

the continuous invertibility of the operator K 0 ðxn Þ is necessary at each step of the
iteration process.
Using the modified Newton–Kantorovich method

xn þ 1 ¼ xn þ ½K 0 ðx0 Þ1 Kxn ; n ¼ 0; 1; . . .;

the existence of a linear inverse operator on the initial approximation is required.

The existence of a linear inverse operator is also required for the realization of a
continuous analogue of the Newton–Kantorovich method

dxðtÞ
¼ ½K 0 ðxðtÞÞ1 KðxðtÞÞ;
dt
7 Continuous Method for Solution of Gravity … 57

ascending to Gavurin (1958) and found wide application in modeling problems of

nuclear physics (Zhidkov 1973; Puzynina 2003).
Thus, the application of the Newton–Kantorovich method for solving inverse
problems of geophysics imposes fairly rigid restrictions on them.
These restrictions no in the continuous operator method (Boikov 2012).
Let us recall the main points of this method.

Continuous Operator Method

Consider the equation

AðxÞ  f ¼ 0; ð7:2Þ

where AðxÞ is a nonlinear operator acting from a Banach space X into X:

We denote by x the solution of Eq. (7.2).
The paper (Boikov 2012) establishes a connection between the stability of
solutions of operator differential equations in Banach spaces and the solvability of
operator equations of the form (7.2).
We give the necessary notation:

Rða; rÞ ¼ fz 2 B : kz  ak  rg; Sða; rÞ ¼ fz 2 B : kz  ak ¼ r g; ReK ¼ KR ¼ ðK þ K  Þ=2;

KðKÞ ¼ lim ðkI þ hK k  1Þ=h:
h!0

Here B is a Banach space, a; z 2 B, K is a linear operator acting from B to B;

KðKÞ is a logarithmic norm (Daletskii 1970) of the operator K; I is the identity
operator.
For the most

commonly used spaces, the logarithmic norms are known.
Let A ¼ aij ; i; j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; n; be a real matrix in the n -dimensional space Rn
 n 1=2
P
n P
of the vectors x ¼ ðx1 ;


; xn Þ with the norm k xk1 ¼ jxk j; k xk2 ¼ kx k k 2
;
k¼1 k¼1
k xk3 ¼ max jxk j:
1kn
The logarithmic norm of the matrix A is (Dekker 1988):
!  
X n   A þ AT
K1 ðAÞ ¼ max ajj þ  
aij ; K2 ðAÞ ¼ kmax ;
j
i¼1;i6¼j
2
!
X n  
K3 ðAÞ ¼ max aii þ  
aij :
i
j¼1;j6¼i

Here kmax ððA þ AT Þ=2Þ is the largest eigenvalue of the matrix ðA þ AT Þ=2:
Equation (7.2) corresponds to the Cauchy problem
58 I. V. Boikov et al.

dxðtÞ
¼ AðxðtÞÞ  f ; ð7:3Þ
dt
xð0Þ ¼ x0 : ð7:4Þ

Theorem 1 (Boikov 2012). Suppose that Eq. (7.2) has a solution x and on any
differential curve gðtÞ; located in a Banach space B; the following inequality holds

Zt
1
lim KðA0 ðgðsÞÞds   a; a [ 0: ð7:5Þ
t!1 t
0

Then the solution of the Cauchy problem (7.3), (7.4) converges to the solution x
of Eq. (7.2) for any initial approximation.
Theorem 2 (Boikov 2012). Suppose that Eq. (7.2) has a solution x and on any
differentiable curve gðtÞ; in the ball Rðx ; rÞ; the following conditions are fulfilled:
(1) for any tðt [ 0Þ the following inequality holds

Zt
KðA0 ðgðsÞÞds  0; ð7:6Þ
0

(2) The inequality (7.5) is valid.

Then the solution of the Cauchy problem (7.3), (7.4) converges to the solution of
Eq. (7.2).
Remark 1 It follows from (7.5, 7.6) that the logarithmic norm of KðA0 ðgðsÞÞÞ can
be nonnegative for some values of s; that is, the Frechet derivative A0 ðgðsÞÞ can
degenerate into an operator that is identically equal to zero.
Remark 2 The solution of the model example (approximate solution of the
hypersingular integral equation) (Boykov 2018) demonstrated the convergence of
the iterative process, based on the continuous operator method, with the Frechet
derivative vanishing in the initial approximation.

Approximate Solution of Inverse Problems of Gravity

Prospecting

We introduce a Cartesian rectangular coordinate system by directing the Oz axis

downward.
Let the ore body lies at a depth of H; and its lower surface coincides with the
plane z ¼ H; and the upper surface is described by the function zðx; yÞ ¼
7 Continuous Method for Solution of Gravity … 59

H  /ðx; yÞ where 0  /ðx; yÞ  H: Then the gravitational field on the surface the
Earth is described by the equation

Z1 Z1 ZH
rðf; g; nÞndfdgdn
G ¼ f ðx; y; 0Þ; ð7:7Þ
ððx  fÞ2 þ ðy  gÞ2 þ n2 Þ3=2
1 1 H/ðf;gÞ

where G is the gravitational constant; rðf; g; nÞ is the density of the body.

It is assumed that, first, the density rðf; g; nÞ  0 outside the body; second, the
function of density is differentiable with respect to n:
To simplify further calculations, we assume that the density does not depend on
n: Then we arrive at the equation

Z1 Z1 "
1
G rðf; gÞ
ððx  fÞ þ ðy  gÞ þ ðH  /ðf; gÞÞ2 Þ1=2
2 2
1 1 ð7:8Þ
#
1
 dfdg ¼ f ðx; y; 0Þ:
ððx  fÞ2 þ ðy  gÞ2 þ H 2 Þ1=2

The linearization of Eq. (7.8) leads to the equation

Z1 Z1 " #
H/ðf; gÞ
G rðf; gÞ dfdg ¼ f ðx; y; 0Þ: ð7:9Þ
ððx  fÞ2 þ ðy  gÞ2 þ H 2 Þ3=2
1 1

Below we shall assume that the density is constant and for the convenience of
describing the algorithms proposed in this paper we put Grðf; gÞ ¼ 1=2p:
We represent Eq. (7.9) in the form

Z1 Z1 " #
1 H/ðf; gÞ
dfdg ¼ f ðx; y; 0Þ: ð7:10Þ
2p ððx  fÞ2 þ ðy  gÞ2 þ H 2 Þ3=2
1 1

The logarithmic potential problem with the corresponding simplification leads to

nonlinear integral equations

Zb
ðx  sÞ2 þ H 2
G rðsÞ ln ds ¼ f ðxÞ; ð7:11Þ
ðx  sÞ2 þ ðH  zðsÞÞ2
a

where z ¼ zðsÞ is the equation of the profile of an infinitely extended body; H is the
depth of occurrence.
Methods for solving the inverse problems of the logarithmic potential are given
in (Starostenko 1978).
60 I. V. Boikov et al.

The linearization of Eq. (7.11) leads (Strakhov 1970) to linear integral equation

Zb
zðfÞdf
2GrH ¼ f ðxÞ: ð7:12Þ
ðx  fÞ2 þ H 2
a

Regularizing algorithms for solving Eq. (7.11) were investigated in (Glasko

1970; Tikhonov 1965); iterative methods for solving equations of the form (7.10–
7.12) are proposed in the papers (Boikov 1999; 2009, 2013).
A detailed review of the literature is contained in the books (Zdanov 2002;
Boikov 2013).
At first we consider the inverse problems of potential theory in a linear
formulation.
Consider the equation

Z1
1 2HzðsÞds
pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ f ðxÞ;  1\x\1: ð7:13Þ
2p ðx  sÞ2 þ H 2
1

Let A be a sufficiently large positive number. We introduce the nodes xk ¼

A þ Ak
N ; k ¼ 0; 1; . . .; 2N:
The computational scheme of the collocation method has the form

1 A 2N1 X 2Hzðxl Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ f ðxk Þ; k ¼ 0; 1; . . .; 2N  1;
2p l¼0 ðxk  xl Þ2 þ H 2
N

or, after substituting the values xk and xl :

AN 2N1 X 2Hzl
pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ f ðxk Þ; k ¼ 0; 1; . . .; 2N  1: ð7:14Þ
2p l¼0 ðAðk  lÞÞ2 þ N 2 H 2

Here zl ¼ zðxl Þ; l ¼ 0; 1; . . .; 2N:

We associate the system of Eq. (7.14) with the system of linear differential
equations

dzk ðtÞ 1 X
2N1
2Hzl ðtÞ
¼  pffiffiffiffiffiffi AN 2
þ f ðxk Þ; k ¼ 0; 1; . . .; 2N  1:
l¼0 ðAðk  lÞ þ N H Þ
dt 2p 2 2

ð7:15Þ

As follows from the results of Section “Continuous Operator Method”, if the

logarithmic norm of the matrix of the system (7.14) is negative, then the solution
fzk ðtÞg; k ¼ 0; 1; . . .; 2N  1; as t ! 1 tends to the solution of the system of
Eq. (7.14).
7 Continuous Method for Solution of Gravity … 61

We find a combination of parameters in the system of Eq. (7.14), in which the

methods of stability theory guarantee the convergence of solution of the system of
differential Eq. (7.15) to the solution of the system of Eq. (7.14).
To do this, we estimate the logarithmic norm of the matrix B ¼ fbkl g; k; l ¼
1; 2; . . .; 2N; where

2NH 1 NH
bkl ¼  2
;c ¼ :
A ðk  lÞ þ c2 A

For definiteness, the system (7.14) will be considered in the space of 2N —

dimensional vectors with the norm kxk3 ¼ max1  i  2N jxi j:
The diagonal elements of the matrix B are equal to bkk ¼  NH
2A
:
We estimate the sum of the modules of the off-diagonal elements of the matrix B:
Obviously,

X
2N1 X
k1 X
2N1 X
k1
2NH 1 X
2N1
2NH 1
0
jbkl j ¼ jbkl j þ jbkl j ¼ 2
þ 2
l¼0 l¼0 l¼k þ 1 l¼0
A ðk  lÞ þ c2 l¼k þ 1
A ðk  lÞ þ c2
X
k
2NH 1 X 2NH 1
2N1k
¼ þ
j¼1
A j þc
2 2
j¼1
A j2 þ c2
Zk Z
2N1k
2NH 1 2NH 1
 dx þ dx
A x2 þ c2 A x 2 þ c2
0 0
 
k 2N  k  1 2A
¼ 2 arctg þ arctg  2 arctg ;
c c H

P
2N1
0
where means summation over l 6¼ k:
l¼0
Thus, if the inequality

2A 2A
[ 2 arctg ð7:16Þ
NH H

is satisfied then the solution of the system of differential equations converges to the
solution of the system of Eq. (7.14).
Inequality (7.16) can be replaced by the following simpler inequality

2A
[ p; ð7:17Þ
NH

Remark 3 Since h ¼ A=N is the step of the computational scheme (7.14), it is

always possible to select values of A and N such that conditions (7.16) and (7.17)
are satisfied.
62 I. V. Boikov et al.

Remark 4 The conditions for convergence depend on the concrete spaces in which
the system (7.14) is investigated.
Remark 5 A regularization of system (7.14) can be carried out by introducting a
nonnegative function aðtÞ; limt!1 aðtÞ ¼ 0: As a result, we obtain the system
equations

dzk ðtÞ 1 X
2N1
2Hzl ðtÞ
¼ aðtÞzk ðtÞ  pffiffiffiffiffiffi AN 2
þ f ðxk Þ; k
l¼0 ðAðk  lÞ þ N H Þ
dt 2p 2 2

¼ 0; 1; . . .; 2N  1:

As an example, we consider the equation

Z1 rffiffiffi
1 2HzðsÞds p 1þH
pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ ; ð7:18Þ
2p ðx  sÞ2 þ H 2 2 Hðx2 þ ðH þ 1Þ2 Þ
1

the exact solution of which is

1 1
zðsÞ ¼ :
2H s2 þ 1

With the number of collocation nodes equal to 40, the error in solving the system
of Eq. (7.18) is 103 :
Now apply the continuous operator method to the nonlinear Eq. (7.11).
We approximate the Eq. (7.11) by the simpler nonlinear equation

Zb
2HzðsÞ  z2 ðsÞ
G rðsÞ ds ¼ f ðxÞ: ð7:19Þ
ðx  sÞ2 þ H 2
a

This equation is obtained from (7.11) if we restrict ourselves to the second power
2HzðsÞz ðsÞ 2
in the expansion of the function lnð1 þ uÞ; u ¼ ðxsÞ 2
þ ðHzðsÞÞ2
in a Taylor series and
2HzðsÞz2 ðsÞ 2HzðsÞz2 ðsÞ
approximating the function ðxsÞ2 þ ðHzðsÞÞ2
by function ðxsÞ2 þ H 2
:
The Eq. (7.19) is approximated by the system of nonlinear algebraic equations

2A X
N 1
2Hzðxl Þ  z2 ðxl Þ
G rðxl Þ ¼ f ðxk Þ; ð7:20Þ
N l¼0 ðxk  xl Þ2 þ H 2

where xk ¼ A þ 2Ak=N; k ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N.
The system of Eq. (7.20) is associated with the system of nonlinear differential
equations
7 Continuous Method for Solution of Gravity … 63

!
dzk ðtÞ 2AG X
N1
2Hzl ðtÞ  z2l ðtÞ
¼ rðxl Þ  f ðxk Þ ; ð7:21Þ
dt N l¼0 ðxk  xl Þ2 þ H 2

k ¼ 0; 1; . . .

The Frechet derivative of the matrix on the right-hand side of the system of
Eq. (7.21) on the element zl ; l ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1; is the matrix B ¼ fbij ðtÞg; i; j ¼
1; 2; . . .; N; where

2AG 2H  2zj1 ðtÞ

bij ¼  rðxj1 Þ :
N ðxi1  xj1 Þ2 þ H 2

The convergence of the solution of the system of Eq. (7.21) to the solution of the
system of Eq. (7.20) is determined by the conditions imposed on the logarithmic
norm of the matrix B:
Example. Consider equation

Z1
2HzðsÞ  z2 ðsÞds
rðsÞ ¼ f ðxÞ;  1\x\1;
ðx  sÞ2 þ H 2
1
p 113x2 þ 5628
in which rðsÞ ¼ ðs2 þ 4Þ=ðs4 þ 2s2 þ 1Þ; f ðsÞ ¼ :
10 x4 þ 85x2 þ 1764

This equation is approximated by the system of nonlinear algebraic equations

2A X
N 1
x2l þ 4 1
ð2Hzðxl Þ  z2 ðxl ÞÞ ¼ f ðxk Þ; ð7:22Þ
N l¼0 xl þ 2xl þ 1 ðxk  xl Þ2 þ H 2
4 2

k ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1; A ¼ 10:

If the conditions, given in Section “Continuous Operator Method” are met, the
solution of the system of ordinary differential equations
!
dzk ðtÞ 2A X
N 1
xl þ 4 1
¼ ð2Hzl ðtÞ  zl ðtÞÞ  f ðxk Þ ;
2
dt N l¼0 x4l þ 2x2l þ 1 ðxk  xl Þ2 þ H 2
ð7:23Þ

k ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1; converges to the solution of the system of Eq. (7.22).

The exact solution of the system of Eq. (7.22) is zðsÞ ¼ ðs2 þ 1Þ=ðs2 þ 4Þ:
The system of Eq. (7.23) was solved by the Euler method.
With the number of collocation nodes equal to 100, the error in solving the
system of Eq. (7.22) is 0:5  102 .
64 I. V. Boikov et al.

Newtonian potential.
We construct a computational scheme for the approximate solution of Eq. (7.9).
We introduce the system of knots fxkl ¼ ðxk ; xl Þg; k; l ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N; where xk ¼
N ; k ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N; A a sufficiently large positive number.
A þ 2kA
An approximate solution of Eq. (7.9) will be sought in the form of a function

1; ðx; yÞ 2 Dij ;
ui;j ðx; yÞ ¼
0; ðx; yÞ 2 XnDij ;

where

Dij ¼ ð½xi ; xi þ 1 Þ  ½xj ; xj þ 1 ÞÞ \ X; i; j ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  2;

Dij ¼ ð½xi ; xi þ 1 Þ  ½xj ; xj þ 1 Þ \ X; i ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  2; j ¼ N  1;
Dij ¼ ð½xi ; xi þ 1   ½xj ; xj þ 1 ÞÞ \ X; i ¼ N  1; j ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  2;
Dij ¼ ð½xi ; xi þ 1   ½xj ; xj þ 1 Þ \ X; i; j ¼ N  1;

The computational scheme of the collocation method has the form

1 ð2AÞ2 XN 1 X N 1
H/l1 l2
¼ f ðxk1 ; xk2 Þ; k1 ; k2
2p N 2 l ¼0 l ¼0 ððxk1  xl1 Þ2 þ ðxk2  xl2 Þ2 þ H 2 Þ3=2
1 2

¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1; ð7:24Þ

where /l1 ;l2 ¼ /ðxl1 ; xl2 Þ; l1 ; l2 ¼ 0; 1; . . .; 2N  1:

The system of Eq. (7.24) is associated with the following system of ordinary
differential equations

dzk1 k2 ðtÞ 1 ð2AÞ2 H X

N 1 X
N 1
zl1 l2 ðtÞ
¼
dt 2p N 2 l ¼0 l ¼0 ððxk1  xl1 Þ2 þ ðxk2  xl2 Þ2 þ H 2 Þ3=2
1 2
ð7:25Þ
þ f ðxk1 ; xk2 Þ; k1 ; k2 ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1:

Using the results of Section “Continuous Operator Method”, we can show that if
the set of parameters A; H; N is such that the logarithmic norm of the matrix of
system (7.24) is negative, then the solution of the system of differential Eq. (7.25)
as t ! 1 tends to the solution of the system of Eq. (7.24).
To justify the convergence of the system of differential equations for t ! 1, we
need to bring the multidimensional matrix (Sokolov 1972) on the left-hand side of
the system of Eq. (7.24) to the standard form. Then we need to calculate the
logarithmic norm of the constructed matrix multiplied by ð1Þ and use the stability
conditions for the solutions of the differential equations (Boikov 1990, 2008).
Substituting the values xki ; xli ; k; l ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1; i ¼ 1; 2; in (7.19) we
arrive at the system of equations
7 Continuous Method for Solution of Gravity … 65

1 XN 1 X
N 1
ul1 l2
d ¼ f ð1 þ k1 h; 1 þ k2 hÞ; k1 ; k2
2p l ¼0 l ¼0 ððk1  l1 Þ2 þ ðk2  l2 Þ2 þ d 2 Þ3=2
1 2

¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1;
ð7:26Þ

where h ¼ 2A=N; d ¼ NH=ð2AÞ ¼ H=h:

Put M ¼ N 2 : We introduce the designations

zNl þ k þ 1 ¼ ukl ; l ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1; k ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1:

We denote by B the matrix B ¼ fbij g; i; j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; N 2 with elements: bij ¼ 0

if ðjk1  l1 j ¼ 1; jk2  l2 j ¼ 1Þ; ðjk1  l1 j ¼ 1; k2 ¼ l2 Þ; ðk1 ¼ l1 ; jk2  l2 j ¼ 1Þ;
and bij ¼  2p
d
2
1
2 2 3=2
ððk1 l1 Þ Þ þ ðk2 l2 Þ þ d Þ
with the rest ði; jÞ; i; j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; N 2 : Here i ¼ Nk1 þ k2 þ 1; j ¼ Nl1 þ l2 þ 1;
k1 ; k2 ; l1 ; l2 ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1:
The diagonal elements of the matrix B are equal to bii ¼  2pd 1
2 :

It is easy to see that the maximum of the sum of the modules of the off-diagonal
elements is

d X N X N
1
D¼
2p l ¼0 l ¼0 ðl21 þ l22 þ d 2 Þ3=2
1 2

d X N X N
1
þ
2p l ¼1 l ¼0 ðl21 þ l22 þ d 2 Þ3=2
1 2

d X N X N
1
þ
2p l ¼0 l ¼1 ðl21 þ l22 þ d 2 Þ3=2
1 2

d X N X N
1 1
þ  :
2p l ¼1 l ¼1 ðl21 þ l22 þ d 2 Þ3=2 2pd 2
1 2

Estimating these sums is a difficult task. In addition, the diagonal elements of the
matrix B are sufficiently small in absolute value in the most important case when
h\H: Therefore, the field of applications of the system (7.20) for solving 3D
problems is rather limited.
For a model example, an equation of the form (7.24) was considered. As exact
solution of this equation was chosen the function

1; ðx; yÞ 2 ½10; 102 ;

/ðx; yÞ ¼
0; ðx; yÞ 2 ð1; 1Þn½10; 102 :

With the number of collocation nodes equal to 40 for each variable, the error of
the solution is 104 :
66 I. V. Boikov et al.

Consider a modification of the method, given above.

We fix a natural number q; whose choice will be described below.
As above, we introduce the nodes xk ¼ A þ 2Ak=N; k ¼ N; N þ 1; . . .; 2N:
To each node ðxi ; xj Þ; i; j ¼ 0; 1;


; N; we put in line piecewise-constant
functions:

1; ðx; yÞ 2 Dqij ;
/qi;j ðx; yÞ ¼
0; ðx; yÞ 2 XnDqij ;

where

X ¼ ½A; A2 ;

Dqij ¼ ð½xiq ; xi þ q Þ  ½xjq ; xj þ q ÞÞ \ X; i; j ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  2;

Dqij ¼ ð½xiq ; xi þ q Þ  ½xjq ; xj þ q Þ \ X; i ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  2; j ¼ N  1;
Dqij ¼ ð½xiq ; xi þ q   ½xjq ; xj þ q ÞÞ \ X; i ¼ N  1; j ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  2;
Dqij ¼ ð½xiq ; xi þ q   ½xjq ; xj þ q Þ \ X; i; j ¼ N  1;

1; ðx; yÞ 2 Dij ;
ui;j ðx; yÞ ¼
0; ðx; yÞ 2 XnDij ;

where

Dij ¼ ð½xi ; xi þ 1 Þ  ½xj ; xj þ 1 ÞÞ \ X; i; j ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  2;

Dij ¼ ð½xi ; xi þ 1 Þ  ½xj ; xj þ 1 Þ \ X; i ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  2; j ¼ N  1;
Dij ¼ ð½xi ; xi þ 1   ½xj ; xj þ 1 ÞÞ \ X; i ¼ N  1; j ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  2;
Dij ¼ ð½xi ; xi þ 1   ½xj ; xj þ 1 Þ \ X; i; j ¼ N  1;

The collocation method for Eq. (7.9) has the form

1 1 1 4A2 X
N1 X
N1
0
H/ij ðxij Þ
mesDqkl 2 /qkl ðxkl Þ þ 2
¼ f ðxk;l Þ;
2p H 2p N i¼0 j¼0 ððxk  xi Þ2 þ ðxl  xj Þ2 þ H 2 Þ3=2
ð7:27Þ

k; l ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1:
P P
Here i j 0 means summation over squares Dij whose intersection measure
with the domain Dqkl is zero.
We denote by C the matrix representing the left-hand side of the system of
Eq. (7.27).
Obviously, one can choose a q such that the logarithmic norm of the matrix
C ¼ fcij g; i; j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; N; will be negative.
7 Continuous Method for Solution of Gravity … 67

Consider the system of differential equations

!
d/kl ðtÞ 1 q ð2AÞ2 H X
N 1 X
N 1
0 /ij ðtÞ
¼ mesDkl /kl ðtÞ þ  f ðxk;l ;
dt 2pH 2 2pN 2 i¼0 j¼0 ððxk  xi Þ2 þ ðxl  xj Þ2 þ H 2 Þ3=2

ð7:28Þ

k; l ¼ 0; 1; . . .; N  1:

From the results of Sect.``Continuous Operator Method'' it follows that for q such
that the logarithmic norm of the matrix C is negative, the solution of the system of
differential Eq. (7.28) converges to the solution of system (7.27).
The work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research. Grant
16-01-00594.

References

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contact surface// Izvestia, Physics of the Solid Earth. –1999. –№ 2. – P. 52–56.
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Differential Equations), Penza: Penzensk. Gos. Univ., 2008. 244 p.
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equations. 2012, V. 48, No 9. P. 1308 – 1314.
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Moscow: Nauka, 1970.
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Differential Equations, Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Co., 1984. Translated under the
title Ustoichivost’ metodov Runge-Kutty dlya zhestkikh nelineinykh differentsial’nykh
uravnenii, Moscow: Mir, 1988.
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of a contact surface by regularization//USSR Computational Mathematics and Mathematical
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Puzynina T.P. (2003) Modified Newton Schemes for the Numerical Investigation of
Quantum-Field Models, Doctoral (Phys.-Math.) Dissertation, Tver, 2003.
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1, pp. 127–166.
Chapter 8
The Density Model of the Crystalline
Crust the Southwestern Part
of the Lipetsk Region

T. A. Voronova, V. N. Glaznev, O. M. Muravina and I. Y. Antonova

Abstract The problems of constructing a detailed three-dimensional density model

of the upper crust of the Voronezh crystalline massif using gravimetric and
petrophysical data are considered. The obtained model shows the main features of
the volumetric structure of the research area.

Keywords Gravity field
Detailed density modeling
Geological structure

Petrophysical database

The density structure of the upper part of the crust is studied on the basis of solving
the inverse problem of gravimetry. Technology for construction of detailed density
models of the environment based on the interpretation of local anomalies of the
gravity field is constantly improving with the advent of new a priori data and new
methods of working with information. The results of solving the inverse problem is
created some model of the spatial location of the anomalous density objects in the
investigated area, which with a guaranteed accuracy satisfies the observed gravity
field. The accuracy of the detailed three-dimensional density models of the media
can be improved if we perform a simulation taking into account all available a priori
information.
The construction of the density model of the upper part of the crystalline crust of
the study area was solved on the basis of inversion of local anomalies of the gravity
field. The statement of the problem of detailed density modeling within a limited
area is schematically shown in Fig. 8.1.
As initial data for density modelling were used: the regional density model of the
lithosphere, built for the entire territory of the Voronezh crystalline massif (Glaznev
et al. 2016); the regional gravity field corresponding to this model (Muravina 2016);
map of region density on a geological basis for scale 1:500,000 (Muravina et al.
2014a, b, 2016a, b; Muravina and Zhavoronkin 2015); the values of the thickness

T. A. Voronova (&)
V. N. Glaznev
O. M. Muravina
I. Y. Antonova

Voronezh State University, Voronezh, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 69

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_8
70 T. A. Voronova et al.

Fig. 8.1 To the solution of the problem detailed density modeling

for “gravity active” layer, obtained from the results of statistical analysis of the
anomalous field (Glaznev et al. 2014, 2015a, b).
Three-dimensional density modeling was carried out at a area located in the
south-western part of the Lipetsk region for the depth up to 12 km, which corre-
sponds to the position of the “gravity active” layer for the given territory (Glaznev
et al. 2014; Glaznev et al. 2015a, b). The position of the upper boundary of the
model was established in accordance with the depth of the surface of the crystalline
basement. The original model consisted of 10 layers of different thickness, which
increased with a depth from 0.5 to 2 km. The layers of the modeling area also
differed in the degree of detail of the density representation: the number of small
objects decreased with increasing depth of the layer.
Absolute density values were set at the boundaries of the model layers in
accordance with the petrophysical data of the region (Muravina et al. 2014a, b). The
transition to excess density values was carried out by subtracting the density values
of the regional model, which were interpolated to the points of the modeling
domain. The three-dimensional regional density model of the central part of the
East European Platform defines the distribution of density on the roofs and soles of
the upper, middle and lower crust layers, in the transition layer and upper mantle to
a depth of 80 km. In calculations, the density of the “gravity” layer, which is the
object of detailed investigation, at this stage was assumed equal to the average value
for the territory and amounted to 2.72 g/cm3, which is typical for Archean crys-
talline rocks (Galitchanina et al. 1995; Kozlov et al. 2006). The solution of the
direct problem of gravimetry for the developed model allows to estimate with the
necessary accuracy the regional component of the gravity field for any territory
within the region. Also at each point in the detailed three-dimensional model, the
minimum and maximum density constraints were set.
Inversion of the gravity field in density was carried out on the basis of the
quasinormal solution of the inverse problem in a three-dimensional case in Cartesian
coordinates (Voronova and Glaznev 2014; Voronova and Muravina, 2014, 2017;
8 The Density Model of the Crystalline Crust the Southwestern … 71

Glaznev et al. 2015a, b). From the observed gravity field of the study area, the
influence of the sedimentary cover was excluded. The solution of the inverse
problem was carried out using a program based on the modified method of local
corrections (Muravina and Glaznev 2015). This method allows you to effectively
work with input data represented by a large number of numbers. The stability of the
solution is achieved through the organization of the iterative process in such a way
that at each calculation point the correction of the original model is consistently
performed.
The starting model plays an important role in ensuring the geological content of
the solution. This model is built on the basis of a priori information, and generalizes
the petrophysical and geological data related to the study area. In solving the
inverse problem, the starting model is described by a significant number of
parameters and is characterized by a high degree of complexity. In fact, during the
process of field inversion, the initial model is refined in the specified limits of the
parameter variation in order to obtain a mass distribution equivalent to the observed
field.
Using the values of the reduced gravitational field at the grid nodes on the
surface and the starting model of the density distribution in the lower half-space, a
direct problem for the upper layer was solved. Next, we calculated the discrepancy
of the field, which in the next step allowed us to calculate the corresponding
equivalent density in a bounded flat layer. At the next stage, the residual of the
model was redistributed into the lower half-space in accordance with the weight
function. For the model obtained, the gravity field was calculated, which was
compared with the initial observed field.
When solving a direct problem, a recursive algorithm was used that ensures high
computational speed at a guaranteed level of error (Glaznev and Loshakov 2012;
Muravina and Loshakov 2015). The weight function of density redistribution was
determined by the initial approximation of the model taken into account the geo-
logical considerations and ranges of density variation of the corresponding geo-
logical complexes (Muravina et al. 2014b, 2016a, b; Muravina and Zhavoronkin
2015).
The algorithm for solving the inverse problem is shown in Fig. 8.2.
The obtained results generally demonstrate the correspondence of the density
model to the initial geological data of the upper part structure of the earth’s crust for
study area. The value of the RMS error of iterations in the process of solving the
inverse problem decreased from 5.90 mGal for the starting model to 0.21 mGal for
the final density model (Fig. 8.3).
At the same time, there are a number of contradictions connected with a certain
difference in anomalous gravity and anomalous magnetic fields.
The study area is completely covered by magnetic survey, both at the ground and
in the aero-variant, which made it possible to clarify the geological features of the
obtained density model taking into account the magnetic data.
This work was supported by RFBR, grant No 16-05-00975.
72 T. A. Voronova et al.

Fig. 8.2 Block diagram of the algorithm for solving the inverse problem

Fig. 8.3 The change in the RMS discrepancy

8 The Density Model of the Crystalline Crust the Southwestern … 73

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74 T. A. Voronova et al.

Voronova, T. A. and V. N. Glaznev (2014). Three-dimensional density model of the granite

massive from Hoper Megablock (Voronezh crystalline massif). The materials of the 41st
session of the international seminar named D. G. Uspensky “The theory and practice of
geological interpretation of geophysical fields.” Yekaterinburg: IGF UB RAS, pp. 82–84. (in
Russian).
Voronova, T. A. and O. M. Muravina (2014). Detailed density modelling of the upper crust for the
Voronezh crystalline massif. Bulletin of VSU, Series “Geology”, No. 2, pp. 150–154. (in
Russian).
Voronova, T. A. and O. M. Muravina (2017). Optimization solving the inverse problem of
gravimetry in the construction of detailed density model. The materials of the 44th session of
the international seminar named D. G. Uspensky “The theory and practice of geological
interpretation of geophysical fields.” Moscow: IPE RAS, pp. 114–116. (in Russian).
 Part II
Modern Algorithms and Computer
Technologies
Chapter 9
Neural Network Algorithm for Solving
3d Inverse Problem of Geoelectrics

M. I. Shimelevich, E. A. Obornev, I. E. Obornev, E. A. Rodionov

and S. A. Dolenko

Abstract The approximating neural network algorithm for solving the inverse
problems of geoelectrics in the class of grid (block) models of the medium is
presented. The algorithm is based on constructing an approximate inverse operator
using neural networks and makes it possible to formally obtain the solutions of the
geoelectrics inverse problem with a total number of the sought parameters of the
medium
n  103 . The questions concerning the correctness of the problem of
constructing the inverse neural network operators are considered. The a posteriori
estimates of the degree of ambiguity in the inverse problem solutions are calculated.
The work of the algorithm is illustrated by the examples of 2D and 3D inversions of
the synthesized data and the real magnetotelluric sounding data.


Keywords Geoelectrics Inverse problem  Approximation  A priori and a

posteriori estimates Neural networks

Introduction

Many practical inverse problems of geophysics including geoelectrics are reduced

to the numerical solution of a finite-dimensional (in the general case, nonlinear)
operator equation on a compact set SN (Glasko et al. 1976; Dmitriev 2012;
Shimelevich and Obornev 2009; Shimelevich et al. 2017):

M. I. Shimelevich  E. A. Obornev  E. A. Rodionov

Russian State Geological Prospecting University MGRI-RSGPU, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
I. E. Obornev (&)  S. A. Dolenko
Lomonosov Moscow State University Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear
Physics (MSU SINP), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 77

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_9
78 M. I. Shimelevich et al.

AN s ¼ e; s 2 SN  RN ; e 2 RM ; M  N;
ð9:1aÞ
SN : ½smin  sn  smin þ Ds ; n ¼ 1; . . .; N;

where s ¼ ðs1 ; . . .; sN Þ is the sought vector of the parameters of the medium each of
which can vary within a given interval of the values ½smin ; smin þ Ds ; e ¼
ðe1 ; . . .; eM Þ is the input data vector; AN is the operator of numerical solution of the
forward problem in a given finite–parameter class of the media. In terms of the
projections, system (9.1) has the following form:

Am ðs1 ; . . .; sN Þ ¼ em ; m ¼ 1; . . .; M; M  N;
ð9:1bÞ
smin  sn  smin þ Ds ; n ¼ 1; . . .; N;

where Am ðs1 ; . . .; sN Þ, m ¼ 1; . . .; M are the coordinate functions of operator AN . In

this work we consider the grid (block) parameterization of the medium
(Shimelevich et al. 2017) which is most universal if the a priori infornation is
scarce. In this case, the projections sn of the sought parameter vector of the medium
are the values of the sought characteristic of the medium in the cells of a given
parameterization grid hN . The latter is constructed by merging (by a certain rule) the
cells of the initial finite difference grid hN0 of size N0 on which the forward
boundary problem is solved. In the cases when the additional a priori information
about the structure of the studied medium is available, also other types of the
parameterization and narrower sets SN of the admissible solutions are used, for
instance, snmin  sn  snmin þ Dns ; n ¼ 1; . . .; N. In the general case, the problem of
solving Eq. (9.1) at large N is Ill-posed and obtained solutions are practical
ambiguity. In (Shimelevich et al. 2017) it was shown that for a given error level d0
in the input data it is possible to build the regularized parameterization grid in such
a way that the degree of ambiguity of any solutions of the inverse problem (9.1) will
not exceed the given value e0 . Irrespective of the numerical method used for solving
Eq. (9.1), its approximate solution is a certain vector function wðe ~ 1 ; . . .; eM Þ of M
variables, which are projections of the input data vector e ¼ ðe1 ; . . .; eM Þ. In the
multidimensional inverse problem of geophysics, in the case of a general type of
nonlinearity, the problem of calculating the function wðeÞ ~ cannot always be for-
malized (e.g., because of the presence of local extrema, etc.) and every time it has to
be solved individually for the different input data. In this work, we consider the
approximating approach to constructing the universal neural network
(NN) approximator with the use of which the inverse problem is solved for any
arbitrary input data vector e 2 RM . The general concept of applying the NN tech-
nologies in the problems of processing and interpretation of the geophysical data is
described in the review (Raiche 1991). The examples of solving the inverse
problem of geoelectrics with the use of neural networks are presented in (Hidalgo
et al. 1994; Poulton et al. 1992; Spichak and Popova 1998; Shimelevitch and
Obornev 1998. In these works it was shown that with the aid of NN approximators
it is possible to obtain the approximate solutions of the inverse problems of
9 Neural Network Algorithm for Solving … 79

geoelectrics with N
10 15 sought parameters. Tuning the general methods of

constructing the NN approximators of inversion for the problem to be solved and
developing the advanced modifications of the method with the use of Monte-Carlo
algorithms allowed us to generalize the NN technique for the case of 2D and 3D
media whose geoelectrical properties are determined by n  102 n  103
parameters (Shimelevich and Obornev 2009; Shimelevich et al. 2017).

Approximating Approach to Solving Finite-Dimensional

Nonlinear Operator Equations

In the approximating approach, the solution of Eq. (9.1) is searched for in the form
of a certain (analytically specified) vector function W ¼ ðW1 ; . . .; WN Þ of M vari-
ables e1 ; . . .; eM , the coordinate functions Wn ðan1 ; . . .anJ ; e1 ; . . .; eM Þ of which
depend on the free coefficients an1 ; . . .anJ , n ¼ 1; . . .; N, composing the matrix
^a ¼ fanj g of size NW ¼ N  J. Vector function Wð^ a; eÞ is referred to as the ap-
proximator of the inversion for Eq. (9.1). For determining the matrix of the coef-
ficients ^a, the problem of training the approximator Wð^ a; eÞ is solved. The trained
approximator Wð^ a; eÞ is an approximate numerical inverse operator for Eq. (9.1)
which is represented in the analytical form. With the use of this approximator, the
approximate solution of the inverse problem is solved rapidly and universally in a
given class of the media for any arbitrary right-hand side e 2 RM , which is the main
advantage of the method.
Approximating neural network approach
The approximating neural network (ANN) method pertains to the group of the
approximating methods for solving the inverse problems. As the coordinate func-
tions of the approximator of the inversion, the ANN method uses the approximating
constructions referred to as the neural networks. The simplest and, at the same time,
most commonly used in the practice is three-layer neural network (perceptron)
(Haykin 1999). With this NN, the coordinate functions Wn of the NN approximator
WðV; W; eÞ are represented in the following form:
!
X
L X
M
W ðV; W; e ; . . .; e Þ ¼
n 1 M nl
v k lm m
w e ; n ¼ 1; . . .; N; ð9:2Þ
l¼1 m¼1

where kðxÞ is a given (in the general case, nonlinear) bounded monotonically
increasing differentiable function (activation function), for instance,
kðxÞ ¼ 1=ð1 þ e x Þ. Coefficients vnl ; wlm of matrices V; W determine the free
coefficients of a given type of NN approximator WðV; W; eÞ whereas parameter L
specifies the complexity of the letter and the size of the matrix of coefficients V; W.
A total number NW of the free coefficients of the NN approximator WðV; W; eÞ is
NW ¼ LðM þ NÞ.
80 M. I. Shimelevich et al.

The extensive practical use of neural network of type (9.2) is, on one hand, due
to the simplicity of neural network construction and, on the other hand, it is caused
by the fact that the arbitrary continuous function of M variables can be approxi-
mated by the three-layer neural network of the form (9.2) with any prescribed
accuracy with sufficiently large L (Cybenko 1989).
The Scheme of ANN Algorithm for Solving the Inverse Problem of
Geoelectrics
The algorithm of the ANN method includes the following main blocks:
I. Numerical solution of the forward problem of geoelectrics on a given
numerical grid.
II. Constructing the model grid (block) class of the media based on designing a
regularized parameterization grid hNmax of optimal dimension Nmax at which
the degree of practical ambiguity of the inverse problem solution does not
exceed a given value e0 with a given error level d0 in the input data
(Shimelevich et al. 2013, 2017).
III. Solving the problem of training the NN approximator of the inversion in a
given class of the media. With the use of the forward operator AN , the set Qbs
of the basic solutions of the (forward and inverse) problems for Eq. (9.1) is
formed. This set is referred to as a training set. Training the NN approxi-
mator on set Qbs is reduced to solving the nonlinear multi-extremum problem
of conditional optimization (Haykin 1999) on the set Qbs . Rigorous sub-
stantiation of the solution techniques for these problems is in most cases
difficult. Therefore, for fitting the standard optimization methods for solving
the training problem, these methods are combined with the informal,
heuristic approaches. Among the latter, the method of stochastic gradient
with back propagation error (BPE) algorithm (Werbos 1974; Haykin 1999)
is most common in the practice.
For reducting the dimensionality of the training problem, data are preliminarily
compacted and the optimal dimensions of the input and output NN vectors are
determined with the account for the specificity of the problem to be solved
(Dolenko et al. 2009). In the case of the complex nonlinear probelms, three-layer
networks are not the optimal approximating constructions; hence, multilayer net-
works are used in the in the practice Haykin (1999). The best results achieved in our
works concerning the considered problems of geoelectrics based on the numerical
experimenrts were obtained with five-layer networks with
Lk ¼ 32; 16; 8 ; k ¼ 1; 2; 3, neurons in the hidden k th layers. The calculations also
show that the practical reasonable interpolation properties of the NN approximators
for the probelms of geoelectrics can be achieved with the training sets as large as
Ibs
10000 for 2D problems and Ibs
20000 25000 for 3D problems.
IV. Conducting the inversion of the observed data and calculating the residual d of
the solution of the inverse problem.
9 Neural Network Algorithm for Solving … 81

V. When necessary, constructing the adjusting NN approximators of the inver-

sion and conducting additional iterations of the solution of inverse problem
(Shimelevich et al. 2017).
VI. Calculating the a posteriori estimates for the degree of ambiguity (error)
bi1 ðsd1 ; dÞ of solution sd1 of the inverse problem which is determined with the
actual residual d (Shimelevich et al. 2017). The estimates determine the
maximal deviations of d-equivalent solutions of the inverse problem from the
obtained solution sd1 for each i th level of the parameterization grid.

Program Codes
The computations for the forward 3D problems of geoelectrics are conducted with
the use of MTD3FWD program developed by Mackie et al. (1994) with the input
and output procedures modified for the purposes of mass-parallel computations.
Supercomputing clusters are used for constructing the sets of basic solutions of the
problems.
The NN approximators of the inversions were trained using the Fortran-77
program codes of (Lönnblad et al. 1992) adapted for the particular features of the
problem to be solved. The solutions to the technical problems associated with
selecting the optimal parameters of the NN construction were obtained with the use
of the program complex of (Dolenko et al. 2009) which is based on CUDA tech-
nology for graphical processors GPU.

Numerical Examples

In this section we present the examples of solving the 2D and 3D inverse problems
of geoelectrics for the synthesized data and field measurements. For illustrating the
work of the method, we constructed 2D and 3D inversion approximators for solving
of geoelectrics problems with a depth of investigation down to 5 km. As the a priori
information for solving the inverse problems we only specified the range of vari-
ations in log resistivity q in the real media: lg q ¼ 0 4; the first approximation
was not specified.
Examples of NN Inversion of the Synthesized 2D and 3D Data
Figure 9.1 shows the results of the NN inversion of the synthesized data for the 2D
model of the medium specified on the regularized 2D parameterization grid
including five levels. The number of the sought parameters in the model is
N2 ¼ 315. The mean errors ei of the solution from the parameters for each ith grid
P
Ni
level were estimated by the formula ei ¼ Ni1Ds jDsn j where Dsn is the difference
n¼1
between the true and obtained parameters with index n; Ni is the number of the
parameters in the ith level; e is the mean error over all the levels. The estimate of the
degree of ambiguity bi1 of the solution for each level and the mean estimate over all
82 M. I. Shimelevich et al.

Fig. 9.1 The results of the

inversion for 2D model:
a initial model; b the result of
the inversion on the first
iteration; c the result of the
inversion after the fifth
iteration; d is actual residual;
e is mean error of the solution
over all the grid levels

Table 9.1 The estimation No. of First iteration Fifth iteration

results for the inversion for grid level ei (%) bi1 (%) ei (%) bi1 (%)
2D model shown in Fig. 9.1
1 0.29 3.90 0.03 0.89
2 1.46 7.86 0.06 1.78
3 7.24 12.9 1.52 2.95
4 7.36 15.7 2.40 5.71
5 19.1 23.9 7.71 9.85
Average e = 7.1  = 12.9
b e = 2.4  = 4.2
b
1 1
Residual d = 5.1 d = 0.6

the levels b1 are presented in the Table 9.1.

Figures 9.2–9.3 show the results of NN inversion of the synthesized data for the
3D models specified on the regularized 3D parameter grid which includes five
levels. The number of the sought parameters in each model is N ¼ 532. The results
of the NN inversion for 3D models are presented in the averaged (smoothed) form
on the initial finite-difference grid. The results of estimating the inversion are
illustrated in Table 9.2.
From the presented results it can be seen that highest errors of the inversion are
associated with the fifth level. The highly conductive target inclusions (rectangular
blocks shown in blue) are reconstructed reasonably accurately which allows us to
reconstruct the position and contours of the studied objects. The a posteriori esti-
mates of the ambiguity b  , adequately reflect the results of the inversion; however,
1
their values are overestimated since they determine the maximal deviations of the
equivalent solutions from the obtained one.
9 Neural Network Algorithm for Solving … 83

Fig. 9.2 Initial (true) model M1 a with the cut out frontal fragments and b the result of the
inversion

Fig. 9.3 Initial (true) model M2 a with the cut out frontal fragments and b the result of the
inversion

Table 9.2 The estimation No. of Model M1 (Fig. 9.2) Model M2 (Fig. 9.3)
results for the inversion for grid level ei (%) bi1 (%) ei (%) bi1 (%)
3D model shown in
Figs. 9.2–9.3 1 1.4 9.4 2.1 3.5
2 4.5 23.7 3.3 13.7
3 4.9 19.9 3.6 23.7
4 6.1 36.5 3.6 28.5
5 11.6 38.5 3.9 30.0
Average e = 5.7  = 25.6
b e = 3.3  = 19.88
b
1 1
Residual d = 9.36 d = 7.23
84 M. I. Shimelevich et al.

Results of 2D NN inversion of the field MT data.

As the example illustrating the NN inversion of the practical observations, we
present a segment of profile 2DV from 490 to 1100 km (Feldman et al. 2008). The
result of the NN inversion of the field observations (preprocessed for eliminating
the shift effects and random outliers by the technique (Feldman et al. 2008)) is
shown in Fig. 9.4a. Figure 9.4b shows the results of the independent inversion
carried out by EMGEO (Feldman et al. 2008).
During solving the inverse problem, N = 1580 parameters were determined
within the considered 2D area shown in Fig. 9.4a. The first approximation was not
prescribed. The solution residuals calculated from separate segments of the profile
are shown in Fig. 9.3a. The estimates of the degree of ambiguity in the inverse
problem solution on these segments vary from 6 to 22%. The overall residual over
the entire segment of the profile is d ¼ 11%, and the degree of ambiguity of the
inverse problem solution (mean over all the grid levels) is b1 ¼ 21:6%. For com-
parison, the obtained geoelectrical section (Fig. 9.4a) is superimposed with the
independent seismic data (black contours). It can be seen that the boundaries of the
trough-like geolelectrical structures which are identified by the NN inversion are
reasonably well consistent with the seismic boundaries.

Fig. 9.4 Geoelectric section along the regional profile 2DV, segment 1 (490–1100 km): a NN
inversion, 1580 parameters determined; b independent EMGEO inversion. Black boxes mark the
separate segments for the detailed analysis
9 Neural Network Algorithm for Solving … 85

Conclusions

(1) The approximating neural network method and its modifications allow the
stable approximate solutions of the inverse 2D and 3D coefficient problems of
geoelectrics to be found in a formalized way in the class of grid models of the
media on the regularized parameterization grid with a reasonable practical
accuracy without specifying the first approximation. The number of the
parameters of the medium that are determined by the inversion is
n  103 .
(2) For the obtained approximate solutions of the inverse problem, the estimates of
the degree of ambiguity (errors) can be calculated, which do not depend on the
particular method of the inversion.
(3) The approaches and methods developed in this work largely rely on the modern
computing capabilities such as supercomputing cluusters and technologies for
mass-parallel computations.

Acknowledgements The research was carried out using supercomputers at Joint Supercomputer
Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences (JSCC RAS). This study was supported by the
Russian Science Foundation (project no. 14-11-00579).

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MAKS Press Publ., 340 p., 2012.
Dolenko S., Guzhva A., Persiantsev I., Obornev E. and Shimelevich M. (2009) Comparison of
adaptive algorithms for significant feature selection in neural network based solution of the
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Feldman I.S., Okulesky B.A., Suleimanov A.K. (2008) Elektrorazvedka metodom MTZ v
komplekse regionalnyh neftegazopoiskovyh rabot v evropejskoj chasti Rossii [Electrical
exploration by MTS method in a complex of regional oil and gas prospecting works in the
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Glasko V.B., Gushhin G.V. and Starostenko V.I. (1976) O primenenii metoda reguljarizacii A.N.
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Haykin S. (1999) Neural networks: A Comprehensive Foundation. 2nd ed. Pearson Education, 823
p., 1999.
Hidalgo H., Gómez-Treviño E. and Swiniarski R. (1994) Neural Network Approximation of a
Inverse Functional // IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks, V. 5, pp. 3387–
3392, 1994.
Lönnblad L., Peterson C., and Rögnvalsson T. (1992) Pattern recognition in high energy physics
with artificial neural networks—JETNET 2.0 // Computer Physics Communications, Vol. 70,
1, pp. 167–182, 1992.
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Mackie R.L., Smith J.T. and Madden T.R. (1994) Three-dimensional electromagnetic modeling
using finite difference equations: the magnetotelluric example // Radio Science, 29, pp. 923–
935, 1994.
Poulton M., Sternberg B., and Glass C. (1992) Neural network pattern recognition of subsurface
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Raiche A. (1991) A pattern recognition approach to geophysical inversion using neural nets //
Geophysics J. Int., 105, pp. 629–648, 1991.
Shimelevitch, M. and Obornev, E., The Method of Neuron Network in Inverse Problems MTZ,
Abstr. of the 14th Workshop on Electromagnetic Induction in the Earth, Sinaia, Romania,
1998.
Shimelevich M.I. and Obornev E.A. (2009) An approximation method for solving the inverse mts
problem with the use of neural networks. Izvestiya - Physics of the Solid Earth 45(12), 1055–
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Shimelevich M.I., Obornev E.A., Obornev I.E., and Rodionov E.A. (2017) The neural network
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Chapter 10
Optimization of Computations
for Modeling and Inversion
in NMR T2 Relaxometry

L. Muravyev, S. Zhakov and D. Byzov

Abstract Great success is achieved currently in the using of NMR relaxometry for
detecting and distinguishing of reservoir fluids, for example, free and bound water,
oil. NMR data enable petrophysicists, specialists in the development of deposits and
geologists to study the types of fluids and their distribution in a reservoir that has
been opened by a well. NMR allows identifying the intervals in which hydrocar-
bons are present and predict their recoverability. The investigations carried out in
this work are aimed at the optimizing of calculating time for the integrals arising in
the NMR forward and inversion problems, while preserving the predetermined
error. The method of the Legendre polynomial expansion application for the
solution of the problem of modeling relaxation curves in the NMR method is
described. This tool makes it possible to reduce significantly the computational
complexity of the relaxation curve calculation, and hence the calculation time in
comparison with numerical integration methods. In addition, numerical methods do
not allow to pre-select the parameters for partitioning a segment to achieve a given
error. Since the method described in this paper uses an analytic expression for the
integral, the calculation accuracy depends only on the integration error. The given
approximation error is achieved due to the choice of the maximum degree of the
polynomial at the stage of calculating the coefficients of the series of the Legendre
polynomials.

Keywords NMR
Petrophysics
Relaxation time
CPMG

L. Muravyev (&)
Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Zhakov
Institute of Metal Physics of Ural Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences,
Ekaterinburg, Russia
L. Muravyev
D. Byzov
Institute of Geophysics Ural Branch of RAS, Ekaterinburg, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 87

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_10
88 L. Muravyev et al.

Introduction

Impulse nuclear magnetic resonance relaxometery (NMR) is one of the most

perspective methods for studying of petrophysical properties of reservoir rocks
(Farrer, Becker 1971). Measurement result received by the spin echo method
(Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill sequence) is a relaxation curve, a superposition of
decaying exponential signals (Coates el al. 2000). The transverse relaxation time
distribution T2 makes it possible to determine the type of formation fluid. Since the
fluids enclosed in small pores are close to the rock matrix surface, they are char-
acterized by a short relaxation time T2, and free fluid in large pores has long T2 time.
Therefore, analysis of the T2 distribution makes it possible to distinguish the type of
fluid in the rock: movable and irreducible components. The equipment for these
experiments are NMR logging instruments for measurements in wells and laboratory
NMR-relaxometers for the study of core samples and drill mud (Gang et al. 2006).
A NMR-relaxometer with a constant polarizing field was manufactured in
Russia. The value of the magnetic field is comparable with the field of nuclear
magnetic logging instruments, which allows to use relaxometer data for preliminary
tuning and correct interpretation of the results obtained during NMR well logging
(Muravyev and Zhakov 2016). The developed optimal magnetic system of the
relaxometer provides a small instrument size and weight, make it transportable,
applicable for working on a well during drilling (Mirotchnik 2004).

Theory of the NMR Method

The precession signal is observed by the spin-echo method (Farrer Becker 1971),
by means of a sequence of radio-frequency pulses: the Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill
sequence. The rate of decay of the resulting signal’s amplitude is the relaxation time
T2. The relaxation time obtained in the experiment depends on the interaction of the
fluid molecules with each other and at the interface with the sample matrix. Surface
relaxation plays the main role in the pore environment, so the relaxation time
depends on the ratio of the square of pore surface to the volume of the pores. The
real sample contains a set of pores of various sizes, thus the relaxation curve
observed in the NMR experiment is the sum of several decaying components. By
decomposing this curve into the spectrum—a set of exponentials, we can investi-
gate the physical processes in the medium. Experimentally confirmed that the shape
of the spectrum of relaxation times coincides with the distribution of pore size in the
sample (Coates el al. 2000) (Fig. 10.1).
The porosity measured by the NMR method and the pore size distribution
obtained by the inversion are used to estimate the permeability of the medium. The
reliability of this decomposition directly affects the result of determining the
amount of free fluid. This parameter characterizes the recoverability of hydrocarbon
raw materials.
10 Optimization of Computations for Modeling … 89

Fig. 10.1 Impulse NMR experiment results: a relaxation curve, b its inversion: distribution by
relaxation times (continuous spectrum); fluid components: A—clay-bound water, B—capillary
bound water, C—movable (free fluid index)

In the general case, for a fluid in a pore medium, there is a continuous distri-
bution of the relaxation times f(T2). It determines the form of the relaxation curve
observed in the NMR experiment (Coates el al. 2000):
Z
ð t Þ
RðtÞ ¼ f ðT2 Þe T2 dT2 ð10:1Þ

The unknown function f(T2) contains the information about the pore medium:
pore size distribution in the sample, as well as the content of the free and bound
fluid. Thus, from the experimentally observed relaxation curve R(t) we must obtain
a continuous function f(T2) or a discrete set of amplitudes Ai and relaxation times
T2i. There are several approaches to relaxation curves interpretation. For example,
the direct solution of the integral equation by the Tikhonov regularization method,
the inverse Laplace transform, the Prony filtering method. Also, it is possible to find
spectra as a set of test functions representing various types of fluid in a pore medium
(clay-bound, capillary-bonded, free fluid).
The algorithms based on the expansion of the curve as a set of exponents defined
on a regular grid of times T2 are used more often in practice. The optimal values of
amplitude coefficients can be determined by one of the minimization methods
(Himmelblau 1972, Lawson and Hanson 1974, Salaezar-Tio and Sun 2010).
Various regularization methods can be used to suppress the influence of noise in the
original signal and to obtain a physically justified solution. Some algorithms are
implemented as software products: the Stanley Provencher (1982) method used by
Bruker, the UPEN method by Borgia et al. (1998), developed at the University of
Bologna.
90 L. Muravyev et al.

Forward Modelling of Relaxation Curves Using Legendre

Polynomials

Since the integral (10.1) needs to be calculated many times in solving an inverse
problem, it is suggested to approximate AðT Þ by an optimal polynomial Am ðT Þ of
degree m in order to save processor time and preserve the required accuracy, and to
obtain the expression for the integral (10.1) via analytic functions. We use the
well-known property of the partial sum of the expansion of a Lipschitz function in a
series in the Legendre polynomials. This sum defines the polynomial of the chosen
degree, optimally approximating decomposable function (in the sense of the
Euclidean norm in L2).
In practice, the relaxation curve is selected by a set of trial finite functions f ðTÞ
with a support in the interval ½a; b ðai [ 0; hi [ 0Þ:

X  
N
T  li
AðT Þ ¼ ai f ð10:2Þ
i¼0
hi

We approximate f ðT Þ by partial sum of Legendre polynomials:

8 m
<P Tl
cn P n ; T 2 ½a; b
f m ðT Þ ¼ h ; ð10:3Þ
: n¼0
0; T 62 ½a; b

where l ¼ a þ2 b, h ¼ ba
2 , b [ 0. Pn ð xÞ—The Legendre polynomial of degree n,
whose formula is:

1X
½n=2
Pn ð xÞ ¼ ð1Þk Cnk C2n2k
n
xn2k ð10:4Þ
2n k¼0

The coefficients of the expansion are calculated by the formula:

Z1
2n þ 1
cn ¼ f ðhT þ lÞPn ðT ÞdT ð10:5Þ
2
1

It should be noted that the values of cn remain constant for affine transformations
of the interval ½a; b. Thus, they can be calculated once for the trial function f ðT Þ in
the sum (10.2).
10 Optimization of Computations for Modeling … 91

The square of the discrepancy norm for the approximation used is calculated by
the formula:

Zb X
m
2 c2n
ðDfm Þ ¼ kf  fm k2L2 ½a;b ¼ ðf ðT ÞÞ2 dT  2h ð10:6Þ
n¼0
2n þ 1
a

The necessary approximation error is achieved by choosing the maximum

exponent of the degree of Legendre polynomials.
The optimal polynomial Am ðT Þ for approximating AðT Þ:

X  
N
T  li
A m ðT Þ ¼ ai f m ð10:7Þ
i¼0
hi

Since Am ðT Þ epends linearly on fm ðT Þ, the error of approximation of the

Lipschitz function AðT Þ by the polynomial Am ðT Þ can be limited as follows:

kA  Am kL2  KDfm ;

where K—some constant coefficient.

Substituting (10.3) in (10.7) and then in (10.1), we obtain the approximation
sm ðtÞ for the integral:

Z1 X
bhZi þ li
X  
Tt
N m
T  lhi  li
e T
t
sm ðt Þ ¼ Am ðT Þe dT ¼ ai cn Pn dT
i¼0 n¼0
hhi
0 maxf0;ahi þ li g

ð10:8Þ

Reducing silimar terms before the same powers in the integrand of formula
(10.8), we obtain:

bhZi þ li
X
N X
m
bm;n
eT ðT  lhi  li Þn dT;
t
sm ðt Þ ¼ ai ð10:9Þ
i¼0 n¼0
hn hni
maxf0;ahi þ li g

where coeficients bm;n for even and odd n are expressed:

½X
m=2
ð1Þkn
bm;2n ¼ kn 2n
c2k C2k C2n þ 2k
k¼n
22k
XÞ=2
½ðm1
ð1Þkn 2n þ 1
bm;2n þ 1 ¼ kn
c2k þ 1 C2k þ 1 C2n þ 2k þ 2
k¼n
22k þ 1
92 L. Muravyev et al.

The integral of (10.9) can be expressed in terms of analytic functions by means

of formula:

Zx X
n
ð1Þk ðn  kÞ! ð1Þn þ 1 n þ 1  t 
xn ex dx ¼ xex
t t
tk xnk þ t E1
k¼0
ðn þ 1Þ! ðn þ 1Þ! x
0

where E1 ð xÞ—first-order integral exponential function.

A rough upper bound for the error in approximating the integral (10.1) by the
function sm ðtÞ is given by:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u N
u1 X X N
ks  sm kL2  KDfm
t li hi
N i¼0 i¼0

Inversion of Relaxation Curves

For the inversion of relaxation curves we propose the Fletcher-Reeves minimization

(conjugate gradients) with different types of the regularizing terms for a more stable
solution and for achievement of the required spectrum smoothness (Himmelblau
1972).
For practical NMR spectra approximation with sufficient accuracy we used the
function f(T2), belonging to classes: discrete, piecewise-constant and
piecewise-linear.
The discrete version of the inverse problem is described above by the formula
(10.2), with the set of relaxation times T2i being defined as the partition of the interval
between the prescribed boundaries T2min and T2max. The fixed values of T2i can be
distributed both uniformly and logarithmically uniformly. With this approach, only
the set Ai, the amplitudes corresponding to the times T2i, is to be selected.
In piecewise-linear and piecewise-constant variants of interpretation, a uniform
or log-uniformly uniform grid of times T2 is set similarly. In the case of piecewise
linear selection, the spectrum is sought as a piecewise linear function: on each
interval [T2i, T2i+1], the spectrum graph is a segment whose ordinates of ends are Ai
and Ai+1, respectively. For a piecewise constant interpretation, the spectrum is
given as a piecewise constant function on each interval [T2i, T2i+1] having the value
Ai. In both cases, the integral (10.1) can be written in terms of analytic functions: a
set of integral exponents.
For testing of the developed algorithm, we used two test dataset types. Model
relaxation curves computed by the simulation program, based on pre-defined
different spectra variants. Practical data—archive NMR signals of core samples
of different strata and deposits of Western Siberia, obtained on a portable
NMR-relaxometer.
10 Optimization of Computations for Modeling … 93

Conclusion

We present a method for optimizing the calculating time for numeric solving of
NMR forward and inversion problems using Legendre polynomial expansion and
Fletcher-Reeves minimization (conjugate gradients). This method is implemented
in software for processing and geological-geophysical interpretation of relaxation
curves, which is taking into account medium models and preliminary geological
information. The developed method is realized for a high-performance computer
complex including an array of NVIDIA video adapters.
Reliable NMR data during studies of the petrophysical properties of reservoir
rocks is allowing to refine the empirical relationships between the T2 distribution
and the pore characteristics of the geological media. Core and mud studies using
modern NMR equipment allow more accurate interpretation of NMR logging
results and other well survey complexes. It may increase the reliability of the
analysis of reservoir properties of core samples, and provide the validity of
assessments of reserves and oil recovery ratio.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Corresponding Member of RAS, prof P.S.
Martyshko for general guidance and VA.Vavilin and V.M.Mursakayev for a valuable discussion.

References

Borgia, G. C., Brown, R. J. S., Fantazzini P. (1998). Uniform-Penalty Inversion of

Multiexponential Decay Data. Journal of magnetic resonance 132, p. 65–77.
Coates, G.R., Xiao Lizhi, Prammer, M.G. (2000). NMR Logging. Principles & applications.
Hulliburton Energy Services Publishing, Houston (USA). 234 p.
Farrer, T. C., Becker, E. D. (1971). Pulse and Fourier Transform NMR: Introduction to Theory and
Methods. New York and London, Academic Press. 118 p.
Gang Yu, Zhizhan Wang, K. Mirotchnik, Lifa Li (2006). Application of Magnetic Resonance Mud
Logging for Rapid Reservoir Evaluation. Poster presentation at AAPG Annual Convention,
Houston, Texas, April 9–12.
Himmelblau, D. (1972). Applied nonlinear programming. McGraw-Hill. 498 p.
Mirotchnik, K., Kryuchkov, S., Strack, K. (2004). A Novel Method to Determine NMR
Petrophysical Parameters From Drill Cuttings. SPWLA 45th Annual Logging Symposium.
Pare MM.
Muravyev, L.A., Zhakov, S.V. (2016). Methodical issues of investigations with laboratory NMR
relaxometer. Geoinformatics 2016: XVth International Conference on Geoinformatics -
Theoretical and Applied Aspects. Ukraine. https://doi.org/10.3997/2214-4609.201600527
Lawson, C.L., Hanson, R.J. (1974). Solving Least Squares Problems, Prentice-Hall.
Provencher, S.W. (1982). CONTIN: A general purpose constrained regularization program for
inverting noisy linear algebraic and integral equations. Comput. Phys. Commun. 27, 229.
Rafael Salaezar-Tio, Bogin Sun (2010). Monte Carlo optimazation-inversion methods for NMR.
Petrophysics, vol.51, no.3,. pp. 208–218.
Chapter 11
Field of Attraction of Polyhedron
and Polygonal Plate with Linear
Density Distribution

K. M. Kuznetsov, A. A. Bulychev and I. V. Lygin

Abstract New presentation of field of attraction elements (potential and its first
derivatives) is demonstrated for such important approximating models as polyhe-
dron and polygonal plate with density that changes in accordance with linear laws.
It is shown that these elements are defined by elements of models’ fields with
known analytical representations (polyhedron, polygonal plate and material seg-
ment with constant density) and additional integrals for which explicit analytical
expressions exist.

Keywords Gravimetry
Direct gravity problem
Linear density distribution

Attraction Potential of Polyhedron with Linear Density

Distribution

Attraction potential of polyhedron having Q faces and density dðM Þ ¼ ax n þ

ay g þ az f þ a0 in a point M0 ðx; y; zÞ can be written as

1Xh q i
Q
V ðM 0 Þ ¼ ðf  zq ÞVq ðM0 Þ  aq VqR ðM0 Þ ð11:1Þ
2 q¼1

In this formula, it is assumed that the new coordinate system associated with the
qth face is introduced; its Ozq axis coincides with direction of outward normal nq to
this face; fq and zq are coordinates of the plate position and the point M0 in this
coordinate system; Vq ðM0 Þ is the potential of the qth plate having surface density
dq ðM q Þ ¼ aqx nq þ aqy gq þ aq0 :

K. M. Kuznetsov (&)
A. A. Bulychev
I. V. Lygin

Department of Geophysical Methods of Earth Crust Study, Faculty of Geology,
Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 95

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_11
96 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

Z
  1
Vq ðM0 Þ ¼ Vq M0q ¼ G dq ðM q Þ dS: ð11:2Þ
rMM0
Sq

M q and M0q are positions of points M and M0 in the coordinate system associated
with this face.  Value aqR is determined as scalar product of vectors
ax ix þ ay ix þ az ix and nq. Vq is an integral looking like
Z
Vq ðM0 Þ ¼ G rMM0 dS:
R
ð11:3Þ
Sq

Field of Attraction Created by Polyhedron with Linear

Density Distribution

Field of attraction of polyhedron with linear density distribution can be written as

X
Q
gðM0 Þ ¼  nq Vq ðM0 Þ þ aV 0 ðM0 Þ: ð11:4Þ
q¼1

As in the previous section, here nq is a unit normal vector to the qth face; Vq ðM0 Þ
is potential of the plate coinciding with the qth face and having linear variation of
surface density dq ðM Þ; V 0 ðM0 Þ is potential of polyhedron having unit density,
a ¼ ax ix þ ay iy þ az iz .
Thus, field of a polyhedron having linearly varying density is determined by
potentials of its faces with linear surface density distributed over them and potential
of the polyhedron with constant unit density.
Expression for potential of homogeneous polyhedron has been obtained by
Strakhov V.N (Strakhov and Lapina 1983, 1986b); therefore we need to determine
the expressions for potential of polygonal plate with linear surface density.

Attraction Potential of N-Cornered Plate with Linear

Surface Density Distribution

Let us assume that the plate lies in the plane Oxy, and the axis Oz coincides with the
normal direction to this plate. The normal direction is determined by the order of
traversal of the polygon sides. Surface density of such a model is described with the
following expression:
11 Field of Attraction of Polyhedron and Polygonal … 97

dS ðM Þ ¼ dS ðn; g; fÞ ¼ ax n þ ay g þ a0 : ð11:5Þ

Plate potential can be written in the following form:

X
N X
N
V S ðM 0 Þ ¼ ðnm  xm ÞVm ðM0 Þ  am VmR ðM0 Þ  ðf  zÞgsz ðM0 Þ: ð11:6Þ
m¼1 m¼1

Here again, as in Section Attraction Potential of Polyhedron with Linear

DensityDistribution, it is assumed that the new coordinate system is introduced
associated with vth side of the plate, where axis Oyv coincides with vth side of
polygon and is oriented along the direction of its traversal; axis Oxv coincides with
the direction of vector nm , i.e., with the vector of outward normal to the vth side of
the plate that lies in its plane; nm and xm are coordinates of vth side position and of
point M0 in this coordinate system; Vm ðM0 Þ is potential of the segment (rod) coin-
ciding with vth side of the plate having the density distribution dm ðM m Þ ¼
amy gm þ am0 ¼ dm ðgm Þ :
Z
dm ð M Þ
Vm ðM0 Þ ¼ G dl: ð7Þ
rMM0
Cm

 
am ¼ ax ix þ ay iy
nm is a parameter, while value VmR ðM0 Þ is determined by the
integral
m
Zg2
  m
VmR ðM0 Þ ¼ VmR M0m ¼ G rMM0 d g ; ð11:8Þ
gm1

that has the explicit analytical solution:

1 h m      i
VmR ðM0 Þ ¼ G g2  ym r2m  gm1  ym r1m þ ðnm  xm Þ2 þ ðf  zÞ2 Vm0 ðM0 Þ
2
ð11:9Þ

Value of f corresponds to coordinate of the plate position along the Oz axis; z is

coordinate of point M0 ; gsz ðM0 Þ is value of vertical component of attraction of plate
having linear surface density distribution.
98 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

Field of Attraction of N-Cornered Plate Having Linear

Surface Density Distribution

4.1. Horizontal components of plate’s field of attraction in point M0 can be written

in the following form:

X
N
gsx ix þ gsy iy ¼  nm Vm ðM0 Þ þ aVS0 ðM0 Þ: ð11:10Þ
m¼1

Here VS0 ðM0 Þ is potential of plate having constant unit surface density; vector
a ¼ ax ix þ ay iy ; nm is the vector of outer normal to vth side, which lies in the plane
of the plate; Vm ðM0 Þ is potential of material segment (rod) coinciding with vth side
of the plate and having density dm ðM Þ that varies in accordance with a linear law.
4.2. Vertical component of the plaste attraction can be written in the form

1 X N     
gsz ðM0 Þ ¼ ðnm  xm Þ I11
m
 amy I121
m
þ amy ym þ am0 I122
m
ðf  zÞ m¼1
j f  zj X
N
 am I m ; ð11:11Þ
ðf  zÞ m¼1 2

where
m
(a) I11 coincides with potential of material segment Vm ðM0 Þ: I11
m
¼ Vm ðM0 Þ;
 
  jf  zj þ r2m
ðbÞ ¼G
m
I121  r2m j1  zj ln
r1m : ð11:12Þ
jf  zj þ r1m
m m
Here, r1 and r2 are distances from the beginning and the end of the mth segment
to the point M0 ;
m
(c) Expression for I122 has been determined by Strakhov V.N. (Strakhov and
Lapina 1986a):
 m   !
g2  ym þ r2m 1 ðnm  xm Þ wm2  wm1
m
I122 ¼ G ln  m   2j f  z j m arctg m m
g1  ym þ r1m ð n  xm Þ w2 w1 þ ðnm  xm Þ2
ð11:13Þ

Note that the first component in the obtained expression corresponds to

attraction potential of material segment Vm0 ðM0 Þ; parameters wm1 ; wm2 are deter-
mined by the expressions
   
wm1 ¼ gm1  ym þ r1m þ jf  zj; wm2 ¼ gm2  ym þ r2m þ jf  zj:
11 Field of Attraction of Polyhedron and Polygonal … 99

(d) I2m can be written in the form

   
gm  y m j f  z j ð gm  y m Þ
I2m ¼ G jn  x jarctg
m m
 jn  x jarctg
m m
j nm  x m j jnm  xf jrMM0

gm
þ jf  zj lnððgm  ym Þ þ rMM0 Þ þ ðgm  ym Þ lnðjf  zj þ rMM0 Þ  gm g2m :
1

ð11:14Þ

Attraction Field of Material Segment Having Linear

Density Distribution

5.1. Attraction field of material segment having linear density distribution is dis-
cussed in details in the work of Strakhov V. N.[Strakhov 1985]. Let us give an
expression for potential of a material segment located on the Oy axis and having
density varying in accordance with the linear law dðgÞ ¼ ay þ a0
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi g2
 
V m ð M 0 Þ ¼ ay x2 þ ðg  yÞ2 þ z2 þ ay y þ a0 lnððg  yÞ þ rMM0 Þjgg21 : ð11:15Þ
g1

In general, potential of a material segment (rod) Vm ðM0 Þ located along the Oy

axis can be written as
 
Vm ðM0 Þ ¼ ay ðr2  r1 Þ þ ay y þ a0 Vm0 ðM0 Þ: ð11:16Þ

where r1 and r2 are distances from the rod’s starting and ending points to the point
of calculation M0 ; Vm0 ðM0 Þ is potential of the rod having a constant unit density.
Note that the same potential can be written in the following form (Strakhov 1985):

r1 þ r2 þ L
Vm0 ðM0 Þ ¼ ln ; ð11:17Þ
r1 þ r2  L

where L is the rod length.

Let us discuss the integral V R ðM0 Þ (11.8). In the coordinate system associated
with the polygonal plate sides and using notation ðnm  xm Þ2 þ ðf  zÞ2 ¼ b2 , this
integral can be written as follows:
100 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

m m
Zg2 Zg2 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 
VmR ðM0 Þ ¼ Vm M0 ¼
R m
rMM0 dgm ¼ b2 þ ðgm  ym Þ2 dgm
gm1 gm1
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi gm2
1
¼ ðg  y Þ b þ ðg  y Þ þ b ln ðg  y Þ þ b2 þ ðgm  ym Þ2
m m 2 m m 2 2 m m
2 gm1
1  m   
¼ g2  ym r2m  gm1  ym r1m þ b2 Vm0 ðM0 Þ
2
ð11:18Þ

where r1m and r2m are distances from the rod ends to the point M0 .
The integral (11.3) is necessary to calculate values of attraction potential. It is
possible to obtain an analytical solution for this integral, but it can also be deter-
mined using numerical integration.
5.2. Let us consider vertical component of polygonal plate lying in the Oxy plane
and having linear surface density distribution dS ðM Þ (11.11):
I 
j f  zj @ lnðjf  zj þ rMM0 Þ
gsz ðM0 Þ ¼ @S ð M Þ
ðf  zÞ @n
@S ð11:19Þ
@dS ðM Þ
 lnðjf  zj þ rMM0 Þ dl:
@n

We can write this expression in the form

N Z
j f  zj X @ lnðjf  zj þ rMM0 Þ
gsz ðM0 Þ ¼ dS ð M Þ dl
ðf  zÞ m¼1 @nm
Cm
Z ð11:20Þ
j f  zj X
N
@dS ðM Þ
 lnðjf  zj þ rMM0 Þ dl ¼ I1  I2 :
ðf  zÞ m¼1 @nm
Cm

Further transformations again will be based on introducing the auxiliary coor-

dinate systems associated with vth sides of polygonal plate. As before, axis Oxm will
coincide with the direction of outward normal nm to the vth side; the axis Oym will
coincide with the vth side; and in this coordinate system we can write

dS ðn; gÞ ¼ dm ðM m Þ ¼ amy gm þ am0 ¼ dm ðgm Þ: ð11:21Þ

5.3. Component I1 in (11.20) will be described by the equation

11 Field of Attraction of Polyhedron and Polygonal … 101

gm2
N Z
jf  zj X @ lnðjn  zj þ rMM0 Þ m
I1 ¼ dv ð gv Þ dg
ðf  zÞ m¼1 @nm
gm1 ð11:22Þ
1 X
N m 
¼ ðnm  xm Þ I11  I12
m
:
ðf  zÞ m¼1

m
The integral I11 coincides with potential of vth material segment having density
dm ð g Þ :
m

m
Zg2
1
m
I11 ¼ dv ðgv Þ dgv ¼ Vv ðM0 Þ; ð11:23Þ
rMM0
gm1

v
For integral I12 , let us carry out the following transformations:
m
Zg2
1
m
I12 ¼ dmðgm Þ dgm
jf  zj þ rMM0
gm1
m
Zg2   1
¼ amy ðgm  ym Þ þ amy ym þ am0 dgm
jf  zj þ rMM0 ð11:24Þ
gm1
m m
Zg2   Zg2
ð gm  y m Þ 1
¼ amy dgm þ amy ym þ am0 dm
jf  zj þ rMM0 jf  zj þ rMM0
gm1 gm1
 
¼ amy I121
m
þ amy ym þ am0 I122
m
;

m
Zg2
ð gm  y m Þ gm gm
m
I121 ¼ dgm ¼ rMM0 jg2m jf  zj lnðjf  zj þ rMM0 Þg2m
jf  zj þ rMM0 1 1
gm1 ð11:25Þ
  jf  zj þ r2m
¼ r2m  r1m  jf  zj ln :
jf  zj þ r1m
m
Solution of the integral I122 was obtained by Strakhov V.N. [Strakhov and
Lapina 1986a, Bulychev, 2010]:
102 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

m
Zg2
1
m
I122 ¼ dgm
jn  zj þ rMM0
gm1 ð11:26Þ
 m   
g2  ym þ r2m 1 ðnm  xm Þ wm2  wm1
¼ ln  m   2j n  z j m arctg m m
g1  ym þ r1m ð n  xm Þ w 2 w 1 þ ð nm  x m Þ 2

Note that the first component in the obtained expression (11.23) corresponds to
attraction potential of material segment Vm0 ðM0 Þ; the parameters wm1 ; wm2 are deter-
mined by the expressions
   
wm1 ¼ gm1  ym þ r1m þ jn  zj; wm2 ¼ gm2  ym þ r2v þ jn  zj: ð11:27Þ

Thus, the first part of the term gsz ðM0 Þ can be written in the following form:

1 X N m 
I1 ¼ ðnm  xm Þ I11  I12
m
ðf  zÞ m¼1
ð11:28Þ
1 X N  h   i
¼ ðnm  xm Þ I11
m
 amy I121
m
þ amy ym þ am0 I122
m
;
ðf  zÞ m¼1

m m m
where integrals I11 , I121 , and I122 are determined by formulas (11.23, 11.25, 11.26),
respectively.
5.4. Let us consider the second component I2 in (20):

N Z
jf  zj X @S ð M Þ
I2 ¼ lnðjf  zj þ rMM0 Þ dl: ð11:29Þ
ðf  zÞ m¼1 @nm
Cm

 
Given that @d@n
S ðM Þ
m
¼ grad n;g d S ð M Þ
n m ¼ a x i x þ a y i y
nm ¼ am ; expression for I2
can be presented in the following form:
Z
j f  zj X
N
@dS ðM Þ
I2 ¼ lnðjf  zj þ rMM0 Þ dl
ðf  zÞ m¼1 @nm
Cm
gm2 ð11:30Þ
Z
j f  zj X
N
j f  zj X
N
¼ am lnðjf  zj þ rMM0 Þdgm ¼ am I m :
ðf  zÞ m¼1 ðf  zÞ m¼1 2
gm1

Denoting b2 ¼ ðnm  xm Þ2 þ ðn  zÞ2 ; we can write solution for this integral

(the solution was obtained using the integration software provided at the website
www.webmath.ru):
11 Field of Attraction of Polyhedron and Polygonal … 103

m
2 0 1
Zg2 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
6 B g y
m m
C
I2m ¼ lnðjf  zj þ rMM0 Þdgm ¼ 4 b2  jf  zj2 arctg@qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiA
gm1 b  j f  zj
2 2

0 1
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
B jf  zjðg  y Þ m m
C
 b2  jf  zj2 arctg@qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiqffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiA
2
2
b2  jf  zj b2 þ ðgm  ym Þ
  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
þ jf  zj ln 2 ðgm  ym Þ þ b2 þ ðgm  ym Þ2
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi gm2
þ ðg  y Þ ln jf  zj þ b2 þ ðgm  ym Þ2  gm
m m
gm1

ð11:31Þ

After some simplifications we obtain

  m   
g  ym jn  zjðgm  ym Þ
I2m ¼ jn  x jarctg
m m
 jn  x jarctg
m m
j nm  x m j jnm  xm jrMM0 ð11:32Þ
gm
þ jf  zj lnððg  y Þ þ rMM0 Þ þ ðg  y Þ lnðjf  zj þ rMM0 Þ 
m m m m
gm g2m
1

Finally, for vertical component of horizontal polygonal plate having linear

surface density distribution and taking into account (11.20–11.25), the following
expressions can be written:

1 X N     
gsz ðM0 Þ ¼ ðnm  xm Þ I11
m
 amy I121
m
þ amy ym þ am0 I122
m
ðf  zÞ m¼1
ð11:33Þ
j f  zj X
N
 am I m v
ðf  zÞ m¼1 2

Conclusion

The main result of this work is demonstration of how elements of attraction fields
(potential and its first derivatives) for such important approximating models as
polyhedron and polygonal plate with density varying in accordance with linear law
can be represented by model field elements having known analytical representation
(polyhedron, polygonal plate, and material segment with constant density) and
additional integrals, for which an explicit analytical expressions exist. The obtained
representations can be the basis for computer programs in the case of media with
gradient variation of density.
104 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

References

Bulychev A.A., Lygin I.V., Melikhov V.R. (2010) Numerical methods for forward solution of
gravimetry and magnetometry problems (Compendium of Lectures). Moscow, Faculty of
Geology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 2010, 164 pp. (geophys.geol.msu.ru/STUDY/
facultet/forward08_03_2011.pdf) (in Russian).
Strakhov V.N., Lapina M.I. (1983) Forward and inverse problems of gravimetry and
magnetometry for arbitrary homogeneous polyhedrons. Theory and practice of gravity and
magnetic fields interpretation in the USSR (Proceedings of III-rd All-Union Workshop and
School)/ edited by Starostenko V.I., Kyiv, Naukova Dumka, 1983, pp. 3–86. (in Russian).
Strakhov V.N. (1985) On the problem of forward modelling in gravimetry and magnetometry for
material rod having polynomial density.// Geophysical Journal, 1985, Vol. 7, № 1, pp. 3–9. (in
Russian).
Strakhov V.N., Lapina M.I. (1986) Gravity forward modelling for horizontal homogeneous
polygonal plate.// Geophysical Journal, 1986, Vol. 8, № 4, pp. 20–31. (in Russian).
Strakhov V.N., Lapina M.I. (1986) Forward problems of gravimetry and magnetometry for
homogeneous polyhedrons.// Geophysical Journal, 1986, Vol. 8, № 6, pp. 20–31. (in Russian).
Chapter 12
Allowance for the Earth’s Surface
Topography in Processing the Magnetic
Field Measurements

A. S. Dolgal

Abstract The questions concerning the allowance for the Earth’s surface topog-
raphy in the measurements of the magnetic field in mountainous regions are con-
sidered. The new method is suggested for estimating the influence of the sharply
contrasting relief composed of the strongly magnetized rocks on the results of the
field observations. The method uses the decomposition of the magnetic field and
elevation data in the empirical modes with subsequent application of the method of
group allowance for arguments. The results of reducing the airborne magnetic
survey carried out n the northwestern part of the Siberian platform above the
copper-nickel ore deposit are presented.

Keywords Magnetic prospecting
Terrain topography
Reduction

In magnetic prospecting, the questions associated with the allowance correction for
surface topography of the Earth composed of magnetized rocks have been explored
much less than the analogous questions in gravity prospecting. However, the
influence of the Earth’s surface topography on the results of the magnetic mea-
surements can be very significant. For instance, in one area of the 1:50,000 airborne
magnetic survey within the Putorana plateau where elevations H of surface
topography range from 40 to 1600 m, the variations DT in the amplitude of the
anomalous magnetic field reach *2000 nT and a clearly pronounced spatial cor-
relation is observed between the magnetic anomalies and geomorphological fea-
tures (Fig. 12.1).
The necessity of taking into account the distortions of magnetic measurements
by the terrain topography can arise in very different physical and geological con-
ditions and in different types of magnetic surveys (Rempel 1980; Nusipov and
Akhmetov 1991; Dolgal and Khristenko 1997; Yurovskikh 1997). These distortions
are contributed by two factors: (1) the anomalous effect of the magnetic masses

A. S. Dolgal (&)
Perm Federal Research Center, Ural Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Perm, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 105

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_12
106 A. S. Dolgal

Fig. 12.1 The influence of the surface topography of the region composed of the rocks of basalt
formation on the magnetic field: a—map of isodynamic lines of the anomalous magnetic field
(DT)a; b—map of the horizontal terrain contours

located between the Earth’s surface and the conditional surface bounding these
masses at the depth; and (2) the different distances between the points of magnetic
field measurements and the studied perturbing objects due to the different heights
(z-coordinates) of the observation surface—the height-difference effect (Dolgal
2002). These distortions can be suppressed by two methods: (a) by calculating the
corrections by solving the direct forward problem from the digital elevation model
of the terrain and (b) by recalculating (reducing) the field onto the horizontal surface
(or onto a smoothed synthesized surface) with the use of equivalent sources
(Aronov 1976; Pilkington and Urquhar 1990; Strakhov 1992).
Let us explain the influence of the two cited factors—the effect of topographic
masses and the anomalous vertical gradient – by the model example. Figure 12.2a
shows the graph of the theoretical field DT of the horizontal magnetic plate at a
height of 250 m calculated by solving the direct problem. The “observed” field
DT for the presented cross section (Fig. 12.2b) corresponds to the conditions of the
ground magnetic survey conducted on the curved Earth’s surface. The anomalous
effect of the plate was reconstructed by subtracting the component caused by the
magnetic topography (Fig. 12.2d) from the observed field and subsequent recal-
culation of the difference field (Fig. 12.2c) to a depth of 250 m by the approxi-
mation technique. The obtained anomaly (Fig. 12.2e) is close to the theoretical one
(Fig. 12.2a); in contrast to the difference field, its configuration shape excludes of
the possibility of the oblique position of the anomalous object.
12 Allowance for the Earth’s Surface Topography … 107

Fig. 12.2 Model example: reconstruction of the magnetic anomaly of the plate from the values of
the field DT specified on the surface of the magnetic relief: a—anomaly DT from the plate on the
horizontal profile H = −250 m; b—total anomaly DT from the plate and magnetic rocks forming
the topography; c—anomaly DT from the plate on the Earth’s surface; d—anomaly DT from the
magnetic rocks forming the topography; e – reconstructed anomaly DT from the plate on the
profile z = 250 m; f—cross section: 1, graphs of the magnetic field DT; 2, magnetic rocks
composing the relief (J = 0.5 A/m); 3, plate (J = 1 A/m); 4, level H = –250 m

The physical meaning of calculating the topographic corrections in gravity and

magnetic measurements is identical: it consists in quantitative calculation of the
anomalous effects produced by the rocks composing the relief with the given spatial
distribution of their physical properties (density or magnetization). The significant
difficulties associated with taking into account the influence of the topography on
the observed magnetic field in the real physical–geological conditions are caused by
the wide range of the variations in the petromagnetic characteristics of the rock
(Dolgal 2001). The problem of determining the magnitude of laterally varying
effective magnetization Jeff ¼ Jeff ðx; yÞ in the conditions of the visually noticeable
influence of terrain topography on the magnetic field is typically solved by con-
structing the correlation dependences between the amplitude of magnetic anomalies
DT and height marks H of the Earth’s surface topography. Compared to the stan-
dard statistical processing procedures, certain advantages are offered by the algo-
rithm of step-by-step calculation of the linear regression dependence between d TP
(at Jeff = const) and DT developed by the author with the subsequent rejection of
the parameter values having the largest deviations from the selected regression
equation (Table 12.1; Fig. 12.3).
For suppressing the magnetic anomalies of “topographic” origin, the author
developed the RELMAG program package which was approbated and recom-
mended for adoption by the Scientific methodical council on geological and geo-
physical technologies in exploration and prospecting for solid minerals of the
108 A. S. Dolgal

Table 12.1 Characteristics of the results of determining the effective magnetization Jef for the
synthetic example
Initial data Statistical parameters
Minimum Maximum Mean RMS
“Observed” magnetic field DT, nT −147 540 10.0 ±86.2
Random noise e, nT −25 25 0.3 ±14.6
Topographic correction dTp, nT −53 124 0.4 ±27.6
Initial magnetization, A/m 0.204 3.78 1.40 ±0.79
Calculated magnetization, A/m 0.550 4.15 1.79 ±0.85
Fisher criterion F 1.2 55.0 4.85 ±7.84

Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment of the Russian Federation

(St. Petersburg, September 29, 2000). In 2006–2007, on the order of OOO
Sibir’geofizika, the RELMAG program package was updated and expanded (Dolgal
and Chervonyi 2008).
A new method for correcting the anomalous magnetic field data for the influence
of the terrain topography was suggested in 2017. This method relies on the
hypothesis that the hidden peculiarities of the correlation between the geophysical
fields and anomaly-forming objects can probably be revealed within certain inter-
vals of spatial frequencies where these peculiarities manifest themselves fairly
distinctly (Dolgal et al. 2017). Let us consider the example of applying this method
for approximate calculating the effect of the Earth’s surface topography on the
results of the large-scale airborne magnetic survey conducted in the northwestern
part of the Siberian platform. The plateau-basalts that are widespread in the survey
area and have a maximal thickness more than 3000 m are the main impediment in
geophysical prospecting for ultrabasic intrusions hosting copper-nickel ore bodies.
The influence of the rugged topography with the height contrast up to 600–
800 m which is formed by the strongly magnetized rocks (Jeff = 3–5 A/m) mani-
fests itself by the spatial correlation between the increases of the amplitude of the
magnetic field DT and the increase of the elevation marks H. However, due to the
complicated physical and geological situation, the dependence of DT on H is
nonlinear. In the presented example the values of the anomalous geomagnetic field
DT are specified on the latitudinal profile with a length of 60 km intersecting the
copper-nickel ore deposit. The amplitude of the field varies from −627 to 512 nT;
the spacing between the points is 100 m (Fig. 12.4).
As a result of empirical mode decomposition (ERMD), different frequency
components were obtained for the magnetic field above the tuff lava stratum
(Intrinsic Mode Function IMF DTi ; i ¼ 1; 7) and for the topographic heights (IMF
Hj ; j ¼ 1; 4) as well as the residuals rDT and rH , respectively. For the low-frequency
part of the DT signal, the mode mixing effect was revealed. This effect manifests
itself as the intersection of the frequency intervals for functions DTi ; i ¼ 4; 7. For
P
suppressing this effect, the total IMF DT4 ¼ 7i¼4 DTi was formed. The relation-
ship between the modal components of the field and the topography is illustrated by
12 Allowance for the Earth’s Surface Topography … 109

Fig. 12.3 Synthetic example of determining the magnetization of the rocks in the upper part of
the geological section with the use of linear regression. Initial data: a—terrain topography, m; b—
magnetization of the rocks J, 10−2 A/m; c—“observed” magnetic field DT, nT; d—topographic
correction dTp, nT; results of the calculations: e—calculated magnetization of the rocks J, 10−2
A/m; f—Fisher criterion. Note: within the hachured areas the statistical correlation between DT
and dTp is not revealed
110 A. S. Dolgal

Fig. 11.4 Anomalous magnetic field (a) and Earth’s surface topography (b): 1—sedimentary
rocks; 2—tuff-lava stratum; 3—copper-nickel ore deposit

Table 12.2 Pair coefficients of linear correlation K between the magnetic field, topographic
heights, and results of EMD
Parameter DT DT1 DT2 DT3 DT4 rD T
H 0.295 0.078 0.092 0.171 0.381 −0.076
H1 0.224 0.644 0.141 0.0193 −0.070 −0.043
H2 0.338 0.082 0.614 0.235 −0.064 0.075
H3 0.317 −0.029 0.110 0.303 0.177 0.184
H4 0.546 −0.105 −0.076 0.168 0.881 0.167
rH −0.092 0.052 −0.053 −0.026 0.068 −0.268

the table of pair coefficients of linear correlation (Table 12.2). More than 85% of
the coefficients of correlation K are not significant. The significance was estimated
by the Student’s t-test for the confidence probability of 99.9% (m = 339). Generally,
the correlation between the heights H and magnetic field DT is low (K = 0.295);
however, the correlation between the IMFs of these parameters is higher (K reaches
0.881).
12 Allowance for the Earth’s Surface Topography … 111

Fig. 12.5 Magnetic field above the tuff-lava stratum d TP caused by the influence of the terrain
topography estimated by the EMD and MGAA methods (red line) and by solving the direct
problem of magnetic prospecting

At the second line of the selection, with the consideration of all the obtained
IMFs, the linear regression model characterizing the topography-related component
of the magnetic field d TP , was constructed by the method of group allowance for
arguments (MGAA): d TP ¼ a1 þ a2 Z1 þ a3 Z2 , where Z1 ¼ b1 þ b2 H3 þ b3 H4 þ
b4 H3 H4 , Z2 ¼ c1 þ c3 H1 þ c4 H1 H4 , and a,b,c are the coefficients.
The obtained values fairly well agree with the independent estimates calculations
of the topographic corrections calculated by solving the direct problem of mag-
netometry (Fig. 12.5). These calculations used the digital elevation model for the
Earth with laterally varying magnetization Jeff= Jeff(x,y); it was assumed that the
topography effect is limited to a zone with a radius of 20 km.
It should be noted that the both methods for calculating the d TP corrections are
approximate; however, the EMD- and MGAA-based technique discussed above is
less burdensome and does not require the a priori information about the rock
magnetic properties of the studied objects.

References

Aronov V.I., (1976) Obrabotka na EVM znachenii anomalii sily tyazhesti pri proizvol’nom rel’efe
poverkhnosti nablyudenii (Computer Processing of Gravity Anomalies in Case of Arbitrary
Topography of the Observation Surface), Moscow: Nedra, 1976.
Dolgal A.S. and Khristenko L.A. (1997), Allowance for the influence of topography in processing
the data of magnetic measurements, Geofizika, 1997, no. 1, pp. 51–57.
Dolgal A.S. (2001), Finding the corrections for terrain topography in magnetic survey, in
Geologiya i mineral’nye resursy Tsentral’noi Sibiri (Geology and Mineral Resources of Central
Siberia), Krasnoyarsk, 2001, pp. 183–189.
Dolgal A.S. (2002), Komp’yuternye tekhnologii obrabotki i interpretatsii dannykh gravimetrich-
eskoi i magnitnoi s”emok v gornoi mestnosti (Computerized Technologies for Processing and
Interpreting the data of Gravity and Magnetic Surveys in Mountainous Regions), Abakan:
MART, 2002.
112 A. S. Dolgal

Dolgal A.S. and Chervonyi N.P. (2008), Allowance for the effect of Earth’s surface topography in
airborne magnetic measurements, Geoinformatika, 2008, no. 8, pp. 58–66.
Dolgal A.S., Muravina O.M., and Hristenko L.A. (2017) The reduction of the magnetic field
within development areas of the plateaubasalts, Geoinformatics 2017, 15–17 May 2017, Kyiv,
Ukraine, 11143_ENG. Electronic publication (CD).
Nusipov E.N. and Akhmetov, E.M. (1991) Topographic correction in magnetic prospecting, in
Razvitie metodov obrabotki i interpretatsii geofizicheskoi informatsii (Development of the
Methods for Processing and Interpreting the Geophysical Indormation), Alma-Ata: Kazakh.
politekhn. Inst., 1991, pp. 60–70.
Rempel, G.G. (1980) Topical questions of the technique of introducing the corrections for terrain
topography into the data of gravity and magnetic prospecting, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Fiz.
Zemli, 1980, no. 12, pp. 60–70.
Strakhov V.N. (1992), Algorithms for reducing and transforming the gravity anomalies specified
on the physical surface of the Earth, in Interpretatsiya gravitatsionnykh i magnitnykh anomalii
(Interpretation of the Gravity and Magnetic Anomalies), Kyiv: Nauk. Dumka, 1992, pp. 4–81.
Yurovskikh V.N. (1997), Calculating the vector of effective magnetization of the trap relief from
airborne magnetic data, in Geofizicheskie issledovaniya v Srednei Sibiri (Geophysical Studies
in Central Siberia), Krasnoyarsk, 1997, pp. 277–281.
Pilkington M. and Urquhart W.E.S. (1990) Reduction of potential field data to a horizontal plane,
Geophysics, 1990, vol. 55, no. 5, pp. 549–555.
Chapter 13
Interpretation Algorithms
for Hydrocarbon Deposits

Yuri V. Glasko

Abstract This article has summarized two models of hydrocarbon deposits and
several algorithms of interpretation for the models. The algorithms of introcontin-
uation, balayage, concentration are considered for 2D and 3D cases. The algorithms
are realized on a mesh and calculated by computer. The algorithm of introcontin-
uation uses finit-difference continuation of the field to lower half-space and
finit-difference variations of V. M. Berezkin method of full normalized gradient.
The algorithm of balayage is based on the balayage-method of H. Poincare and
numerical realization of the method on the mesh in terms of D. Zidarov approach.
The algorithm of concentration is statistical regularization for distance (discrepancy
or smoothing functional) with reiterative balayage. Software package includes the
algorithms and it is used for model cases and practice cases for oil and gas deposits.

Keywords Introcontinuation
Balayage
Sweeping
Concentration

Introduction

The application of numerical algorithms together with geological prospecting

reduces a cost of exploration activity. At the same time, new investigations of
structures and genesis of the hydrocarbon deposits (Megeria et al. 2012; Lukin
2018) provide a priori information for the problems of interpretation and the
computational algorithms.
In the article we consider 3 interlocking numerical algorithms for geological
prospecting of oil and gas.
The concept of the singular points of the complete normalized gradient is
realized by effective V. M. Berezkin method for the geophysical fields (Berezkin
1988). The method is developed in the works of E. V. Bulychev, V. G. Filatov,

Y. V. Glasko (&)
Research Computing Center, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University,
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 113

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_13
114 Y. V. Glasko

M. L. Ovsepian (Filatov et al. 2011) et al. The method lets define the elements of
the epigenetic mineral formation. On the other hand, this experimental method lets
solve Poisson problem with several sources for lower half-space. In the article we
consider new 2D and 3D iteration finite-difference modifications of the algorithm.
Consider Poisson problem for the bounded domain (cube). In the case, we define
anomaly sources by procedure of concentration (Glasko, 2015). The procedure uses
iteration loops of the numerical balayage for mass. This approach is realized by the
algorithm with statistical regularization for the inverse problem. The corresponding
direct Dirihlet problem and boundary parabolic problems are considered in the
fundamental works of H. Poincare (Bogolubov et al. 1974), V. N. Strakhov
(Strakhov 1977, 1978), D. Zidarov (Zidarov 1968). The numerical realization of the
algorithm is effective. The application of the concentration for oil and gas accu-
mulations is economically.

Physical-Geological Models of Hydrocarbon Deposits

and Effect of Epigenetic Mineral Formation

The algorithms of the article used for two models of hydrocarbon deposit.
The first model hydrocarbon deposit of anticlinal type (Lobanov et al. 2009)
involves deposit with cover, subvertical side zones, close layer and terrigenous
layer. For the physical-geological model we consider geomagnetic model. This
model take account secondary mineral formation phenomenon. The basis for the
secondary mineral formation is migration hydrocarbon compounds (Cn Hm ) and
reactive non-hydrocarbon components (H2 S; CO2 ; H2 ; CO and others) from the oil
deposit. Magnetic logging reveals high magnetic susceptibility of the secondary
magnetic minerals (patent USA N4729960, Foote RS, date of publication
08.03.1988). The secondary minerals are concentrated in the terrigenous layer, in
the cover of deposit and the close layer. In case of epigenetic (not syngenetic)
manner of aggregation the secondary minerals it can be asserted that we have real
oil deposit (Lobanov et al. 2009).
The second model (Megeria et al. 2011, 2012) is development of the conception
of subvertical side zones with improved productivity. The model has multilayer
disposal of the oil deposits along of geosoliton tube with small diameter (approxi-
mately 50 m). The model accounts for migration of fluids (geosolitons) from Earth’s
mantle. This migration regenerates oil’s resources (Megeria et al. 2012; Lukin 2018).

Introcontinuation

Introcontinuation is called the process of continuation of the gravity field or the

magnetic field from day surface to lower half-space through the gravity and mag-
netic bodies.
13 Interpretation Algorithms for Hydrocarbon Deposits 115

Singular point is called the point which to arrise in the process of the intro-
continuation. The continuing field soars and disintegrates as ones to the singular
point is approached. The procedure of numerical continuation of the field is stable
for depth 0.7–0.8 to the upper singular point. In this connection, V. M. Berezkin
proposed metod of complete normalized gradient (CNG). The point is CNG has
maximal mean in the singular point (Berezkin 1988).
We consider new 2D and 3D varients of the method CNG (GH ðx; zÞ, GH ðx; y; zÞ)
(Glasko 2016). Our main interest is finite-difference realization of the method on
the mesh (FCNG). Correspondingly, the continuation of the field is consided for
finite-difference approximation of Laplas equation. It has been suggested 2 varients
2D algorithm for finite-difference gradient with introcontinuation (FGRIN). First
varient has not the boundary conditions on the vertical boundaries. In this case,
FGRIN is realized on the triangular grid. For each step we lose left and right means
of continued field.
3D algorithm was proposed on base of profile 2D algorithm. The algorithm is
oriented for area processing of the field by using set of intersection perpendicular
profiles. The algorithm includes procedure with finite-difference approximation
Poisson integral. This procedure increasing of effect of the anomaly is used for
calculating of the field on step of the grid upwards. The field calculating on one step
upwards of the day surface presets initial values for iteration loop of introcontin-
uation to lower half-space (or lower quadrant of the space) and FCNG.
The technique does not require big volume of a priori information for geological
reduction. Thus this technique belongs to set of techniques on base of conception of
singular points of potential fields.

Fig. 13.1 Azevo-Soloushinsky oil Mound of Tatarstan. Results of processing by FCNG (Filatov
et al. 2011)
116 Y. V. Glasko

The algorithms for 2D and 3D cases have been applied to set of models (2
foundation steps, gravity anomaly from sphere, 3 sources) and practical materials
for oil and gas deposits in West Siberia, Volga Region, Tatarstan (Fig. 13.1),
Uzbekistan, Far East (Filatov et al. 2011).

Balayage Method and the Algorithm

Introcontinuation of the field is conducted on base of the Dirichlet problem for

domain S with boundary condition is assigns on C  @S. The boundary condition is
assigns the potential of gravity (or magnetic) field on the boundary C. The domain S
S
includes anomaly source X ¼ Ni¼1 Xi . The domain S is lower half-space.

DuðX; zÞ ¼ 0; ðX; zÞ 2 S; ð13:1Þ

uðX; zÞjC ¼ u0 ð X Þ; C ¼ fX1  X  X2 ; z ¼ 0g ð13:2Þ

uðX; zÞ is potential of the field. For other model uðX; zÞ and u0 ð X Þ are mass dis-
tribution (charge distribution).
Instead of lower half-space S we can consider bounded domain V with boundary
C  @V. This problem has solution. The fact of existence of the solution was
proved by H. Poincare on base of balayage method (Bogolubov et al., 1974).
Principe of the method consists in filling the domain V by spheres and sweeping
density from inside domain to boundaries of the spheres. This is iteration process.
Condition of end of the process is all density is on the part of boundaries of the
spheres approximating the boundary of the domain V.
In the works of Strakhov (1977, 1978) was proposed the model of balayage
(sweeping) for mass distribution. The model is based on the parabolic equation with
real-time dummy and moving boundary. The model describes balayage principle.
Consider 3D model for the potential UðX; tÞ:

DUðX; tÞ ¼ Ut ðX; tÞ; X 2 V; t 2 ð0; TÞ ð13:3Þ

UðX; 0Þ ¼ U0 ðXÞ; X 2 V ð13:4Þ


@UðX; tÞ
¼ UC ðX; tÞjC ð13:5Þ
@n C

U0in ðXÞ; X 2 X
U0 ðXÞ ¼ ð13:6Þ
U0ex ðXÞ ¼ U0ex ðX 0 Þ; X; X 0 2 VnX

U0in ðXÞ [ U0ex ðXÞ ð13:7Þ

13 Interpretation Algorithms for Hydrocarbon Deposits 117

Here U0in ðXÞ is inner potential, U0ex ðXÞ is external potential for the domain X. We
note that potential of gravitational field stating through the density by integral
(sum) (Yagola et al. 2014).
The model for distribution densities of the masses (the charges) (uðX; tÞ) has
view:

DuðX; tÞ ¼ ut ðX; tÞ; X 2 V; t 2 ð0; T Þ ð13:8Þ


dð X Þ; X 2 X
uðX; 0Þ ¼ ð13:9Þ
0; X 2 VnX

@uðX; tÞ
¼ uC ðX; tÞjC ð13:10Þ
@n C

The model can be numerical realized by finite-difference approximation or by

numerical realization balayage method on the grid on base of D. Zidarov works
(Zidarov 1968). The numerical realization of balayage method is very effective and
it uses geology right conditions for soluting. So, condition of piecewize continuity
of the density is geology right.
The paper addresses numerical realization the model (13.8)–(13.10) by iteration
balayage process for the grid, where the spheres are approximated by the scheme
with templete “cross” for 2D and 3D cases. Correspondingly, we use 5 and 7 points
schemes (with center node). We note that at the begining of the iterative process all
density is concentrated into the domain Vh , at the end of the process all density is
concentrated on the boundary (Ch ) of the domain Vh . The iteration loop for the
density uð X Þ of the cube Vh on each of the iteration (n) consists of 3 nested loops
for ¼ 2; . . .; I  1; j ¼ 2; . . .; J  1; k ¼ 2; . . .; K  1 :

uni1;j;k ¼ ui1;j;k þ 1=6ui;j;k ; uniþ 1;j;k ¼ ui þ 1;j;k þ 1=6ui;j;k ; ð13:11Þ

uni;j1;k ¼ ui;j1;k þ 1=6ui;j;k ; uni;j þ 1;k ¼ ui;j þ 1;k þ 1=6ui;j;k ; ð13:12Þ

uni;j;k1 ¼ ui;j;k1 þ 1=6ui;j;k ; uni;j;k þ 1 ¼ ui;j;k þ 1 þ 1=6ui;j;k ; uni;j;k ¼ 0 ð13:13Þ

ui1;j;k ¼ uni1;j;k ; ui þ 1;j;k ¼ uniþ 1;j;k ; ui;j1;k ¼ uni;j1;k ; ui;j þ 1;k ¼ uni;j þ 1;k ð13:14Þ

ui;j;k1 ¼ uni;j;k1 ; ui;j;k þ 1 ¼ uni;j;k þ 1 ; ui;j;k ¼ uni;j;k ð13:15Þ

The truncation condition of the iteration loop is the discrepancy between initial
and final (boundary) masses less than the accuracy e.
The iteration loop for 2D case consist 2 nested loops for i ¼ 2; . . .; I  1,
k ¼ 2; . . .; K  1:
118 Y. V. Glasko

uni1;k ¼ ui1;k þ 1=4ui;k ; uniþ 1;k ¼ ui þ 1;k þ 1=4ui;k ; ð13:16Þ

uni;k1 ¼ ui;k1 þ 1=4ui;k ; uni;k þ 1 ¼ ui;k þ 1 þ 1=4ui;k ; uni;k ¼ 0; ð13:17Þ

ui1;k ¼ uni1;k ; ui þ 1;k ¼ uniþ 1;k ; ui;k1 ¼ uni;k1 ; ui;k þ 1 ¼ uni;k þ 1 ð13:18Þ

ui;k ¼ uni;k ð13:19Þ

Besides, the conformal mapping can be used for 2D balayage in the domain V
(Glasko 2012). We have composite 3 conformal
  mappings:
  themap  of the domain
V to the rectangle V1 with coordinates:  a2 ; 0 , a2 ; 0 ,  a2 ; b , a2 ; b ; the map of
V1 to upper half of the plane W : z [ 0; the map of W to the circle with radius 1.
These conformal mappings express in terms of the fraction-linear functions (maps 1
and 3) and elliptic sine (map 2). The density is calculated by double integral for
normal derivative of Green function.

Algorithm Concentration of the Density

Inverse problem of interpretation consists in determination density and geometrical

characteristics of anomaly source by observed anomaly potential field (Lavrentiev
et al. 2010, 2011). One of approaches to interpretation consists in introcontinuation
with using Berezkin VM method CNG. Second approach consists in concentration
of the potential with the boundary of the domain inside the domain. The lower
half-space S may be approximated by the domain V. Let us consider the cube V.
The concentration of anomaly potential (more exactly the local component of the
ones) consists in determination of the density and the geometrical characteristics the
anomaly source (Glasko 2015).
The concentration consists in multiple balayage of the potential to achieve given
distribution on the boundary C  @V of the domain V. The density and the geo-
metrical characteristics of defined domain are changing in the iterative process.
Here, we consider the problem of the concentration with balayage for the mass.
This mass induced the given anomaly. Thus the distribution of the density given on
the boundary of the domain V. 3D model of the concentration has view:

Duðs; tÞ ¼ ut ðs; tÞ; s  ðx; y; zÞ ð13:20Þ

ZT 
@u
¼ uðs; 0Þ ð13:21Þ
@nC
0

0; s 2 Vn@V
uðs; 0Þ ¼ ð13:22Þ
dC ðs Þ  dðs; 0Þ; s 2 @V
13 Interpretation Algorithms for Hydrocarbon Deposits 119

X=1, y X=0
0.11 0.11 0.11
0.07 0.07 0.07
(6,2,2) (6,3,2) (6,4,2) (6,5,2) (1,2,2) (1,3,2) (1,4,2) (1,5,2)
0.07
0.11
0.16 (6,3,3) (6,4,3) 0.16 (1,3,3) (1,4,3)
(6,2,3) (6,5,3) (1,2,3) (1,5,3)
0.23 0.16 0.23 0.23 0.16
0.23
0.16 (6,3,4) (6,4,4) 0.16 (1,3,4) (1,4,4)
(6,2,4) (6,5,4) (1,2,4) (1,5,4)
0.23 0.16 0.23 0.16
0.11
0.07 0.07
(6,2,5) (6,3,5) (6,4,5) (6,5,5) (1,2,5) (1,3,5) (1,4,5) (1,5,5)
0.07 0.07 0.11 0.11
z

Fig. 13.2 Map of distribution densities on the inside domains the cube faces X = 1, X = 0. The
distribution of densities is result of balayage process

Let us define the distribution of the density for t ¼ T:


dðsÞ; 8s 2 X
uðs; T Þ ¼ ; ð13:23Þ
0; 8s 2 VnX

where X—the source of anomaly.

We note that the potential of the field may be computed for given the distribution
of the density. On other hand, the distribution of the density may be computed for
given the potential of the field. Consequently, we can formulate the problem of the
concentration for the density and for the potential alike.
The algorithm of concentration consists of 2 steps. On first step we determine the
geometry of the object X by observed the distribution of the density on the

Y=1, X Y=0
0.07 (3,1,2) (4,1,2) 0.07
0.07 (2,6,2) (3,6,2) (4,6,2) (2,1,2) (5,1,2)
(5,6,2)

0.16 0.16 0.16

(4,6,3) (3,1,3) (4,1,3)
(3,6,3)
(2,6,3) (5,6,3) (2,1,3) (5,1,3)
0.49 0.49
0.16 0.49
(3,1,4) (4,1,4)
(3,6,4) (4,6,4)
(2,6,4) (2,1,4) (5,1,4)
(5,6,4)
0.16 0.16
0.07
(2,1,5) (5,1,5)
(2,6,5) (5,6,5) (3,1,5) (4,1,5)
(3,6,5) (4,6,5)

Fig. 13.3 Map of distribution of densities on the inside domains the cube faces Y = 1, Y = 0. The
distribution is result of balayage process
120 Y. V. Glasko

Z=4/3, X Z=1/3
0.07 (3,2,1) (4,2,1) 0.07
0.07 (3,2,6) (4,2,6) 0.07
(2,2,1) (5,2,1)
(2,2,6) (5,2,6)
0.16 0.16
0.16 0.16 (3,3,1) (4,3,1)
(3,3,6) (4,3,6) (2,3,1) (5,3,1)
(2,3,6) (5,3,6) 0.11
0.11 0.11 0.23 0.23
0.11 0.23 0.23 (4,4,1)
(3,4,1)
(3,4,6) (4,4,6) (2,4,1) (5,4,1) 0.11
(2,4,6) (5,4,6)
0.11 0.11 0.23
0.11 0.23 0.16 0.16
0.16 0.16 0.07
(2,5,1) (5,5,1)
(2,5,6) (5,5,6) (3,5,1) (4,5,1)
0.07 (3,5,6) (4,5,6) 0.07 0.07
Y
Fig. 13.4 Map of distribution of densities on the inside domains the cube faces Z = 4/3, Z = 1/3.
The distribution is result of balayage process

0 1/5 2/5 3/5 4/5 1 X, km

1/5 1 2 3 4 5 6 point
2 2/5 (3,1,1) (4,1,1) (5,1,1)
1/3(1,1,1) (6,1,1)
3/5 (1,2,1)
3
(2,1,1)
4/5 (1,3,1)
4 (6,2,1)
(1,1,2) (6,3,1) (6,1,2)
1 5
(1,4,1) (1,1,3) (6,4,1)
6 (6,1,3)
(1,5,1) (3,2,3) (4,2,3)
(2,6,1)
(1,6,1) (3,3,3)(3,2,4) (4,2,4)
(6,1,4)
Y,km V (3,4,3) (6,1,5)
(1,6,2)
(3,5,3) (3,3,4) (4,3,4)
(1,6,3) (3,4,4) (4,4,4) (5,1,6) (6,1,6)
(4,1,6)
N
(3,5,4) (4,5,4) (6,2,6)
(1,6,4) (1,3,6)
(6,3,6)
(1,4,6) (6,4,6)
(1,6,5)
(1,5,6)
(4,6,6) (6,5,6)
M
(1,6,6) (2,6,6) (3,6,6) (5,6,6) (6,6,6)

P Z,km
Fig. 13.5 The result of first step of the algorithm of density concentration. X, Y, Z-axes (the
distance is measured in kilometers). C—the cube (V) faces. We consider the cube in mesh space.
The mesh step equal 1/5
13 Interpretation Algorithms for Hydrocarbon Deposits 121

Table 13.1 The algorithm of concentration of the densities for model 7 (step 2): statistical
regularization by Monte-Carlo method and minimization of the discrepancy. d—error of the input
data, eMC —accuracy of Monte-Carlo method, ɛ— error of the result
d ɛMC ɛ (%)
[0, 5%] 10−3/5 1.7
[6, 10%] 10−3 4.7
[11, 15%] 10−2/5 6.4
[16, 20%] 10−2/3 8.5

boundary C  @V of the domain V including X. On second step we estimate the

density of the source X. Computing experiment revealed that the maximum values
of the density are observed on nearest to the source sides of the boundary. For
second step a priori information is segment of means of oil density (gas density).
First step uses topological interpretation of maps for balayage density. Second step
includes iteration loop for numerical realization of balayage method for density (for
3D—(12.11–12.15), for 2D—(12.16–12.19)). This loop is minimization of the
square of the distance (or discrepancy) between calculated value and specified value
of the density on the domain V boundary. In this case, the value of the domain X
density is defined from given segment with using Monte-Carlo method. In the
S
general case, the anomaly source: X ¼ Ni¼1 Xi .

Fig. 13.6 Results of interpretation for Urtabulak -gas deposit of Uzbekistan (Lavrentiev et al.
2010)
122 Y. V. Glasko

Fig. 13.7 South-Surgut oil accumulation of West Siberia. The deposit configuration is fixed by
izolines of FCNG and by concentration of gravitational and magnetic fields (Lobanov et al. 2009)

We consider the computing experiments for set of the objects in

V ¼ ½0; 1 km  ½0; 1 km  ½1=3 km; 4=3 km. At first step we determine the
objects: the point-source (model 1), 2 point-sources at the different depth (model 2),
13 Interpretation Algorithms for Hydrocarbon Deposits 123

Fig. 13.8 East-Lugovskoie gas deposit of Sakhalin. The geological profile (by A. I. Yurochko)
and field of FCNG (Lavrentiev et al. 2010)

two cylinders at the different depth (models 3, 4), the horizontal layer (model 5), the
cube (model 6), the parallelepiped extended along of Y-axis (model 7), two cubes at
the same depth (model 8). At second step we determine the densities of the objects.
If we use lower permissible bound (value of oil’s density) times of computing is
shorten. For general case ½0:4 g=cm3 ; 1 g=cm3  we may cut of a majority of
non-perspective sources.
The results of the algorithm of concentration for model 7 are represented by
Figs. 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5 and by Table 13.1.
124 Y. V. Glasko

The software packages for 2.5D and 3.5D cases include components Sweeping,
Concentration, Separation of fields. The packages are used for interpretation of data
for oil and gas deposits of Uzbekistan (Fig. 13.6), Siberia (Fig. 13.7), Far East
(Fig. 13.8).

Acknowlegements I am grateful to Prof. I. N. Korchagin and to Academician of NAS of

Ukraine V. M. Shestopalov for useful recommendations and new geological information about
conception of Earth Degassing, to Prof. V. M. Megeria for new information about structures of oil
and gas deposits, to Prof. I. E. Stepanova for her interest to algorithms of the work and to Prof.
A. G. Yagola for support in discussing the results. I am sincerely grateful to N. Matveeva (secr.
Uspensky Seminar 2018) for her organize work.

References

Berezkin VM (1988) Full gradient technique in geophysical survey. Nedra, Moscow (Russia).
Bogolubov NN, Arnold VI, Pogrebynsky IB (eds) (1974) Henri Poincare Selected Works, vol 3.
Nauka, Moscow.
Filatov VG, Ovsepian ML, Glasko YV et al (2011). The Application of Procedure FCNG-FGRIN
for Models and Hydrocarbon Deposits. In: Nikitin AA, Petrov AV, Megeria VV et al. Optimal
Filtering and Introcontinuation of Geophysical Fields for Finding Oil and Natural Gas with
Respect to Secondary Magnetic Minerals Formation. NT Press, Moscow, p 66–97.
Glasko YV (2012) One Problem of Equivalent Redistribution of Mass. Izv., Phys. Solid Earth 48
(2): 174–179.
Glasko YV (2015) The Problem of Concentration of Mass. Izv., Phys. Solid Earth 51(2): 191–196.
Glasko YV (2016) 2D and 3D algorithms of introcontinuation. Numerical Methods and
Programming 17: 291–298. http://num-meth.srcc.msu.ru.
Lavrentiev MM, Starostenko VI, Filatov VG, Megeria VM, Lobanov AM, Ovsepian ML,
Glasko YV et al (2010). Application of Regularization in Gravity Prospecting and Magnetic
Prospecting in the Search for Hydrocarbon Deposits. Russian State Geological Prospecting
University (MGRI-RGGRU), Moscow.
Lavrentiev MM, Filatov VG, Glasko YV (2011) Method of Regularization for Inverse Problems of
Geophysics (2011). In: Nikitin AA, Petrov AV, Megeria VM, Filatov VG, Lobanov AM The
Application of Regularization and Optimal Filtration Geophysical Data in the Search for
Hydrocarbon Deposits. NT Press, Moscow, p 10–28.
Lobanov AM, Filatov VG, Petrov AV, Ovsepian ML, Glasko YV et al (2009). Introcontinuation
and Epigenetic Magnetic Minerals Formation for Finding Oil and Natural Gas.
MGRI-RGGRU, Moscow.
Lukin AE (2018) Earth degassing, genesis of hydrocarbons and oil-and-gas potential. In:
Shestopalov VM (ed) Essay On Earth Degassing. National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine,
Kyiv, p 187–280.
Megeria VM, Starostenko VI, Nikitin AA, Petrov AV et al (2011). Application Geo-soliton
Conception of Earth Degassing, Regularization and Optimal Filtering of Geophysical Evidence
in the Search for Hydrocarbon Deposits. NT Press. Moscow.
Megeria VM, Filatov VG, Starostenko VI, Korchagin IN, Lobanov AM, Glasko YV et al (2012).
Geosolitonic concept and prospects of application of non-seismic methods for prospecting
hydrocarbons accumulations. Kyiv: Geophysical journal 34(3): 4–21.
Strakhov VN (1977) About balayage of masses Poincare and its using for solution gravimetry
direct and inverse problems. DAN USSR 236(1): 54–57.
13 Interpretation Algorithms for Hydrocarbon Deposits 125

Strakhov VN (1978) Theory of plain problem gravimetry and magnetometry – “analytical world”
is gerenated by H. Poincare balayage. Izv. AN USSR, Phys. Solid Earth. 2: 47–73.
Yagola AG, Wang Yanfei, Stepanova IE, Titarenko VN (2014) Inverse problems and the methods
of solution. Geophysics applications. BINOM, Moscow.
Zidarov D (1968) About some inverse problems of potential fields and their application to
questions of geophysics. BAN, Sofia.
Chapter 14
Features of Localization of the Poles
of the Gravity Potential Regarding
to the Field Sources and the Practical
Implementation of the «Polus» Method

G. Prostolupov and M. Tarantin

Abstract The principle of the vector method “Polus” is described. There are dif-
ferent types of points of intersection of the vectors called poles: in particular the
first, second and third orders; definite and indefinite; principal and conjugate.
Described in details the peculiarities of their localization on the sources of the
gravitational field, the efficiency in solving the inverse problem of gravimetry. An
example of the practical use of the program Polus2D on the model of the
Verkhnekamsk potassium salts deposit is presented. Concluded the greatest effi-
ciency of poles localization of second and third orders for the observed gravitational
field interpretation.

Keywords Gravimetry
Geology
Gradient
Inverse problem

Introduction

The method “Polus” is based on the properties of full vectors of potential gradient to
be aimed in the direction of the perturbing masses, i.e., for at least a couple of
vectors to converge towards a positive source and to disperse in the upper
half-space in the case of negative one, the intersection point vectors (pole) spatially
coincides with the source and with the center the ball-type (or point) source. Further
research led to the use not only the points of intersection of vectors of the potential
gradient of the first derivative but also the second and third derivative as a mean-
ingful interpretation unit. In the gravimetric practice it is common to use the first
derivative of the gravity Vz due to the fact that the vertical derivative of potential is
directly measured by the gravimeter, and horizontal components can be measured
or calculated. In the method Polus all of the first derivatives of the potential V are
used, as they are the components of the vector pointing exactly toward the source

G. Prostolupov (&)
M. Tarantin

Mining Institute UB RAS, Perm, Russian Federation
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 127

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_14
128 G. Prostolupov and M. Tarantin

(not only Vz, as is customary). Derivatives of the potential, Vz, Vx, Vy, and the
higher derivatives Vzx, Vzy, Vzz, Vzzx, Vzzy, Vzzz are calculated using the algorithm
of the point source approximations of the field (Dolgal 1999). According to the
theory, the calculated gravity field, including derivatives everywhere outside of the
anomalous masses will coincide with the real if it would be able to measure
(Mikhailov and Diament 2006).
In previous reports (Prostolupov 2016) some specific properties of the first-order
poles PI þ þ , PI  , the second-order PII þ þ , PII  , and third-order PIII þ þ , PIII 
regarding the sources of the gravitational field were described. According to the
classification of poles, there are also uncertain poles of the first-order PI þ , PI  ,
second-order PII þ , PII  , third-order PIII þ , PIII  and neutral PI o , PII o , PIII o .

Features of Definite Poles

The definite positive poles P++ are formed in the lower half-space at the intersection
of pairs of down-directed (‘positive’) vectors. The definitely negative poles P are
formed in the upper half-space at the intersection of pairs of up-directed (‘negative’)
vectors.
The usefulness of definite (apparent) poles of three orders of magnitude PI, PII,
PIII is not in doubt. Let’s consider the example of their effectiveness for localization
of an inclined beam with the dip angle of 45° (Fig. 14.1). Gravity effect Dg and
source configuration are taken from the Atlas of theoretical curves for interpretation
of magnetic and gravity anomalies (Mikov 1956). The localization of the timber
used the principle of complementary effect of explicit poles PI, PII, PIII, described
earlier (Prostolupov 2017). Poles of different orders are located with an offset
relative to the origin, but better reflect the object of study when aggregated. Some
offset of the poles from the center to the dip of beam is noticeable, especially for the
poles of the first order P1. Previously, the efficiency of explicit poles was considered
in the solution of inverse problem of localization of objects of ball-type, stem,
horizontal plate area and reef.

Features of Uncertain Poles

The uncertain positive poles P+ are formed in the lower half-space at the inter-
section of a pair of linear extensions of ‘negative’ vectors in the opposite direction.
Uncertain negative poles P− are formed in the upper half-space at the intersection of
the linear extensions of ‘positive’ vectors in the opposite direction.
Let’s consider the distribution of uncertain poles of the first order in the example
of the anomalous field inversion with 4 sources (Fig. 14.2) located at 300 m depth
and spaces between them 3, 2 and 1.5 km. Definite poles PI þ þ were localized in
14 Features of Localization of the Poles of the Gravity Potential … 129

Fig. 14.1 Localization of an inclined beam type source with definite poles PI þ þ , PII þ þ , and
PIII þ þ

Fig. 14.2 The model of the gravitational effect of 4 sources and distribution of the first order
definite positive PI ++ and uncertain negative PI  poles
130 G. Prostolupov and M. Tarantin

the vicinity of sources. Uncertain poles are located approximately at the same depth
between the sources.
The horizontal offset of the first-order uncertain poles PI to the left of the source
body can be explained by the nature of the graph of V. Increasing graph causes the
left offset of uncertain poles PI, decreasing causes the right one. This dependence
can be seen in Fig. 14.2.
The uncertain poles of the second and third order PII and PIII are formed outside
of the interpretation region (its depth exceeds 1/3 of the linear size of the survey
region) due to the rapid changing nature of graphs of higher derivatives Vzz, Vzzz
and Vzx, Vzzx—a sharp increase (decrease) alternating smooth components. The
nature of the pole location relative to the sources can be described as either random
variation in the case of poles of the second type, the set is concentrated between the
sources with the opposite excess density. The neutral poles Po is also consistent
with the nature of noise.

Poles Basic and Conjugated

Localization of poles regarding its sources can be divided into basic and conju-
gated. This applies to all three orders of definite poles PI, PII, PIII. It should be noted
that the above-considered uncertain poles are always conjugated.
Let’s consider the localization of poles PIII in the case of 5 sources (Fig. 14.3).
Sources are located at 500 m depth at a horizontal distance from each other 3, 2, 1.5

Fig. 14.3 The model of the gravitational effect of 5 sources and the distribution of third order
basic positive PIII þ þ and conjugated negative PIII  poles
14 Features of Localization of the Poles of the Gravity Potential … 131

and 1 km. Positive poles PIII þ þ localized in the vicinity of sources are basic ones.
Poles of opposite sign PIII  are localized in the space between basic and are
conjugated.
Depth of the conjugated poles depends on the horizontal distance between the
sources. The larger is distance, the deeper go conjugated poles. This is under-
standable, due to the fact that the medium in the horizontal direction between, for
example, positive sources, is an extended negative source, and the more this dis-
tance is, the more localized negative conjugated poles comes. If there is only one
body then conjugated poles are not formed.

Practice

The possibility of practical application of the program Polus2d in geological

interpretation of detail gravity field measured on the Verkhnekamsk potassium salt
deposit is considered in the example of a schematic density model simulating the
structure of the deposit region (Fig. 14.4). In the carnallite zone, coating of rock salt
and the lower part of the terrigenous-carbonate strata decompression of 0.1–0.2 g/
cm3 is modeled. The gravitational effect of the entire model can be seen at the graph
Vz. The method of point-source approximations of calculated model of Vz gives the
values of the derivatives of the potential Vz, Vx, Vy, and the higher derivatives Vzx,
Vzy, Vzz, Vzzx, Vzzy, Vzzz. According to it, vectors and their intersections in space
are constructed, resulting in an explicit negative poles PI  , PII  , and PIII  . As
can be seen in Fig. 14.4 the poles of the second (PII  ) and third (PIII  ) orders
have the best coincidence with the negative areas of the model density. The poles of
the first order are localized outside the considered depressurization.

Fig. 14.4 Density model of the Verkhnekamsk potassium salts deposit with low density areas and
points of localization of poles PII  , and PIII 
132 G. Prostolupov and M. Tarantin

Conclusion

Based on the studies of the nature of the localization of the poles of the sources
definite poles of the second (PII þ þ , PII  ) and third (PIII þ þ , PIII  ) orders can be
recommended for using in the interpretation process.
Overall, despite the considerable potential for the development of the polar
method as one of the branches of the vector gravimetry, we can talk about the
completion of the computer program, especially its two-dimensional version
“Polus2d”, and capability real field data interpretation, which is confirmed by
practical examples and certificate of state registration (Tarantin and Prostolupov
2017).

Acknowledgements The work is supported by RFBR grant No. 16-45-590426.

References

Dolgal A. S. (1999). Approximation of the geopotential fields by equivalent sources for solving
practical problems. Geophysical journal 4, 71–80. (in Russian).
Mikov D. S. (1956). Atlas of the theoretical curves for interpretation of magnetic and gravity
anomalies. Tomsk. Gosgeoltekhizdat. 137 p. (in Russian).
Mikhailov V. O. and M. Diament (2006). Some aspects of interpretation of tensor gradiometry
data. Izvestiya. Physics of the Solid Earth 12. V. 42. 971–978.
Prostolupov G. V. (2016). Study of localization properties of poles regarding sources of potential
fields. Voronezh. VSU. 187–190. (in Russian).
Prostolupov G. V. (2017). Determination of basic parameters of the sources of the gravitational
field by the “Polus” method. Moscow. IPE RAS. 319–324. (in Russian).
Tarantin, M. V. and G. V. Prostolupov (2017). Polar transformation of gravimetric data “Polus2d”.
Certificate of state registration of computer programs № 2017610475. 11 Jan 2017.
Chapter 15
Two Approaches to the Solution
of Inversion Problem in the Bear
Experiment

A. A. Zhamaletdinov, M. S. Petrishchev and V. Yu. Semenov

Abstract There is completed the interpretation of the results of the BEAR

experiment on synchronous magnetotelluric sounding of the lithosphere of the
Fennoscandian Shield on the network of 150
150 km. The experiment has been
made 20 years ago, in 1998, but till that time no common decision on the deep
structure of lithosphere is achieved because of super complicated primary data. Two
possible approaches to the solution of the problem are applied in the article. The
first approach, purely formal. It applies to the OCCAM inversion technique. The
approache is based on the phase values of the impedance with reference to the
global magnetovariational sounding. The second is phenomenological approach. It
is based on the use of a priori information, which makes it possible to regularize the
solution of the inverse one-dimensional problem. Based on the results of phe-
nomenological processing, a quasi-three-dimensional model of the electrical con-
ductivity of the lithosphere is constructed. There are detected two anomalies of
reduced resistivity are established in the interval of depths of 30–60 km that
spatially coinciding with the regions of the Moho boundary submerging up to
55–60 km.


Keywords Fennoscandian shield Magnetotelluric sounding  Lithosphere

Occam inversion Phenomenological interpretation

Presenting author: A. A. Zhamaletdinov.

A. A. Zhamaletdinov (&)  M. S. Petrishchev

St. Petersburg Branch of Pushkov Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, Ionosphere
and Radio Wave Propagation of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
St. Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
A. A. Zhamaletdinov
Geological Institute of the Kola Science Center of the Russian
Academy of Sciences, Apatity, Russia184209
V. Yu. Semenov
Geophysical Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 133

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_15
134 A. A. Zhamaletdinov et al.

Introduction

The Fennoscandian crystal shield is one of the most representative and extensive
reference polygons in area for studying the structure and deep structure of the
continental lithosphere. Data on its structure are of interest for obtaining a priori
(comparative) data on the deep structure of platform areas, where the resolving
power of geophysical methods is strongly limited by the influence of sedimentary
covers. At the moment the data of the deep electromagnetic soundings are practi-
cally not used in the practice of complex geophysical interpretations. There are
schemes of electrical conductivity compiled by generalization of ground and aerial
reconnaissance data (Zhamaletdinov and Hjelt 1986; Korja et al. 2002;
Zhamaletdinov and Kovtun 1993). But they give an idea of the electrical con-
ductivity of structures emerging on the surface of the day or the results of deep
sounding at individual points. In this paper we are attempted to compile the con-
solidated quasi-three-dimensional model of the deep electrical conductivity of the
Fennoscandian shield (from first kilometers to 100–140 km) that is based on the
results of a unique BEAR experiment.

Analysis of the Experimental Material

The BEAR experiment (Baltic Electromagnetic Array Research) was performed in

June-July 1998. It was carried out by synchronous magnototelluric sounding
(MTS) with the use of 50 stations spread over a network of 150
150 km in the
territory of the Fennoscandian shield in Sweden, Finland and Russia (Korja 2000).
Five stations were damaged due to thunderstorm activity. The arrangement of 45
measuring MTS stations is shown in Fig. 15.1a. The measurements were performed
using low-frequency ferro-probe stations of the LEMI series (Korepanov 2002) and
24-bit Riftec loggers. 5 components of the electromagnetic field (Ex, Ey, Hx, Hy,
Hz) were measured with a sampling step of 2 s. Effective impedance apparent
resistivity and phase curves for the 11 most representative points reflecting the main
features of the experimental results are presented in Fig. 15.1b, c.
First of all, in Fig. 15.1b we should note a wide spread of apparent resistivity
values, covering almost 5 orders of magnitude—from tenths to hundreds of thou-
sands of ohmmeters. The second feature is that the phase curves of the effective
impedance in Fig. 15.1c are fairly compact with a spread of 20°–25° and are in
good agreement with the generalized results of phase measurements in the field of
controlled sources (CS normal) and magnetovariation data (Global). In the diagram
of apparent resistivity curves (Fig. 15.1b), the generalized results of CS normal and
Global, together with the imaginary band that connects them, cover effective
resistivity curves with the highest resistivity values.
The processing and interpretation of the experimental results were conducted
between 1999 and 2002 by international cooperation of scientists from Russia,
15 Two Approaches to the Solution of Inversion Problem … 135

Fig. 15.1 The BEAR experiment. a—location of measuring points b—apparent resistivity curves
(effective). c— phase of impedance, Legend: 1–5–Archaean comlexes (1—Karelian terrain,
2—Belomorides, 3—Murmansky terrain, 4—greenstone belts, 5—granulites): 6–10—Proterozoic
comlexes (6—argilliters, 7—Svekofenides, 8—rapakivi granites, 9—granites, 10—gotides);
11—kaledonides; 12—the boundary of Russian plateform

Ukraine, Finland, Sweden and Germany with the financial support of the INTAS
grant, the BEAR-PMI project (Processing, Modeling, Interpretation). The coordi-
nator of the project is T. Korja (Finland), co-coordinators in the sections—M.
Smirnov (processing), I. Varentsov (numerical modeling), L. Pedersen and A.
Zhamaletdinov (interpretation). The results of processing and interpretation of data
on the project are reflected in a series of domestic and foreign publications
(Varentsov et al. 2002; Vardyanants and Kovtun 2009). However, the generally
accepted geoelectric model of the structure of the lithosphere has not been received
to date. The main reason for this was a strong horizontal heterogeneity of the upper
part of the section and a rare network of observations that prevented the use of
adequate methods of combating geological noise.
Below we have presented two possible approaches to solving the inverse
problem of the BEAR experiment. The first approach, formal, is to apply OCCAM
inversion (Constable et al. 1987). Its basis is the support for the phase values of the
136 A. A. Zhamaletdinov et al.

impedance with reference to the results of magnetovariance sounding. The second

approach is phenomenological. It is based on the use of a priori information, which
makes it possible to regularize the solution of the inverse one-dimensional problem.
Both approaches are designed for the maximum possible use of only magnetic
components, since the electric field is subject to strong influence of static
distortions.

Processing with Occam Inversion

The basis of Occam inversion is the support for the phase values of the impedance.
It is known that the phases of impedance, like the phase of resistivity, reflect only
the qualitative features of the geoelectric section. The equation for the phase front
has the form

k
z ¼ ðxt  uHx þ constÞ  : ð15:1Þ
2p

From the analysis of Eq. (15.1), one can see that at each fixed moment of time
the phase front is a horizontal plane. Therefore, the wave is called flat. When the
time is increasing the depth of z is also increasing. However, the exact depth z can
not be established from the phase curve. This means that in the impedance phase, it
is impossible to determine the apparent resistivity values and, consequently, the
parameters of the geoelectric section can not be investigated quantitatively. For the
transition to quantitative interpretation it is necessary at least one of the sections of
the transfer function to link it to the values of the apparent resistivity module. In the
present study it is performed over the low-frequency part using the results of
magnetovariation sounding. In this case, the support goes to the conductivity of the
Earth’s mantle. In Fig. 15.2a, we give examples of data processing and solving a
one-dimensional problem using Occam inversion for four points of BEAR exper-
iment. The position of the points is shown in Fig. 15.1a. The points are chosen with
the maximum spread, reaching 5 orders of magnitude—from tenths of an ohmmeter
at point 5 to hundreds of thousands of ohms at point 5.
From analyzing of Fig. 15.2, it can be seen that the curves of apparent resistivity
have a closely related form. Geoelectrical sections based on the results of inversion
have similar features, close in shape and amplitude values to the normal section,
obtained from the results of the FENICS experiment. The inhomogeneity of the
upper geoelectric section actually disappeared. This led to the loss of some infor-
mation but it is allowed to obtain more unambiguous information about the deep
geoelectric section at the same time. Unfortunately, the phase curves in many cases
underwent severe distortions and this limited the possibilities for applying the
results of Occam inversion to construct a quasi-three-dimensional model of the
electrical conductivity of the lithosphere. The second approach, based on the
phenomenological principle, was more acceptable for this task.
15 Two Approaches to the Solution of Inversion Problem … 137

Fig. 15.2 Occam inversion of BEAR data on the example of points 1, 5, 7 and 14. Location of
points is shown on the Fig. 15.1a

Phenomenological Interpretation

From Fig. 15.1 it can be seen that the majority of the effective apparent resistivity
curves (Fig. 15.1b) are conformal and are located below the dashed line connecting
the “normal” band with the global curve of the “Global” magnetovation sounding.
The “Global” curve passes through the generally accepted coordinate T = 104 s and
q = 100 Xm (Rokityansky and Kulik 1981; Olsen 1998). It can also be noted that
the shape of most impedance phase graphs (Fig. 15.2c) remains almost unchanged.
They are located with a parallel offset in amplitude within 20-30 degrees. The noted
behavioral features of the experimental MTS data on the BEAR array made it
possible to assume that the main reason for the displacement of the MTS amplitude
curves on the resistivity scale is the influence of static distortions produced by
electron-conducting, sulfide-carbon rocks developed within the upper crustal
thickness of 10–15 km (Zhamaletdinov 1990). Based on this hypothesis, a phe-
nomenological interpretation of the results of the BEAR experiment is based on the
application of five normalizing postulates based on the results of deep soundings
using powerful controlled sources (Zhamaletdinov 1990, 2005). The postulates are
138 A. A. Zhamaletdinov et al.

given below. They can not be taken as absolute truth in the last resort, because they
reflect the experimental experience and intuitive considerations of the author.
1. Crustal anomalies of electrical conductivity are concentrated exclusively within
the upper stratum of the Earth’s crust. Therefore, their influence is static in the
frequency range of the BEAR experiment (0.1–0.001 Hz). Consequently, they
affect only the electric components of the field and do not affect the phase
impedance curves.
2. The upper part of the Earth’s crust with a thickness of 10–12 km has an average
electrical resistivity of 104 Xm and an average longitudinal conductivity of 1 S.
It has a high horizontal heterogeneity due to the widespread development of
crustal conduction anomalies in it.
3. The middle part of the Earth’s crust (from 10–12 to 20–30 km) is characterized
by high resistivity and high horizontal uniformity. The concept of a “normal”
geoelectric section is applicable to it.
4. In the depth range from 20–30 to 200–300 km there are possible the horizontal
changes in the resistivity due to changes in the geothermal regime of the
lithosphere, composition, and rheological properties of rocks.
5. Below 400 km the rock properties do not change in the horizontal direction. All
curves of apparent resistivity in the region of long periods (104 s and more)
converge to the global magnetovariation curve (Rokityansky 1971).

Results

The results of constructing a quasi-three-dimensional model using the phe-

nomenological postulates are given in Fig. 15.3. The model is a section of isolines
of the resistivity in the depth range 0–10, 10–30, 30–60 and 60–140 km. A depth
section of 1–10 km displays a scheme of crustal anomalies of electrical conduc-
tivity that replicates and partially complements the schemes given in (Korja et al.
2002) and (Zhamaletdinov and Kovtun 1993) (see Fig. 15.1).
General decrease in rock resistivity from 106 to 104 Xm is observed in the
interval 10–30 km to 103–102 Xm in the range 60–140 km in the remaining sec-
tions. The decrease in resistivity with depth is associated with an increase in
temperature with increasing depth. The most poorly conducting part of the litho-
sphere is located in the extreme north-west, near the Kola Peninsula and Karelia,
where the most ancient rocks of the lower Archaean dominate. At the depth section
of 30–60 km, an extensive region of low resistivity is distinguished, coinciding
with the region of the Moho boundary immersion up to 60 km (Pavlenkova 2006;
Sharov and Mitrofanov 2014).
15 Two Approaches to the Solution of Inversion Problem … 139

Fig. 15.3 The model of Fennoscandian lithosphere electrical conductivity by results of

phenomeno-logical interpretation of the BEAR experiment data 1—The map of crustal anomalies
of electrical conductivity compiled from MT-MV data (Korja et al. 2002); 2—The net work of 2D
profiles on the BEAR and FENICS arrays taken in consideration for 3-D modeling; 3–6—Sections
at different intervals of depth from results of 3D modeling of the BEAR data: 3—The map of
crustal anomalies of electrical conductivity compiled from BEAR data; 4—The conductivity layer
on the level 10–30 km; 5—same, level 30–60 km; 6—same, level 60–140 km
140 A. A. Zhamaletdinov et al.

References

Constable, S. C., Parker, K. L., and C.G. Constable (1987). Occam’s inversion a practical
algorithm for generating smooth models from EM sounding data. Geophysics, 52, 289–300.
Korepanov, V.Ye. (2002). Electromagnetic sensors for microsatellites. Sensors, Proc. of IEEE,
1718–1722.
Korja, T. (2000). The BEAR Working Group. Lithosphere. Program and Extended Abstracts (Inst.
of Seismology, Univ.of Helsinki, Helsinki), Report S-41.
Korja, T., Engels, M., Zhamaletdinov, A.A., Kovtun, A.A., Palshin, N.A., Smirnov, M.Yu.,
Tokarev, A.D., Asming, V.E., Vanyan, L.L., Vardaniants, I.L. and the BEAR WG. (2002).
Crustal conductivity in Fennoscandia – a compilation of a database on crustal conductivity in
Fennoscandian shield. Earth, Planets, Space. 54, 535–558.
Olsen N., “The Electrical Conductivity of the Mantle beneath Europe Derived from C-Responses
from 3 to 720 km” Geophys. J. Int., No. 133, 298–308 (1998).
Pavlenkova, N.I. (2006). Structure of the lithosphere of the Baltic Shield according to the DSS /
Struktura litosfery Baltiiskogo Shchita po dannym GSZ. Structure and Dynamics of the
Lithosphere of Eastern Europe. Moscow, Geokart, GEOS. (in Russian).
Rokityansky, I.I. (1971) Deep magnetotelluric sounding in the presence of distortions from
horizontal inhomogeneities / Glubinnye magnitotelluricheskie zondirovaniya pri nalichii
iskazhenii ot gorizontalnyh neodnorodnostei // Geophysical collection. Kiev, Naukova Dumka,
43, 71–78. (in Russian).
Rokityansky, I.I., Kulik, S.N., and D.A. Rokityanskaya (1981). Ladoga anomaly of electrical
conductivity / Ladozhskaya anomaliya elektroprovodnosti. Geophys. Journal. Ukrainian
Academy of Sciences. 3 (2), 97–99. (in Russian).
Sharov, N.V., and F.P. Mitrofanov (2014). High-speed heterogeneity of the lithosphere of the
Fennoscandian (Baltic) shield / Skorostnye neodnorodnosti litosfery Fennoskandinavskogo
Shchita. Reports of the Academy of Sciences. 454 (2), 221–224. (in Russian).
Vardaniants, I.L. and A.A. Kovtun (2009). Investigation of the possibility of the presence of the
asthenosphere in the territory of the Fennoscandian shield according to BEAR / Issledovanie
vozmozhnosti pristutstviya astenosfery na territorii Fennoscandinavskogo Shita po dannym
BEAR. Complex geological and geophysical models of ancient shields. Ed. Yu.L.
Voitekhovsky. Apatity, 15–18. (in Russian).
Varentsov, Iv.M., Engels, M., Korja, T., Smirnov, M.Yu. and the BEAR Working Group. (2002).
The generalized geoelectric model of Fehnnoscandia: a challenging database for long period
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64–105.
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Baltic shield / O modelyah elektroprovodnosti Baltiiskogo Shchita // The deep electrical
conductivity of the Baltic Shield. Petrozavodsk. Ed. KarFAN USSR. 56–69. (in Russian).
Zhamaletdinov A.A. (1990). Model of the electrical conductivity of the lithosphere from the
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(Baltiiskii Shchit, Russkaya platforma). Leningrad, Nauka publishing, 159 p. (in Russian).
Zhamaletdinov, A.A., and A.A. Kovtun (1993). Scheme of electrical conductivity of the
north-eastern part of the Baltic Shield. Parameters of the “normal” section / Skhema
elektroprovodnosti severo-vostochnoi chasti Baltiiskogo Shchita. Parametry “normalnogo”
razreza. The structure of the lithosphere of the Baltic Shield, (ed. N.V. Sharov). Moscow,
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Chapter 16
About the Numerical Decision
of Problem Dirihle for Equation Laplas
in a Rectangle in Researches Under
the Decision of a Return Problem
in Geophysics

Z. Z. Arsanukaev

Abstract In article it is shown on the basis of results of computing experiments on

analytical continuation of preset values of a field located on a full contour, that a
major factor influencing a difference in accuracy for areas in the bottom semispace
near to a surface of the Earth and near to the top edge of revolting bodies, incorrect
statement of problem Dirihle is.

Analytical continuation, discrete equation Laplas

From classical mathematics the exact decision of problem Dirihle for equation
Laplas in a rectangle is known which is formulated so is known: on set values of
continuous function on a rectangle contour to find the decision of equation Laplas
in a rectangle interior. For example, the exact decision of problem Dirihle equation
Laplas (16.1) in rectangle G (G = {(x,): 0
x
a, 0
y
b}) on method
Furje, in the following statement:
@2 u
þ @@yu2 ¼ 0;
2
@x2 ð16:1Þ
uð0; yÞ ¼ 0; uðx; bÞ ¼ wðxÞð0
x
aÞ;

uðx; 0Þ ¼ uðxÞ; uðx; bÞ ¼ wðxÞ; ð0
x
aÞ; ð16:2Þ

where u (x, y)—required function, (16.2)—regional conditions, is given a kind of

infinite series Furje (16.3). (Zhukova et.al 2001)
X1   pkx
pky pky
uðx; yÞ ¼ Ak e a þ Bk e a sin ; ð16:3Þ
k¼1
a

Z. Z. Arsanukaev (&)
D. Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: https://www.muctr.ru/

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 141

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_16
142 Z. Z. Arsanukaev

Factors Ak, Bk are calculated accordingly under formulas (16.4), (16.5):

0 1
Za Za
2 @ pkb pkx pkx
dxÞ=ðe2 a  1A
pkb
Ak ¼ ea wð xÞ sin dx  uð xÞ sin ð16:4Þ
a a a
0 0
0 1
Za Za
2 pkx pkx
Bk ¼ @e2 a dxÞ=ðe2 a  1A
pkb pkb pkb
uð xÞ sin dx  e a wð xÞ sin ð16:5Þ
a a a
0 0

Thus, keeping in the right part corresponding final number of members of a

number, it is possible to receive with any beforehand set accuracy of value of
required function u (x, y). (Goloskokov 2004) In some special cases when the
functions representing regional conditions (16.2), have a special appearance (as a
rule, in the form of periodic functions), the decision (16.3) registers in the form of
the sum of several harmonics as in this case all factors Ak, Bk are nulled except
several. In present period high-efficiency computing means there was other possi-
bility of the numerical decision of problem Dirihle, and also with any beforehand
set accuracy (Boglaev 1990), with use of the following approach. In a rectangle the
grid, usually uniform in both directions, and, thus, is entered the continuous
two-dimensional geometrical space is replaced with net space. The continuous
functions representing regional conditions, are replaced with net functions, and
continuous equation Laplas with use discrete relations for replacement of the sec-
ond derivatives is led to the discrete equation.
Thus, the continuous problem of a finding of values of function u (x, y) in a
rectangle on function preset values u (x, y) on all contour of a rectangle with use of
a method of grids and discrete equation Laplas is reduced to a problem of drawing
up and the decision of systems of the linear algebraic equations. The number of the
equations here is equal to number of unknown persons, and thus a matrix of
systems square so the system dares any direct method, for example method Gauss.
Last scheme of the decision of problem Dirihle for equation Laplas in a rectangle
can be used in geophysics at the decision of a return problem taking into account
that out of revolting weights the abnormal gravitational potential and its derivatives
satisfy to equation Laplas. But attempt directly to use the specified settlement
scheme lead to certain difficulties. In—the first, in geophysics gravitational field
preset values never are known on all contour of the horizontal layer set in the form
of a rectangle in the bottom semispace, and as a rule only for the top part of a
contour and are in result shootings of value of a gravitational field on a day surface
of the Earth. So statement of problem Dirihle at the decision of equation Laplas in a
rectangle here is incorrect. The incorrectness directed by problem Dirihle at
application of a net method leads to that systems of the linear algebraic equations
arising here will be not predetermined with rectangular matrixes, and their decision
is unstable. In—the second, it is necessary to develop indirect methods of the steady
decision of systems of the linear algebraic equations of the big usages with rect-
angular matrixes. The specified difficulties have been successfully overcome in the
16 About the Numerical Decision of Problem Dirihle for Equation … 143

previous researches of the author (Arsanukaev 2001, 2009a, b, 2010) and other
researchers (Strachov and Strachov 1999). As a result of the computing experiments
spent for revolting bodies with various density and geometry of a surface on various
modelling and practical examples, it has been established, that set on a surface of
the Earth of value of a gravitational field with use of discrete equation Laplas
analytically proceed in the bottom semispace with high accuracy up to the top edge
of revolting bodies. The technique of an estimation of accuracy of values of the
field received as a result of analytical continuation has been developed, and by
means of this technique has been established, that in some cases at the task of an
optimum step of a grid and lengths of a profile the modelling examples relative
errors of values of a field received as a result of analytical continuation, in com-
parison with the exact have in the bottom semispace of value of an order 10−5 on
depths of equal 1–2 steps of a grid, an order 10−3 on a mark equal to half of distance
to the top edge and an order 10−2 near to top edge; it means, that the values of a
field received as a result of analytical continuation, differ from exact values
accordingly on 1/1000%, on 1/10% and for some percent. It is necessary to notice,
that these values of a field are received at the decision of problem Диpиxлe still in
incorrect statement: in the developed technology of analytical continuation preset
values settle down at 2 levels z = 0, z = −h (in гpaвимeтpии axis Oz is directed
downwards) i.e. only on one party of a rectangle in which equation Laplas dares.
Stability of the decision of system of the linear algebraic equations arising here is
reached at the expense of sharing of several discrete approximations of operator
Laplasa. But there is obscure a question, nevertheless than the difference in accu-
racy of values of a field in the bottom semispace, received as a result of analytical
continuation, near to a surface of the Earth and near to the top edge of revolting
bodies—an incorrectness of statement of a problem, an error of used discrete
schemes, an error of a used iterative method for the decision of systems of the linear
algebraic equations, is caused by affinity of special points (the top features of
revolting bodies). In this connection a number of computing experiments on
modelling examples for revolting bodies with various geometry of a surface has
been spent at various steps of a grid and at the task of values of a gravitational field
on all contour of a rectangle in which internal area with use of discrete equation
Лaплaca preset values analytically proceeded. Gravitational field preset values in
modelling conditions were in a kind of the exact decision of a direct problem for
revolting bodies. Results of calculations for one of modelling revolting bodies in
the form of a vertical layer (a two-dimensional case) with section 4.8  4.0 km
with homogeneous density in equal 1 g/sm3, with step of a grid of 0.2 km, with
length of a profile on which preset values equal 32 km and distance from a surface
of the Earth to the top edge of section equal 4 km settle down (the size of a matrix
of system of linear algebraic equations A = 6042  2862 arising here, and a vector
of the right part f = 6042  1) are resulted in Table 16.1. The analysis of results of
computing experiments on modelling examples, at the task of values of a gravi-
tational field for a full contour, shows, that values of a gravitational field in a
rectangle can be received by means of discrete equation Лaплaca with any
beforehand set accuracy up to the top edge of a revolting body (Table 16.1 see).
144 Z. Z. Arsanukaev

Table 16.1 Analytical continuation to a mark of 3.8 km at field preset values on 2 horizontal top,
2 vertical lateral, and 1st horizontal bottom profiles
Mode for field preset values Depth, in km Relative error
Profile in length of 32 km
Template “a direct cross“ + ”a
slanting cross”
Without complication by a hindrance 0.2 1.073628 E−005
0.4 2.941497 E−005
0.6 5.376914 E−005
0.8 8.206198 E−005
1.0 1.129267 E−004
1.2 1.452448 E−004
1.4 1.780613 E−004
1.6 2.106502 E−004
1.8 2.425003 E−004
2.0 2.732097 E−004
2.2 3.026575 E−004
2.4 3.309432 E−004
2.6 3.538232 E−004
2.8 3.851298 E−004
3.0 4.112802 E−004
3.2 4.353962 E−004
3.4 4.521158 E−004
3.6 4.369747 E−004

Such accuracy is reached at the expense of reduction of a step of a grid. Results of

calculations also confirm high efficiency of an iterative method of the decision of
systems of the linear algebraic equations, developed by academician
V. N. Strahovym. Thus, distinction in accuracy of values of a field in the bottom
semispace received as a result of analytical continuation, near to a surface of the
Earth and near to the top edge of revolting bodies, speaks an incorrectness of
statement of a problem in resulted above the discrete scheme.

References

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Earth of the Russian Academy of Sciences the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2001.
p. 102–104.
Zhukova G.S, Chechetkina E.M., Bogin E.S. (2001) Differentsialnye of the equation in private
derivative: Educational grant/ RCTU. TH., 2001..p.197.
Chapter 17
Calculation of Spherical Layer
with Variable Density Gravity Field

K. M. Kuznetsov, A. A. Bulychev and I. V. Lygin

Abstract Current article considers efficient algorithm for calculating of gravity

effect from a spherical layer with variable density. It is based on using of fast
discrete convolution. Features of its software implementation are also considered.

Keywords Gravimetry Direct gravity problem Earth’s sphericity accounting


Fast discrete convolution Gravitational potential

Today satellite methods in essence changed the volume and the nature of knowl-
edge of gravity field of Earth. It is bound to development satellite altimetry, which
allows to define excesses sea‘s and ocean‘s heights over a relevancy ellipsoid, and
GRACE, GOCE satellite missions intended for studying of gravity field changings
nature at the flight altitude both in space, and in time. New opportunities with
uniform methodical positions had appeared to make the comparative analysis of a
structure of an upper part of Earth (for example, various earth’s plates), to estimate
density inhomogeneities of deep spheres of Earth that is important as for planetary
geology, tectonics, and for assessment of a stationarity of dynamic characteristics of
the rotating planet. However the solution of such problems is impossible without
creation of an efficient computing algorithm for direct gravity effect calculation into
account sphericity of Earth.
Significant interest in creation of such algorithms and computing software
products appeared still in 70—the 80th years of the last century (Hellinger 1983;
Johnson and Litehiser 1972). One of approaches for direct calculations of gravity
field on a spherical surface was offered in works of V.I. Starostenko and his
colleagues (Starostenko et al. 1986) and gained further development in works
(Starostenko et al. 2013; Bychkov et al. 2015; Khohlova 2015). It is based on
masses approximation by a set of rectangular spherical prisms with constant density

K. M. Kuznetsov (&)
A. A. Bulychev
I. V. Lygin

Department of Geophysical Methods of Earth Crust Study,
Faculty of Geology, Lomonosov Moscow State University,
Moscow, Russian Federation
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 147

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_17
148 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

(Fig. 17.1). However, expression of gravity field elements for such prism has no
terminating analytical decision by means of the elementary functions that leads to
complication of a computing algorithm.
At the same time in works (Bulychev et al. 2002) the algorithm of the solution of
a direct problem of a gravimetry taking into account sphericity of Earth based on
approximation of spherical prism by polyhedron was offered. However, even in this
case direct gravity effect calculation for the layer covering all Earth will be rather
laborious and demand the considerable time expenditure, especially for a case when
it is necessary to calculate effect of a layer on all spherical surface with regular
latitude and longitude stride. Considerably it is possible to reduce computing time
due to application of an algorithm of fast discrete convolution (Bulychev et al.
1998; Kuznetsov et al. 2017) based on discrete Fourier transform.
Let’s consider a computing algorithm in more detail. Main problem is in cal-
culation of potential and gravity effect on the surface of the sphere with radius R0.
Let’s assume that a spherical layer with the thickness dR has variable density.
Information about this density is set in the form of the grid file with a constant step
on latitude du and longitude dk. Latitude range is −90° to 90°, and longitude range
is 0°–360°. Then this layer can be presented as set of spherical prisms and every
one of them has the constant density. Sizes of these prisms are defined by their
geographical location and distance from the center of the sphere. It should be noted,
firstly, that within one width belt all these prisms are identical, and, secondly, belt
prisms on northern latitude u coincide with prisms of the southern latitude belt by
size at latitude −u. These prisms can be approximated by polyhedrons, which all

Fig. 17.1 Position of spherical prism

17 Calculation of Spherical Layer with Variable Density Gravity … 149

sides represent by quadrangular plates. Top and bottom passes sides of these prisms
through tops according to an external and internal surface of a spherical prism.
Polar prisms which bases are polygons are exceptions (for example if information
on density of a layer is set with detail in 1°, then the number of the parties of this
polygon Nk will be equal to 360).
The main flow chart of a calculation algorithm for gravity field elements on the
sphere is submitted in the Fig. 17.2. It consists of the following stages:
Step 1. Effect of polar prisms calculation.
1:1. Geographic coordinates of polar prism’s vertices are set. So latitude coordi-
nates of northern polar prism’s top upper bound are 90° −du/2, and longitude
coordinates are changes from −dk/2 to dk. These tops are at distance R from
sphere center. Latitude and longitude of bottom bound’s tops coincide with the
coordinates of the upper, but they will be located at a distance (R−dR), where
dR—thickness of the spherical layer.

Fig. 17.2 Flow chart of the algorithm for the elements of the gravity field of a spherical layer
calculation
150 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

1:2. Coordinates of polar prism’s tops converts from the geographic coordinate
system into Cartesian coordinates with the origin in the center of the sphere;
axis Oz, coincides with the polar axis; axis Ox lies in the equatorial plane and
passes through the zero meridian; axis Oy is directed to the east.
1:3. Coordinates of M0 points, for which the effect of the polar prisms will be
calculated, are set. In our case, it is convenient to arrange these points along
the zeroth meridian with latitude increments du and at a distance R0 from
sphere center. Coordinates of latitude of calculated points M0 are from −90° to
90°. These coordinates are also converted into a Cartesian coordinate system.
1:4. The effect of the polar prism is calculated at the calculated points. For a
specific latitude, this effect will be the same for all calculated points of given
latitudinal belt. In this case, both values of gravity potential and gravity field
component directed towards to center of sphere are calculated. Formulas and
an algorithm for calculating these elements are given in the works of Strakhov
and Lapina (1986), Blokh (2009). Note that these calculations are performed
for only one prism, for example, the north prism. The effect of the southern
prism, taking into account its location, will coincide with effect of the northern
one, multiplied with corresponding density.
Calculation of the effect of latitude belts.
2:1. Let’s define the effect of the latitude belt at the calculated points located on the
polar axis. To do this, we define coordinates of the approximation prism with
unit density. Vertices of this prism’s top surface are located at a distance
R from center of sphere, of lower surface—at distance (R−dR), they have
latitude coordinates (u −du/2, u + du/2) and longitude (−dk/2, dk/2). If to
denote the effect of such a prism located at latitude u, at point M0(R0,
u0 = 90°, k0 = 0°) as u(M0), and the density values of each prism of this
latitude like dk, then effect of entire belt will be equal to the sum:

NX
k 1

U ðM 0 Þ ¼ dk uðM0 Þ; ð17:1Þ
k¼0

where Nk—number of prisms

Here, under the symbol u(M0) is meant both the value of the potential and
gravity field component. These calculations, as for the case of polar polygons are
performed in a Cartesian coordinate system for all latitudinal belts, starting at a
latitude of u1 = 90° −du to latitude u2 = −90° + du. Note that due to the sym-
metry of the location of the belts relative to the equator, calculations performed, for
example, for the northern polar point are carried over to the southern.
2:2. We determine effect of latitude belt at latitude u on all latitudinal belts of the
sphere.
First of all, we note that the effect of such a latitudinal belt, consisting of
identical approximate prisms, is represented as a circular discrete convolution:
17 Calculation of Spherical Layer with Variable Density Gravity … 151

NX
k 1 NX
k 1

Un ¼ dnk uk ¼ dk unk ; ð17:2Þ

k¼0 k¼0

where dk—values of approximate prisms densities of belt with longitude u, uk—

effect of the single prism with latitude u at the zero meridian to the calculation
points at latitude u0 (n = 0, …, Nk−1; k = 0, …, Nk−1) (Fig. 17.3). The effective
computation of such a convolution, called the fast discrete convolution, is based on
determination of kernel’s uk (effect of a single prism) and convoluted function
(discrete density function dk) discrete Fourier transforms (DFT). The calculated
DFTs are multiplied and then inverse DFT calculates. The computation of the DFT
of convoluted functions is carried out using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) for
calculation of DFT.
For calculation of FFT the number of discrete function values must be equal to
the power of two N = 2n, (n = 2, 3, 4, …). Since the number of cells Nk at latitude
belt with latitude u may not be equal to the value N, then to implement the
algorithm it is required to extend given series. When calculating the DFT (17.2) the
signal is periodic. Therefore, to calculate the circular convolution, it is necessary to
periodically continue the discrete density function to Nk values:

d Nk þ i ¼ d i ; i ¼ 0; . . .; Nk  1; d2Nk ¼ d0 ; ð17:3Þ

and fill array of the density values by zeroes from the number 2 Nk + 1 to nearest
value of N. To calculate the spectrum (effect of prism with unit density), we place
prism to zero meridian at latitude u, and calculate its effect at latitude u0 for

Fig. 17.3 Relationship between calculated points and latitudinal layers on the sphere
 152 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

longitude k0k = dk
k, k =0, …, Nk/2 Further, we mirror these values symmetrically
with respect to the point N/2:

uNi ¼ ui ; i ¼ 1; . . .; Nk =2; ð17:4Þ

and the remaining values of this sequence are set equal to zero. It is also necessary
to pay attention to the fact that, with the value k = Nk/2 the gravity effect gNk =2 or
potential vNk =2 of prism is determined, which longitude is 180°, and for, so that this
effect is not taken twice into account when calculating the convolution, it is nec-
essary to put the values uNk =2 ¼ uNNk =2 ¼ 12 gNk =2 or 12 vNk =2 . To calculate the DFT
of gravity field and its potential, possible to use one discrete transformation. To do
this, it is need to create a complex function:

Vk ¼ gk þ ivk ; ð17:5Þ

where i—imaginary unit. Since the discrete functions gk and vk are even, the DFT
of these sequences will contain only real parts. As a result, the actual values of the
DFT of the complex series c Vk will correspond to the amplitude-frequency char-
acteristic (AFC) of the sequence gk and the imaginary—amplitude-frequency
characteristic of the series vk .
It should be noted that the gravity effect of rows of spherical rectangular prisms
with unit density located at latitudes u and −u, to pints with latitudes u0 and −u0
are equal. In this case, the calculation of the effects from such layers is represented
as a convolution with the same kernel u. Then function dk in Eq. (17.2) can be
represented as a complex function:

dk ¼ dNk þ idSk ; ð17:6Þ

where dN and dS—the density of the northern and southern belts, respectively.
Multiplying the DFT of the function (17.6) with the discrete spectrum of spherical
rectangular prism’s effect, we obtain the DFT of spherical density row’s effect.
Based on the Fourier transform additivity property, the summation of effects can be
performed in the frequency domain.
2:3. Having obtained the total effect spectra, we perform the inverse discrete Fourier
transform for each latitudinal belt and, as a result, we obtain the resultant field.
Consider a model of a sphere that best describes the surface of the Eart. Its radius
is 6371 km. We calculate the gravity field and potential of spherical layer with
1 km thickness with a density 1 g/cm3, the upper edge of which will coincide with
the surface of the sphere. Effects calculates on the surface of the sphere. In this case,
the potential V is 5340.79 m2/s2 and gravity field g—83.82 mGal.
At Fig. 17.4 the differences of the calculated potential V and gravity field
g values from the theoretical values with different model details are presented. The
values of the calculated model are always less than theoretical values. The maxi-
mum discrepancy can be seen from the graphs in equatorial latitudes.
17 Calculation of Spherical Layer with Variable Density Gravity … 153

It should be noted, that the greatest difference between the theoretical and cal-
culated values of the potential is at polar points. In Fig. 17.4, these points are not
marked. The differences of the potential V and the gravity field g from the theo-
retical values at the polar points are shown in Table 17.1.
Figure 17.5a presents a model of the effective density distribution in a spherical
layer with a thickness 1 km on the earth’s surface (Rup = 6371 km,

Fig. 17.4 The difference between the theoretical and calculated values of the potential (a) and the
gravity field (b) for the spherical layer model (Rup = 6371 km, Rdown = 6370 km, d = 1 g/cm3)

Table 17.1 Deviations of the Detailing Difference V, m2/s2 Difference g, mGal

potential V and the attractive
force g at polar points 1°  1° 32.33 0.010
0.5°  0.5° 15.48 0.003
0.25°  0.25° 7.36 0.002
154 K. M. Kuznetsov et al.

Fig. 17.5 Results of potential V and gravity field g of the spherical layer calculation: a—model of
spherical layer; b—gravity potential; c—gravity field
17 Calculation of Spherical Layer with Variable Density Gravity … 155

Rdown = 6370 km). The density in the continents is 2.67 g/cm3, and in the oceans
1.03 g/cm3. Figure 17.5b, c show the results of calculating the potential and the
attractive force from a given model to the surface of a sphere.

Main results.
An algorithm is proposed for calculating the gravity potential and the gravity field
from a spherical layer with variable density. This algorithm is characterized by high
computational speed and high accuracy.
At the same time, it should be noted that the proposed algorithm has certain
limitations. One of these limitations is due to the fact that calculations can not be
made on land relief, i.e. the algorithm assumes the calculation of effects on the
surface of the ocean (on the surface of the sphere).

References

Blokh Yu.I. (2009) Interpretation of gravity and magnetic anomalies / M. MGGRU. 2009. pp. 48–
58. (http://sigma3d.com/pdf/books/blokh-2009.pdf). (in Russian).
Bulychev A.A., Gilod D.A., Krivosheya K.V. (2002) Construction of a three-dimensional density
model of the ocean’s lithosphere along the geoid heights field. // Bulletin of the Moscow
University Vol. 4: Geology. 2002. №2. pp. 40–47. (in Russian).
Bulychev A.A., Krivosheya K.V., Melihov V.R., Zal’cman R.V. (1998) Calculation of the
anomalous gravitational potential and its derivatives on the sphere. // Bulletin of the Moscow
University Vol. 4: Geology. 1998. Т.4. № 2. pp. 42–46. (in Russian).
Bychkov S.G., Dolgal’ A.S., Simanov A.A. (2015) Calculation of gravity anomalies in
high-precision gravimetric surveys. Perm’. UrO RAN. 2015. 142 p.
Kuznetsov K.M., Lygin I.V., Bulychev A.A. (2017) Algorithm of numeric direct gravity
calculation of spherical layer with variable density // Geofizika. 2017. №1. pp. 22–27. (in
Russian).
Starostenko V.I., Manukyan A.G., Zavorot’ko A.N. (1986) Methods for solving direct problems of
gravimetry and magnetometry on spherical planets./ Kiev. Naukova dumka. 1986. 112 p. (in
Russian).
Starostenko V.I., Pyatakov Yu.V. (2013) Solution of direct gravimetric problems for spherical
approximating bodies. Algorithms. // Izv.Tomsky Polytechnical. Un-ty 2013. Vol. 322. № 1.
pp. 28–34 (in Russian).
Strakhov V.N., Lapina M.I. (1986) Direct problems of gravimetry and magnetometry for
homogeneous polyhedra. // Geofiz. Journ.1986. Vol. 8. № 6. pp. 20–31. (in Russian).
Hohlova V.V. (2015) Taking into account the sphericity of the Earth when processing gravimetric
data. // Geofizika. № 5. 2015. pp. 59–64. (in Russian).
Hellinger S. J (1983). A method for computing the geoid height contribution of three-dimensional
bodies within a spherical earth. // Geophysics. 1983. Vol. 48 № 12. p. 1664–1670.
Johnson L. R., Litehiser J. J. (1972) A Method for Computing the Gravitational Attraction of
Three-Dimensional Bodies in a Spherical or Ellipsoidal Earth. // Geophysics. 1972. Vol. 77 №
35. p. 6999–7009.
Chapter 18
Possibility of Identification of Modeling
in Complex Analysis Geological
and Geophysical Data

O. M. Muravina, E. I. Davudova and I. A. Ponomarenko

Abstract The possibilities of the method of group accounting of arguments for the
analysis geological and geophysical data are considered. Examples of the use of the
method in the procedure for the formation of petrophysical models of sedimentary
and crystalline rocks of Voronezh anteclise are given.

Keywords Method of group accounting of arguments
Petrophysics

Identification modeling Voronezh anteclise

Results of modeling by the Group Method of Data Handling (GMDH) are given.
The method of group accounting of arguments is a method of inductive modeling,
which allows to reveal the interrelations between geological and geophysical
attributes. The theoretical foundations of the method were developed by aca-
demician A.G. Ivakhnenko in the eighties of the last century. The theory of the
method is based on the ideas of synergetics, the main task of which is to identify the
laws of the organization and the formation of order in complex systems. According
to synergetics in many cases there is an opportunity among the set of interacting
factors and variables to identify the most important processes and key factors. In
this case, a complex dynamic linear ore nonlinear system can be described by a
mathematical model with a small number of variables (Kapitsa et al. 1997).The best
model is selected in the process of enumeration from a variety of options according
to a certain criterion. This approach is consistent with one of the basic ideas of
mathematical geophysics about the existence of a set of feasible solutions and

O. M. Muravina (&)
E. I. Davudova

Voronezh State University, Voronezh, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
E. I. Davudova
e-mail: [email protected]
I. A. Ponomarenko
Russian State University of Oil and Gas Named After I.M. Gubkin,
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 157

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_18
158 O. M. Muravina et al.

constructing of a final solution for this set (Strakhov 2000, Muravina 2012). To
organize the generation of multiple models, we use a combinatorial algorithm with
a multiple-row analysis of the variants. In Fig. 18.1 shows a scheme for generating
models for 4 variable arguments (Muravina and Ponomarenko 2016).
The result of identification is a model equation, the structure and parameters of
which are determined during the modeling process. The choice of optimal solutions
in the GMDH is carried out using a system of criterial choice. The methods for
calculating and applying the criteria as well as the choice of the basis function are
determined by the requirements for the desired model. In GMDH, external criteria
are applied, for the determination of which the method of dividing experimental
data into learning and testing sequences is used. This allows to use the additional
(external) information to select the optimal solution.
The most commonly used external criteria are quadratic forms, different func-
tionals. The best model is chosen in accordance with the minimum of the external
criterion. The advantage of these criteria is the understandable logic of the
requirements for the model chosen. For example, the regularity criterion defines a
model with a minimum forecast error, such a criterion can be used in prediction
problems in the study of dynamic processes and in interpolation-extrapolation
problems in the case of analysis of parameters of stationary geophysical fields. The
minimum bias criterion is used in the problems of finding a trend. This criterion
allows us to choose the least controversial (unbiased) model on two disjoint sets of
input data (Ivakhnenko 1982; Muravina 2012).

Fig. 18.1 Scheme of model generation for 4 variable-arguments in the combinatorial multi-row
algorithm of GMDH. Numbers in rectangles denote variants of model equations
18 Possibility of Identification of Modeling in Complex Analysis … 159

Organization of the structure of the initial data (numerical matrix), their method
of parametrization and obtaining results in the form of an identification
structural-parametric model of the geological environment or process allows the
method to be adapted to existing automated geophysical data processing systems.
The resultant structural-parametric model is the equation of the relationship
between geological parameters and various inhomogeneous attributes of geophys-
ical fields, which makes it possible to use the capabilities of the entire complex of
geophysical data. Such an equation can be used in the classification analysis when
solving the pattern recognition problem. In this case, a certain range of values of the
dependent variable may correspond to a certain class of studied objects. If the
dependent variable is also a geophysical field parameter or a petrophysical char-
acteristic, the model equation will reflect the relationships between these parameters
that can be used in a further complex interpretation.
Let’s consider some results of practical application of the considered method at
the decision of various problems connected with processing and the analysis of the
geologo-geophysical information. Identification modeling by the method of group
accounting of arguments was used in the procedure for the formation of petro-
physical models of sedimentary and crystalline rocks of the Voronezh anteclise
according to the summary petrophysical definitions of the core of wells drilled in
the region.
Identification equations allowed to take into account the influence on the
petrophysical characteristics of such factors as the depth and lithological type of the
rock, to reveal stochastic relationships between different petrophysical parameters.
As an example, we give an equation relating the propagation velocity of elastic
waves with the density and depth of sampling. The equation was obtained for
sedimentary rocks of different ages and lithological type. In Fig. 18.2. graphs of
experimental and model values of the velocity of propagation of elastic oscillations
in the depth interval from −20 to −10 m are shown.
The results obtained for sedimentary rocks of different ages were used in the
formation of a generalized spatial structural model of the sedimentary cover of the
region, which is necessary for carrying out a complex interpretation of geophysical
fields (Muravina 2013; Muravina and Glaznev 2013, 2014).
When working with petrophysical data relating to the crystalline rocks of the
upper part of the basement, equations of identification of stratigraphic and
intrusive-metasomatic formations of the Early Precambrian of the Voronezh crys-
talline massif were obtained. The analysis of petrophysical data made it possible to
solve such problems as: elimination of emissions in experimental values, classifi-
cation of data, establishment of interrelation between petrophysical characteristics
(Muravina et al. 2016, 2017).
Consider the results of the application of the GMDH to solve the problem of
identifying the petrophysical parameters of the mihailovskaya series. The stratified
formations of the mikhaylovskaya series refer to the upper Archean (AR2mh) and
are subdivided into two suites: the lower alexandrovskaya (AR2al) and the upper
lebedianskaya (AR2lb). The representativeness of a sample of petrophysical char-
acteristics for the rocks of the alexandrovsky suite (petrophysical determinations for
160 O. M. Muravina et al.

Fig. 18.2 Results of simulation of elastic wave velocity for sedimentary rocks of Voronezh
anteclise

1396 samples) made it possible to obtain empirical model dependencies for various
petrological rock types in order to identify data referred to the undivided
mikhaylovskaya series. The results of identification of the rocks of the undivided
mikhaylovskaya series the results are shown in the Fig. 18.3. The model equation
obtained for the petrophysical parameters of the plagiomigmatites of the alexan-
drovskaya suite, relates the rock density with the polarizability and depth of sam-
pling. The reliability of the model is confirmed by the fact that for 82% of the
samples the discrepancy between the model experimental values of the density lies
in the interval ± 0.02 g/cm3. The application of the equation to unseparated rocks
of the mikhailovskaya series led to the following results: for 6 of 18 samples of
plagiomigmatites of the mikhailovskaya series, the absolute error of the density
estimate does not exceed ± 0.02 g/cm3. This allows us to classify these samples as
rocks of the alexandrovskaya suite (Muravina et al. 2016).
Let us consider an example of the application of GMDH for detecting emissions
of experimental data. In Fig. 18.4 shows graphs of the experimental and model
values of the velocity of elastic waves for the crystalline shales of the alexan-
drovskaya suite (AR2al) of the Voronezh crystal massif. Model values were cal-
culated in accordance with the received identification equation relating the speed of
elastic waves with the density and depth of sampling.
Preliminarily, the most probable limits of variations of the velocity values were
determined from the values of 5% and 95% of quantiles from 4.7 to 6.8 km/s. The
standard deviation of the sample was 0.6 km/s. As it appears from the figure, there
are three variants of emissions in the data. In the first case (number 1 in the
Fig. 18.4), both experimental and model values go beyond the limits of the
accepted range of the scatter of data. However, the difference between them does
not exceed the standard deviation value, which indicates that these values
18 Possibility of Identification of Modeling in Complex Analysis … 161

Fig. 18.3 Results of identification analysis of plagiomigiatae of the undivided mikhaylovskaya

series

Fig. 18.4 Results of the identification analysis. The numbers indicate the types of data releases.
The frame shows the limits of the allowed range of data

correspond to the identification equation and not be considered as emissions. In the

second case, a reliable range of experimental data is observed (samples №. 36, 39,
40—number 2 in Fig. 18.4), the experimental values of the velocity are lower than
the maximum permissible values, which are established by the value of a quantile
of 0.05 order. However, model values do not exceed the range limits. In the third
case, for the samples № 194 and № 195, there are significant deviations in the
model velocity values. The reason for this behavior of the model curve becomes
clear when studying the arguments of the identification equation: samples 194 and
195 have abnormal density values uncharacteristic for the shales of the alexan-
drovskaya suite (Muravina et al. 2017).
A high degree of geophysical study of the region (gravimetry, magnetometry,
electrical survey data) and developed petrophysical models allowed the use of
identification analysis by the method of group accounting of arguments for complex
interpretation of geophysical and petrophysical data (Glaznev et al. 2016; Muravina
2016).
162 O. M. Muravina et al.

Acknowledgements The main results of the research were obtained in the framework of scientific
research under the RFBR grant No. 18-05-00226.

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Collection of materials of the XVIII International Conference “Physical-Chemical and
Petrophysical Studies in Earth Sciences”. Moscow, pp. 200–203.
Muravina, О. М. (2016). Density model of the crust of the Voronezh crystalline massif. Bulletin of
VSU, Series Geology, No. 1, pp. 108–114.
Muravina, О. М. and I.A. Ponomarenko (2016). Program implementation of the group account
method for arguments in identification modeling of geological-geophysical data. Bulletin of
VSU, Series Geology, No. 2, pp. 107–110.
Strakhov, VN, (2000). Geophysics and Mathematics. Methodological foundations of mathematical
geophysics. Geophysics, №1, pp. 3–18.
Chapter 19
“Native” Wavelet Transform
for Solving Gravimetry Inverse
Problem on the Sphere

N. Khairullina (Matveeva), E. Utemov and D. Nurgaliev

Abstract We present a novel algorithm to interpret the geopotential data obtained

on the surface of a sphere. Suggested method is based on CWT with so called
“native” basis. Computational experiments show that location and depth of synthetic
causative sources are uniquely determined by the proposed method. Comparison
presented results with seismic data demonstrates a good agreement.

Keywords Gravimetry Inverse gravity problem
Gravitational potential


Sphere Wavelet transform

Introduction

The determination of the causal potencial sources gravitational and magnetic

anomalies obtained at the Earth’s surface is the global problem. It doesn’t lose
relevance currently. Among a large number of well-known approaches for solving
this problem we can distinguish the category based on using of the homogeneity
properties potential fields of elementary sources (e.g., point mass, dipoles and so on).
Further, this category may be devided into two groups. The first group includes the
approaches such that they implement a search of causal sources in the time domain
(e.g., Euler and Werner deconvolution and their modifications (Werner 1953; Hood
1965; Thompson 1982; Reid et al. 1990). The second group’s technique use the
time-frequency space of continuous wavelet transform for the same purpose
(Moreau et al. 1997, 1999; Sailhac et al. 2000; Gibert and Pessel 2001).
Above mentioned approaches of both groups are useful tools to express-
interpretation of the potential anomalies, but they don‘t give clear solutions in case
of high interference of potential fields due to destruction of their homogeneity
properties. There is problem in case of recovering deep sources. In our opinion, the
approaches from second group is more attractive because it presents several new

N. Khairullina (Matveeva) (&)
E. Utemov
D. Nurgaliev

Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russian Federation
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 163

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_19
164 N. Khairullina (Matveeva) et al.

features with respect to other methods but eventually the “weak point” approaches
of both groups lies in phenomenon of high interference of real geophysical potential
fields.
The technique of recovery causative sources are offered in this study in the
wavelet domain. (Utemov and Nurgaliev 2005; Matveeva et al. 2014, 2015) This
approach allows to obtain satisfactory results of potential fields obtained on the
spherical surfaces.

Mathematical Framework

The family of “native” wavelets has the form (Utemov and Nurgaliev 2005;
Matveeva et al. 2014, 2015):

2n3 hn2
wðnÞ ðh; xÞ ¼ VðnÞ ðh; xÞ; n [ 1 ð19:1Þ
ðn  2Þ!p2 f

where x is horizontal coordinates, h is vertical coordinate (depth), f is gravitational

constant, function V(n)(x, h) is n-th vertical derivative of the gravitational potential
of a two-dimensional point mass.
In three-dimensional case this formula turns into

2n1 hn2 3D
wðnÞ ðx; y; hÞ ¼ V ðx; y; hÞ; n [ 1 ð19:2Þ
ðn  2Þ!f ðnÞ

where superscript « 3D» emphasizes the three-dimensional of the model.

The first radial derivative of the gravitational potential of a two-dimensional
point mass on 2D-sphere has the follow form

R  HcosðcÞ
Vr ðcÞ ¼ 2f ð19:3Þ
H2 þ R2  2HRcosðcÞ

where R is radius of the sphere, c—zenith angle, h is depth of point mass,

H = R−h. Function (19.2) is even and 2pR-periodic, therefore its Fourier transform is
Z    Z
2G 2pR
1  qcos Rt eixt 2G 2p ½1  qcosð yÞeiRxy
SVr ðxÞ ¼  t  dt ¼ dy; ð19:4Þ
Rp 0 q2 þ 1  2qcos R p 0 q2 þ 1  2qcosð yÞ

here q = (R–h)/R. In order to calculate this integral is need the theory of residues.
Finally, there was found following ultimate result:

SVr ðxÞ ¼ 2feRjxjlnðqÞ ¼ 2fehk jxj ;

1
ð19:5Þ

where function
19 “Native” Wavelet Transform for Solving Gravimetry Inverse … 165

   
1 h
hk ¼ Rln ¼ Rln 1  ð19:6Þ
q R

might be named “seeming” depth. Here we should compare the result (19.6) with
formula of Fourier spectrum of gravity anomaly of two-dimensional point source in
planar case:

SVz ðxÞ ¼ 2Gehjxj ð19:7Þ

Comparison of (19.5) and (19.7) shows that radial derivative of the gravitational
potential of a two-dimensional point mass on 2D-sphere and its planar analogue
have the same formula of Fourier spectrum taking but different parameters of depth
into account formula (19.6).
This result allowed to consider a data obtained on 2D-spherical surface as a data
on the plane but with other depth parameters of causative sources, consequently if
we perform wavelet transform with “native” basis we will get solution of inverse
problem on 2D-sphere as well as on plane.
Approaches that have been offered for 2D spherical case [Eqs. (19.4)–(19.7)] are
fit for 3D spherical case except that instead of the fields radial and vertical
derivative of gravitational potential we have to use just the field of the gravitational
potential. In addition, it is important that the Eq. (19.7) is still in working order in
3D spherical case.
In 3D spherical case we encountered with a few mathematical issues linked with
features of integration on the sphere and existence of poles, but eventually we have
solved their. As simple example, we demonstrate the results of the recovery two

Fig. 19.1 Recovery of

location of two 3D point
sources one under another.
Red line corresponds
gravitational potential
166 N. Khairullina (Matveeva) et al.

causal sources by their total gravitational potential obtained on the sphere. It is

shown in Fig. 19.1.
In Table 19.1 we present the numerical values of parameters of initial and
reconstructed sources.

Table 19.1 Comparison of the initial and received parameters of causal sources
Longitude, degree Latitude, degree Depth, km Magnitude, 105 kg
Initial Received Initial Received Initial Received Initial Received
135 135 45 44.95 500 500 1 0.985
135 135 45 45.14 3000 3000 100 100.62

Fig. 19.2 Recovery of location of 10 random 3D point sources

19 “Native” Wavelet Transform for Solving Gravimetry Inverse … 167

Fig. 19.3 Comparison of the initial and received parameters of 10 random causal sources

Now let’s go to more realistic synthetic example. In the experiment we use 10

random sources and place them (Fig. 19.2).
As one can see the positions of the reconstructed sources are well correlated with
the ones of the true (model) sources. (Figure 19.3)

Analysis of Gravity Field of the Earth

The results of wavelet transform have value in itself because wavelet-slices with
different scale parameters allow to reveal some hidden features of the gravity field,
especially in case of our approach because wavelet coefficients have the dimension
of density (as a solution of the inverse problem).
We have constructed some different wavelet-slices. For example the slice cor-
responding to 50 km reveals lithospheric heterogeneity of density. Thus, one can
see such well-known geological structures as mid-ocean ridges and transform
faults, continental reefs, convergent boundaries, folded regions, hot spots due to
mantle plumes (Hawaii, Monarch Ridge, etc.). If scale parameter represent slice at
150 km the inhomogeneities of density of the upper asthenosphere are shown such
as convergent boundaries and subduction zone. The mantle-core boundary and the
top of outer core are obtained for slice corresponding to 3500 km depth (Fig. 19.4).
168 N. Khairullina (Matveeva) et al.

Fig. 19.4 CWT slice corresponding to a depth of 3500 km

It might be assumed that inhomogeneities of density in this slice correspond the

thermodynamic state of the substance of the outer core. Interest is the presence of
long strips both negative and positive anomalies of density, which form an angle to
the axis of rotation of the Earth approximately 20–30°. Note also the huge negative
anomaly of density in region of the Indian Ocean.

Conclusion

Our method has several apparent advantages. At first, the “native” wavelet trans-
form allows getting a formal solution of the inverse gravity problem, therefore
wavelet transform has clear physical meaning. At second, our approach has pointed
easy way to recover of the parameters of the causative sources.
Using this technique, there was determined the distribution of causative sources
of the Earth’s gravity anomalies. The analysis using our approach allows to
19 “Native” Wavelet Transform for Solving Gravimetry Inverse … 169

investigate plenty of well-known geological structures. For calculating were used

gravimetric data of International Centre for Global Earth Models (ICGEM) (http://
icgem.gfz-potsdam.de/ICGEM).

References

Gibert D. and Pessel M. (2001), Identification of sources of potential fields with the continuous
wavelet transform: Application to self-potential profiles. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(9),
1863–1866.
Hood P. (1965), Gradient measurements in aeromagnetic surveying: Geophysics, 30, 891–802.
Matveeva N., Utemov E., Nurgaliev D (2015) “Native” wavelet transform for solution inverse
problem of gravimetry on the spherical manifold. International Multidisciplinary Scientific
GeoConference Surveying Geology and Mining Ecology Management, SGEM, v.3, p. 1067–
1074, 2015.
Matveeva N., Utemov E., Nurgaliev D (2014) Solutions of inverse problem of gravimetry on the
sphere using “native” wavelet transform. International Multidisciplinary Scientific
GeoConference Surveying Geology and Mining Ecology Management, SGEM, v.1, p. 621–
628, 2014.
Moreau F., Gibert D., Holschneider M. and Saracco G. (1997), Wavelet analysis of potential fields,
Inverse probl., 13, 165–178.
Moreau F., Gibert D., Holschneider M. and Saracco G. (1999), Identification of sources of
potential fields with the continuous wavelet transform: Basic theory. J. Geophys. Res., 104
(B3), 5003–5013.
Reid A.B., Allsop J.M., Granser H., Millett A.J. and Somerton I.W. (1990), Magnetic
interpretation in three dimensions using Euler deconvolution: Geophysics, 55, 80–91.
Sailhac P., Galdeano A., Gibert D., Moreau F. and Delor C. (2000), Identification of sources of
potential fields with the continuous wavelet transform: Complex wavelets and application to
aeromagnetic profiles in French Guiana, J. Geophys. Res., 104 (B8), 19455–19475.
Thompson D.T. (1982), EULDPH – A new technique for making computer-assisted depth
estimates from magnetic data, Geophysics, 47, 31–37.
Utemov E.V. and Nurgaliev D.K. (2005), Natural Wavelet Transformations of Gravity Data:
Theory and Applications, Izvestia Physics of the Solid Earth, 41(4), 88–96.
Werner S. (1953), Interpretation of magnetic anomalies at sheet-like bodies. Sver. Geol. Unders.
Ser. C. C. Arsbok, 43 (06).
 Part III
Deep Structure Studying
Chapter 20
Earth’s Crust Magnetization Model
of the Nether-Polar and Polar Urals

N. Fedorova, L. Muravyev and A. Roublev

Abstract We performed a study of the anomalous magnetic field features of the

Nether-Polar and Polar sectors of the Urals (48–72° E and 60–68° N). We identified
and mapped magnetic anomalies due to the Earth’s crust layers. The calculated local
magnetic anomalies map allows allocating basic-ultrabasic massifs in the upper parts
of the basement within the sedimentary basins. After regional magnetic anomalies
interpretation and deep seismic sounding data along profiles, located in the study
area we build an Earth’s crust structure model. Comparison of the deep structure of
the cross-sections produced by independent interpretation methods using seismic
and magnetic data has enabled us to extract two layers with different magnetic
properties from the consolidated crust. Top layer of the Earth’s crust does not make a
significant contribution into regional magnetic field and is characterized by a low
magnetization (less than 0.3 A/m). Within this layer we identified magnetized local
sources. The lower layer has greater crustal magnetization. The magnetic data
interpretation shows that the crust’s basalt layer magnetization value is 3–4 A/m.
The average depth to the top surface of the layer is 18–20 km. The resulting
parameters were used for three-dimensional modeling. We considered a model with
uniform magnetization directed along the modern geomagnetic field. Thus, we built
the upper surface of the magnetized layer, which allowed clarifying mafic layer in
the space between the deep seismic sounding profiles. We found that at the Northern,
Circumpolar and Polar Urals basalt layer plunged to a considerable depth of 26–
30 km.

Keywords Regional magnetic anomaly
Magnetization
The earth’s crust

Urals region

N. Fedorova (&)
L. Muravyev
A. Roublev

Institute of Geophysics Ural Branch of RAS, Ekaterinburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Muravyev
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Muravyev
Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 173

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_20
174 N. Fedorova et al.

Introduction

At present, when studying the deep structure of the Earth’s crust and upper mantle,
geophysicists trends from constructing two-dimensional cross-sections along pro-
files to creating three-dimensional models of large regions. The initial volumetric
model is based on information of the seismic profiles and geotraverses. For the
Circumpolar sector of Eurasia within the geographical coordinates of 60–68° N, 48–
72° E the cross-sections for ten DSS profiles were constructed by two-dimensional
seismic tomography (Ladovskiy et al 2016). On their basis, new maps-schemes of
the main boundaries of the Earth’s crust have been created: the basement, the Moho
and the basalt layer (Fedorova et al. 2017a). Tectonically, the region covers the
northeastern part of the East European Platform, the Timan-Pechora Plate, the Polar
and Subpolar Urals, and the northern segment of the West Siberian Plate adjoining
the east.
In this paper we present the investigation results the anomal magnetic field of
this region’s lithosphere. With the help of modern computer technologies developed
at the Institute of Geophysics of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of
Sciences (Martyshko et al. 2016), the anomalies from the sources located in the
upper layers of the Earth’s crust and the regional component of the geomagnetic
field are identified, its rectangular components are calculated, and a
three-dimensional magnetic model of the “basite” layer is constructed.

Local Anomalies and Regional Component Separation

Most of the study area is covered by sedimentary cover, whose power within the
cavities reaches 8–12 km. The observed magnetic field contains contribution from
all sources located in the upper lithosphere. To distinguish the anomaly from the
layers of the Earth’s crust, a method based on high-level recalculations was used
(Martyshko and Prutkin 2003). In the large areas study it is necessary to handle
large data amounts, resulting in a significant uniprocessor computing time. The
developed computer technology based on parallel computing on multiprocessor
computer systems significantly reduces the calculation time (Martyshko et al. 2012,
2014). The developed technology application results and map of anomalies from
different layers of the Earth’s crust for the study area are published in articles
(Fedorova et al. 2015, 2017b). These data were used to construct the forecast map
of basite-ultrabasite massifs located under sedimentary rocks in the upper part of the
basement to a depth of 5 km, (Fedorova and Rublev 2016). Using this technique,
anomalies were also identified from magnetized massifs in the deeper basement
layers to the depth H = 20 km. Figure 20.1 shows an anomalous magnetic field
map and anomalies created by local sources in the upper layer to a depth of 5 km, in
a layer from 5 to 20 km, and the regional component.
20 Earth’s Crust Magnetization Models of the Nether-Polar … 175

Fig. 20.1 Anomalous magnetic field map (a). The anomalies separation from sources in different
layers of the Earth’s crust: local anomalies from the upper layer to a depth of 5 km (b); anomalies
from sources located in the layer at a depth of 5—20 km (in); regional anomalies (d). Maps are
shown in perspective projection. The tectonic structures boundaries are shown by black lines:
1—East European platform, 2—Timano-Pecherskaya plate, 3—Ural fold system, 4—West
Siberian plate

The long-wave regional anomalies intensity varies from −250 to +250 nT. In the
western part of the map (Fig. 20.1), a large negative anomaly is the most notable
feature, it occupies half of the Timan-Pecherskaya plate territory. Its transverse
dimension reaches 350 km, and the intensity is −250 nT. In the southern part of the
area, this anomaly merges with a chain of negative anomalies extending within the
Ural fold system. Despite the fact that within the Ural Mountains there are crys-
talline rocks (gabbro, serpentinites, diorites), which is located close to the Earth‘s
surface and create an intense local positive anomalies, the long-wave part of the
magnetic field consists of negative anomalies. The Ural Mountains stretch more
than 2300 km and is divided into South, Middle, North, Polar and Subpolar sector.
Previously, negative regional anomalies were identified over the Southern, Middle
and Northern ranges of the Ural Mountains. As can be seen on the map (Fig. 20.1),
the presence of negative regional anomalies of the magnetic field is typical for the
Polar and Nether-Polar sectors of the Urals, which undoubtedly indicates a simi-
larity in the deep structure features of all sectors of the Ural orogen.
The main deep rocks magnetization carriers are minerals of the titanomagnetite
series, and primarily magnetite. Therefore, the lower limit of the magnetoactive
layer of the lithosphere can be limited by the Curie isotherm 580° C or along the
Moho boundary, in those regions where the temperature at the base of the Earth’s
crust is lower than the magnetite’s Curie temperature. It is difficult to estimate the
magnetoactive layer thickness by geothermal data because of the fairly rare and
uneven network of heat flow measurements, and the lack of data in the northern part
of the territory. Due to ambiguity, the geothermy inverse problems solution
obtaines significantly different estimates of the temperature conditions in the Earth’s
crust of the Ural region. The difference in estimates reach 20–30 km (Fedorova and
176 N. Fedorova et al.

Kolmogorova 2013). The Earth’s crust thickness varies in large ranges from 35 to
57 km, with an average value of about 40 km. Moreover, a significant increase in
the Earth’s crust thickness within the Ural fold system is marked by negative
regional anomalies. Most likely, rocks near the base of the Earth’s crust have weak
magnetic properties.
For Nether-Polar Eurasian sector statistical studies have shown that the regional
magnetic anomalies cannot be explained by changes in the basement topography
and the Moho, as well as variations in the consolidated crust and basalt layer
thickness. The correlation coefficient between regional magnetic anomalies inten-
sity and variations in the crust boundaries relief reaches the maximum value for the
basalt layer surface. It is shown that in the study area the lower limit of the
magnetically active layer of the lithosphere is located significantly higher Moho and
the main contribution to regional magnetic anomalies introduces the top surface of
the basalt layer (Fedorova et al. 2017a).

Long-Wave Magnetic Anomalies Sources Modeling

Interpretation of magnetic anomalies, as a rule, is based on models consisting of

spatially limited magnetized blocks. The background magnetization influence of the
Earth’s crust layers is not taken into account. Therefore, the interpretation of negative
magnetic anomalies often causes difficulties. When using a layered model, negative
anomalies can easily be explained by a reduction in the power of the magnetized layer.
Studies have shown that the upper layer of the crystalline Earth’s crust is
characterized by a low average magnetization and does not make a significant
contribution to the regional magnetic field. It is possible to neglect the background
magnetization within the this layer limits. The lower basaltic layer of the crust is
magnetized significantly more strongly. Based on the two-dimensional modeling
results, we estimated this layer average magnetization  3 A/m (Fedorova and
Kolmogorova 2013). The upper boundary of the layer coincides quite well with the
6.5 km/s velocity level position in the corresponding seismic sections, and it’s
average depth is 20 km. We used these results for the three-dimensional interpre-
tation of the regional component of the magnetic field and the basal layer relief
reconstruction. To solve the inverse magnetometry problem, we developed a pro-
gram wich based on the modified local corrections method (Martyshko et al. 2010).
The method is based on the assumption that the change in the field value at a
certain point is most affected by the change in the part of the surface closest to a
given point, which is the boundary between two layers with different physical
properties. This iterative method does not use non-linear minimization, which
allows you to quickly solve large-scale problems. So, the initial field, set on
100  100 pixels grid, is reconstructed with a relative low error (up to 0.01%) for
300 iterations and the calculation process takes several minutes.
The preliminary interpretation results of the Timan-Pechora region regional
anomalies are given in the paper (Fedorova et al. 2013). The depth to the
20 Earth’s Crust Magnetization Models of the Nether-Polar … 177

magnetized lower layer of the crust varies from 14 to 30 km. The result obtained is
in good agreement with 2D modeling results for DSS profiles. In the
Timano-Pechora regional negative magnetic anomaly zone, the magnetized layer
boundary in the lower crust is submerged up to 24–30 km, and up to 15–16 km
rises on the northeastern edge of the Russian plate. The maximum rise to 14 km
occurs within the Pre-Ural trough.
To calculate the vertical component of the anomalous magnetic field Z from it’s
modulus DTa distribution we developed the algorithm based on the approximation
of data DTa as a set of fields from singular sources. This procedure allows us to
calculate the vertical component of the magnetic field Z from the selected source
distribution. As a model source, a set of rods uniformly magnetized along its axis
was used. The algorithm is implemented using parallel computing technology on
the NVidia graphics processor (Byzov et al. 2016). For the region, the vertical
component Z is determined and reduction to pole is performed: the values of Zv for
the vertical magnetization of all sources are calculated. Despite the fact that in the
circumpolar region the geomagnetic field direction is close to vertical (inclination
74–80º), however, the discrepancies between the anomalies DTa and Zv are sig-
nificant. Zv anomalies epicenters are shifted to the north relative to the epicenters of
the DTa anomalies, the distance sometimes reaching 20–40 km.

Results and Discussion

For the Nether-Polar and Polar sectors of the Ural region, the result of modeling the
magnetized layer is given for a rectangular section of 800  800 km. The basaltic
layer surface, calculated for the magnetization of 3 A/m, is shown in Fig. 20.2.

Fig. 20.2 Model of the upper boundary surface of the lower magnetized layer of the Earth’s crust;
tectonic structures boundaries are shown on a horizontal surface at a depth of 20 km
178 N. Fedorova et al.

The surface relief varies from 14 to 30 km. On the eastern margin of the
Timano-Pechora plate within the Predural edge of the trough there is an ascent up to
14 km. Under the Ural mountains there is a sharp immersion of the border. The
dive has the form of an extended ravine and reaches a depth of 26 km in the
Subpolar Urals and 30 km in the Polar Urals. In the lithosphere of Western Siberia,
there are more smooth changes in the relief than in the Urals, and the depth varies
from 14 to 27 km.

Conclusion

Regional magnetic anomalies contain important information on the deep structure

of the Earth’s crust. The most contrasting lithosphere layers in the according to the
elastic physical properties, the velocities of seismic waves and density, are the
boundary between the sedimentary layer and the crystalline basement, as well as the
Moho boundary separating the Earth’s crust and the upper mantle. Inside the crust,
changes in these parameters during the transition from layers containing predom-
inantly acid rocks to layers consisting of basic and ultrabasic rocks may be
insignificant. In this case, the contrast of the magnetic properties can reach large
values. Regional magnetic field anomalies interpretation makes it possible to obtain
the magnetized layer boundary relief inside the crust. For the circumpolar sector of
Eurasia on the cross-sections for the DSS profiles, the magnetized layer boundary
coincides quite well with 6.5 km/s velocity level position. The obtained results give
a spatial location of the lower high-speed boundary and more dense basite layer of
the Earth’s crust.
Negative regional magnetic anomalies have been identified along the entire
Central Ural anticlinorium. As a result of their interpretation in the Subpolar and
Polar Urals, it was found that in the Earth’s crust there is a significant thickness
reduction of the magnetized basal layer and the dipping of its upper surface to a
depth of 26–30 km.

References

Byzov D., Muravyev L. and Fedorova N. (2016). The Approximation of Anomalous Magnetic
Field by Array of Magnetized Rods. AIP Conference Proceedings 1863(1):560051. https://doi.
org/10.1063/1.4992734.
Fedorova N.V., Kolmogorova V.V. (2013). Models of distribution of the magnetization and the
longitudinal wave velocity of the Earth’s crust in Timan-Pechora and Northern Ural regions.
Lithosphere (5), 160–169 (in Russian).
Fedorova N.V., Kolmogorova V.V., Roublev A.L., Tsidaev A.G. (2013). The magnetic model of
the North-Eastern region of Europe. Geophysical Research, 14 (2), 25 – 37 (in Russian).
Fedorova N.V., Martyshko P.S., Gemaidinov D.V., Rublev A.L. (2015). Computer technology for
highlighting the magnetic anomalies from the deep layers of the Earth’s crust. XIVth
International Conference – Geoinformatics: Theoretical and Applied Aspects. 11‐14 May
2015, Kiev, Ukraine. https://doi.org/10.3997/2214-4609.201412426.
20 Earth’s Crust Magnetization Models of the Nether-Polar … 179

Fedorova N.V., Muravyev L.A., Kolmogorova V.V. (2017a) Statistical estimates of the
relationship of regional magnetic anomalies with the seismic boundaries of the Urals region
nether polar sector. Ural’skij geofizicesij vestnik (1), 47–51. (in Russian).
Fedorova N.V., Rublev A.L. (2016). Ultramafic-mafic massif mapping in the upper horizons of the
basement polar sector of Eurasia. 16th International Multidisciplinary Scientific
GeoConference SGEM 2016, Conference Proceedings, June 28 - July 6, 2016, Book1 Vol.
3, 703–710 https://doi.org/10.5593/sgem2016/b13/s05.089.
Fedorova N.V., Rublev A.L., Muravyev L.A., Kolmogorova V.V. (2017b). Magnetic anomalies
and model of the magnetization in the Earth’s crust of circumpolar and polar the sectors of Ural
region. Geofizicheskiy zhurnal, 39(1). 111–122. https://doi.org/10.24028/gzh.0203-3100.
v39i1.2017.94014.
Ladovskiy I.V., Martyshko P.S., Fedorova N.V., Kolmogorova V.V. (2016) XP constructing
three-dimensional density-velocity model on velocity sections DSS. Ural’skij geofizicesij
vestnik (2), 108–119 (in Russian).
Martyshko P.S., Fedorova N.V., Akimova E.N., Gemaidinov D.V. (2014). Studying the Structural
Features of the Lithospheric Magnetic and Gravity Fields with the Use of Parallel Algorithms
Izvestiya. Physics of the Solid Earth, 50 (4), 508–513. https://doi.org/10.1134/s10693513
14040090.
Martyshko P.S., Fedorova N.V., Gemaidinov D.V. (2012). Study of the anomalous magnetic field
structure in the Ural region using parallel algorithms. Doklady Earth Sciences, 446 (1), 1102–
1104. https://doi.org/10.1134/s1028334x12090127.
Martyshko P.S., Ladovsky I.V., Fedorova N.V., Tsidaev A.G., Byzov D.D. (2016) Theory and
methods of complex interpretation of geophysical data. Ekaterinburg, 94 p.
Martyshko P.S., Prutkin I.L. (2003). Technology for separating the gravity sources by the depth,
Geofizicheskiy zhurnal, 25 (3), 159–168 (in Russian).
Martyshko P.S., Rublev A.L., Pyankov V.A. (2010). Using local corrections technique to solve
structural magnetometry problems. Geophysics (4), 3–8 (in Russian).
Chapter 21
Computer Modeling of Lateral
Influence of the Ladoga Anomaly
(Janisjarvy Fault Zone) on the AMT
Sounding Results

A. A. Skorokhodov and A. A. Zhamaletdinov

Abstract In the northern Ladoga Lake area in 2015 and 2017 the audio-
magnetotelluric (AMT) soundings were performed. The main task of AMT was to
study the deep structure of the high conductive anomalies discovered before by the
di-rect current (DC) profiling. A special AMT experiment has been made over the
Janisjarvi anomaly. This zone of anomalous conductivity is situated on the contact
between the Proterozoic and the Archaean rocks. Several AMT sounding sites were
situated symmetrically on the both sides of anomaly. Data processing al-lowed to
make a conclusion about the quasi-two-dimensionality of the medium under
investigation. The computer 2D modeling has been made with the use of grid
method. Results of modeling showed that Janisjarvi conductive zone has sub ver-
tical position. Its continuation to the depth is restricted in the range of 0.5 km. The
influence of Janisjarvi conductive zone creates effects of fictitious conductive layers
on results of AMT soundings. The depth of fictitious conductive layers increase
from units to 10–20 km depending to increase of the distance between the center of
the Janisjarvi conductive zone and AMT sounding sites. It means that all AMT
soundings should be made with taking into account the influence from the steeply
dipping uppermost conductive layers.

Keywords Audiomagnetotellurics
Lateral influence
Conductive zone

Simulation

A. A. Skorokhodov (&)
A. A. Zhamaletdinov

Geological Institute of the Kola Scientific Centre of RAS, Apatity, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
A. A. Zhamaletdinov
e-mail: [email protected]
A. A. Zhamaletdinov
SPbF IZMIRAN, St. Petersburg, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 181

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_21
182 A. A. Skorokhodov and A. A. Zhamaletdinov

Introduction

In the Northern Ladoga area in 2015 and in 2017, a DC profiling and

audio-magnetotelluric sounding (AMT) were carried out for to study the nature of
the Ladoga deep anomaly of electrical conductivity. DC profiling has been made
with a step 500 m by a 180-km profile that crossed the Ladoga anomaly
(Fig. 21.1a). The average depth penetration of DC profiling was 150–200 m. Two
most intensive anomalies of electrical conductivity were identified. One of them is
situated near to Elisenvaara village (Grand anomaly of 7 km visible thickness) and
another one near to Suistamo village (Janisjarvi anomaly of 200 m thickness).
Apparent resistivity over both anomalies decreases up to 1 Xm and less. In this
presentation a special AMT experiment is depicted that has been done over the
Janisjarvi anomaly. Six AMT sounding sites were situated symmetrically on the
both sides of the anomaly (Fig. 21.1b).

Observed Data

The measurements of AMT-field on the Janisjarvi site (Fig. 21.1b) were made
directly over the anomaly (point 1), as well as on both sides of the anomaly at
distances of 200, 800 and 1600 m (points 2–6). The work was performed with the
use of VMTU-10 equipment developed by VEGA LTD. Data processing was
carried out using the 3-component algorithm (Semenov 1985). An analysis of the

Fig. 21.1 Scheme of AMT measurements over the Janisjarvi anomaly. a—location of DC
measurements (triangles) and AMT soundings (asterisks) on the profile Sevstjanovo-Suinjarvi;
b—Location of detailed AMT soundings 1–6 situated symmetrically across Janisjarvi anomaly
21 Computer Modeling of Lateral Influence of the Ladoga Anomaly … 183

polar diagrams and skew factor estimation showed that the medium has an elon-
gated structure in the northwestern direction and can be offered as conditionally
two-dimensional medium. In this case, the MT field is considered in view of 2
independent (TM and TE) modes.
TM-mode appears when the electric field is directed across the stretch of the
structures. It has the galvanic nature of the distortions and is affected by
near-surface anomalies mainly of high resistivity. The second, TE mode exists
when the electric field is directed along the structures. It has the inductive nature of
the distortions. It is sensitive to deep conducting structures.
Results of measurements are presented in the form of curves of apparent
resistivity and phases of impedance (Fig. 21.2).
It can be seen from the figure that apparent resistivity curves have symmetrical
shape relative to the center of anomaly. The level of curves increases with increase
of distance between the center of anomaly and the AMT sites location. That is
evident on both modes (Fig. 21.1a).

Fig. 21.2 Compilation of AMT data over Janisjarvi anomaly for TE and TM modes. a—apparent
resistivity, b—phase of impedance
184 A. A. Skorokhodov and A. A. Zhamaletdinov

Simulated Data

The simulation was carried out using a software package developed by Vardanyants
(1979), which calculates the field components at grid nodes using the finite differ-
ence method. The problem of constructing a priori model was reduced to con-
structing a normal section and of anomalous object. A normal section was created by
asymptotic analysis of the effective resistivity curve at a distance of 1600 m. The
resistivity of the upper layer is accepted equal to the value of highest apparent
resistivity of the “normal” curve. Asymptote analysis of the normal curve gave a
two-layered model with conductive layer 100 Ω m at the depth of 10 km (Fig. 21.3).
The anomalous body was specified taking into account of the DC profiling data.
So the thickness and the depth of the upper edge were set. The value of the
resistivity (q) and the depth of the lower edge (z) were offered as variable
parameters (Fig. 21.4).
The structure was considered as vertical due to the bilateral behavior of the
observed apparent resistivity curves with respect to the anomaly Since the depth z
and the resistivity are related to each other by the condition of equivalence with
respect to the parameter of the electrical conductivity (within the framework of our
problem), we will consider further work by investigating the dependence of the
response of the TE mode, more sensitive to high conductivity, on the parameter z.
It is seen from the Fig. 21.4a that at the most distant points the modeling data are
in rather good agreement with the measured data. But when observed sites
approache to the anomaly, the low frequency (long period) parts of modeling curves
does not coincide with measured ones. But their level decreases symmetrically.
With the increase of conductive body extension up to the depth Z to 400 m and
1000 m (Fig. 21.4b, c), the divergence between measured and modeled curves
increases at all points. Moreover, subsidence of the low-frequency part is observed,
and the further from the anomaly, the stronger it is. If these points are considered
separately, it can be seen that there is the image intermediate horizontal conductive
layer which depth varies, depending on the distance to the anomaly. The depth to
the conducting base also increases with the increase of the distance to anomalous
body. Further, with increasing Z (Fig. 21.4c), these affects are amplified, especially
on the great distances from anomaly.

Fig. 21.3 A priori model of

Yanisjarvi fault zone
21 Computer Modeling of Lateral Influence of the Ladoga Anomaly … 185

Fig. 21.4 Comparison of measured (1) and simulated (2) curves of apparent resistivity
(TE-mode). a—The depth of lower edge z = 200 m. b—The depth of lower edge z = 400 m, c
—the depth of lower edge z = 1000 m

From here we can conclude that the Yenisyavri anomaly does not have a con-
nection with the deep Ladoga conductivity zone, and apparently is limited in depth
to the first hundreds of meters (300–500 m). The displacement of the apparent
resistivity curves is caused by the lateral influence of the shallow conductor. This is
a classic case of the manifestation of a low resistivity anomaly of, described by
Berdichevsky and Dmitriev (2009).

Conclusions

The simulation results allowed us to establish that the Yanisyarvi anomaly con-
tinues to the depth of the first hundred meters and, apparently, it doesn’t connect
with deep conducting structure of Ladoga anomaly. The decrease in the level of the
apparent resistivity curves as we approach the anomaly is caused by the lateral
influence of the conductor, and this effect is more pronounced in the TE mode.
Although, there are several theoretical methods those allow to separate these effects
from measured data, but we must thoroughly select the AMT-sounding sites
location with the use of geological data and DC electrical profiling. In other case
formal interpretation of AMT sounding curves in condition of Ladoga anomaly can
186 A. A. Skorokhodov and A. A. Zhamaletdinov

create an erroneous intermediate conductive layers at the depth of from units to

dozens kilometers.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Mikhail Birulja, the employee of “VEGA” Ltd,
for operative measurements and troubleshooting of magnetotelluric station VMTU-10.

References

Semenov V, Yu. (1985) Processing of magnetotelluric sounding data. Nedra, M. p. 25–72.

Vardanyants I.L. (1979) Calculations by the grid method of magnetotelluric fields over
two-dimensional inhomogeneous media. // Questions of geophysics№28, L. p. 40–50 (part 2).
Berdichevsky M.N. Dmitriev V.I., (2009) Models and methods of magnetotelluric. M.: Nauchnyy
Mir, p. 566–571.
Chapter 22
Application of Frequency-Resonance
Method of Satellite Images Processing
for the Oil and Gas Potential Assessment
of “Onisiforos West-1” Well Drilling Site
in the Mediterranean Sea

S. Levashov, N. Yakymchuk, I. Korchagin and D. Bozhezha

Abstract The potentialities of the direct-prospecting method of satellite images

frequency-resonance processing is demonstrated by the results of their practical
application for monitoring over drilling site of the “Onisiforos West-1” prospecting
well in the eastern Mediterranean (Block 11, Cyprus offshore). In the area of the
well location, an anomalous zone “Gas-1” was mapped, within witch the estimation
of the maximum value of fluids pressure in reservoir is 53.5 MPa. The area of the
anomalous zone along the isoline of 0 MPa is approximately 42 km2, and along the
isoline of 50 MPa it is about 29 km2. The channel of vertical fluid migration was
detected in the fault zone, adjacent to the anomaly from east. Estimation of reservoir
pressure values at the central point of the channel was about 80 MPa. By the
geological cross-section scanning in the depth interval of 1700–6000 m seven
anomalous polarized layers (APLs) of the “gas” type, promising to detect gas
deposits, were identified in the cross-section. During the scanning, the APLs depths
and thicknesses, fluids pressure and also porosity were estimated. The most
promising for gas detection are two search intervals: 1800–2250 m; 4050–4250 m.
The results of operatively conducted experimental studies of reconnaissance char-
acter increase, as a whole, the probability of gas accumulations (deposits) detection
in the “Onisiforos West-1” well.

S. Levashov (&)
N. Yakymchuk
D. Bozhezha

Institute of Applied Problems of Ecology, Geophysics and Geochemistry,
Kyiv, Ukraine
e-mail: [email protected]
I. Korchagin
Institute of Geophysics, NAS Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 187

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_22
188 S. Levashov et al.

Introduction

In connection with a significant drop in oil prices, the problem of accelerating and
optimizing the process of prospecting and exploration of industrial hydrocarbon
accumulations in traditional and non-traditional reservoirs has become quite urgent
in the oil and gas sector of the world economy. Low oil prices force large and small
oil and gas companies to cut both expenses (costs) in the search and exploration for
commercial hydrocarbon accumulations, and at the time of introduction of dis-
covered and explored deposits into development.
Under the circumstances, mobile (low-cost) direct-prospecting technologies can
be claimed and used more actively at various stages of the oil and gas prospecting
process.
Below, the potentialities of the direct-prospecting methods are demonstrated by
the results of their practical application for monitoring of the local drilling site of
the “Onisiforos West-1” prospecting well in the eastern Mediterranean (Block 11,
Cyprus offshore).
The main purpose of the operatively conducted work at the prospecting well site
is an additional demonstration (on a concrete example) of the operability and
potential capabilities of mobile and direct-prospecting technology of
frequency-resonance processing and interpretation (decoding) of remote sensing
data (satellite images).

Method of Research

Mobile technology offrequency-resonance processing and decoding of remote sensing

data was used during experimental investigation conducting. Distinctive features of the
technology are described in numerous publications, including given in Levashov et al.
(2010, 2011, 2012), examples of practical applications are given in Levashov et al.
(2010, 2011, 2012, 2015a, b, 2016, 2017a, b), Yakymchuk et al. (2015).
For many years, the technology has been actively used for prospecting and
exploration of ore and combustible minerals. In article (Levashov et al. 2015a) the
results of mobile methods application on the sites of prospecting wells drilling are
analyzed. Articles (Levashov et al. 2016, 2017a) present the results of the tech-
nology application for the detection and localization of channels for the deep fluids
(hydrocarbons) vertical migration in various regions of the world (on onshore and
offshore).
Additional information about the mobile technology used can be found at site
[http://www.geoprom.com.ua/index.php/en/]. Here is a video that shows the fea-
tures of the work at various stages of research, as well as a presentation with
numerous results of practical application of mobile direct-prospecting methods.
In this region (deep-water part of the eastern Mediterranean), the authors conducted
demonstration studies in 2015 and 2016. In September 2015, a frequency-resonance
22 Application of Frequency-Resonance Method of Satellite Images … 189

processing of a satellite image of area of first prospecting well location in the Zohr gas
field was performed. The scale of image processing is 1:150,000; this is a reconnais-
sance mode of search operations by direct-prospecting methods. The results of studies
at this stage are presented in paper (Levashov et al. 2015b).
In March 2016, during the search for channels of deep fluids vertical migration
in different regions of the world, frequency-resonance processing of two local sites
within Block 9 (Shorouk) on the Egyptian offshore and Block 11 on the offshore of
Cyprus was performed. Scale of these areas images processing was 1: 50,000,
detailed. The channels of deep fluids vertical migration were detected within these
sites. Materials of research at this stage are published in Levashov et al. (2016,
2017a).

Initial Data

The following data were used during the works conducting:

(A) Information messages on various Internet sites on the preparation for well
drilling, including those listed in the list of reference (Energy…; Drilling…).
(B) Materials of earlier conducted studies in this region (Levashov et al. 2015b,
2016, 2017a).
(C) Approximate location of the “Onisiforos West-1” prospecting well. It is
established on the coordinates of the drilling vessel location, which are reg-
ularly updated on the site (Vessel…).

Processing Results

The frequency-resonance processing of a satellite image of the local site of

“Onisiforos West-1” prospecting well location was conducted at August 18–22,
2017.
For the experimental studies, a satellite image of the sea area was prepared at a
scale of 1: 80,000 (Fig. 22.1). This processing scale is not detailed.
At the initial stage of the work, a zone of tectonic fracture of the
north-north-western strike was detected and traced in the surveyed area. The
“Onisiforos West-1” well is located in the immediate vicinity of this fracture
(Fig. 22.1).
In the area of the well location, an anomalous zone “Gas-1” was discovered and
mapped, which adjoins to the fault zone from the west. Within the limits of the
detected “Gas-1” anomaly the estimation of the maximum value of fluids pressure
in reservoir is 53.5 MPa. The area of the anomalous zone along the isoline of
0 MPa is approximately 42 km2, and along the isoline of 50 MPa it is about
29 km2.
190 S. Levashov et al.

Fig. 22.1 Map of anomalous zones of the “Gas-Oil” type at the area of the “Onisiforos West-1”
search well drilling in the Mediterranean. 1—scale of maximum values of reservoir pressure, MPa;
2—tectonic fracture; 3—well position; 4—vertical channel of gas migration; 5—gas migration
paths

Within the contour of the detected anomaly in the depth interval of 1700–
6000 m, the anomalous responses were recorded in the following intervals of
reservoir pressures: (1) 18.50–22.90 MPa; (2) 27.22–28.30 MPa; (3) 37.89–
39.30 MPa; (4) 42.8–43.70 MPa; (5) 51.36–53.95 MPa.
Two more anomalous zones of the “gas” type (“Gas-2” and “Gas-3”) and one
small anomalous zone of the “oil” type (“Oil”) were found in the southern half of
the surveyed area (Fig. 22.1).
Using the technique of detection and localization of channels of deep fluids
vertical migration (Levashov et al. 2016, 2017a), searches for such channels in the
contours of the anomalous zone “Gas-1” were carried out. As a result, the channel
22 Application of Frequency-Resonance Method of Satellite Images … 191

of vertical fluid migration was detected in the fault zone, adjacent to the anomalous
zone from the east (Fig. 22.1). Approximate coordinates of the channel position are
following: X = 3681,141.20, Y = 405,538.18. Estimation of reservoir pressure
values at the central point of channel was about 80 MPa.
Note that in this region, the channels of deep fluids vertical migration were also
detected and localized in the contours of two mapped anomalous zones (Levashov
et al. 2016, 2017a).

Scanning Results

In the vicinity of the prospecting well in the depth interval of 1700–6000 m, the
geological cross-section was scanned in order to determine the depths and thick-
nesses of the anomalous polarized layers (APLs) of the “gas” type. In the course of
the scanning, the fluids pressure and also porosity in the APLs of “gas” type were
additionally estimated. The difference between the reservoir pressure in the APLs
and the conventional hydrostatic pressure at this depth (parameter D) was also
calculated. Based on the scanning results, seven APLs of the “gas” type, promising
to detect gas deposits, were identified in the cross-section. The parameters of the
selected APLs of “gas” type are as follows: (1) 1825–1830 m (the depths of the
roof and the base of the layer), 5 m (layer thickness), 20.35 MPa (fluids pressure
estimation in the reservoir), +2.08 (parameter D), 13% (APL porosity); (2) 1920–
1930 m, 10 m, 20.6 MPa, +1.35, 13%; (3) 2030–2040 m, 10 m, 21.3 MPa, +0.95,
18%; (4) 2110–2120 m, 20 m, 22.4 MPa, +1.25, 20%; (5) 2188–2210 m, 22 m,
22.8 MPa, +0.85, 22%; (6) 4070–4080 m, 10 m, 41.3 MPa, +2.25, 13%; (7)
4220–4226 m, 6 m, 43 MPa, +0.77, 15%. The scanning results are shown in
Table 22.1 and in Fig. 22.2.
The most promising for gas detection are two search intervals: (1) 1800–
2250 m; (2) 4050–4250 m.

Possible Additional Investigations

1. To improve the accuracy of the experimental studies results, it is advisable to

carry out the processing of a satellite image of the “Gas-1” anomalous zone
location on a larger scale.
2. When processing the image of the anomaly area on a larger scale, the detected
by scanning at the drilling site of a well APLs of a “gas” type can be traced over
the area of entire “Gas-1” anomaly. Scanning materials by area will allow to
calculate the volumes of forecasted reservoirs and estimate, in the first
approximation, the forecasted gas resources in them.
192 S. Levashov et al.

Table 22.1 The results of vertical scanning in the area of the “Onisiforos West-1” well drilling in
the Mediterranean sea (scanning interval: 1700–6000 m)
No. Layer Roof Sole Thickness Pressure D Porosity Note
(m) (m) (m) (МРа) (%)
1 Gas 1729 1740 11 17.3 0.0
1a Water + Gas 1740 1754 14
2 Gas 1825 1830 5 20.35 +2.08 13 Search
2a Water 1830 1844 14
3 Gas 1920 1930 10 20.6 +1.35 13 Search
3a Water + Gas 1930 1939 9
4 Gas 2030 2040 10 21.3 +0.95 18 Search
5 Gas 2110 2120 10 22.4 +1.25 20 Search
5a Water 2120 2121 1
6 Gas 2188 2210 22 22.8 +0.85 22 Perspective
Search!!!!
6a Water 2210 2212 2
7 Water + Gas 2225 2232 7
8 Gas 2759 2770 11 27.65 0.0 14
8a Water 2770 2774 4
9 Water + Gas 2820 2835 15
10 Water + Gas 3400 3423 23
11 Water + Gas 3590 3609 19
12 Water + Gas 3779 3783 4
13 Gas 4070 4080 10 43.1 +2.25 13 Search
13a Water 4080 4090 10
14 Gas 4220 4226 6 43.0 +0.77 15 Search
14a Water 4226 4232 6
15 Water + Gas 4760 4783 23
16 Water + Gas 5230 5241 11

Processing Results of Minous Structure Area

(Conophagos et al.)

The satellite image of the area location was processed on a scale of 1:150,000
(Fig. 22.3). This is a reconnaissance mode for images processing. The preliminary,
frequency-resonance processing of the image was performed on August 20–21,
2017.
A relatively large anomalous zone of the “Oil & Gas” type was detected and
mapped on the surveyed area. In Fig. 22.3, the anomalous zone is represented in
isolines of fluids pressure in reservoir. The maximum pressure value is 25.5 MPa.
Anomalous responses at resonance frequencies of the gas were detected in the
contours of the detected anomaly (within the isoline of 0 MPa). In addition,
anomalous responses at resonant frequencies of oil are recorded in the contour of
20 MPa isoline.
By additional processing of the image in the depth interval 0–5000 m two
intervals of reservoir pressures were established: (1) 12.22–13.1 MPa; (2) 23.44–
25.5 MPa.
22 Application of Frequency-Resonance Method of Satellite Images … 193

Fig. 22.2 Results of vertical scanning at the drilling point of the search well “Onisiforos West-1”
in the Mediterranean (Block 11 on the Cyprus offshore). Interval of scanning: 1700–6000 m
194 S. Levashov et al.

Fig. 22.3 Map of anomalous zone of the “Oil & Gas” type on the offshore to south of Crete.
1—scale of maximum values of reservoir pressure, MPa; 2—point of the anomalous zone
maximum; coordinates: 24.86175, 34.60043°; 3—position of the seismic profile

The area of the detected anomaly: (a) along the 0 MPa contour—about 426 km2;
(b) along an isoline of 20 MPa—about 213 km2. Within the mapped anomaly the
channel of deep fluids vertical migration was not detected.
The operatively obtained results of frequency-resonance processing of the
satellite image of MINOAS seismic profile (structure) location testify to the
expediency of performing the detailed search operations on this site (area).
At the initial stage of this site further study, it is advisable to perform a satellite
image processing of the location of the detected anomalous zone on a larger scale
(on 1:50,000 and larger).

Conclusions

1. Within the surveyed search area in the Mediterranean Sea the works of
demonstration character have been carried out, not detailed. As a result, an
anomaly of the “gas deposit” type was discovered and mapped in the area
of the “Onisiforos West-1” well drilling! The area of the anomalous zone
along the isoline of 0 MPa is of the order of 42 km2, and along the isoline of
50 MPa it is approximately 29 km2.
22 Application of Frequency-Resonance Method of Satellite Images … 195

2. By the scanning of the vertical cross-section in the depth interval of 1700–

6000 m in the area of the prospecting well location seven anomalous polarized
layers (APLs) of the “gas” type were identified, promising to detect gas deposits.
The depths and thicknesses of the APLs of “gas” type have been determined,
and reservoir pressures and porosity have been estimated in the intervals of their
location.
3. Within the contours of the mapped anomaly, a channel of deep fluids vertical
migration was detected and localized. Estimation of reservoir pressure values
at the central point of the channel was about 80 MPa.
4. The results of operatively conducted experimental studies of reconnaissance
character increase, as a whole, the probability of gas accumulations (deposits)
detection in the “Onisiforos West-1” well. However, the minimal volume of
research performed does not allow authors to unequivocally conclude that these
accumulations will be in commercial volumes or not. Detailed studies in the
contours of the detected “Gas-1” anomaly on a larger scale can contribute to the
formation of more concrete (certain) conclusions on this problem.
5. The received materials will be used in the future to demonstrate (advertise) the
operability and potential capabilities of mobile and direct-prospecting technol-
ogy of frequency-resonance processing and decoding of remote sensing data.

References

Conophagos E., Lygeros N., Foscolos A. PGS shows a Giant target-reserve south of Crete. http://
www.lygeros.org/articles.php?n=21015&l=en
Levashov S.P., Yakymchuk N.A., Korchagin I.N. (2010) New possibilities of the oil-and-gas
prospects operative estimation of exploratory areas, difficult of access and remote territories,
license blocks. Geoinformatika, 3, 22–43. (in Russian)
Levashov S.P., Yakymchuk N.A., Korchagin I.N. (2011) Assessment of relative value of the
reservoir pressure of fluids: results of the experiments and prospects of practical applications.
Geoinformatika, 2, 19–35. (in Russian)
Levashov S.P., Yakymchuk N.A., Korchagin I.N. (2012) Frequency-resonance principle, mobile
geoelectric technology: a new paradigm of Geophysical Investigation. Geophysical Journal, 34,
4, 167–176. (in Russian)
Levashov S.P., Yakymchuk N.A., Korchagin I.N., Bozhezha D.N. (2015a) Mobile technologies of
direct prospecting for oil and gas: feasibility of their additional application in selecting sites of
well drilling. Geoinformatika, 3, 5–30 [in Russian]
Levashov S.P., Yakymchuk N.A., Korchagin I.N., Bozhezha D.N. (2015b) Operative assessment
of hydrocarbon potential of area in region of Zohr gas field on the Egypt offshore in the
Mediterranean Sea by the frequency-resonance method of remote sensing data processing and
interpretation. Geoinformatika, 4, 5–16. (in Russian).
Levashov S.P., Yakymchuk N.A., Korchagin I.N., Bozhezha D.N., Prylukov V.V. (2016) Mobile
direct–prospecting technology: facts of the channels detection and localization of the fluids
vertical migration - additional evidence for deep hydrocarbon synthesis. Geoinformatika, 2, 5–23
(in Russian)
196 S. Levashov et al.

Levashov, S.P., Yakymchuk, N.A., Korchagin, I.N. and Bozhezha, D.N. (2017a), Application of
mobile and direct-prospecting technology of remote sensing data frequency-resonance
processing for the vertical channels of deep fluids migration detection. NCGT Journal, v. 5,
no. 1, March 2017, p. 48–91. www.ncgt.org
Levashov Sergey, Yakymchuk Nikolay, and Korchagin Ignat. (2017b), On the Possibility of Using
Mobile and Direct -Prospecting Geophysical Technologies to Assess the Prospects of Oil -Gas
Content in Deep Horizons. Oil and Gas Exploration: Methods and Application. Said Gaci and
Olga Hachay Editors. April 2017, American Geophysical Union. p. 209–236.
Yakymchuk, N. A., Levashov, S. P., Korchagin, I. N., & Bozhezha, D. N. (2015, March 23).
Mobile Technology of Frequency-Resonance Processing and Interpretation of Remote Sensing
Data: The Results of Application in Different Region of Barents Sea. Offshore Technology
Conference. https://doi.org/10.4043/25578-ms. https://www.onepetro.org/conference-paper/
OTC-25578-MS
Energy…http://www.cyprusprofile.com/en/articles/view/energy-giants-upbeat-over-block-11-
prospects
Drilling … http://www.leptosestates.com/news/leptos-cyprus-news/Drilling-Ship
Vessel … http://www.marinetraffic.com/en/ais/details/ships/shipid:419249/mmsi:356736000/ imo:
9372523/vessel:WEST_CAPELLA#HPBV6rLfRvkTh11y.99
Chapter 23
Evolution of Ideas on the Nature
and Structure of Ladoga Anomaly
of Electrical Conductivity

A. A. Zhamaletdinov, I. I. Rokityansky and E. Yu. Sokolova

Abstract Several stages of the Ladoga conductivity anomaly study are discussed.
The Ladoga anomaly was discovered in the late 70s by means of magnetovariational
observations by research team of the Institute of geophysics from Kyyiv (Ukraine). At
the next step, in 80s the anomaly was studied by magnetotelluric method. The third
stage of the deep studies was realized in 2013–2015 by means of integrated mag-
netotelluric and magnetovariational profiling. Each of three stages were completed by
construction of specific geoelectrical models of the anomalous area up to the depth of
30–40 km. In the fourth stage, in 2015 and 2017 the studies were performed by means
of DC electrical profiling with the use of multielectrode installations in complex with
AMT soundings. According to results of the fourth stage, an unambiguous conclusion
was drawn on the connection of the upper part of the Ladoga anomaly (till the depth of
1–2 km) with electronically-conducting sulfide-carbonaceous rocks. The structure
and nature of the deeper part of the Ladoga anomaly requires further investigations on
the base of integration of geological and complex geophysical methods.

Keywords Ladoga anomaly
Electrical conductivity
Magnetotellurics

DC profiling

A. A. Zhamaletdinov (&)
SpbF IZMIRAN, St. Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
A. A. Zhamaletdinov
Geological Institute of the Kola Science Centre of RAS, Apatity, Russia
I. I. Rokityansky
Institute of Geophysics of NANU, Kiev, Ukraine
e-mail: [email protected]
E. Yu. Sokolova
Institute of Physics of the Earth RAS, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
E. Yu. Sokolova
All-Russian Research Geological Oil Institute, Moscow, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 197

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_23
198 A. A. Zhamaletdinov et al.

Introduction

Ladoga anomaly of electrical conductivity is a subject of research for more than three
decades. On the Russian territory, Ladoga anomaly is traced along the northwestern
and southeastern coasts of Lake Ladoga. It is a part of Ladoga-Bothnian anomalous
zone (LBA) that stretches in the northwestern direction for more than 1000 km in
Finland and Sweden (Fig. 23.1).
The Northern Ladoga electrical conductivity anomaly is confined within the
system of long-lived faults, oriented in the northwest direction and located in the
region of the junction of two major tectonic units—Karelian (Archaean) and
Svecofennian (Proterozoic). The anomalous behavior of magnetotelluric field in the
Northern Ladoga area was discovered firstly by N.V. Lazareva on the profile
Lahdenpohja-Sortavala-Lake Kaitonijarvi of a total length 150 km. According to
the data of magnetotelluric soundings (MTS) in the range of periods from 10 to
500 s, abrupt changes of apparent resistivity values from 10 Xm to 600,000 Xm
were recorded. N.V. Lazareva had connected the reason for the drastic changes with
the influence of tectonics. In the following years the main interest was aroused by
the question of the deep structure of the Ladoga anomaly. The researches were
conducted in several stages which are considered below in chronological order.

Fig. 23.1 Fennoscandian

Ladoga-bothnian anomaly
(LBA) of electrical
conductivity. 1—axis of high
conductivity (1000 Sm and
more), 2—middle
conductivity (10–100 Sm),
3—the boundary of Russian
platform. 4—Pechenga area
23 Evolution of Ideas on the Nature and Structure of Ladoga … 199

Magnetovariational Study

The first model of the Ladoga anomaly deep structure was proposed by results of
magnetovariational profiling (MVP), performed by Institute of Geophysics of
Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (Rokityansky et al. 1981). The position of mea-
suring points of MVP and conductive body location in the plan is shown in
Fig. 23.2a.
The asymmetric behavior of the horizontal component of the anomalous mag-
netic field (Fig. 23.2b) was supposed as possible interpretation factor. On this basis
it was suggested that Ladoga anomaly can have the northeastern dipping at an angle
of about 30–45°. The center of the anomalous body was estimated at a depth of
10 km. The integral conductivity G ¼ r
S ¼ 108 m=X, where r-electrical specific
conductivity in 1/Xm and S is the square of the cross section of the anomalous body
in m2.

Magnetotelluric and Audiomagnetotellurics Sounding

The next model of the deep structure of Ladoga anomaly has been compiled on the
base of results of audiomagnetotelluric and magnetotelluric soundings (MTS and
AMTS), conducted in 80s of the last century by Saint Petersburg (former
Leningrad) Mining Institute (SPbMI) and Saint Petersburg (former Leningrad) State
University (SPbGU). By means of numerical simulation of MTS and AMTS data
the two-dimensional model has been constructed in Vasin et al. (1993). In the
anomaly cross-section the model demonstrates a wide area of low resistivity,
extending to a depth of 30–40 km and not having a certain dip angle. The model is
given on the Fig. 23.3.

Fig. 23.2 Ladoga anomaly. a—location in plan; b—cross section and graphs of MVP data
200 A. A. Zhamaletdinov et al.

Fig. 23.3 2D model of the Ladoga anomaly by results of AMT-MT data. Legend—signs 1–6
show resistivity from 500 till 5 Xm

According to this model the width of the Ladoga anomaly is approximately

60 km at the surface, and 100–120 km at a depth of 30 km. The resistivity of the
anomaly decreases from 200–300 Xm at the surface to 5–25 Xm at a depth of
30 km. Three epicenters of high conductivity are marked on the Fig. 23.3 by
arrows. Arrow 1 coincides with I. Rokityansky anomaly near to Elisenvaara village
(Fig. 23.2). The similar model of the deep electrical conductivity of Northern
Ladoga anomaly was obtained independently on the profile Gdov-Spasskaya guba
by means of MTS-AMTS researches implemented in complex with the deep
seismic soundings (Sviridenko et al. 2017). Low-frequency magnetotelluric
soundings conducted by the group of Kovtun et al. (2004) on the territory of the
Russian platform, revealed the LBA continuation to the south of Lake Ladoga by
more than 100 km under the sedimentary cover at depths of 3–10 km (Fig. 23.3).

Integrated MT-MV Soundings

The third model of the Ladoga anomaly structure was derived on the results of
synchronous MT-MV soundings performed by working group “Ladoga” (Sokolova
et al. 2016, 2017).
The interest to Ladoga anomaly has recently arisen again in response to actual
needs of Precambrian geological studies. That happened due to increased possi-
bilities of modern magnetotelluric and magnetovariational deep sounding methods:
digital synchronous recording, GPS positioning and synchronization, advanced
processing and inversion techniques developed and introduced into MTS practice
23 Evolution of Ideas on the Nature and Structure of Ladoga … 201

by the end of the first decade of XXI century. The MT group of SPbGU
(A. A. Kovtun) has invited MT researches from Moscow (Moscow State
University) to combine efforts and to initiate new stage of Ladoga anomaly
instrumental investigations in the frames of “Ladoga” WG collaboration.
“Nord-West” Ltd has provided invaluable assistance in the implementation of this
idea and the large MT/MV sounding project has been organized.
The observations were implemented by the 200 km long Vyborg-Suojarvi
profile in 2013–2014 with the use of “Phoenix” and “LEMI” stations. The study
have resulted in 50 broad-band and 9 long period MT/MV soundings with syn-
chronous recording in remote bases (Fig. 23.4).
Several modern processing techniques and software provided by equipment
manufacturers and remote reference and multi-RR schemes with magnetic and/or
electric remotes were used to suppress EM noises. The data of geomagnetic
observatories Nurmijarvi, Mekkrijarvi, Suwalki and permanent geomagnetic
observations of St. Petersburg Branch of IZMIRAN in lake Krasnoe were used for
long period synchronization of data obtained by different stations. The resulting
local (impedance Z, tipper Wz) and inter-stations (horizontal magnetic tensor M)
transfer functions have been estimated in broad band of periods (0.003–2048 s).
Their invariant analyses has defined general azimuth (45–50° NE) and dimen-
sionality (quasi-2D with local 3D distortions) of the data and thus approved
application of 2D interpretational approach (Sokolova et al. 2016).

Fig. 23.4 Location and results of MT-MV investigations, made by the “Ladoga” WG. Letters in
circles: a—real induction vectors at period 1024 s (after Sokolova et al. 2016); b—real induction
vectors at 1800 s; c—proposed axis of the deep crustal conductor
202 A. A. Zhamaletdinov et al.

The inversions based on the robust code (Varentsov 2007) have produced the
model of Ladoga anomaly, which demonstrates, that it is caused not by a unique
anomalous object but a complicated ensemble of conductive features of different
structural identity (Fig. 23.5a) (Sokolova and Ladoga 2017).
Results of this work revealed the general South-Western fall of the underlying
conductive structures that form the Ladoga anomaly, and allowed to spend the
geotectonic interpretation of the section of electrical conductivity of the crust taking
into account the regional results given by reflection seismic and by potential geo-
physics (Mints et al. 2017).
The high resolution of the cross-section has permitted to carry out the infor-
mative tectonic interpretation (Fig. 23.5b). At mid-crustal levels the conductive
structures are generally characterized by distinct S-W dipping. Presumably they
correspond to thrust zones, developed along graphite-bearing slippery surfaces of
supracrustal Palaeoproterozoic formations during their accretion/thrusting upon the
SW border of Karelian Craton in the late Palaeoproterozoic. At the upper levels
they are steepening and connecting to the major fault zones recognized at the
surface, including activated neotectonic ones bordering Ladoga-Bothnian tectonic
zone. Probably at these levels the conductance of the layers is increased by

Fig. 23.5 Results of 2D inversion of MT-MV data on the Vyborg-Suojarvi profile (a) and its
geological interpretation (b)
23 Evolution of Ideas on the Nature and Structure of Ladoga … 203

mineralized aqueous fluids (due to meteoric water) gathered in weakened fault

zones. In the upper crust (5–7 km) of NE part of the profile bowl-formed associ-
ation of conductive features is imaged, which describes the structure of
Raahe-Ladoga suture zone across its *50-km width.
In the SW part of the resistivity cross-section significant inflation of the deepest
conductive layer (about 15–25 km depth) was found which produces the very
long-period Ladoga anomaly originally discovered by pioneering MVS surveys.
One can assume that this extremum of the conductivity is caused by deeply
metamorphosed complexes of South-Finland Granulite-Gneiss Belt which could be
similar to exhumed formations of Lapland Granulite Belt and include crystalline
graphite. The formations of the coarse- and medium-flaky graphite exposed at the
famous Ikhal’sky deposit, located in the nappe of the South-Finland Belt, probably
represent these deep-seated fabric. However at NE segment of the profile, in per-
icratonic zone, the enhance upper-crustal conductivity is connected with often
exposed graphite- and sulphide-bearing sedimentary-volcanic Kalevian and Ladoga
series of lower metamorphic stages.

Electrical DC Profiling in Combination with AMT

One of the weak points in the study of the Ladoga anomaly, hindering the eluci-
dation of its nature, is the absence of more or less complete information about the
conductivity of rocks coming close to the surface. This is observed both in Russia
and in foreign parts of LBA (Fig. 23.1). Existing data of electrical prospecting is
fragmental and do not provide information about the conductivity rocks across the
width of the Ladoga anomaly. At the same time, the specificity of the geoelectrical
conditions of the Baltic shield requires consideration of the electrical conductivity
of rocks near the location of the receiver line when performing deep soundings with
natural and controlled sources (Zhamaletdinov 1990). The main reasons for the lack
of extended electrical studies in the Northern Ladoga area was difficult terrain
conditions and extreme tortuosity of the coastline of Lake Ladoga and adjacent
roads. In order to fill up the gap the DC electric profiling in combination with
AMT-MTS has been made by the joint team of Geological Institute of the Kola
science center of RAS and Institute of Geology of the Karelian research center in
2015 and in 2017 (Fig. 23.6).
Two of the most contrasting electrical conductivity anomalies have been dis-
covered near the villages Elisenvaara and Suistamo (Fig. 23.6). Both anomalies are
of extremely low values of apparent resistivity (units and tenths of ohmmeters),
testifying to their electronic conductive nature. They are related to the presence of
sulfide-carbonaceous rocks. The Western anomaly, near Elisenvaara (Grand
anomaly) has a visible width of 7 km. It coincides with epicenter of MVP anomaly
(Fig. 23.2a) and with the Western epicenter of AMT-MTS anomaly marked by
arrow number 1 on Figs. 23.3 and 23.6.
204 A. A. Zhamaletdinov et al.

Fig. 23.6 Results of electrical DC profiling by MESD method a—graph of the specific resistivity
according to results of 1D inversion; b—the 2D section according to MESD

The effect of the influence of conductive zone on the AMT data is demonstrated
on the Fig. 23.7 on the example of Janisyarvi anomaly situated near to Suistamo
village (site 28 on the Fig. 23.6).
The thickness of the conductive layer is 0.2 km. With the increase of distances
between conductor and AMT sites to the West from anomaly (on Proterozoic rocks)
and to the East from anomaly (on Archaean rocks) the level of apparent resistivity
curves happens to be higher and higher. Accordingly, the depth till the roof of
hypothetical (seeming) conductive layer became more and more, changing from
0.3 km at the center till 5–10 km and more at distance of 1–2 km from anomaly.
The experiment on the Fig. 23.7 shows that the question of the nature and structure
of the deep Ladoga anomaly more fully can be solved only by a detailed study of
AMT-MTS and MVP in a wide range of frequencies and in close correlation with
the DC profiling. Digits in circles—distances between AMT site and the center of
conductor to the West (−0.2, −0.8 km) and to the East (0.2, 0.8, 1.6 km). The
central AMT curve is marked by 0.
This is especially evident in the Grand anomaly (30–37 km on the Fig. 23.6)
appearing in the complex of supercrustal rocks. Its detailed study shows that
electron-conductive objects appearing on the day surface can not be described
within the framework of a two-dimensional approach. Moreover, within the greater

Fig. 23.7 The influence of

electron-conductive zone on
results of AMT sounding on
the example of Janisyarvi
fault zone
23 Evolution of Ideas on the Nature and Structure of Ladoga … 205

part of the Northern Ladoga they are distributed sporadically in the supracrustal
sequences flanking the dome-shaped structure granites and gneisses (Sviridenko
et al. 2017). In these conditions when processing results of the deep MT-AMT
soundings requires careful, reasoned invariant analysis of the MT/MV transfer
functions, the selection of material for interpretation. Not in vain in Vasin et al.
(1993) of the 29 curves AMT-MTS selected only 15 different “best consistent”
when building two-dimensional numerical model of the structure of the Ladoga
zone.

Conclusion

After this overview, we can conclude that the question on the deep structure and
nature of the Ladoga anomaly can’t be resolved with the use of the deep electro-
magnetic soundings only. The further researche should integrate joint analysis of
the near-surface DC profiling and the deep electromagnetic soundings in complex
with seismic, geothermic and potential fields data, physical rock properties and
should be finalized by geological syntheses. The graphite hypotheses of Ladoga
anomaly nature, supported by many authors, should be comprehensively verified
and estimated taking into account the hypothesis of Klabukov (2006), assuming
two-level structure of the conductivity anomalies in the whole Ladoga-Bothnian
zone (electronically conductive rocks at the surface and fluid zones at a depth of
10–40 km)

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the ccolleagues from IG KarRC of RAS, GI
KolRC of RAS, geomagnetic observatories Nurmijarvi, Mekkrijarvi, Suwalki, Krasnoe as well as
the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) for supporting projects No. 15-05-01214,
16-05-00543, 16-05-00975, 18-05-00528.

References

Klabukov B.N. (2006). Possibilities of petroelectrics in the study of the earth’s crust of Karelia. //
Geology and minerals of Karelia. Issue. 9. Petrozavodsk: KarRC RAS, 2006. P. 127–134.
Kovtun A.A., Vardanyants I.L., Legenkova N.P., Smirnov M.Yu., Uspensky N.I. (2004). Features
of the structure of the Karelian region according to geoelectric researches. // Deep structure and
seismicity of the Karelo-Kola region (ed. N.V. Sharov). Petrozavodsk: Kar.SC RAS, 2004.
P.102–130.
Mints, M.V., Sokolova, E.Yu., LADOGA Working Group, (2017). Volumetric model of the deep
structure of the Svecofennian accretionary orogen based on data from CMP seismic profiling,
MT sounding and density modeling. Proceedings of the Karelian Research Center of the
Russian Academy of Sciences, Precambrian Geology. No. 11 (in Russian). https://doi.org/10.
17076/geo656
Rokityansky I.I., Kulik S.N., Rokityanskaya D.A. (1981) Ladoga anomaly of electrical
conductivity // Geofiz. Journal. Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. 1981. Volume 3. №2.
Pp. 97–99.
206 A. A. Zhamaletdinov et al.

Sokolova E.Yu., Golubtsova NS, Kovtun AA, Kulikov VA, Lozovsky IN, Pushkarev P.Yu.,
Rokityansky II, Taran Ya.V., Yakovlev A. G. (2016). Results of synchronous magnetotelluric
and magnetovariational soundings in the Ladoga anomaly of electrical conductivity //
Geophysika. №1. P. 48–64 (in Russian).
Sokolova E.Yu., LADOGA WG. (2017). Synchronous MT/MV sounding experiment across Lake
Ladoga Conductivity Anomaly. // In: Deep structure and geodynamics of Lake Ladoga region.
Petrozavodsk, Inst. of Geology of the KRC RAS. P. 204–2014.
Sviridenko L.P., Isanina E.V., Sharov N.V. (2017). The deep structure of volcanoplutonism and
tectonics of the Ladoga area. // Proceedings of the Karelian Research Center of the Russian
Academy of Sciences No. 2. 2017. P. 73–85. DOI:10.17076 / geo336
Varentsov Iv.M. (2007). Joint robust inversion of magnetotelluric and magnetovariational data.
Electromagnetic sounding of the Earth’s interior. Methods in geochemistry and geophysics. V. 40. /
Ed. Spichak V.V. Elsevier. 2007. P. 189–222.
Vasin N.D., Kovtun A.A., Popov M.K. (1993) Ladoga anomaly of electrical conductivity. // In
kN.: The structure of the lithosphere of the Baltic Shield (edited by NV Sharov). Moscow.
VINITI, 1993. p. 69–71.
Zhamaletdinov A.A. (1990) Model of the electrical conductivity of the lithosphere from results of
studies with controlled sources of the field (Baltic Shield, Russian Platform). // L. Science.,
1990. 159 p. (monograph in Russian).
Chapter 24
The Use of Gravimetry for Studying
Shelf of the North Barents Basin

M. Chadaev, V. Kostitsyn, V. Gershanok, R. Iblaminov,

G. Prostolupov and M. Tarantin

Abstract The continental shelf and slope of the Arctic seas contain many
hydrocarbons and mineral deposits. An important object of shelf crust study is a
Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity as a principle factor in formation of the struc-
tural and fault features. The paper considers the feasibility of gravimetry for
studying inhomogeneities of the structure of the crust. On the basis of the VECTOR
technology, a new technological scheme “Extension of gravitational anomal lower
half-space, using seismic profile as a baseline” was developed and implemented. As
a result, direct relationships between the anomalies of Dg and Moho depths were
established. Conclusion about the feasibility of applying the transformations of the
field in the VECTOR system for the study of the Earth’s crust on the shelf and
continental transition zone was made.

Keywords Basin
Shelf
Earth’s crust
Moho
Gravimetry

Possibility of the use of gravimetry in studying inhomogeneities of the structure of

the Earth’s crust had previously been repeatedly proven and is undisputed. This
gives prerequisites for successful application of remote geophysical methods, in
particular the gravimetry, for the study of the continental shelf of the Arctic seas
near the northern borders of the Russian Federation, containing rich hydrocarbon
and mineral deposits (Petrov et al. 2016). An important object of shelf crust study is
a Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity as a principle factor in formation of the
structural and fault features, contributing in formation and placement of mineral
deposits.

M. Chadaev
G. Prostolupov (&)
M. Tarantin

Mining Institute UB RAS, Perm, Russian Federation
e-mail: [email protected]
V. Kostitsyn
V. Gershanok
R. Iblaminov
Perm State University, Perm, Russian Federation

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 207

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_24
208 M. Chadaev et al.

Computer system VECTOR developed in the Mining Institute UB RAS

(Prostolupov et al. 2006; Chadaev et al. 2014; Chadaev et al. 2016) was used as a
main operating tool for interpretation of gravity data. Produced in the system 3D
transform of the field can be considered as a quasi-density model of medium.
Horizontal slices and vertical cuts were used for analysis, integration, and inter-
pretation of geological data.
The main features of the structure of the Arctic shelf, continent and their juncture
are presented at the horizontal slice of a three-dimensional gravity chart built into
the system VECTOR (Fig. 24.1). Area of study comprises the waters of the Arctic
Ocean with coastal seas and part of land of the Russian Federation, including more
detail territory of the northwestern part of the Barents Basin. On the map, the
contour line (purple color) with the absolute sea-bed level-200 m taken as a mor-
phological boundary, and the contours of the local uplifts within the Pechora and
Russian Plates (blue) are drawn.
Anomaly field is clearly differentiated on tramline extended positive anomalies,
associated with ridges and uplifts, and negative ones, associated with basins and
depressions. Many varying in size and intensity anomalies create an anomalous
gravitational field, which differs from the fields of the continent. Ridges and basins
are fairly regular, continuing into the Polar region.
Profiles a, b, c, d and e were formed on the map offshore the North Barents
Basin, to the west of the northern edge of the Novaya Zemlya Archipelago
(Fig. 24.2). Profile b coinciding with seismic profile MOV 200,707 was used as
reference. It also corresponds to the density model built earlier using the GRAV-3D
program. Density was defined taking into account the seismic velocity
(Zhemchugova et al. 2001).
On these five lines, the vertical cuts of 3D gravitational field were formed in
VECTOR system. Obtained cuts on profiles a, b, c, d and e provide extended
visualization of anomalouse space surrounding the reference profile b (Fig. 24.3).
Positive (1–5) and negative (6–10) anomalies are highlighted on the reference
cross-section (Fig. 24.3). Location of anomalies, their intensity, size, and config-
uration were used for the analysis and forecast of the Moho discontinuity surface
between profiles.
On the reference cross-section, the position of the boundary of the Moho is
shown (Grad et al. 2009). Smallest depth to the Moho surface is about 33 km, and
maximal depth is up to 35 km. Depth distribution of the poles PI representing
variety of equivalent sources (blue dots) was built using the program Polus2d
(Prostolupov and Tarantin 2013). Poles PI locate mainly in the basin regions.
Positive relief forms of the Moho discontinuity and shelf uplifts match mainly
the positive anomalies of the gravitational field transformed in the VECTOR sys-
tem. So on the profile a, in the depth range of 300–500 km, the positive anomaly
coincides with the elevated Moho structure, which amplitude is about 2 km. The
24 The Use of Gravimetry for Studying Shelf of the North Barents … 209

Fig. 24.1 Horizontal slice of the gravitational field transform dg obtained in the system
VECTOR. Shelf and the continent: I-Nansen Basin, II-Gakkel Ridge, III-Amundsen Basin.
Islands: 1-Kolguev, 2-Vaygach; 3-arch. Novaya Zemlya, 4-arch. Severnaya Zemlya. Blue shows
the contours of the uplift. Red line shows the position of the seismic profile (Piskaryov et al. 2016).
Contour (purple) marked −200 m refers to the sea-bed level. The contours of the local uplifts are
depicted in blue
210 M. Chadaev et al.

Fig. 24.2 Profiles layout (lines a, b, c, d and e) on the North Barents Basin. Contours: gravity
anomalies Dg (white color); anomaly field from VECTOR system (dark-blue); Moho depth section
(blue); isobath −200 m (purple)

negative form with an amplitude of 1.5 km is observed on profile d. It corresponds

to the relative negative gravity anomaly. Raised structures of bottom related to
dikes can be used as indicators of the Moho boundary uplifts.
The shelf bottom has uneven surface. There are elevations and depressions.
Assumed position of the edge of the shelf on the −200 m isobath is marked with
dotted lines (Fig. 24.3). On the vertical cuts, the limits of the shelf are marked with
“diamond” (on the top of each cut). Positive anomalies in the system VECTOR
(1–5) are usually confined to the high elevation areas of the seabed and the Moho
discontinuity surface.
24 The Use of Gravimetry for Studying Shelf of the North Barents … 211

Fig. 24.3 Vertical cuts obtained in the VECTOR system at profiles, shown in Fig. 24.2. The
“diamonds” show the edge of shelf location at −200 m isobath

Conclusions

A new technique to create 3D diagrams of the gravitational field transforms in the

VECTOR system and related horizontal slices and vertical cuts allows primarily
carry out express analysis of large territories. Usage of the seismic data significantly
212 M. Chadaev et al.

expands the opportunities of cross-section detailization aimed at better examining

the Moho boundary and consolidated crust. Experimental data allowed identifying
additional elements of the Earth’s crust structure outside the seismic profile. It is
possible to deploy the anomaly intensity decay to trace continuation of field sources
and to make an assumption about the continuation of the continental forms into the
shelf territory. It was found that positive gravity field anomalies usually correspond
to the higher elevation of the Moho surface and shelf bottom.

References

Zhemchugova, V.A., et al. (2001). Lower Paleozoic of the Pechora oil and gas bearing basin
(structure, formation conditions, oil resources). M.: Publishing House of the Academy of
mining Sciences. 110 p. (in Russian)
Petrov O.V., et al (2016). Large and unique mineral deposits in the Arctic region. Razvedka i
okhrana nedr 12, 8–11. (in Russian)
Piskaryov A.I. et al (2016) Structure of the eastern side of the North Barents Basin and the
prospects of discovery of major oilfields in the region.. Razvedka i okhrana nedr 1, 44–48. (in
Russian)
Prostolupov G.V. et al (2006) About interpretation the gravitational and magnetic fields based on
transformation of horizontal gradients in the system VECTOR. Fizika Zemli 6, 90–96. (in
Russian)
Prostolupov G.V. and M.V. Tarantin (2013) Polar transformation of gravitational potential
derivative. Geofizika 2, 13–18. (in Russian)
Chadaev M.S. et al (2014) Crustal structure according to gravimetry and magnetometry. Perm.
PSU. 95 p. (in Russian)
Chadaev M.S. et al (2016) Parametric relationships between geophysical and geochemical fields in
applied geology. Perm. PGNIU. 100 p. (in Russian)
Grad, M., T. Tiira and ESC Working Group (2009). The Moho depth map of the European Plate.
Geophysical Journal International 176: 279–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.2008.
03919.x
Chapter 25
An Iterative Solution of the 2-D
Non-Linear Magnetic Inversion
Problem with Particular Attention
to the Anisotropy of Magnetic
Susceptibility of Rocks

A. B. Raevsky, V. V. Balagansky, O. V. Rundkvist and S. V. Mudruk

Abstract A new method of the solution of the 2-D non-linear magnetic inverse
problem is considered as a tool for reconstructing the shape of large synforms that
contain strongly magnetic layers. It is based on an interpretation model consisting
of two components. The first is a 2-D geometrical model which imitates a synform
cross-section normal to the synform strike. The second is a set of elementary layers
making up a fold model. A specific feature of the layers is their magnetic sus-
ceptibility values that are different in directions parallel and normal to planar shape
fabrics of rocks. That is why of particular interest has been a consideration of the
impact of the magnetic susceptibility anisotropy of rocks in a measured magnetic
field. It has been shown that it can be significant and should be taken into account at
solving the magnetic inversion.

Keywords Magnetic field
Anisotropy
Inverse problem
Sheath fold

Introduction

The quantitative interpretation of the magnetic survey is crucial for reconstructing

the shape of near-surface structures from the magnetic inversion. In this paper we
provide an advanced version of the algorithm based on the solution of the 2-D
non-linear magnetic inverse problem and described in Raevskii (2008). This
method has been used for reconstructing the shape of the large-scale Serpovidny
synformal fold in the Keivy terrane of the northeastern Baltic shield which has a
sheath shape from orientation data (Mudruk et al. 2013). A specific feature of this

A. B. Raevsky
V. V. Balagansky
O. V. Rundkvist (&)
S. V. Mudruk

Geological Institute of the Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Apatity, Russian Federation
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 213

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_25
214 A. B. Raevsky et al.

fold is that strongly magnetic layers have different values of their magnetic sus-
ceptibility. Therefore, the impact of the magnetic susceptibility anisotropy of rocks
in a measured magnetic field should be considered among other factors that are
decisive for the solution of the 2-D magnetic inverse problem.

General Information

The land magnetic survey was performed for the western part of the Serpovidny
fold on grids 25  5 and 50  5 m. In its eastern part, measurements were done
only along four profiles with a step of 20 m. All profiles are oriented orthogonally
to the fold strike. The magnetometer receiver was located 0.5 m above the ground
surface. The measurement uncertainty in areas of low and high gradient magnetic
field was ±5 nT and ±20 nT, respectively. The magnetic field values varied in an
interval of 7000 nT. The accepted normal magnetic field parameters corresponded
to those of the model IGRF 11 (Maus et al. 2010).
To consistently model the Serpovidny fold, we have used eight parameters: x1,
xa, xn, b1, bn, H1, Hq, Hn (Fig. 25.1a). These parameters allow approximating
synformal folds of different morphological types by varying these parameters.
Zones of the maximum magnetic field gradient are accepted to indicate contacts
between rock units that are strongly and weakly magnetic.
Measurements of magnetic susceptibility in 97 rock samples showed that lon-
gitudinal jt (in the plane orthogonal to planar shape fabric) exceed transverse jn (in
the plane parallel to planar shape fabric). According to measured anisotropy values
(Fig. 25.1b), we may divide rocks into two groups based on factor f = jn/jt:
weakly anisotropic (f > 0.5) and highly anisotropic (f < 0.5) (Fig. 25.1c). It is
obvious that rocks with f values about 0.4 and 0.7–0.8 have a considerable influence
on amplitude and the magnetization vector inclination angle in each elementary

Fig. 25.1 a 2-D geometric model visualizing an orthogonal section through the Serpovidny fold
core (AST, axial plane trace). F, B. F′, B′, reference points defining the fold shape. b1, bi, ba, bn,
dip angle (b1, ba, bn, measured; ba, weighted average of b1 and bn); x1, xi, xa, xn, horizontal
coordinate; H1, Hq, Hi, Ha, Hn, vertical coordinate (depth; Ha, function of coordinates of H1 and
Hn). b Variations and c histogram of the magnetic anisotropy factor f through the generalized
cross-section of the Serpovidny fold core
25 An Iterative Solution of the 2-D Non-Linear Magnetic Inversion … 215

layer of the fold. Therefore, magnetic anisotropy parameters of model synform

elementary layers should be included into an equation that describes an observed
anomalous field. For each elementary layer we consider longitudinal magnetic
susceptibility and magnetic anisotropy factor to be constant. The lower part of the
synform is approximated by two objects with magnetic properties identical to its
limbs (Fig. 25.1a). Values of jt and f in the lower parts of the synform separated by
the axial plane (i.e. parts of the hinge) are equated to the respective parameters of
the upper part.
To solve the 2-D forward magnetic problem we need to calculate components of
the induced magnetization vector for all elementary layers (J) in a vertical plane
orthogonal to the fold strike. An effect of magnetic anisotropy should be incor-
porated in the equation, therefore we set the following parameters: |B0|, modulus of
normal magnetic field B0; a, inclination of vector B0; H, magnetic azimuth of fold


 ¼ b þb
strike; b i i i þ 1 =2, average dip angle of elementary layer (i); ki, longitu-
dinal magnetic susceptibility of elementary layer (i); fi, magnetic anisotropy factor
of elementary layer (i); Bh, the normal field vector projection on the vertical plane
orthogonal to fold strike; ah, inclination of vector Bh. Thus, modulus |Ji| and
inclination angle ui of magnetization vector Ji (Fig. 25.1) can be defined for each
elementary layer by formulas
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
jJi j ¼ ji jBh j cos2 ci þ fi2 sin2 ci ;   di :
ui ¼ b i

where
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
jBh j¼jB0 j sin2 h cos2 a þ sin2 a;
!
sin a
ah ¼ arcsin pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
sin h cos2 a þ sin2 a
2

di ¼ arctanðfi tan c Þ; c ¼ b   ah :
i i i

A reconstructed shape of the original synform represents a synform cross-section

which varies in dependence on reference points’ coordinates given for synform. The
magnetic susceptibility of each layer is set to be uniform (Fig. 25.2c). Solving the
2-D forward magnetic problem for the synform, we can estimate an impact of the
magnetic anisotropy on an anomalous magnetic field (Fig. 25.2d). According to
tests, the influence of magnetic anisotropy may change the magnetic field value by
up to 500 nT even at boundaries of magnetic anomalies. Therefore, the magnetic
anisotropy of rocks is crucial for the solution of the 2-D non-linear magnetic
inversion.
Furthermore, average values of factor f calculated from measurements along the
generalized profile can significantly vary across the fold strike (Fig. 25.1c). Hence,
the solution must also include the relationships between factor f and horizontal
coordinate xi of elementary layer i. To show factor f variations along the profile, we
use a smoothing approximation with cubic splines based on three parameters: f1 at
216 A. B. Raevsky et al.

Fig. 25.2 a Relationships between magnetization vector Ji and geomagnetic induction vector BH
in an elementary layer dipping at angle bi and displaying the magnetic susceptibility anisotropy.
b Geometry of a synform imitating the Serpovidny fold core (cross-section). c–d Variations of
values of the magnetization vector inclination ui (c) and magnetic induction modulus (d) across a
test fold at anisotropy factor values of 1 and 0.5

x1, fa at xa and fn at xn. Combining these parameters with horizontal coordinate xi,
we can define factor f for each elementary layer and generate functions of f either
monotone or having extremums at xa.
After setting the magnetic anisotropy factor and geometrical parameters defining
magnetization of each elementary layer i, the longitudinal magnetic susceptibility ki
remains the only unknown parameter. This parameter is a linear factor in equations
of components of anomalous magnetic field. Therefore, it can be determined by the
solution to the linear magnetic inverse problem with respect to the longitudinal
magnetic susceptibility.

Iterative Linearization Method and Other Approaches

To solve the magnetic inverse problem with respect to magnetic susceptibility, we

apply a linearization procedure that is based on the iterative method proposed in
(Raevskii 2008) instead of observed values of magnetic induction Bobs. Applying
the quadratic form s ¼ B2  B20 where B0 is the normal magnetic field modulus we
25 An Iterative Solution of the 2-D Non-Linear Magnetic Inversion … 217

have got an equation which for the 2-D magnetic field at point j is represented by a
recurrent formula
h i h i
ðl þ 1Þ
smod ðjÞ  Zaðl þ 1Þ ðjÞ ZaðlÞ ðjÞ þ 2Z0 ðjÞ þ Haðl þ 1Þ ðjÞ HaðlÞ ðjÞ þ 2H0 ðjÞ cos A ð25:1Þ

where Z0, H0 and Za, Ha are respectively normal and anomalous field components,
and A is the magnetic azimuth of a plane orthogonal to the synform strike.
Considering anomalous field components as linear operators and taking into
account magnetic susceptibility values of elementary layers k(i) we can express
Eq. (25.1) as an iterative process on the l-th step:

Za ðjÞ ¼ Ri kðiÞaði; jÞ and Ha ðjÞ ¼ Ri kðiÞbði; jÞ; ð25:2Þ

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
aði; jÞ ¼ jBh j cos2 ci þ fi2 sin2 ci ½Wxz ði; jÞ cos ci þ Wzz ði; jÞ sin ci  ð25:3Þ

and
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
bði; jÞ ¼ jBh j cos2 ci þ fi2 sin2 ci ½Wxz ði; jÞ sin ci  Wzz ði; jÞ cos ci : ð25:4Þ

In these formulas Wxz and Wzz are geometric factors of 2-D quadrangular prism
gravitational potential derivatives approximating elementary layers (Mudretsova,
1981).
ðlÞ ðlÞ
Anomalous field components Za ðjÞ and Ha ðjÞ can be presented for the next
iteration in form (25.2) and incorporate into Eq. (25.1), we can write a recurrent
formula which is a linear system with respect to magnetic susceptibility k(i)(l+1) and
is written as
X
jðiÞðl þ 1Þ cði; jÞðlÞ ¼ sobs ðjÞ ð25:5Þ
i

where
h i h i
cði; jÞðlÞ ¼ aði; jÞ ZaðlÞ ðjÞ þ 2Z0 ðjÞ þ bði; jÞ HaðlÞ ðjÞ þ 2H0 ðjÞ cos A :

In the given expression parameter c(i,j)(l) is defined by Eqs. (25.2), (25.3), and
(25.4), using values of anomalous field components from previous iteration (25.5).
Finally, implementing of the misfit minimization problem into recurrent form (25.1)
permits evaluating the quality of a solution of the magnetic inverse problem. It is
the base for choosing the optimal synform model

ksobs  smod k ¼ min; d ¼ kBobs  Bmod k ¼ min:

218 A. B. Raevsky et al.

The proposed method is based on an interpretation model that incorporates both

the geometry and the anomalous magnetic field properties. For the further opera-
tions we represent their geometrical parameters (Fig. 25.1), the magnetic anisotropy
factor and coordinates of left and right background noise compensators as com-
ponents of parametric vector P ={pi, i = 1,…,13}. For each of its components we
set an interval of values that are constrained by components of vector L = {pi(min),
pi(max); i = 1,…,13} where pi ðminÞ  pi  pi ðmaxÞ. Then we set magnetic sus-
ceptibility vector K = {ji, i = 1,…, 2 M + 4} for all model synform elements (M,
number of layers in a fold limb).
The most acceptable variant of an interpretation model k is thus formed by
components of vector L. Consequently, the model magnetic field can be defined as
a function Bmod of two parametric vectors: vector P(k) of predetermined geometrical
synform parameters and vector of magnetic susceptibility values K(k). The ground
surface relief should also be taken into account:

Bmod ðkÞ ¼ Bmod ½PðkÞ; KðkÞ:

Interpreting measured magnetic induction Bobs has to result in finding optimal

vector Popt in a set of vectors P(k, k = 1,…,m), that were obtained taking into
account constraints for vector L. Each vector P(k) is paired with congruent vector
K(k) constrained by the minimum misfit between measured and model fields:

dðkÞ ¼ k½Bobs  Bmod ðkÞ
W k ¼ min½KðkÞ: ð25:6Þ

Weight function W determined by evaluation a local noise in each observation

point describes the quality of Bobs measurements. Evaluating the results, we choose
one vector that best suits the minimum misfit condition:

 
dðminÞ ¼  Bobs  Bmod kopt
W  ¼ min½PðkÞ; KðkÞ:

To diminish the effect of measured field interferences, we consider vector Popt,

which components are average values of parametric vector P(k*) that satisfy the
condition dðk  Þ  e. To define the vector, we perform a synthetic sampling by the
iterative approach.
In conclusion, the presented algorithm includes the following operations. At
first, we define vector L(n) with components to satisfy the condition: pi(n, min) and
pi(n, max). Using a random-number generator with the uniform distribution, we
then limit vector P(k, k = 1,…, N(n)) to a range of allowed values as pi(k) for each
k at P(k). The next operation is a solution of an inverse problem with respect to
magnetic susceptibility of elementary layers (vector K(k)). After that we select 2–
3% variants with the least misfit d(k*) for the next iteration L(n + 1) from a set of
predetermined variants N(n). Then we calculate weighted means  pni and congruent
n
standard deviations Di based on inverse square of the misfit and parameters of
model variants. Finally, we set a constraint vector L(n + 1) for the next iteration
according to the following conditions:
25 An Iterative Solution of the 2-D Non-Linear Magnetic Inversion … 219

3 3 n
pi ðn þ 1; minÞ ¼ pni  Dni and pi ðn þ 1; maxÞ ¼ 
pni þ D :
2 2 i

This cycle of operations is repeated a given number of times or until stable

results are achieved. Performed numerical modelling showed that both the misfit
and average values of model parameters become stable after six or seven iterations.
The obtained results have been statistically verified by implementing the iterative
procedure with the varying number of elementary layers and different initial
parameters.

Test Models and the Reconstructed Serpovidny Fold Shape

To assess the validity of the approach we carried out a number of computational

experiments of solving the inverse problem for multiple synform models whose
cross-sections reflect possible cross-section of the Serpovidny fold. Two of the
models are shown in Fig. 25.3a, b. They consist of 30 elementary layers whose
magnetic susceptibility values were randomly generated in the range from 0 to
50  10−3 SI (Fig. 25.3c–f). Magnetization vector inclination angles of the upper
model part layers are given in Fig. 25.3g, h. Magnetic field values were calculated
with respect to the real conditions of the ground survey and complicated by random
pulse interferences and a background noise. Six to seven iterations were enough for
achieving reasonable results (Fig. 25.3i, j).
Numerical test results displayed that the precision of the geometrical fold
parameters is not accurate when background noise level is high. If the background
noise intensity is, however, comparatively low, the geometry of the fold can be
determined satisfactorily. Also, evaluating the intensity of local interferences in
Eq. (25.6), makes the solution significantly more accurate and stable. Furthermore,
we do not need the high precision for identification of all fold parameters since
determining only critical features of the fold are much more important e.g. whether
it is inclined, upright, or overturned or at what depth its trough is located. These
data along with the fold contour on the ground surface make possible to determine
the hinge line curvature. Numerous tests also demonstrated very reasonable results
when strongly magnetic rocks were folded.
Using the proposed approach, we reconstructed the shape of the Serpovidny fold
core which is strongly magnetic. A 3-D model based on eight cross-sections
reconstructed through the solution of the 2-D non-linear magnetic inverse problem
is consistent with a structural model based on field observations according to which
the Serpovidny fold is a sheath isoclinal synform whose core is pitched (Mudruk
et al. 2013). In all parts of the core, except from fold closures, rocks dip
north-northeastward, with the calculated dip angles being 30–50° in the northern
limb and 50–70° in the southern limb. The trough of the strongly magnetic inner
part of the core reaches the depth of about 2 km whereas the length of this part
along the sheath length is equal to *6.5 km. As the core includes a weakly
220 A. B. Raevsky et al.
 25 An Iterative Solution of the 2-D Non-Linear Magnetic Inversion … 221

JFig. 25.3 a, b Cross-sections of test folds. c–h Variations of magnetic field parameters across test
fields: c, d longitudinal magnetic susceptibility jt, e, f magnetic anisotropy factor f and g,
h inclination of the magnetization vector u at the normal magnetic inclination (78°) in the study
area (67° 45′ N, 37° 00′ E). i, j Plots showing the dependence of reference points B and F possible
coordinates from the number of iterations

magnetic unit, the total length may reach 10 km. Together with weakly magnetic
limbs of the entire Serpovidny fold dimensions of the entire fold may exceed two or
three tens kilometers. Its axial plane becomes gentler (30–40°) at deeper levels.

Conclusions

1. A new iterative algorithm of the solution of the 2-D non-linear magnetic inverse
problem is developed. It permits to reconstruct the shape of poorly exposed
large-scale synformal folds which contain strongly magnetic layers.
2. The impact of the magnetic susceptibility anisotropy of rocks in a measured
magnetic field has been investigated. It was demonstrated that it may be sig-
nificant and should be taken into account at solving the magnetic inversion.
3. The given approach provides stable results of the determination of reference fold
points’ coordinates. The accuracy of these coordinates is sufficient to confidently
answer a number of questions important for the geologist. Inter alia, whether the
synformal fold is straight or inclined and even overturned, or what depth its
trough line reaches. In turn, the data along with the fold outline on the ground
surface gives an opportunity to evaluate the hinge line curvature.

Acknowledgements The study was finalized in the frame of research project № 0231–2015–
0004 in the Geological Institute of the Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences
with the financial support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project 16–05–01031A).

References

Maus, S., Manoj, C., Rauberg, J., Michaelis, I., and Lühr, H. (2010). NOAA/NGDC candidate
models for the 11th generation International Geomagnetic Reference Field and the concurrent
release of the 6th generation Pomme magnetic model. Earth, Planets Sp. 62: 729–735. http://
dx.doi.org/10.5047/eps.2010.07.006
Mudretsova, E.A. (1981). Direct problem of gravity prospecting for bodies of the correct
geometric shape. In: Mudretsova, E.A. (ed.). Gravity prospecting (geophysicist reference
book). Hedra Publishing, Moscow, pp. 173–197. (In Russian).
Mudruk, S.V., Balagansky, V.V., Gorbunov, and I.A., Raevsky, A.B. (2013). Alpine-type
tectonics in the Paleoproterozoic Lapland-Kola Orogen. Geotectonics 47: 251–265. http://dx.
doi.org/10.1134/S0016852113040055
Raevskii, A.B. (2008). An iterative algorithm for magnetic induction modulus inversion. Izv.
Phys. Solid Earth 44: 548–554. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/S1069351308070057
Chapter 26
On 2D Inversion of MTS Data
in Tobol-Ishim Interfluve of Western
Siberia

N. V. Baglaenko, V. P. Borisova, Iv. M. Varentsov, T. A. Vasilieva

and E. B. Fainberg

Abstract The results of 2D inversion of amplitude and phase effective curves from
magnetotelluric soundings in the Tobol-Ishim interfluve of Western Siberia are
presented. These results confirm the existence of conductive regional faults of
submeridional strike and a conductive asthenospheric layer at depths of 70–80 km.
The revealed deep conductive anomalies may indicate peculiarities of the oil and
gas generation regimes.

Keywords Magnetotellurics
Tobol-Ishim interfluve
Conductive layer

In the article (Borisova et al. 2013) the analysis and 1D inversion of the amplitude
and phase curves of magnetotelluric (MT) soundings made by the Tyumen
Geological department in 1980–1981 was carried out, followed by the construction
of a two-dimensional geoelectric model by the “stitching” of 1D sections obtained.
A series of regional faults of submeridional strike have been identified in the
geoelectric section of the Tobol-Ishim interfluve. In addition, at depths of 55–
70 km, the roof of a conducting horizon is traced, whose resistivity is tens of Xm,
and two extents of an abnormal rise of the roof of the conductive horizon are
identified (Fig. 26.1), one of which corresponds to the Kiselevsky fault (at depth of
60–65 km), another—the onboard zone of the Ishim branch of the Triassic rift
system of the West Siberian Plate (at depth of 55–60 km). It has been supposed that
the Ishim geoelectric anomaly corresponding to the geothermal anomaly and the
features of the related deep geological structure is due to the element of the
mantle-crustal fluid paleosystem. It is critically important to verify these results
within the class of a two-dimensional (2D) inversion.
For the construction of a 2D model of the studied area, the profiles 16 and 20 of
108 and 57 km lengths were chosen. The MTS data measured along these profiles,

N. V. Baglaenko
V. P. Borisova
Iv. M. Varentsov

T. A. Vasilieva
E. B. Fainberg (&)
GeoElectroMagnetic Research Centre, Schmidt Institute of Physics
of the Earth Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 223

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_26
224 N. V. Baglaenko et al.

Fig. 26.1 The layout of profiles, MTS points and geological structures

namely the effective (square determinant) amplitude-phase curves of the apparent

resistivity along the profile 16 (Fig. 26.2) and the curves in the measurement
directions (close to meridians and parallels) along the profile 20, look
heterogeneous.

Fig. 26.2 Effective amplitude and phase apparent resistivity curves of MT soundings, profile 16
26 On 2D Inversion of MTS Data in Tobol-Ishim Interfluve … 225

Since there were greater amount of effective data (profile 16), a variant of their
joint inversion along combined profiles was chosen. On this way, the bimodal data
at the profile 20 were recalculated into the values of the effective impedance phases
Arg Zeff and the apparent resistivities qeff. All sites from profiles 20 and 16 were
projected using the GMT tool (Wessel and Smith 2007) to a common profile (the
dotted line in Fig. 26.1) passing close to both original profiles across the strike of
dominant regional structures. The inversion was carried out using the code
(Varentsov 2002, 2015a), developed to construct models in the class of 2D
piecewise-continuous media. This code allows selecting the distribution of elec-
trical resistivity in 2D models from profile observations of various components of
EM fields and their transfer functions for several periods. Geoelectric section is
represented as a superposition of the background block geoelectric structure and
superimposed rectangular windows “scanning” the anomalous structure. Resistivity
of individual blocks of the background structure can also be optimized in the course
of solving the inverse problem. The code uses modern schemes of stable opti-
mization of Tikhonov’s nonlinear functionals, effective finite-difference modeling
procedures, and robust metrics of minimized data misfits. As a result, it reliably
treats multicomponent data ensembles, including effective impedance data
(Varentsov et al. 2013).
MT data were limited to a period range of 0.25–1000 s and the full impedance
tensor was not available at many MT sites and for some periods in this range.
Missing Arg Zeff and qeff data elements in the range of 400–1000 s were filled with
the interpolation from neighboring sites and got sufficiently increased error esti-
mates. The final data set included data from the profile 20 in the 15–400 s range,
and from the profile 16 in the 15–1000 s range.
The impedance phases are less sensitive to the distorting effect of near-surface
inhomogeneities than the amplitudes. Moreover, the phase curves begin to feel the
effect of the deep structures at earlier periods than the amplitude curves. Taking into
account these factors, inversion weights for the phase data were set twice larger
than for apparent resistivities at periods greater than 36 s. The background (“nor-
mal”) geoelectric section was taken as a horizontally-layered structure, and a
superimposed rectangular “scanning” window for the anomalous structure was set
under the observation sites from the ground surface to a depth of 160 km.
Resistivities of the starting inversion model were selected taking into account the
results of one-dimensional inversion of MT soundings at the Askino-Tyukalinsk
geotraverse (Dyakonova et al. 2008).
The results of the inversion are presented in Fig. 26.3a–g in two variants.
Figure 26.3a shows the model obtained from the data at the middle profile (dashed
line in Fig. 26.1) for the period interval 15–1000 s. The accuracy of the inversion
can be estimated from the Fig. 26.3b–g: the misfits do not exceed first percent for
apparent resistivity and first degrees for the phase in the whole period range along
the whole profile extent, i.e. lie within the experimental data error level.
The obtained 2D model generally confirms the main conclusions from 1D
analysis and inversion (Borisova et al. 2013). Comparing the disclosed anomalies of
electrical conductivity with the location of the main geological structures presented
226 N. V. Baglaenko et al.

Fig. 26.3 Geoelectric section of Tobol-Ishim interfluve

26 On 2D Inversion of MTS Data in Tobol-Ishim Interfluve … 227

in Figs. 26.1 and 26.3a, we can state that the vertical conductive zones in the area of
the MT sites 055, 044-041, 023-012 are very close to Kiselevsky, Pletnevsky,
Aromashevsky (Turgay) faults. MT sites 007-001 at the right side of the profile
indicate the presence of a wide conductive zone in the upper part of the section,
coinciding with the rift zone of the West Siberian Triassic system (Kostyuchenko
1992). The layer of increased conductivity at a depth of *55–65 km is clearly
distinguished. The steep dip of this layer in the western part of the profile has not
yet been explained and is the subject of further research. To refine and improve the
obtained results, which are important for studying the deep structure of the region,
new combined magnetotelluric and magnetovariational soundings with modern
equipment and data processing and interpretation procedures capable to treat
simultaneous observation systems (Varentsov 2015a, b) are desirable.

References

Borisova V.P., T.A. Vasilyeva, S.L. Kostyuchenko, N.V. Narskii, B.K. Sysoev, E.B. Fainberg, A.
G. Charushin and A.L. Sheinkman (2013). On the deep electrical conductivity of the
lithosphere of the Tobol-Ishim interfluve, Western Siberia. Izv., Phys. Solid Earth. V. 49(3).
Dyakonova A.G., K.S. Ivanov, O.V. Surina, P.F. Astafyev, V.S. Vishnev and A.D. Konoplin
(2008). The structure of the tectonosphere of the Urals and the West Siberian Platform
according to electromagnetic data. DAN. Series: Geophysics. V. 423(5). pp. 685–688.
Kostyuchenko S. L. (1992). The deep structure of the Earth crust of West Siberian plate by the
results of complex geological and geophysical research. PhD Thesis in geological and
mineralogical sciences. M.: MSU. 247 p.
Varentsov Iv.M. (2002). A general approach to the magnetotelluric data inversion in a
piecewise-continuous medium. Izv. Phys. Solid Earth. V. 38(11). pp. 913–934.
Varentsov Iv.M. (2015a). Methods of joint robust inversion in MT and MV studies with
application to synthetic datasets. Electromagnetic sounding of the Earth’s interior: theory,
modeling, practice (Ed, V.V. Spichak). Elsevier. pp. 191–229.
Varentsov Iv.M. (2015b). Arrays of simultaneous electromagnetic soundings: design, data
processing, analysis, and inversion. Electromagnetic sounding of the Earth’s interior: theory,
modeling, practice (Ed, V.V. Spichak). Elsevier. pp. 271–299.
Varentsov Iv.M., V.A. Kulikov, A.G. Yakovlev and D.V. Yakovlev (2013). Possibilities of
magnetotelluric methods in geophysical exploration for ore minerals. Izv., Phys. Solid Earth.
V. 49(3). pp. 309–328.
Wessel P. and W.H.F. Smith (2007). The generic mapping tools. Technical reference and
cookbook, v. 4.2. http://gmt.soest.hawaii.edu.
Chapter 27
Non-hydrostatic Stresses Under
the Local Structures on Mars

A. Batov, T. Gudkova and V. Zharkov

Abstract To evaluate the stress field in the Martian interior a static-state approach
is applied. We use trial interior structure model having 150–300 km thick litho-
sphere overlying a low rigidity layer, which partly lost elastic properties.
Calculations of stresses are performed with spatial resolution a 1
1 arc-deg
spherical grid and down to 1000 km depth. Stress estimates are calculated in the
interiors of the planet under local topography structures, these areas are of interest
to reveal the zones of possible marsquakes sources. Large non-hydrostatic stresses
under Hellas Planitia, Argyre Planitia, Mare Acidalia, Arcadia Planitia and canyon
Valles Marineris may lead to relatively increased seismic activity for these regions.

Keywords Mars  Topography  Gravity  Stress field

Introduction

Studying of stress field in the Martian interior is of importance for the seismic
exploration of Mars. Discovery Program mission InSight (Interior Exploration
using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport) will place a single
geophysical lander with a seismometer in Elysium Planitia on Mars to study its
deep interior (Banerdt et al. 2013), as well as the international project of Russian
Space Agensy and European Space Agency suggesting seismic sounding of Mars is
under preparation (Manukin et al. 2016). The estimates of global seismicity are
reported in (Knapmeyer et al. 2006).
Theoretical stress modelling studies attempting to understand the sequence of
events and mechanisms responsible for the specific features of the Martian surface
have been performed starting from the Viking-era (e.g., Banerdt et al. 1982; Sleep

A. Batov (&)
Institute of Control Sciences of RAS, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
T. Gudkova  V. Zharkov
Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth RAS, Moscow, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 229

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_27
230 A. Batov et al.

and Phillips 1985; Banerdt and Golombek 2000; Arkani-Hamed 2000; Zhong and
Roberts 2003; Belleguic et al. 2005; Dimitrova et al. 2006). Recently, subcrustal
stress field on Mars was computed by Tenzer et al. (2015).
Joint analysis of gravity and topography data let us some knowledge on stress
field in the crust and in the lithosphere of Mars. Estimates of the stress distribution
in the lithosphere of Mars in frame of the static method reported in (Zharkov et al.
1991; Koshlyakov and Zharkov 1993) were based on the gravity field data complete
to spherical harmonic degree and order 50. Since then, the data on gravity and
topography have been consistently expanded and improved.
Information on Martian topography comes from the high resolution MOLA data
(Smith et al. 2001), which are expanded into spherical harmonics. Two recent
spherical harmonic expansions of the Martian gravity field complete to degree and
order 120 are MRO120D by Konoplive et al. (2016) and GMM-3 by Genova et al.
(2016) (the models are available at https://urldefense.proofpoint.com/v2/url?u=http-
3A__pds-2Dgeosciences.wustl.edu&d=DwIDaQ&c=vh6FgFnduejNhPPD0fl_yRa
SfZy8CWbWnIf4XJhSqx8&r=Sso2B5iThJQwICrxPF1WAiVf3MsSKjSKbbiLUE
a68aqF5T3kgwJnrbhDgmVskN9J&m=af3uRN2Jujnacry0NX9rm5PcI8pJPoIQuLe
SL1U6MYs&s=HfbgRS2nIHIbMFFq1pPMYiIxBdBqYHlBbsg6jkMsBXo&e=).
The recent progress in developing the gravity and topographic models of Mars
(Smith et al. 2001; Konopliv et al. 2016; Genova et al. 2016) allowed us to study
the stress field in detail and to recalculate previous estimates of static stresses
(Gudkova et al. 2017).
The purpose of this paper is to reveal areas of large shear and extension-
compression stresses in the lithosphere of Mars as possible marsquakes’ sources. We
perform numerical calculations of non-hydrostatic stresses (extension- compression
stresses and maximum shear stresses) in Mars for a trial interior structure model
having 150–300 km thick lithosphere overlying a low rigidity layer, which partly lost
elastic properties, with a 1
1 arc-deg spherical grid and down to 1000 km depth.

Method

The Numerical simulation is based on a static approach (the loading factors tech-
nique or the Green’s functions method) (Marchenkov et al. 1984; Marchenkov and
Zharkov 1989; Zharkov et al. 1986). According to this method a planet is modeled
as an elastic, self-gravitational spherical body. It is assumed, that deformations and
stresses which obey Hooke’s law are caused by the pressure of relief on the surface
of the planet and anomalous density dq(r, h, u), distributed by a certain way in the
crust and the mantle.
The anomalous density field is represented in the form of weighted thin layers
positioned at different characteristic depths. Imposing the anomalous density waves
(ADW) on the surface or in the interior leads to the deformation of the planet
interior and the distortion of the surface and the boundary interfaces. In spherical
27 Non-hydrostatic Stresses Under the Local Structures on Mars 231

coordinates ðr; h; uÞ, it is convenient to expand the distribution of anomalous

density into spherical harmonics:

X 2 X
X 1 X
n
dqðr; h; uÞ ¼ Rinm ðrÞYinm ðh; uÞ ¼ Ri;n;m ðrÞYi;n;m ðh; uÞ; ð27:1Þ
i;n;m i¼1 n¼2 m¼0

where Rinm —expansion coefficients (amplitudes),


cosðmuÞ; i ¼ 1
Yinm ðh; uÞ ¼ Pnm ðcos hÞ ;
sinðmuÞ; i ¼ 2

Pnm ðxÞ are the associated Legendre polynomials and are taken here as fully
normalized such that
 
2ðn  mÞ!ð2n þ 1Þ 1=2 m
Pnm ðxÞ ¼ Pn ðxÞ; m 6¼ 0;
ðn þ mÞ!
 
ðn  mÞ!ð2n þ 1Þ 1=2 m ð27:2Þ
Pnm ðxÞ ¼ Pn ðxÞ; m ¼ 0
ðn þ mÞ!
d
Pnm ðxÞ ¼ ð1  x2 Þm=2 m ðPn ðxÞÞ:
dx

With the addition of ADW to a planet it goes to a new state of elastic equilib-
rium, that is, it “adjusts” to the ADW. So, the problem is reduced to the determi-
nation of Green’s response function for the case of a single ADW located at some
depth level.
The gravitational field at the surface of a planet from such a spherical layer is
expressed as
X  r n þ 2 Ri;n;m ðrÞ
DV ¼ 4pGR Yi;n;m ðh; uÞ ð27:3Þ
i;n;m
R ð2n þ 1Þ

The anomalous density layer acts as a load on the planet, its interior undergoes
deformations. To account additional perturbations of the potential due to the global
deformation of the planet, the coefficient (1 + kn(r)) is introduced:
X  r n þ 2 Ri;n;m ðrÞð1 þ kn ðrÞÞ
DV ¼ 4pGR Yi;n;m ðh; uÞ; ð27:4Þ
i;n;m
R ð2n þ 1Þ

kn (r) is the load number for the n-th harmonic of the anomalous density wave
located at radius r, 1 + kn(r) defines the total change in the gravitational potential
on the planetary surface.
232 A. Batov et al.

Load Love numbers hn(r) which are used to describe the deformation under the
action of the load are introduced

4pGR X  r n þ 2 Ri;n;m ðrÞhn ðrÞ

Dðh; /Þ ¼ Yi;n;m ðh; uÞ: ð27:5Þ
g i;n;m R ð2n þ 1Þ

Load coefficients for deeply buried density anomalies kn (r) and hn (r) of n-th
harmonic of ADW located at radius r define the total change in the gravitational
potential on the surface of the planet and deformation of the planetary surface under
the action of load, respectively. It is clear that a unique inversion of ADW from the
data on the gravitational field of a planet is not possible, an infinite number of mass
distributions can give rise to the same potential on the bounding surface. A unique
solution is possible only if addition conditions are imposed, for example, by
assuming that there are two levels of concentration of anomalous density in Mars—
on its surface and at the crust-mantle boundary. The amplitudes of ADW are
selected so that the anomalous gravitational field can be reproduced.
Let the topographic load as an equivalent infinitely weighted thin layer be at the
reference surface R, while the rest of the anomalous mass as an equivalent infinitely
weighted thin layer being at the crust—mantle boundary R1. Spherical expansion
coefficients of the anomalous density waves on the surface R1i;n;m ðh; uÞ and at the
crust-mantle boundary R2i;n;m ðh; uÞ are related to spherical expansion coefficients of
the anomalous gravitational field Cginm and the Martian topography Cginm by
equations (Zharkov et al. 1991):
 
R1inm 3ð1 þ kn ðRÞÞ R2inm 3ð1 þ kn ðR1 ÞÞ R1 n þ 2
Cginm ¼ þ ; ð27:6aÞ
Rq0 ð2n þ 1Þ Rq0 ð2n þ 1Þ R
 
R1inm R1inm 3ð1 þ hn ðRÞÞ R2inm 3ð1 þ hn ðR1 ÞÞ R1 n þ 2
Ctinm ¼ þ þ ; ð27:6bÞ
Rqc Rq0 ð2n þ 1Þ Rq0 ð2n þ 1Þ R

where q0 is the mean density of Mars, qc is the density of the crust, R is the radius
of Mars, R1 is the radius of the crust-mantle boundary. In Eq. (27.6b), the first term
describes the contribution to the relief directly from the surface loading, and the
second and the third terms describe the deformations by the actions of R1i;n;m ðh; uÞ
and R2i;n;m ðh; uÞ, respectively. These Eq. (27.6a) establish a unique relationship
between coefficients Cgnm, Ctnm and R1i;n;m ðh; uÞ,R2i;n;m ðh; uÞ.
First, the components of complete stress tensor rij are calculated for every point
(r, h, /) at given depth, longitude and latitude. Then this tensor is reduced to the
diagonal form with the principal stresses r3  r2  r1. The extension-
compression stresses p and maximum shear stresses s are defined as
p = (r1+ r2+ r3)/3 and s = max|ri − rk|/2, (i, k = 1, 2, 3; i 6¼ k).
27 Non-hydrostatic Stresses Under the Local Structures on Mars 233

Stresses Estimates

As a benchmark real model for the planetary interior we use a trial model of Mars
M_50 from (Zharkov et al. 2017), which satisfies currently available geophysical and
geochemical data. The mean density of the crust is 2900 kg m−3, the thickness of the
crust is 50 km, the density contrast at the crust-mantle boundary is 360 kg m−3.
The definition of the “topography” needs the choice of a reference surface. Mars
departs from hydrostatic equilibrium to significant extent. To avoid uncontrollable
stresses and deformations in the mantle of the planet due to the significant deviation
of Mars from hydrostatic equilibrium state, we take an outer surface of the
hydrostatic equilibrium form of the planet, as a reference surface for topography
and gravity field of Mars (Zharkov et al. 2009; Zharkov and Gudkova 2016).
Parameters s2, s4 and gravitational moments J2, J4 of the equilibrium spheroid are
listed in the Table 27.1. Only nonequilibrium components of gravity and topog-
raphy fields are considered: they are obtained by subtracting the equilibrium
components from the observed external field.
For stress field calculations the rheological cross section of Mars is of impor-
tance, but it is not well known. The Green function values depend on the internal
structure, particularly on its density and elastic parameters (rheology). The litho-
sphere thickness of Mars remains presently in debate. Mars deviates much more
strongly from the hydrostatic equilibrium than the Earth. We suggest that the
average thickness of the Martian elastic lithosphere should exceed that of
the Earth’s continental lithosphere (Zharkov and Gudkova 2016). Best estimates for
the present day elastic thickness are above 150 km (Plesa et al. 2016).
Below we consider models with an elastic, 150–300 km thick lithosphere,
overlying a sublithosphere low rigidity layer—a weakened layer, which partly lost
elastic properties (shear modulus is ten times lower). Weakened layer is assumed to
extend down to the core-mantle boundary. The source of gravity anomalies is
assumed to be the topographic loading and density anomalies at crust-mantle
boundary. The method, described in Section “Method”, allows one to calculate all
stresses (extension-compression stresses and shear stresses) at different depths.
Figure 27.1 shows the details of the depth distribution of stresses magnitude
beneath such geological structures as Olympus Mons, Hellas, Argyre, Mare Arcadia
and Valles Marineris.
We assume that large shear stresses in the zones of large extensional stresses are
the most likely areas for marsquakes’ sources. Such regions are found beneath
Hellas, Argyre, Acidalia Planitia, Arcadia Planitia and Valles Marineris, both the
maximum shear stresses and the extensional stresses are quite large, up to 20–
40 MPa for extensional stresses in the lithosphere, and about 20 MPa for shear

Table 27.1 Parameters of a trial interior structure model

Model qcrust (kg/ lcrust r core I/MR2 k2S qcrust/ −s2, s4, J02, −J04,
m3) (km) (km) qmantle 10−3 10−6 10−3 10−6
M_50 2900 50 1821 0.3639 0.162 3.00/3.36 3.338 9.374 1.800 7.634
234 A. Batov et al.

Fig. 27.1 Profiles of maximum shear (right) and extention-compression (left) stresses for the
interior structure model M_50 with 300 km thick lithosphere overlying a low rigidity layer which
partly lost elastic properties. The profiles are given along the latitude
27 Non-hydrostatic Stresses Under the Local Structures on Mars 235

stresses. For these features, the shear stresses in the crust are comparable in mag-
nitude with those in the Tharsis region. Hellas and Argyre are characterized by
rather large non-hydrostatic stresses, which reach their maximum level in the crust
and sharply diminish below 50 km depth level of compensation. It might be
explained by consideration of these basins as mascons. Hellas is the deepest
depression on Mars, while positive gravity anomaly being observed in this region
(Zharkov and Gudkova 2016). Argyre shows a slight amount of down warping
indicating a weak mascon (Banerdt and Golombek 2000). On the whole Hellas and
Argyre are isostatically compensated impact basins, some overcompensation may
be related to the accumulation of erosion products on the bottom of the basin, which
leads to the formation of a mascon type structure and to an increase of the level of
non-hydrostatic stresses in the crust. Moreover, Argyre is in the vicinity of the
Tharsis rise, and an additional deformation of the lithosphere under the weight of it
can occur. Beneath Valles Marineris and Mare Acidalia, Mare Arcadia stresses
particularly leak from the crust into the lithosphere, that can withstand them, and a
smaller part of stresses filters into the mantle.
The Valles Marineris has a rather complicated profile of stress state with the
areas of compression and extension, the extensional stresses reach 55 MPa, while
the shear stresses being about 20–25 MPa. The specific stress distribution beneath
the Valles Marineris could be explained by its formation, which is assigned to
regional extensional tectonism (Banerdt et al. 1992).

Conclusion

We have applied the static-state approach (Marchenkov et al. 1984; Zharkov et al.
1986, 1991) to evaluate stress field in Mars up to a spherical harmonic degree 90,
which corresponds to a spherical resolution of MRO120D gravity model by
Konoplive et al. (2016). The solution is computed over a global grid of 10
10,
assuming various depths.
We have identified those zones in which maximum shear stresses occur along
the extensional stresses in the crust and lithosphere of Mars, and non-hydrostatic
stresses are quite large, on the order of tens of MPa. From the point of view of
seismicity, we assume these regions could be the candidates for potential mars-
quakes’ sources.
Of particular importance are the areas beneath the impact ring basins, mascons
Hellas Planitia and Argyre Planitia; the areas adjacent to the Tharsis rise Mare
Acidalia and Arcadia Planitia; and huge canyon Valles Marineris. Beneath these
regions, there are zones where extensional stresses occur simultaneously with
significant shear stresses. Large non-hydrostatic stresses may lead to relatively
increased seismic activity for these regions.

Acknowledgements The work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and
Program RAN 28.
236 A. Batov et al.

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Chapter 28
Deep Fluid Systems of Fennoscandia
Greenstone Belts

A. A. Petrova, Yu. A. Kopytenko and M. S. Petrishchev

Abstract A study of the basement of Fennoscandia on magnetic and gravity

anomalies has been carried out. There are detected magnetic and density features of
the structure of the greenstone belts of the Early Precambrian crust of the Baltic
Shield as a result of interpretation of CHAMP and GRACE satellite data and near
surface magnetic anomalies. Magnetic and density sections have been constructed
through the mega blocks of Fennoscandia with the age of the Earth’s crust ranging
from 3.2 to 1.6 billion years that underwent different stages of metasomatosis.
There are detected magnetoactive layer in the basement of the Early Precambrian
crust (“magnetite zone”) and fluid systems at depths of 12–15 and 25–35 km that
are the source of the formation of rich deposits of Fennoscandia greenstone belts.
Based on the concept of the distribution of fluid supply flows, there are selected
several areas promising for electromagnetic monitoring that can help to detail the
features of the basement conductivity of the Baltic Shield.

Keywords Magnetite zone
Fluid systems
Gold

Introduction

The goal of this paper is to study the deep structure of the Fennoscandia region
from geophysical data for solving a fundamental problem related to the nature of
significant concentrations of ore substances and placers in a given area.
One of the important factors in the formation of gold deposits is the carrying out
of high-quality concentrates of relics of the Precambrian basement by fluid flows of
mineralized aqueous solutions supplied from deep-focus fluid systems. Migration of

A. A. Petrova (&)
Yu. A. Kopytenko
M. S. Petrishchev

St. Petersburg Branch of Pushkov Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism,
Ionosphere and Radio Wave Propagation of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
St. Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 239

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_28
240 A. A. Petrova et al.

deep fluid plays a huge role in the location of mineral deposits and determines the
location of gold ore objects.
In this regard, special attention is paid to the following tasks:
• the allocation of blocks of the pre-Riphean basement as possible sources of
formation of rich gold deposits;
• mapping of channels of thermofluid flows, carrying out the carrying out of
high-quality concentrates, supplied from deep-focus fluid systems;
• detection of the location of deep fluid systems;
• searching of buried troughs, which are the ore-generating structures that have
their own geochemical specialization and metallogeny.
There are creating favorable conditions for the formation of the primary deposits
and the accumulation of large gold-bearing placers near such zones of increased
fracturing in the places of approaches to the surface of fluid flows. The rich gold
deposits of the study area are the result of the carrying out of high-quality Archean
concentrates by fluid flows under the pulsating influence of deep-focus fluid mantle
systems.

Investigation of the Basement by Magnetic and Gravity

Anomalies

Investigations of the deep structure of the Early Precambrian Earth‘s crust of

Fennoscandia have been made on the basis of near-surface air and hydromagnetic
measurements, magnetic anomalies from CHAMP satellite and gravity anomalies in
the Fay reduction obtained using the GRACE altimetry (International Centre;
Kaban and Reigber 2005; Korhonen et al. 2007; Kopytenko and Petrova 2014,
2016; Mayer-Gürr et al. 2014).
The visualization of heterogeneities in the Early Precambrian crust of the Baltic
Shield in the form of geophysical sections made it possible to clarify the concept of
the deep crustal structure with an age of 3.2–1.6 billion years, which underwent
different stages of metasomatosis (Fig. 28.1). Magnetic and density sections are
performed by the method of spectral-spatial representation of fields that are con-
vertible into the deep sections (Petrova 1976, 2015; Kopytenko and Petrova 2016;
Hahn et al. 1976; Petrishchev et al. 2014; Litvinova et al. 2014).
Ore-generating processes determine the regularity of the location of the mag-
netite layer in the Early Precambrian Earth’s crust. Studies have shown that it is
allocated along the lower boundary of the zone of regional granitization along the
boundary of the granite and granulite-basite layers. Deposits presented by the iron
ore formation of the Archean magnetite quartzites form as a result of the graniti-
zation process of magnetite formation. Magnetic sections crossing the megablocks
of the Baltic shield made it possible to visualize a magnetoactive horizon under-
lying the bottom of the granite layer in the foundation of the Early Precambrian
Earth’s crust (Fig. 28.2).
28 Deep Fluid Systems of Fennoscandia Greenstone Belts 241

Fig. 28.1 Age characteristics of the Earth’s crust of the Baltic Shield: 1—caledonites (PZ);
2—dalclandides (R); beetrofenides (PR11-PR21); 4—Karelides (AR11-PR21); 5—Laplandides and
White Seabelomorides (AR11-PR21)

Fig. 28.2 Magnetite zone in the magnetic section of the basement

242 A. A. Petrova et al.

Mineral deposits in the Early Precambrian Earth’s crust are formed in greenstone
belts where they are manifested in the form of deposits of ferruginous quartzites of
sedimentary-volcanogenic genesis. Large-scale deposits of Kostomuksha and
Olenegorsk are known on the Baltic Shield (Fig. 28.1). The iron content in the ore
bodies of these deposits of ferruginous quartzites is 20–45%, in the weathering
crusts of ore bodies—up to 55–70%.
Anomalies of the magnetic field is played the main role in the investigation of
iron ores of the Kostomuksha deposit. This is due to the high magnetization of
magnetite-bearing ferruginous quartzites, as well as the contrast of the magnetic
susceptibility of the investigated ferruginous-siliceous rocks and their host com-
plexes. In addition, magnetite quartzites and magnetite schists have a high density
reaching 3.5–3.7 g/cm3, so the interpretation of the anomalies of gravity supple-
ments magnetometric studies, allowing a more accurate trace of iron ore horizons.
We have also interpreted magnetic anomalies and gravity anomalies for tracking
of iron ore horizons at depth. We have completed deep magnetic and density
sections through Olenegorskoe (Figs. 28.1 and 28.3) and Kostomuksha (Fig. 28.1
and 28.4) iron ore deposits.

Fig. 28.3 Magnetic (a, b) and density (c) section through the Olenegorsk iron ore deposit
28 Deep Fluid Systems of Fennoscandia Greenstone Belts 243

Fig. 28.4 Magnetic (a, b) and density (c) sections through the Kostomuksha iron ore deposit

Visualization of the correlation of density and magnetic inhomogeneities on the

deep sections provides the basis for the formation of a new concept of the geo-
dynamic regularities of the development of greenstone belts. Analysis of density
sections has been showed that the greenstone belt of Fennoscandia tends toward
blocks with a decompressed mantle. Interpretation of deep magnetic and density
sections of the Earth’s crust has been allowed to test the hypothesis of the genesis of
deposits of archean ferruginous quartzites emerging on the surface from the mag-
netite zones of the granite layerbasement. It was confirmed by the deep sections that
the “magnetite zone” can be a source of formation of rich deposits of ferruginous
quartzites in the tectonic structures of greenstone belts (Figs. 28.3 and 28.4).
Magnetite zones are the source of the formation of rich iron deposits and
noblemetal ores. Sharing the anomalies of the vertical and horizontal components of
244 A. A. Petrova et al.

the Earth’s magnetic field has been allowed to delineate the location of the mag-
netite zones, which is of great importance for the search for promising deposits.

Identification of Fluid Systems and Zones

of Fluid-Magmatic Metasomatosis in the Earth’s Crust
of the Greenstone Belt of Fennoscandia

There are known the occurrence of gold-platinum-metal mineralization in ferrugi-

nous quartzites in the greenstone belts of Fennoscandia (Kostomuksha ore region
2015). Geological and structural features of gold ore occurence of the Kostomuksha
region treat the genesis of ores formed as a result of regeneration and redeposition
of ore matter as hydrothermal. We have obtained the ideas on the deep features of
the gold ore zone based on the interpretation of the anomalies of the vertical and
horizontal components of the Earth’s magnetic field. Analysis of density and
magnetic sections has been allowed to identify the main features of the deep
structure of these zones and to reveal specific features of gold ore mineralization for
detection of new promising areas.
One of the most important factors in the formation of gold deposits are deep fluid
flows of mineralized aqueous solutions supplied from depths of more than 15 km
by deep focus tectonic zones from high-quality Archean concentrates. On the
density and magnetic sections, the migration paths of the deep fluid streams are
reflected in the form of weakly magnetic supply channels of reduced density
(Fig. 28.4). Fluid-supply channels are arising under the influence of an ascending
heat flow and fluids rising along faults from great depths and diverging in the upper
part of the crust into separate streams. There is a directed transformation of rocks
inside the channels, changing their physical properties, including magnetic and
density.
The migration routes of fluidized hot streams are traced on geomagnetic and
density sections in the form of through weakly magnetic tracks of reduced density.
Fluid-saturated stream are rising from the depths of 15–30 km, dividing into sep-
arate streams near the day surface. Analyzing the ways of fluid ascent to the surface,
it can be assumed that the bulk of the fluidized flow of the Kostomuksha deposit
rises, mainly from the south-west direction, from a depth of more than 20–25 km
(Fig. 28.4). Since the magnetization of geological formations is more dependent on
temperature than other parameters of the medium, such as porosity, fracture and
fluid saturation, the migration paths of fluids are most clearly traced on magnetic
sections (Fig. 28.4a). Figure 28.2 shows that in the Kostomuksha region the fluid
system appears in the vertical (Fig. 28.4a) and horizontal (Fig. 28.4b) components
and is located in the depth range from 15 to 28 km. It underlies the magnetite layer,
which is the source of the iron ore deposit.
At the magnetic and density sections to the East of Kostomuksha, the migration
paths of mineralized streams from the fluid system are reflected in the form of
28 Deep Fluid Systems of Fennoscandia Greenstone Belts 245

weakly magnetic supply channels of reduced density (Fig. 28.4). They are confined
to the gold ore troughs (1–8) of greenstone structures (Fig. 28.4a) and capture the
northern part of another powerful fluid system south of Belomorsk. There it
manifests itself in a magnetic section in the form of three lenses located in the depth
interval from 15 to 35 km.
The conducting channel can be clearly seen in the magnetic and density sections.
It reflects the trajectory of streams of mineralized fluids, which gradually form
deposits with gold ore and copper mineralization in the greenstone structures of the
Shombozero, Lekhtinsky and Chirko-Kemsky troughs (Kostomuksha ore region
2015).
Fluid streams, interacting with metamorphosed strata, lead to the formation of
gold ore mineralization in the structures of the greenstone belts. Visualization of
deep sections is allowed to estimate the depth of occurrence and reveal the location
in the Earth’s crust of fluid systems and the zone of fluid-magmatic processing of
Archean rocks by streams of mineralized fluids forming ore deposits of the struc-
tures of the greenstone belt of Fennoscandia.
The ore fields and deposits of Precambrian gold in all known cases are spatially
associated with extended systems of deep faults, and the faults themselves usually
play the role of fluid and ore-supplying channels. We have revealed the
fluid-conducting pathways of the outlet of mantle streams based on the results of an
analysis of the distribution of magnetic and density inhomogeneities in deep sec-
tions in the basement of the greenstone belt Fennoscandia (Figs. 28.3 and 28.4).
The decomposition of sulphide minerals is happen at one of the last stages of the
hypergene-metasomatic process and the release of previously-contained noble
metals occur in them. An additional increase in gold in the ore deposition zone is
introduced by hydrothermal solutions during the activation of riftogenic structures.
At the same time, platinum-metal ore mineralization tends to high-temperature
processes, and the formation of gold—to lower-temperature processes.
The development of a geological-genetic model for the formation of noble metal
mineralization in ferruginous quartzites will make it possible to determine the
role of endogenous processes in its formation. It is possible that in the tectonic
structures of greenstone belts the “magnetite zone” is the source of the formation of
deposits of ferruginous quartzites and the accompanying noble metal
mineralization.
The “magnetite zones” of the continents are of exceptional interest for studying
the deep structure of the Earth’s lithosphere. Manifested in the anomalies of the
magnetic field at temperatures below 560 °C, they indicate the thermal regime of
the formations of the ancient crust of the continents and trace the position of the
deep boundary of the Curie surface. The study of the Early Precambrian crust
forming the basement of ancient continents allows us to approach the evaluation of
its deep structure at a real level and show that regional magnetic anomalies reflect
the influence of “magnetite zones” occurring at depths of more than 10–15 km
along the boundary of granite and granulite-basite layers.
246 A. A. Petrova et al.

Discussion and Conclusions

We have studied the features of the structure of the ancient blocks of the Doriphean
basement, deep fluid systems and fluid supply channels. Hydrothermal study of
ancient Precambrian complexes in areas of fluid-magmatic activations manifests
itself in the form of deep minima of magnetic anomalies. For example, the traces of
fluid-magmatic activations are clearly manifested in the minima of the magnetic
anomalies of the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field, emphasizing
the hydrothermal genesis of gold ore objects. The zones of fluid magmatic acti-
vations and intense fluid flow are manifested in the minima of the magnetic field.
Magnetic anomalies of the Earth’s magnetic field module made it possible to
identify zones of deep thermofluid processing that affect younger rocks.
Ways of migration of heat fluxes, fluids and the location of fluid systems can be
clearly seen on deep sections in the form of channels and lenses of reduced density
and magnetization. The location of fluid channels and terrestrial systems can be
estimated from magnetic and density sections. In the lower crust and in the mantle,
where the rocks are in a demagnetized state due to high temperatures (more than
560 °C), the location of deep-focus fluid systems is estimated from density depth
sections.
Faults are reflected in the form of block boundaries that differ in physical
characteristics. Inside the weakened layers that are located in the fluid channels are
appeared the weakly-magnetic low density lenses. The trajectory of a deep fault that
passes through the Earth’s crust to the mantle is traced through a chain of low
density lenses. The migration routes of mineralized streams are manifested as
weakly magnetic feed channels and lenses of reduced density.
Our studies have been shown that injective dislocations associated with the
penetration of deep matter into the Earth’s crust led to the decomposition of its
matter in vertical fault zones. As a result, powerful subvertical ore-bearing
magma-metasomatic columns with a length of 3–8 km arose. Favorable conditions
for the continuous circulation of ore-bearing solutions and subsequent ore depo-
sition are created due to the presence of resistive horizons overlapping large
ore-bearing highly permeable near-fault zones at depths of 2.5–3 km.
Vertical thermofluid flow, rising along the fault zones of the basement, creates
favorable conditions for the formation of large ore-bearing columns and above them
—promising gold ore sites. Prospective areas are located above the gold columns in
the ore sites. Magmatic processes were accompanied by metasomatic phenomena
with the formation of ore-metasomatic columns with a length of up to 8 km in
magmatic-fluid systems of the near-fault zones.
Deep density sections showed that the endogenous processes and the mining of
the examined gold ore deposits are most likely due to the prolonged impact of
multiple stages of tectonic magmatic activation of deep sources—thermal and fluid
—on rocks enclosed in zones of subvertical faults of the upper crust.
Thus, we have presented the new ideas of the stratification and vertical crum-
bling of the Earth’s crust, taking into account the features of the influence of factors
28 Deep Fluid Systems of Fennoscandia Greenstone Belts 247

of depths. It is based on the usage of original technology of interpreting the

complex of geophysical data—module anomalous magnetic field, the horizontal
component of the magnetic field and gravity field anomalies. The application of the
original technology reveals new possibilities for studying the deep structure of the
lithosphere and the search for criteria for the localization of mineralization. This has
made it possible to clarify the prospects of gold mining in the area and recommend
exploratory work on potentially ore-bearing areas above the outlets of vertical
channels.

References

International Centre for Global Earth Models (ICGEM). URL: http://icgem.gfz-potsdam.de.

Hahn A., Kind E. G. and Mishra D. C., 1976. Depth estimation of magnetic sources by means of
Fourier amplitude spectra, Geophys. Prospect. 24, 287–308.
Kaban M.K., Reigber C. (2005) New possibilities for gravity modeling using data of the CHAMP
and GRACE satellites, IZVESTIYA-PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH. 41 (11), 950–957.
Kopytenko Yu.A., Petrova A.A. (2014). New age magnetic maps for the marine magnetic
navigation/Magnitnye karty novogo pokoleniya dlya celei morskoi magnitnoi navigacii. Proc.
of the XII All-Russian Conference “Applied Technologies of Hydroacoustics and
Hydrophysics GA-2014”. Nestor – History, St. Petersburg. 258–261. (in Russian).
Kopytenko Y. A., Petrova A. A. (2016) The results of the development and application component
model of the magnetic field of the Earth for the benefit of magnetic mapping and geophysics.
Fundamental and Applied Geophysics, 9, 2, 88–106 (in Russian).
Korhonen J.V., Fairhead J. D., Hamoudi M., Hemant K., Lesur V., Mandea M., Maus S.,
Purucker M., Ravat D., Sazonova T. and Thébault E. (2007) Magnetic Anomaly Map of the
World, Equatorial scale 1:50 000 000. Map published by the Commission for the Geological
Map of the World, supported by UNESCO, 1st Edition, GTK, Helsinki.
Kostomuksha ore region (geology, deep structure and mineralogy) (2015) Kostomukshinskii
rudnyi raion (geologia, glubinnoe stroenie i minerageniya) [Eds. Gorkovets V.Ya., Sharov N.
V.] Petrozavodsk, Karelian Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 323 p. (in
Russian).
Litvinova T., Petrova A. and M. Petrishchev. (2014) Electromagnetic imaging of lithosphere
permeable zones//Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 16, EGU General Assembly, Vienna,
Austria. EGU2014–8938.
Mayer-Gürr T., Zehentner N., Klinger B., Kvas A. (2014) ITSG-Grace2014: a new GRACE
gravity field release computed in Graz; Potsdam
Petrishchev M.S., Petrova A.A. and Yu.A. Kopytenko (2014). Deep structure of thermal zones
based on the results of the integration of geophysical fields/Glubinnoe stroenie termalnyh zon
po rezultatam kompleksirovaniya geofizicheskih polei//Proc. 38th session of the Uspensky
international scientific seminar “Problems of the theory and practice of geological
interpretation of geophysical fields”. Perm, GI UrB RAS. 24–28. (in Russian).
Petrova A.A. (1976) Method of spectral-correlation analysis of anomalous geomagnetic field/
Metodika spektralno-korrelyacionnogo analiza anomalnogo geomagnitnogo polya. PhD thesis.
Moscow, IZMIRAN. - 25 p. (in Russian).
Petrova A.A., (2015) Digital maps of the components of the magnetic field induction vector/
Cifrovye karty komponent vektora indukcii magntinogo polya. Proc. of IZMIRAN, Moscow.
412–416. (in Russian).
Chapter 29
On Deep Electroconductivity
of Tobol-Ishim Interfluve

V. P. Borisova, T. A. Vasilieva, S. L. Kostuchenko and E. B. Fainberg

Abstract The results of 1D and 2.5D modeling and inversion of amplitude and
phase curves of magnetotelluric sounding in the Tobol-Ishim interfluve of Western
Siberia are presented. Cross sections of the electrical conductivity of the crust and
asthenosphere are constructed as well. It is suggested that there is a conductive layer
lying at a depth of *60–70 km. A decrease in the electrical resistivity of the
overlying crustal layer from 1000–3000 to *300 X-m which may be a sign of an
increase in the conductivity of the earth’s crust is noted.

Keywords Magnetotellurics
Western Siberia
Conductive layer

Prospecting magnetotelluric soundings in the southwest of the West Siberian Plate

(WSP) have been carried out by the explorers of the Tyumen Geological
Administration in 1980–1981 on one of the oil and gas promising areas of the
Tobol-Ishim interfluve (Fig. 29.1).
The area of the MT survey is confined to the joint of the Caledonian folded
Kazakhstan system (the western side of the Vagay-Ishim depression) and the
Hercynian folded Ural system (the eastern side of the Tobolsk anticlinorium) and is
located in the inter-rift area between the Nizhnetavdinsk and Ishim branches of the
Triassic rift system (Fig. 29.2). MT profiles are located mainly in the zone between
two wedge-jointing deep faults (marginal seams) of the northeast strike—the
Middle Paleozoic East Urals and Early Paleozoic Central Turgay—and cross a
series of Middle-Upper Paleozoic intra-structural faults also in the northeast
direction. These include the well-pronounced Kiselevsky fault and the less extended
Dronovsky fault. The faults are traced by features in the behavior of geophysical
fields, crushing zones, chains of intrusions of the main and ultrabasic compositions.

V. P. Borisova
T. A. Vasilieva
E. B. Fainberg (&)

Geoelectromagnetic Research Centre—Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth,
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
S. L. Kostuchenko
Limited Liability Company “Rosgeology”, Moscow, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 249

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_29
250 V. P. Borisova et al.

Fig. 29.1 Scheme of the MT survey area, profiles and their numbers

Fig. 29.2 Riftogenic zones of the West Siberian Triassic Rift System: VIII-Nizhnetavdinsk,
IX-Ishimsk, X-Tyukalinsk. MT survey area. MT profiles
29 On Deep Electroconductivity of Tobol-Ishim Interfluve 251

Boundary and intrastructural comagmatic faults are considered as coromanthic

faults (Barykin and Bochkarev 1993; Fault map 1980).
The MT survey profiles crossed a number of structures of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic
cover of the northeastern strike, namely, Zavodoukovsky, Komissarovsky,
Sokolovsky, Borovlyansko-Vyatkinsky swells, Dronovsky, Kiselevsky,
Pletnyevsky, Aromashevsky flexures and the western side of the Vagay-Ishim
depression (Fig. 29.3).
Within the western side of the Vagay-Ishim depression (profile 16, Fig. 29.1),
the MT curves qxy and qyx differ no more than 25%, the additional impedances
modulo do not exceed 0.15 of the values of the main impedances. The polar
diagrams of the main impedances, as a rule, are close in shape to the circles, and the
configuration of the amplitude and phase curves does not significantly depend on
the measurement directions. These characteristics gave the basis to the performers
of MT works to confine themselves to analyzing the effective MT curves on the
profile 16. In the remaining parts of the MT-survey (profiles 17–21), transverse qxy,
uxy (H-polarized MT-field, sub-latitude direction, azimuth 70°) and longitudinal
qyx, uyx (E-polarized MT field, submeridional direction, azimuth 160°) MT curves
were analyzed.
To answer the question of the effect of local near-surface and regional inho-
mogeneities on the amplitude and phase curves, quasi-3D (thin-sheet) modeling
was carried out according to the program (Singer and Fainberg 2003). The scheme
of total conductivity of the sedimentary cover in southwestern part of the WSP at a
scale of 1:2,500,000, covering the area of the MT studies and surrounding area, was
constructed using the data of VES, MT and well logging data as well as the “Maps
of the relief of the basement of the WSP” (Kostyuchenko 2004). Within the
region under study, the S values continuously increase from southwest to northeast,

Fig. 29.3 The main geological structures and location of MT sounding points
252 V. P. Borisova et al.

which makes it difficult to set the S value level outside the MT survey plate.
Quasi-3D modeling allowed us to draw two conclusions: (1) in the first stage of the
interpretation, we can confine ourselves to a 1D joint inversion of the amplitude and
phase curves; (2) to define the parameters of the deep geoelectric section more
precisely, a two-dimensional inversion of the amplitude and phase curves is
necessary.
At the first stage of the research (Borisova et al. 2013), a joint point-by-point 1D
inversion (Barsukov and Fainberg 2010) of the transverse amplitude and phase
MT-curves was performed. The results of the inversion are presented here for two
profiles: Profile 20 (Fig. 29.4) and Profile 16 (Fig. 29.5). Along the profile 16, the
effective curves were inverted (in the absence of MT curves measured along the
axes of the MT installation). In the remaining parts of the MT-survey plate (profiles
17–21), the transverse qxy, uxy and longitudinal qyx, uyx MT-curves were analyzed.

Fig. 29.4 One-dimensional pointwise inversion, profile 20

Fig. 29.5 One-dimensional pointwise inversion, profile 16

29 On Deep Electroconductivity of Tobol-Ishim Interfluve 253

The upper boundary is in good agreement with the seismic boundary, identified
with the platform cover or with the reflecting seismic horizon “B” (volgian upper
Jurassic), which is a regionally traceable seismic benchmark and confined to dis-
agreement surfaces (Kunin et al. 1995). The thickness of the sedimentary layer on
the profiles 16 and 20 varies in the range of 1.1–1.5 km.
The lower geoelectric boundary, considered by us as the roof of a conducting
layer in the mantle lithosphere, on the profile 20 rises from a depth of 70–80 km
(Zavodoukovsky swell—Komissarovsky swell) to 60 km, and then descends to the
former level (central and eastern regions of the Sokolovky swell). The spatial rise of
the roof of the conductive layer corresponds to the zone of the Kiselevsky deep
fault separating the Kiselevsky trough and the Sokolovsky swell and is one of the
main faults in the territory of the MT research. The values of the specific electrical
resistivity of (1–3)103 X-m of the consolidated lithosphere in the region of the
maximum rise of the roof of the conducting horizon are somewhat lower in com-
parison with the background values (3–6)103 X-m.
The north-eastern end of the profile 20, where the depths to the conducting
asthenospheric horizon are of H * 73–78 km, approaches the northwest section of
the profile 16 H * 70 km, related to the side zone of the Pletnevsky trough. On the
profile 16 in the Pletnevsky trough, the roof of the conducting horizon is first raised to
a mark of 58–61 km, and then its immersion to 69 km. This anomalous zone is
indicated only by two MT probes (MTS 44, 46) and, if it does exist, it may be a
continuation of the anomaly manifested on the profile 20, which cuts the Kiselevsky
fault (MTS 132) and extends to the north-east direction at an angle of *50° to the
Kiselevsky fault) to the intersection with the profile 16. (Note. It is also possible that
this anomaly traces the Kiselevsky fault, which is manifested on the profile 16, not in
the contact zone of the Kiselevsky trough with the Sokolovsky swell, as on the profile
20, but in the zone of the Pletnevsky trough. It is noteworthy that the values of the
electrical resistivity of the consolidated lithosphere in this region of the rising of the
roof of the conducting horizon also amount to (1–3)103 X-m, but in this case
the values of the resistivity of adjacent blocks of the lithosphere are lowered).
Profile 16. The lower geoelectric boundary along the entire length of the profile
16, except for the supposed anomalous zone, spatially confined to the Pletnevsky
trough, monotonically rises in the east direction from the level 71–76 km
(Kiselevsky trough—Sokolovsky swell) to the marks 53–55 km (west side
Vagay-Ishim depression, entering the zone of the Ishim branch of the Triassic rift
system of WSP, Fig. 29.3). The rise of the roof of the conducting horizon of the
lithospheric mantle is accompanied by a gradual decrease in the electrical resistivity
of the consolidated lithosphere from the values (1–3)103 X-m (Pletnevsky block),
up to 700–1000 X-m (Borovlyansko-Vyatkinsky—Aromashevsky block) and fur-
ther 400–500 X-m—block of the consolidated lithosphere, corresponding to the
western side of the Vagay-Ishim depression. At that the resistivity of the litho-
spheric block corresponding to the Kiselevsky trough region—Kiselevsky deep
fault—Sokolovsky swell is characterized by lower values (4–9)102 X-m, which are
much smaller than those determined for the roofing area of the conducting horizon
in the lithospheric mantle—(1–3)103 X-m on the profile 20.
254 V. P. Borisova et al.

Discussion

From the analysis of the results of a one-dimensional joint inversion of the

amplitude and phase curves MTS curves corresponding to the H-polarized MT field
and obtained in the period ranges of 0.25—400–540 s (profiles 17–21) and the
results of inversion of the amplitude and phase effective MT curves obtained in
the range 0.25–1000 s (profile 16), it follows that in the mantle lithosphere of the
Tobol-Ishim interfluve, a conductive horizon with electrical resistivity of tens of
X-m is traced (Fig. 29.4 and 29.5). Its roof rises from the northern and western
sections of the MT-survey area (depths of 70–85 km) towards the Vagay-Ishim
depression (depths of 55–65 km). At the same time, the resistivity of the lithosphere
decreases from the first thousand X-m to the first hundred X-m.
The traced rise of the conductive zone in the subcrustal lithosphere is particularly
significant in that area of the Ishim branch of the rift system, where, according to
geothermal data, anomalously high values of the heat flux (HF), namely, 67–70
mW/m2 are established (Kostyuchenko 1992). This area extends along the rift zone
by *110 km, and its width, like the width of the Ishim Rift, is of *35 km. The
region of high temperatures on the Mohorovicic surface, contoured by an isoline of
700 °C corresponds to the anomalous region of HF. Inside this high-temperature
region, a value of 780 °C is noted. In the eastern direction, the temperature on the
Moho surface decreases rapidly: at a distance of only 20 km from the 700 °C
isoline an isoline 500 °C passes. To the west of the anomaly, temperature data are
absent.
The anomalous HF region is crossed by the marginal suture of the Early
Paleozoic Central Turgay deep fault. The temperature on the surface of the
Paleozoic basement in the area of the MT survey decreases smoothly from
the north-east corner (70 °C) in the south-west direction (up to 40 °C). With the
geothermal anomalies, obviously, the features of the deep geological structure of
the Ishim rift zone are considered (Kostyuchenko 1992). On the surface of the
crystalline basement, a depression of 12 km in depth is observed, consistent in plan
with the anomaly of the heat flux and with the temperature anomaly on the Moho
surface. The surface of the Mohorovicic is elevated to a depth of 36–38 km.
Thus, the thickness of the crystalline basement complex within the Ishim rift
zone is abnormally shortened and amounts to 24–26 km. (For comparison, the
geotraverse of Murmansk-Kyzyl in the Central-Western Siberian fold region,
pickets 210–310, the minimum thickness of the crystalline part of the crust is
pegged within the limits of the Tobol-Nizhniy Irtysh rift zone where it has a
thickness of 31 km). There is a powerful folded complex of the lower-middle
Paleozoic, about 9 km thick, graben filled with Triassic sediments with a thickness
of 1.5 km and a sedimentary cover with a thickness of 1.25 km located on the
surface of the crystalline cap.
The anomalous zone in the subcrustal lithosphere of the Ishim branch of the
Triassic rift system of WSP is probably associated with granitoid (PZ2-3) and main
(PZ2) intrusions confined to the region of its localization (Fault map… 1980).
29 On Deep Electroconductivity of Tobol-Ishim Interfluve 255

According to recent studies (Dobretsov 1997), many intrusions common in the vast
territories of the WSP and the Siberian Platform and dated to the early Middle
Paleozoic can be attributed to the Late Paleozoic- Triassic. The conductive object
detected in the spreading zone may be an element of a two-level mantle-crustal fluid
paleosystem—“the area of decompression melting in the ascending flow of the
mantle substrate (astenolens) and the melting region in the lithosphere under the
Moho boundary” (Sharapov et al. 2008). The cited work says that the upper
boundary of the melting zone in the continental lithosphere of the Siberian Platform
and the WSP is located at a depth of 60–70 km.

Conclusion

To confirm the revealed conductive objects in the depth section of the research area
and to refine the parameters of these objects, it is necessary to perform a
two-dimensional inversion of the amplitude and phase MT curves. It is highly
desirable to organize an array survey of AudioMTS, MTS and deep MTS on the
basis of broadband equipment and modern noise-resistant technology for recording
electromagnetic fields in order to study the deep geoelectric structure of the Ishim
magnetotelluric anomaly. The field MT studies should be aimed at:
(1) determining the configuration and electrical conductivity of an anomalous
object (asthenospheric diapir/astenolense/element of a multilevel paleomag-
matic system;
(2) investigating the mechanisms of interaction of the asthenosphere and litho-
spheric mantle in zones of continental spreading of the West Siberian plate.

References

Barykin, S.K. and V.S. Bochkarev (1993). The structure of the basement and the intermediate
complex of sediments. Col. Geological and geophysical modeling of oil and gas areas.
Moscow. Nedra, pp. 34–41.
Borisova, V. P., T. A. Vasil’eva, S. L. Kostyuchenko, N. V. Narskii, B. K. Sysoev, E. B. Fainberg,
A. G. Charushin and A. L. Sheinkman (2013). On Deep Electric Conductivity of the
Lithosphere in the Tobol–Ishim Interfluve (West Siberia). Izvestia, Physics of the Solid Earth,
V. 49, N3, pp. 363–372.
Barsukov, P.O. and Fainberg E.B. (2010). 1D MT-modeling and inversion (manual). Applied
Electromagnetic Research (AEMR), the Netherlands, 36 p.
Dobretsov, N.L. (1997). Perm Trias magmatism and sedimentation in Eurasia as a reflection of
superplume. DAN. Geophysics, V. 354. № 2. pp. 220–223.
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Sidorenko, M., Ministry of geology of the USSR, VNIIGeofizika.
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Kostyuchenko, S. L. (1992). The deep structure of the Earth crust of West Siberian plate by the
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 Part IV
Geological Interpretation
Chapter 30
Study of the Magnetic Properties
of Geological Environment in Super
Deep Boreholes by the Magnetometry
Method

G. V. Igolkina

Abstract The purpose of the article: obtain new data of magnetic fields, mag-
netization, and magnetic susceptibility of rocks at large depths under conditions of
their natural location. Solve technological problems associated with the detection
of metal in the walls of wells and near borehole space. Methods: for magneto
metric studies, magnetometers-inclinometers have been developed at the Institute of
Geophysics of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, which allow
continuous measurements of the magnetic susceptibility of rocks (v), the vertical
component (Za) and whole vector of the horizontal component (Ha) of the geo-
magnetic field; magnetic azimuth (Am) and zenith angle (u) of the well. Results: the
capabilities of the well magnetometry method for studying the magnetic properties
of rocks and the refinement of the litho logical and stratigraphic characteristics of
the Kola SG-3, Krivoy Rog SG-8, Ural SG-4, Muruntau SG-10, Saatlinsk SG-1,
Timan-Pechora SG-5, Kolvin, Vorotilov, Tyumen SG-6, Novo-Elkhovsk,
Tyrnyauzsk super deep wells. Conclusions: it was showed the interrelation of
magnetic characteristics with depth, age and litho logical composition of rocks was
studied. Analysis of well magnetometer and MEP data allowed establishing
the boundary of pyrite-pyrrhotine transition in the gold ore zone. It is shown the
possibility of borehole magnetometry for solving paleomagnetic problems for
determining the magnetization of rocks.

Keywords Borehole magnetometry Magnetic characteristics Super deep well




Magnetic susceptibility Geomagnetic field Magnetization of rocks



Method Dolerite Pyrrhotite

G. V. Igolkina (&)
Institute of Geophysics UB RAS, Yekaterinburg, Russian Federation
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 259

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_30
260 G. V. Igolkina

Introduction

The superdeep boreholes are the basis for direct study of the composition of rocks at
deep horizons of the earth’s crust. They allow identify the geological sections to a
great depth; to get direct data on state, composition of rocks and to study their
variation according to the depth; identify the nature of geophysical boundaries; to
study physical properties of rocks in real thermodynamic conditions; and also
contribute to the development of new technologies and equipment for in-depth
study and use of underground resources etc. (The main results … 2000; Pelmenev
et al. 1991).
The borehole magnetometry, which includes measurement of magnetic sus-
ceptibility and magnetic field, is effectively used for investigation of superdeep
wells and for the study of deep wells in oil-and-gas regions of Russia (Igolkina
2002). The efficiency of the borehole magnetometry is associated with the devel-
opment and implementation of magnetometers-inclinometers capable to carry out a
simultaneous and continuous investigation with high precision of the magnetic
field, the magnetic susceptibility in wells and also of the magnetic azimuth and the
well deviation angle. In addition, the developing of new ways and techniques of the
interpretation of magnetic fields and of the study of magnetic bodies allowed to
solve complex geological problems and to move from a qualitative interpretation of
measured magnetic parameters to their quantitative analysis.
The method of boreholes magnetometry was used to study such superdeep wells
as: Kola, Krivoy Rog, Ural, Muruntau, Saatly, Timan-Pechora, Kolvin, Vorotilov,
Tyumen, Novo-Yelkhov, Tyrnyauz, KTV. This provided valuable data on the
magnetic field and magnetic susceptibility features, as well as on the magnetization
of the main geoblocks of the earth’s crust and its parameters at various horizons in a
wide stratigraphic range.
The investigated superdeep boreholes are located in the main geostructures
(Fig. 30.1): on the ancient shields (Kola, Vorotilov, Krivoy Rog, Novo-Elkhov), in
different-aged infolded facilities (Ural, Muruntau, Tyrnyuz) and in the mantles of
ancient (Kolvin, Timan-Pechora) and young platforms (Tyumen SG-6), region of
Mesozoic and Cenozoic foldings (Saatly SG-1) (The Main results … 2000;
Pelmenev et al. 1991).

Study Results and Their Discussion

To carry out magnetometry investigations magnetometers-inclinometers were

developed at the Institute of Geophysics UB RAS. The instruments allow to carry
out continuous measurements of the magnetic susceptibility of rocks (v), of the
vertical (Za) and whole vector of the horizontal component (Ha) of the geomagnetic
field, the magnetic azimuth (Am) and the well deviation angle (u). The developed
30 Study of the Magnetic Properties of Geological Environment … 261

Fig. 30.1 Location map of superdeep and deep boreholes (I) and the geostructure diagram (II):
(a) areas of ancient platforms and shields (3—Kola SG-3, 12261 m, 8—Krivoy Rog SG-8,
3841 m, 14—Vorotilov, 5374 m, 7—Novo-Elkhov, 5100 m), (b) different-aged infolded facilities
(4—Ural, 6001 m, 10 - Muruntau SG-10, 4220 m, 13—Tyrnyauz, 4001 m); (c) mantles of ancient
platforms (12—Kolvin, 7054 m, 5—Timan-Pechora, 6903.5 m), (d) areas of the young platforms
(6—Tyumen SG-6, 7502 m), (e) Mesozoic and Cenozoic foldings 1—Saatlinskaya SG-1,
8324 m), (f) wells
262 G. V. Igolkina

software allows to realize the measurement process with automatic correction input
and representation of measurement results on the display. The magnetometer-
inclinometer MI-6404 has a thermopressure resistance of 250 °C @ 220 MPa, the
whole measurement suite is carried out during two put-out-of-hole operations using
a three-core logging cable (Astrakhantsev and Beloglazova 2012).
To improve the reliability of the interpretation together with the results of
borehole magnetometry, the results of calipering, inclinometry, of the electrode
potential method and other geophysical well logging methods, as well as geological
sections along the borehole, the results of paleomagnetic and petromagnetic core
studies, other petrophysical information provided by geological services at the wells
and by other researchers. But it should be noted that there are some restrictions in
the qualitative and quantitative interpretation of logging materials. The effective-
ness of the qualitative interpretation and the reliability of the conclusion are based
on the following factors: weak dependence of the magnetic field measurements on
the parameters of the well and the area adjacent to it; high resolution capacity both
in the radial direction and along the well; suitable accuracy of measurements and
their stability (Igolkina 2002).
The task of determining the magnetization of rocks under conditions of their
natural occurrence along the boreholes of the superdeep wells has the advantage
over the study of magnetization on core samples. A complete section of the well is
studied instead of individual coring stations. In addition, vector measurements of
the geomagnetic field using three components Z, Hx, Hy are bended to the cardinal
points, while the core does not have such a binding. Particularly the advantage
showed in the cases when the core is not oriented “up-down”, and, consequently,
the polarity of the remnant magnetization remains unknown (Igolkina 2007; Parker
and Daniell 1979; Parker 1974). The features and changes in the magnetization of
the rocks discovered by superdeep boreholes are based on the regular relationship
of magnetic anomalies with geological factors: lithological type of rocks, the degree
of their change, structural and texture features, the type and concentration of
magnetic minerals, etc. Their study gives reasons to use these parameters for the
geological interpretation of the observed both internal and external magnetic fields.
The author established the features of the magnetization of in situ rocks
according to the results of the investigation of the superdeep wells.
For rocks with magnetite and titanomagnetite mineralization, represented by
dolerite intrusions, dikes of microdiorites, basaltic andesites, basalts (Ural SG-4,
Timan-Pechora SG-5, Kola SG-3, Saatly SG-1, Kolvin parametrical borehole) both
normal and inverse magnetization are observed.
The presence of fine-grained monoclinic pyrrhotite in the wells of Ural SG-4 and
Muruntau SG-10 changes the rate of the J, Ji, Jn curves (they become rugged and
alternating). The inhomogeneity of the magnetization of the rocks is mainly asso-
ciated with the change in the natural remnant magnetization Jn due to its different
stability.
A comparison of the evaluation of the types of magnetic mineralization with
petromagnetic, paleomagnetic studies of the core of the superdeep borehole and
30 Study of the Magnetic Properties of Geological Environment … 263

with data on petrographic and petrochemical descriptions of rocks is necessary to

supplement and confirm the interpretation; to assess the possibility of borehole
magnetometry for solving paleomagnetic problems (Igolkina 2002).
The use of the borehole magnetometry to correlate geological sections along the
boreholes of the Kola and Ural superdeep wells required an individual approach for
each well under study and area of work. The successful solution to the problem
depends on the specific geological conditions and physical properties of the rocks
for each well, measured by core and in natural occurrence. To correlate the geo-
logical sections, a set of features of the magnetic correlation was developed, which
allows comparing and correlating the magnetic rocks along the boreholes of the
superdeep wells with a sufficient degree of reliability (Igolkina 2014).
The magnetic parameters on the basis of which the correlation is made are: the
magnitude and degree of ruggedness of the magnetic susceptibility curve;
the magnitude, sign and degree of brokening of the internal magnetic field curve;
the magnitude and polarity of the full magnetization; the magnitude of the induced
magnetization; the magnitude and polarity of the natural remnant magnetization; the
magnitude and sign of the QZ and QH factors; the prevailing rhythms of the fre-
quency of changes in the magnetic properties of rocks along the section; position of
the internal field vector in space ~Ta ; the results of statistical processing of magnetic
parameters.
An example of the use of the results of borehole magnetometry for the con-
struction of a volumetric model of the borehole environment can be the correlation
of magnetic rocks along three boreholes of the Kola SG-3 superdeep well, along the
original and pilot boreholes of the Ural SG-4, along the boreholes of oil-and-gas
wells of the Siberian platform and Western Siberia. The deep structural forecast is
largely related to the quality of the correlation of rocks in the interwell space and,
therefore, the use of borehole magnetometry becomes crucial.
In addition, according to the borehole magnetometry data, in the Ural SG-4
superdeep well, intersections of the magnetic rocks were identified along the
original and pilot boreholes in the interval from 300 to 3400 m and their mutual
correlation was made (Igolkina 2014).
A study of the effect of artificial isothermal magnetization in areas of sulphide
mineralization allows to estimate the complex nature of magnetic mineralization
and to give a qualitative evaluation of the distribution of pyrrhotite types in the
Muruntau SG-10 (Kalvarskaya et al. 1978). The integration of the borehole mag-
netometry method and the electrode potential method allowed to separate the
sulphide mineralization into pyrite and pyrrhotite, to establish the boundary of
the pyrite-pyrrhotite transition, which is especially important for determining the
boundaries of gold-ore mineralization in the Muruntau ore field (Fig. 30.2). These
transitions coincide with the geological boundaries of the section and metamorphic
zoning, indicating their interrelation.
At the Muruntau borehole, the study of artificial magnetization of sulphide
mineralization zones became possible due to the technological reasons (frequent use
of bottom-hole magnet in drilling operations). The magnetic field of the
264 G. V. Igolkina

Fig. 30.2 Comparison of the results of the borehole magnetometry in the Muruntau superdeep
well SG-10: a before (October 1989) and after (March 1990) artificial magnetization of rocks in
the interval 3170–3220 m; b before (October 1990) and after (May 1991) artificial magnetization
of rocks in the interval 3360-3400 m. 1—meta-aleurolites; 2—aleurolites; 3—carbon-mica schists;
4—biotite-plagioclase rocks; v and Za—magnetic susceptibility and anomalous vertical compo-
nent of the magnetic field; EPM—logging results by the electrode potential method
30 Study of the Magnetic Properties of Geological Environment … 265

bottom-hole magnet at a 1 m distance is about 796 A/m. The studies of artificial

magnetization of the sulphide mineralization zones were proposed by
G. V. Igolkina in investigations of the superdeep wells to solve the geological task
of determining the boundaries of pyrite-pyrrhotite transition (Igolkina 1995).
When the magnetization in a magnetic field is up to 796 A/m, the monoclinic
modification of pyrrhotite acquires a significant isothermal magnetization. The
study of the isothermal magnetization in laboratory and borehole conditions
allowed V. P. Kalvarskaya (Kalvarskaya et al. 1978) to propose a new method for
the dismembering and mineralogical diagnostics under natural conditions of the
types of magnetic mineralization.
The change in the magnetic field and magnetic susceptibility was studied, and
the magnetization of the rocks was calculated, and the effect of the bottom-hole
magnet on the magnetic characteristics was estimated. The developed device for
measuring the magnetic susceptibility was used in the study and allowed to solve
the problem of measuring the magnetic susceptibility at depths of up to 12 km at
high temperatures (Astrakhantsev and Beloglazova 2012). The advantage of the
instrument gives complete independence of the output signal of the magnetic
susceptibility sensor from the electrical conductivity of rocks, which is rather
important in studying rocks containing iron sulphides (such as pyrite and
pyrrhotite).
The magnetization effect DZ = Za2 − Za1 reaches 20,000 nT, and the anomaly
of the field is related to the quantitative content of pyrrhotite and depends on its
type: monoclinic, hexagonal or intermediate—intergrowth of the first two types.
The comprehensive analysis of the borehole magnetometer and the electrode
potential method (EPM) allowed to determine the boundary of the pyrite-pyrrhotite
transition at the 480–1200 m depth interval, but according to data (Alekseeva and
Kremenetsky 2000) this boundary lies at depths from 0 to 1000 m.
The interrelation of magnetic characteristics with structural and texture features
of dolerite intrusions, basalts and gneisses discovered by the Ural, Timan-Pechora,
Kolvin, Vorotilov superdeep wells was studied (Igolkina 2002, 2015).
In addition, the use of borehole magnetic prospecting increases the efficiency of
geophysical studies of wells in solving technological tasks of in-depth study and
utilization of underground resources. The solution of the problem associated with
the detection of metal in the hole walls and in the borehole environment allows, in
case expansion of the borehole or the change of its direction, to avoid emergency
situations.
Many drilling assemblies have been left in the borehole environment of the Kola
SG-3 (Igolkina 2002, 2013). Figure 30.3 shows the assumed from the data of the
borehole magnetometry position of the drilling devices consisting of two parts.
The first part is the tube of the core slicer, the second part is the element of the
drilling device of the BHA. The distance to the boundaries of metal objects from
the wall to the top of the first part was 13–15 cm, of the second part—23–26 cm
(upper end) and 18–21 cm (lower one).
Knowing the magnitude of the magnetic field anomaly, as well as the type of the
metal object, it is possible to estimate the distance to it from the borehole of the
266 G. V. Igolkina

Fig. 30.3 Determination of the location of the drilling assembly left in the wall of the Kola SG-3
in the 6420–6430 m depth interval

investigated wall, which allows to determine the three-dimensional position of the

emergency borehole and to solve the practical task of the devices bypass during
further well-drilling (Igolkina 2013).

Conclusions

Thus, the borehole magnetometry is one of the most effective geophysical methods
for solving many geological tasks and should be included in the standard complex
when investigating superdeep and deep boreholes including oil-and-gas ones. The
uniqueness of these results, obtained from depths up to 12,261 m, remains and will
remain for a very long time, because now the Global Society Of Geologists has no
projects of repetition of so deep penetration into the depths of the Earth, but they are
necessary.
At present, new geological tasks are given to the borehole magnetometry:
1. Study of modern and paleomagnetic fields: identification of areas of magnetic
field inversions along the boreholes section, their analysis and comparison with
data of paleomagnetic studies; and also investigation of magnetic field gradients
according to the depth.
2. Investigation of the possibility of the borehole magnetometry to solve the
paleomagnetic problems and creation of effective methods for integrated inter-
pretation of the materials of borehole magnetometry, of paleomagnetic and
petromagnetic studies.
30 Study of the Magnetic Properties of Geological Environment … 267

3. Complex analysis of well magnetometer and MEP data allows establishing the
boundary of pyrite-pyrrhotine transition in the depth interval 480–1200 of the
Muruntau well.
4. The solution of the problem associated with the detection of metal in the walls
of the borehole and near wellbore space, allows for the expansion of the
wellbore or changing its direction, to avoid emergency situations.

References

Alekseeva A.K., Kremenetsky A.A. (2000). Nature of petrophysical inhomogeneities in sections

of gold-ore black-shale strata. International Geophysical Conference. 300 Years of Mining and
Geological Service of Russia. Scientific conference abstracts. St. Petersburg. Pp. 212–213.
Astrakhantsev Yu.G., Beloglazova N.A. (2012). Integrated magnetometric instrumentation for the
investigation of superdeep and exploratory wells. Yekaterinburg: UB RAS, 2012. 120 p.
Igolkina G.V. (1995) The role of artifical Magnetization of evaluation of sulfide mineralization.
Book of abstracts XX1 General Assembly of IUGG, Scientific Program GA 5.19” Magnetic
Petrology and Magnetic Signature of Ore Deposits and Ore Environments “. 2–14 July.
Boulder; Colorado; USA. GAB51K-13. P. 13.
Igolkina G.V. (2002). Borehole magnetometry in the study of superdeep and deep wells.
Yekaterinburg: UB RAS, 2012. 215 p.
Igolkina G.V. (2007) Study of the magnetization of rocks in natural occurrence according to
measurements data in superdeep and deep wells. Proceedings of Murmansk State Technical
University. V. 10. No. 2. Pp. 244–250.
Igolkina G.V. (2013). Solution of technological tasks in the study of superdeep and oil-and-gas
wells by the method of magnetometry. Scientific and technical bulletin “Karotazhnik”,
No. 230. Pp. 25–40.
Igolkina G.V. (2014) Correlation of magnetic rocks in the interwell space of oil-and-gas and
superdeep wells. Oil and Gas Engineering. No. 2. Pp.12 –20.
Igolkina G.V. (2015). The study of the relationship between magnetic characteristics and structural
and texture features of gneisses (on the example of the Vorotilov Sputnik-1 well). Geophysics.
No. 4. Pp. 53–56.
Kalvarskaya V.P., Filippycheva L.G., Metallova V.V., Petrov I.N. (1978) Logging method with
magnetization of rocks in a well. Transactions of Leningrad State University. Geophysics
issues. Issue 27. Pp. 77 –85.
Parker P.L.(1974). A new method of modelling marine gravity and magnetic anomalies. J. Of
Geophys. Res., vol. 79. No. 14. Pp. 2014–2016.
Parker P.L., Daniell G.J.(1979). Interpretation of Borehole Magnetometer Date.J. Geophys. Res.,
vol. 84. No 10. Pp. 5467–5479.
Pelmenev M.D., Krivtsov A.I., Khakhaev B.N. (1991). Condition and tasks of deep exploration by
deep and superdeep wells. Sovietskaya geologiya. No. 8 Pp. 3–7.
The main results of the deep and superdeep drilling in Russia (2000). St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg
cartographic factory of Russian Geological Research Institute. 111 p.
Chapter 31
Underground Water Flows Detection
and Mapping by Direct-Prospecting
Geoelectric Methods

S. Levashov, N. Yakymchuk, I. Korchagin and D. Bozhezha

Abstract Many years of experience in the practical application of non-classical

geoelectric methods of forming a short-pulsed field (FSPEF) and vertical
electric-resonance sounding (VERS) for various problems of the near-surface
geophysics solving demonstrates their high efficiency in searching and delineating
subsurface water flows and aquifers. The results of our study indicate that the zone
of rocks moistening, underground water streams of natural and man-caused origin
and aquifers are detected and mapped operatively by a real survey with FSPEF
method. The depth of lying and thicknesses of water-saturated horizons are
determined with a high accuracy by VERS sounding. Field works of such character
are often executed very operatively and easily. The results of geophysical studies
show the effectiveness of FSPEF survey method and VERS and GPR soundings
methods in dealing with the detection and mapping of underground water flows.
Practical application of this technology during the geotechnical studies conducting
for the construction of large engineering projects can bring significant economic
benefits by reducing significantly the duration of exploration work and the drilling
activity reduction.

Keywords Geoelectric survey
Electric-resonance sounding
Deposit type

anomaly Zone of moistening
Aquifer
Water flow
Well
Landslide zone

S. Levashov (&)
N. Yakymchuk
D. Bozhezha

Institute of Applied Problems of Ecology, Geophysics and Geochemistry,
Kyiv, Ukraine
e-mail: [email protected]
I. Korchagin
Institute of Geophysics, NAS, Kyiv, Ukraine
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 269

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_31
270 S. Levashov et al.

Introduction

Mobile geoelectric methods of forming the short-pulsed electromagnetic field

(FSPEF) and vertical electric-resonance sounding (VERS) (Levashov et al. 2005)
for more than twenty years have been successfully applied to operatively solve a
wide class of geological and geophysical problems, the searching for ore and fossil
fuels including. During this time, the FSPEF-VERS technology in conjunction with
seismic-acoustic and GPR soundings methods were widely used for operative
solving the various problems of the near-surface geophysics. In particular, the
FSPEF and VERS geoelectric methods have been repeatedly used during (a) ex-
ploration and mapping of aquifers, water-saturated horizons and mineral water
deposits; (b) identification and mapping of areas of high humidity of soil, naturally
occurring and man-made ground water flows, leaks from underground water
communications; (c) examination of engineering-geological and hydrogeological
conditions and monitoring over their changes on the territory of historical and
architectural monuments, buildings and parks location; (d) carrying out geotech-
nical studies on the sites of construction of bridges, subway lines near surface
occurrence, industrial buildings, residential buildings and objects of social and
cultural facilities; (e) mapping the oil contaminated areas, etc. (Bokovoy et al. 2003;
Levashov et al. 2005, 2010).
Special attention should be paid to the results of using this complex of operative
geophysical methods for studying engineering and geological conditions on the
sites of construction of new subway lines in the Kyiv, as well as on already
constructed and operating sections of it. A large volume of experimental and
research work performed and the results obtained have clearly and convincingly
shown, on the one hand, the negative (destructive) impact of groundwater on the
objects of the transport infrastructure under construction and located near the
building and facilities. On the other hand, the results of these studies give good
reasons for well-founded conclusions that when carrying out design work for the
construction of buildings, industrial facilities and transport infrastructure, it is
necessary to take into account the groundwater flows. Underestimation of under-
ground flows leads to significant losses of time and financial resources. On the third
side, the detection and mapping of water flows and areas of increased soil moist-
ening can be quickly (operatively) implemented by a complex of geoelectric
methods of FSPEF and VERS and georadar sounding. This practically tested
complex of methods can also be used to solve specific engineering and geological
problems during the construction of housing complexes, new underground lines,
other cultural and industrial facilities, as well as for regular monitoring of the
engineering and geological condition of the environment in the areas of already
built and put into operation objects.
The report describes and analyzes the results of the operative solving of urgent
practical problem—the detection and mapping of underground water flows.
31 Underground Water Flows Detection and Mapping … 271

General Information

At the initial stage of a residential complex construction in Kyiv on the

Krasnopilskaya street unforeseen problems associated with the flooding of the pit
dug by groundwater have been arisen (Fig. 31.1). This circumstance led to the need
for the operative conducting the geophysical research in the area of construction in
order to establish the causes of flooding.
The site is located on a hillside. Some lower along the slope a small lake was
formed due to the ground water. This indicates that the migration of ground water
takes place partially in the area of the construction site, which led to the trench
filling by the water after excavation.
The main objective of the geophysical research was to identify areas of enhanced
groundwater filtering, establishing areas of migration and depths intervals of the
maximum moistening of the soil. According to geophysical research there were
necessary to formulate the recommendations on the organization of drainage of
underground water flows away from the construction site.
Geophysical surveys were conducted with using the FSPEF and VERS geo-
electric methods and GPR sounding the cross-section with antenna unit AB
250 MHz. The survey by FSPEF method was used for zones of high soil moist-
ening mapping and the routes of water flows migration determining. Methods of
VERS and GPR soundings were used to determine the depth and thickness of areas
of high soils moistening and the vertical cross-sections of moistened horizons
construction (Fig. 31.2).
We must note also that on construction site a full range of engineering and
geological surveys was made. Figure 31.3 shows the engineering and geological
cross-section along one of the lines, which gives a complete picture of the nature of

Fig. 31.1 The origins of the groundwater at the construction site

272 S. Levashov et al.

Fig. 31.2 Formation of the

landslide zone in the area of
Western underground water
flow

research and detail of the cross-section study on the construction site. We draw
attention to the fact that areas of high soils moistening were marked in the
cross-section by many wells. They are marked by black on the vertical lines of
wells in Fig. 31.3.

Results of Geophysical Work

The Areas of Increased Groundwater Filtration Mapping

According to the survey by the FSPEF method three areas of increased groundwater
filtration and soil moistening were identified and mapped on the construction site:
there are water flows under the code name “Western”, “Central” and “Eastern”.
These zones are formed by underground water flows that migrate down the hill.
Figures 31.3 and 31.4 show the map of moistening zones and contours of under-
ground streams applied on the work plan of construction, and on the satellite image
of the area of work.
“Western” stream was traced from Krasnopilskaya Street down the hill to the
construction site. The stream passes under part of the house number 2, then between
31 Underground Water Flows Detection and Mapping … 273

Fig. 31.3 Engineering and geological cross-section along line III-IIIa, built on the results of the
survey for the residential complex construction

houses number 2a and 2b and goes in the south-western part of the construction
site. At this point in the pit there is ground water sources (Fig. 31.1). Due to the
influence of the underground stream a small landslide area on the territory adjacent
to the garages site start to form (Fig. 31.2).
At the house 2a the ground subsidence is observed within an underground
stream. This drawdown could be formed at the expense of man-made water and
leaks from the heating duct. Removal of the soil, in this case, is performed along the
zone of the underground flow.
Width of subsurface flow in the upper part, in the Krasnopilskaya street area is
8.0–10.0 m. Downslope flow width is gradually increased, and in the south-western
part of the construction area reaches 30.0 m.
Central” stream was traced from the Krasnopilskaya street, where he was
recorded near the house number 2. Then the flow passes the house number 2b at a
distance of 5–8 m from his foundation and sent to the central part of the con-
struction site (Figs. 31.4 and 31.5). The stream crosses the central part of the site. In
the southern part of the pit within this flow the groundwater sources are observed.
The width of the soil moistening zone along an underground stream in the
Krasnopilskaya street area is 5–8 m. Towards the construction site the stream width
increases to 25–27 m.
“Eastern” stream is defined in the south-eastern part of the construction site. It
follows from the forest slope zone and only partially crosses a small area of the
construction site. The stream width in the area of the construction site is 15-20 meters.
274 S. Levashov et al.

Fig. 31.4 The map of soil moistening areas and migration routes of groundwater flow in the area
of the housing complex construction (according to the survey by FSPEF). 1—zone of soil
moistening; 2—direction of groundwater migration; 3—VERS points; 4—profiles of GPR
sounding

Determination of the Depth Interval of Increased Filtration

Zones

The depth and thickness of the soil moistening zones were defined according to
VERS and GPR soundings. Results of VERS sounding are given in Table 31.1.
According to the GPR sounding three vertical cross-section of soil moistening
zones were constructed, one of which is shown in Fig. 31.6.
31 Underground Water Flows Detection and Mapping … 275

Fig. 31.5 Map of soil moistening areas and migration routes of underground water flows at the
site of a residential complex construction on the satellite image of area. 1—zone of soil
moistening; 2—direction of groundwater migration; 3—VERS points; 4—profiles of GPR
sounding

Two main soil moistening intervals were set at the construction site by sounding:
number 1 and number 2 (Fig. 31.6; Table 31.1). Third moistening interval (number
3) is defined in part at some sounding points (Table 31.1). The “surface” water is
moistening interval number 1. In the area of the western and southern parts of site
the depth of the wetting zone roof within an interval number 1 is about 3.5 m. The
276 S. Levashov et al.

Table 31.1 Depth intervals VERS points Aquifer # 1 Aquifer # 2 Aquifer # 3

and thickness of aquifers
according to VERS sounding V1 3.2–4.7 6.4–10.7 12.0–13.1
V2 3.1–3.9 7.7–10.6 –
V3 3.5–4.8 6.4–10.7 12.8–13.8
V4 3.4–4.0 7.6–10.2 –
V5 3.2–3.8 7.8–9.2 –
V6 3.6–5.0 6.0–10.7 10.7–12.5
V7 3.2–4.5 5.6–8.8 –
V8 4.6–5.4 8.5–11.0 –
V9 3.4–4.7 6.2–9.0 11.9–13.0
V10 2.1–4.0 6.4–9.5 –
V11 3.1–4.8 8.0–11.2 13.1–14.0
V12 2.9–5.0 6.2–10.6 12.7–13.5
V13 3.3–5.1 6.6–10.1 12.3–13.3
V14 3.4–4.0 7.0–9.2 12.3–13.5
V15 3.5–4.8 6.6–9.6 11.9–12.9

Fig. 31.6 Graf of FSPEF field (a) and GPR cross-section of soil moistening zone. 1—zone of soil
moistening; 2—VERS points; 3—zone of high filtration of groundwater; 4—number of aquifer

thickness of filtration area is 1.3–1.5 m. In the southern part of the site the thickness
of the soil moistening interval number 1 reaches 2.1 meters. The water filtration is
carried out on the horizon of fine sand set according to drilling. In the area of
excavation pit the soil is removed before the water flow roof in the interval number
1. The source of the water in the pit is carried out from a given interval.
The moistening horizon number 2 lies in the depth range of 6.0–10.0 m. The
average thickness of the interval is 3.5 m. Water filtration is carried out on the sand
horizon set by drilling.
31 Underground Water Flows Detection and Mapping … 277

Fig. 31.7 Possible variants of drainage construction for the groundwater draining from the
construction site. 1—soil moisture zone; 2—direction of groundwater migration; 3—VERS points;
4—profiles of GPR sensing; 5—variant of the drainage system number 1; 6—variant of the
drainage system number 2; 7—depths for the top and base of the first aquifer

The third horizon of soil moistening is traced only at certain points in the depths
interval of 12.0–13.0 m. The horizon thickness is 1.0 m. The moistening soils of
this interval are located above the clay.

Results and Recommendation

In general, conducted geophysical studies revealed the causes of flooding of the pit
at the construction site. The zones of increased filtration of groundwater and ways
of their migration have been discovered and mapped. It is found that the water
filtration is performed along the local zones, passing through the construction site.
The depths of the main aquifers were determined.
The results of the research indicate the need for the drainage arrangement on the
western and southern part of the site to divert the water from the construction site.
To eliminate the water in the pit by theirs drainage it is necessary to intercept the
first aquifer, the thickness of which is of 1.5 m in average.
Figure 4.10 shows two proposed options of drainage system laying to drain
groundwater from the construction site.
278 S. Levashov et al.

Conclusion

The research materials of surveying character demonstrate again quite convincingly

and clearly the devastating effects of underground water flows on various objects
(including those under construction) of a modern city. They also point on the
objective necessity of the destructive underground streams identifying and mapping
at the stage of geological engineering survey for the construction of engineering
structures, buildings and facilities of various purposes. This need ignoring leads, in
most cases, to enormous time and material (financial) cost.
On the other hand, the results of geophysical studies show the effectiveness of
FSPEF survey method and VERS and GPR soundings methods in dealing with the
detection and mapping of underground water flows. Practical application of this
technology during the geotechnical studies conducting for the construction of large
engineering projects can bring significant economic benefits by reducing signifi-
cantly the duration of exploration work and the drilling activity reduction.

References

Bokovoy V.P., Levashov S.P., Yakymchuk M.A. Korchagin I.N., Yakymchuk Ju.M.
(2003) Mudslide area and moistening zones mapping with geophysical methods on the slope
of the Dniper river in Kyiv. 65nd EAGE Conference & Exhibition. Stavanger, Norway, 2003.
Extended Abstracts, P208, 4 p.
Levashov S.P., Yakymchuk M.A. Korchagin I.N., Pyschaniy Ju.M. (2005) Express-technology of
geoelectric and seismic-acoustic investigations in ecology, geophysics and civil engineering.
Near Surface 2005 - 11th European Meeting of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics,
Palermo, Italy, 2005. Extended Abstracts P046, 4 p.
Levashov S.P., Yakymchuk N.A., Korchagin I.N., Pischaniy Ju.M., Bozhezha D.N.
(2010) Application of mobile geophysical methods for the examination of areas of landslide
processes formation and development. Near Surface 2010 – 16th European Meeting of
Environmental and Engineering Geophysics, Zurich, Switzerland, 6–8 September 2010.
Extended Abstracts P70. 5 p.
Chapter 32
Areas of Negative Excess Density
of the Earth’s Crust as Sources
of Energy for Ore Formation

M. B. Shtokalenko, S. G. Alekseev, N. P. Senchina

and S. Yu. Shatkevich

Abstract It has been calculated that the potential energy of one cubic kilometer of
rocks with an excess density of −0.02 g/cm3 is sufficient to form an ore deposit
with medium reserves.

Keywords Energy Potential energy Gravity field

Density


Ore deposits Negative gravity anomalies

Safronov (1966), Ivanov et al. (1978) proposed to consider ore formation as a

transition of chemical elements in the Earth’s crust from the diffused state to a
concentrated and schematically describe this transition as the compression of an
ideal gas. So N. I. Safronov proposed to estimate the energy of ore formation using
the formula of work (A) on the compression of an ideal gas:

m V1
A¼ RT ln ; ð32:1Þ
l V2

where m is the reserve of metal in the deposit, kg; l is kg-mol of the metal,
kg/kg-mol; R—universal gas constant, R ¼ 8:3144598 J/(kg-mol°К); T—temper-
ature, °К; V1—volume of kg-mol of the metal in the diffused state, in rocks, m3;
V2—volume of kg-mol of the metal in the concentrated state, in ore, m 3;
l l
V1 ¼ ; V2 ¼ ; ð32:2Þ
C1 q1 C2 q2

M. B. Shtokalenko
Geological Survey of Estonia, Tallinn, Estonia
e-mail: [email protected]
S. G. Alekseev
N. P. Senchina (&)
Saint Petersburg Mining University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Yu. Shatkevich
AS “Geologorazvedka”, Saint Petersburg, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 279

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_32
280 M. B. Shtokalenko et al.

C1—content of the metal in rocks, part per one; q1 —density of rocks, kg/m3;
C2—content of the metal in ore, part per one; q2 —density of the ore, kg/m3.
Substituting (32.2) into (32.1), we obtain the calculation formula:

m C2 q2
A¼ RT ln : ð32:3Þ
l C1 q1

Table 32.1 shows the results of calculations using formula (32.3) for the medium
reserves of deposits of several ore elements. The value of the reserve (m) was
chosen at the upper limit of the established medium reserves.
The temperature T was assumed equal to the critical temperature of water 374.15 °
C = 647.3°K with rounding to 700°K. The medium reserves of metals in deposits are
adopted in accordance with Order No. 50 of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the
Russian Federation of March 31, 1997 (Order 1997). The values of q2 and C2 are taken
from Betekhtin’s book (1951), with densities taken on the upper limit. Thus, we
mentally enrich the deposits to massive ores, increasing the estimated energy of ore
formation. Values of C1—from the Quick Reference Book of the Geochemist (1977)
(average contents of elements in the Earth’s crust—according to Vinogradov 1962).
The rock density (q1 ) is assumed to be 2.67 g/cm3.
The calculations showed that the energy expenditure on the formation of the
medium ore reserves does not exceed 1012 J for all the roundings to the greater side.
Assuming that the efficiency of natural systems is a value of the order of 1%, we
obtain a total energy expenditure of 1014 J. For comparison: 1 kiloton of TNT, i.e.
railroad train, produces at an explosion of 4.184  1012 J of energy.
Where does the energy of ore formation come from? At present, this question
remains debatable (Sendek and Chernyshev 2015). The association of ore deposits of
gold, uranium, copper, lead and zinc in Russia to negative gravity anomalies (zones of

Table 32.1 Results of calculations of energy of ore formation

Ele- Mineral Formula m C2 C1 A
ment th. t kg % g/cm3 ppm J
Co Cobaltine CoAsS 15 58.94 35.4 6.5 18 1.60  1010
Cu Chalcocite Cu2S 1000 63.57 79.8 5.8 47 9.63  1011
Cu Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 1000 63.57 34.57 4.3 47 8.59  1011
Zn Sphalerite ZnS 1000 65.38 67.1 4.3 83 8.43  1011
Mo Molybdenite MoS2 50 95.95 60 5 1.1 4.20  1010
Ag Argentite AgS 3 107.88 87.1 7.4 0.07 2.81  109
Sn Cassiterite SnO2 50 118.7 78.8 7 2.5 3.34  1010
Au Gold Au 0.05 196.97 90 18.3 0.083 3.11  107
Hg Cinnabar HgS 15 200.61 86.2 8.2 0.0043 7.52  109
Pb Galena PbS 1000 207.21 86.6 7.6 16 3.36  1011
U Uraninite UO2 20 238.03 88 10.6 2.5 6.92  109
32 Areas of Negative Excess Density of the Earth’s Crust … 281

negative excess density of rocks) is shown by the authors (Alekseev et al. 2010).
Similar results were obtained for the territories of the USA, Canada, and Australia. As
an example, Fig. 32.1 shows the map of the regional component of the US gravity
(filter size 164  164 km) with the location of ore deposits.
The regional component of the field is created not only by deep sources, for
example in the east of the Russian plate the regional component of gravity, obtained
by averaging over a radius of 200 km, has a statistically significant positive cor-
relation with the elevation of the crystalline basement.
An area of negative excess density has a positive potential energy W

W ¼ Mgh; ð32:4Þ

because the negative excess mass M is multiplied by the negative elevation h; g is

the acceleration of gravity. A visual model of the negative excess mass is a ball
immersed in water. When we release the ball, it jumps out of the water, converting
potential energy into kinetic energy.
It would seem that the potential energy is greater if the negative excess mass is
deeper, but excess mass is a relative concept. For example, the intrusion of diorites
with a density of 2.8 g/cm3 in the lower crust will have an excess density of
2.8–3.0 = −0.2 g/cm3, in the middle crust it will have zero excess density:
2.8–2.8 = 0. and in the upper crust acquires a positive excess density:
2.8–2.7 = +0.1 g/cm3. In view of this circumstance, the elevation in formula (32.3)
is measured from the level at which excess mass becomes zero and is divided by 2
under the assumption that the excess mass changes linearly with elevation.

Fig. 32.1 Placing of large ore deposits of the USA on the background of the regional component
of gravity. The field matrix (us_bouguer.grd file) was obtained from the US Geological Survey
website (https://mrdata.usgs.gov/gravity/bouguer)
282 M. B. Shtokalenko et al.

To estimate the elevation h in the formula (32.4), we can propose the following
rough approximation. The density of the Earth’s crust varies from 2.67 to 3.27 g/cm3
per 45 km of thickness, i.e. with an average gradient of 0.0133 g/cm3/km.
Consequently, for the excess density of −0.01 g/cm3, the elevation in formula (32.4)
will be approximately −0.01/0.0133/2 = −0.375 km. For −0.02 g/cm3, respec-
tively, −0.75 km.
It is known that 1 cubic kilometer of rocks contains as many metals as an
industrial ore deposit. Let us verify this situation for the chemical elements con-
sidered here (Table 32.2).
Let us now find out what excess density should have 1 km3 of rocks lying from
the surface, so that the potential energy of the mass considered is equal to the
energy of ore formation, taking into account the efficiency of 1%. To do this, in
formula (32.4) we represent the excess mass M as the product of the excess density
r by volume V = 1 km3: M ¼ rV, then we assume W = 1014 J, h = -500 m (depth
of the center of mass) and find r = −0.02 g/cm3. It proves that not much is needed
to get the required energy.
It is easier to imagine the considered volume of rocks at some depth, for
example, at a depth of the center of 1500 m, the volume has an excess mass M, at a
depth of 500 m the excess mass would be zero, since the density of the considered
volume would become equal to the density of the enclosing rocks. The elevation
difference of 1000 m should be divided in half to take into account the reduction in
excess mass.
The anomaly from the cube 1 km3 with an excess density of −0.02 g/cm3, lying
from the surface, will be −0.629 mGal above the center of the cube. For verifi-
cation: according to the formula of gravity of an intermediate layer with a thickness
of 1000 m with the indicated density, we obtain 0.0419 ∙ (−0.02) ∙ 1000 = −0.838
mGal; from the excess mass, concentrated at a depth of 500 m, we obtain
−0.544 mGal.
The potential energy of mass distribution in the Earth’s layers is the most
important energy source of the planet. If on the continents, according to modern

Table 32.2 The contents of Element Content Size of deposit

metals in 1 cubic kilometer of th. t
rocks
Co 48 Large
Cu 125 Medium
Zn 222 Medium
Mo 3 Small
Ag 0.2 Small
Sn 7 Medium
Au 0.01 Medium
Hg 0.2 Small
Pb 43 Small
U 7 Medium
32 Areas of Negative Excess Density of the Earth’s Crust … 283

concepts, about 80% of the natural heat flow is created by radioactive decay, then
under the oceans, where there is no granite layer (the upper crust in which the
radioactive elements are concentrated), the potential energy of masses released
during tectonic movements becomes the leading source of heat. Since the ore is
heavier than the surrounding rocks, ore formation reduces the negative excess mass,
filling them with positive ones.
The use of negative gravity anomalies for prospecting of ore deposits is phys-
ically justified by comparing the energy of ore formation and the potential energy of
negative excess masses of the Earth’s crust.
Negative gravity anomalies, to which ore deposits are connected, are created in
particular by fluid-permeable tectonic zones. A fluid is a superheated liquid that
becomes a super-solvent (Course of Mineralogy 1936). For this reason, the cal-
culated temperature of ore formation was assumed to be somewhat higher than the
critical temperature of water.
The potential energy of the observed gravity anomaly can be estimated by
multiplying the excess mass of the anomaly source by the depth of the center of
mass with a minus sign. From the depth it is necessary to subtract the depth for
which the density of the source of the anomaly is average, and divide by 2. The
excess mass of the source is determined by the integration of an anomaly previously
isolated from the field (Andreev and Klushin 1965), the depth of the center of mass
is estimated by known methods of interpretation, a tomographic section at full
densities is required to correct the depth or the above rough estimate.

Conclusions

One cubic kilometer of rocks with the excess density of −0.02 g/cm3 contains not
only metals in an amount equal to the reserves of an industrial deposit, but also the
potential energy sufficient to form an ore deposit with medium reserves.
Negative gravity anomalies may be used in prospecting for ore deposits because
the negative anomalies indicate the presence of favorable conditions for the for-
mation of the deposit.

References

Alekseev S.G. et al. (2010). Indications of hydrocarbon and ore systems of various ranges in
gravity and magnetic fields. In: Theoretical and practical aspects of geological interpretation of
gravity, magnetic and electric fields: Proceedings of the 37th session of Uspensky International
Geophysical Seminar. Moscow: Institute of Physics of Earth of RAS, pp. 15–20. (in Russian).
Andreev B.A., Klushin I.G. (1965). Geological interpretation of gravity anomalies. Leningrad:
Nedra. Leningrad Branch, 495 p. (in Russian).
Betekhtin A.G. (1951). The course of mineralogy. Moscow: State Publishing House of Geological
Literature, 542 p. (in Russian).
284 M. B. Shtokalenko et al.

Course of Mineralogy. (1936). The collective of authors (Betekhtin A.G., Boldyrev A.K.,
Godlevsky M.N., Grigoriev D.P., Kiselev A.I., Levitsky O.D., Razumovsky N.K., Smirnov A.
A., Smirnov S.S., Sobolev V.S., Soloviev S.P., Uspensky N.M., Chernykh V.V., Shatalov E.T.
and Shafranovsky I.I.) Moscow: ONTI, 1051 p. (in Russian)
Ivanov N.P., Meshcheryakov S.S., Safronov N.I. (1978). The energy of ore formation and the
prospecting for minerals. Leningrad: Nedra, 215 p. (in Russian).
Order of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation of March 31, 1997, № 50 On
instructions on the payment of remuneration for the identification of mineral deposits (in the
edition of the Order of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation No. 112 of
April 24, 2000). (in Russian).
Quick reference book on geochemistry. (1977). Ed. 2./ Voitkevich G.V., Miroshnikov A.E.,
Povarennykh A.S., Prokhorov V.G., Moscow: Nedra, 180 p. (in Russian).
Safronov N.I. (1966). Basic thermodynamic regularities in the study of the energy of ore
formation. Proceedings of the Mining Institute (Journal of Mining Institute), vol. 50, № 2,
pp. 17 – 31. (in Russian).
Sendek S.V., Chernyshev K.E. (2015). Theoretical justification for analyzing distribution of gold
concentrations in ores of hydrothermal gold deposits. Proceedings of the Mining Institute
(Journal of Mining Institute), V.212, pp. 30–40. (in Russian).
Vinogradov A.P. (1962). Average contents of chemical elements in the principal types of igneous
rocks of the Earth’s crust. Geochemistry № 7, pp. 641–664. (in Russian).
Chapter 33
Distribution of Sources of Magnetic
Field in the Earth’s Core Obtained
by Solving Inverse Magnetometry
Problem

V. Kochnev

Abstract The purpose of this work is to create a model of sources of Earth’s

magnetic field. Main magnetic field in IGRF-2005 model is used as initial condition
for solving inverse magnetometry problem using adaptive method of solving sys-
tems of equations. Distributions of effective magnetization, magnetic moments and
volumetric currents in the Earth’s core, consistent with observed magnetic field, are
obtained.

Keywords Magnetic field of earth Effective magnetization
Inverse
magnetometry problem volumetric currents Geodynamo

Introduction

The sources of Earth’s magnetic field are usually approximated by dipoles and
current loops. (Peddie 1979). In this paper they are represented by magnetized
prisms, filling the planet’s core. This allows to transition from magnetization to
magnetic moment and volumetric current. This transition is valid due to the
equivalence between magnetized objects and currents, established in (Alpin et al.
1985). Distribution of effective magnetization within prisms is obtained while
solving the inverse magnetometry problem with Z-components of the main mag-
netic field of the Earth (as per IGRF-2005 model) in geocentric coordinate system
as initial condition. Resulting system of 2450 equations with 354 unknowns is
resolved using adaptive method (Kochnev 1988, 1993, 1997; Kochnev and
Khvostenko 1996).

V. Kochnev (&)
Institute of Computational Modeling SB RAS, Krasnoyarsk, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 285

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_33
286 V. Kochnev

Initial Conditions

Magnetic field lines are presented in a geocentric coordinate system, with center of
the Earth as the origin, Z axis is aligned with Earth’s rotational axis and X and Y
axis lying within equatorial plane, crossing equator at longitudes of 90° and 180°
correspondingly. Figure 33.1 a,b shows contour lines of Earth’s magnetic field as
seen from the north pole according to IGRF-2005 model, calculated on an even
grid with spacing of 400 km at height of 1 km above the surface. For reference,
figures contain projections of the geographic pole (polus) and certain cities: Tokyo
(TOK), Krasnoyarsk (KRS), Yekaterinburg (EKT), London (LON), Ottawa(OTW)
in Northern hemisphere and Punta Arenas (PAR) and Canberra (CNB)—in
southern.
For the northern hemisphere, contour line 56,270 nT (absolute value), corre-
sponding with maximum of magnetic field highlights two well-defined areas of
higher magnetic field strength. In equatorial area magnetic field strength varies
between 29,500 to 34,800 nT (absolute value). In southern hemisphere maximum
lies between southern pole and Canberra, while a well-defined minimum lies
opposite of it in the equatorial area.
Z-component of the magnetic field in geocentric coordinate system (Fig. 33.1 c,d)
has its maximum in an elliptic shape around the pole in the north hemisphere. For
southern hemisphere, similarly to the overall field maximum lies in an area between
pole and Canberra.

Magnetization and Magnetic Field

Magnetic induction potential, created by the magnetized body is defined as

(Aleksidze 1987; Bulakh and Shuman 1998).
Z Z Z
l0 ! 1
DUðn; f; gÞ ¼ ð J ðx; y; zÞ; grad ÞdG; ð33:1Þ
4p r
G

!
where J ðx; y; zÞ is magnetization (A/m) of a unit of volume dG, with coordinates x,
y,z, r is distance between the unit of volume and the point of observation, and the
integral is taken over the entire magnetized volume G.
For numerical integration the volume is divided into rectangular prisms for
which magnetization is assumed to be constant. Components of magnetic field
within these prisms are calculated via differentiation of Eq. (33.1)
Resulting system of equations generally is viewed as an ill-posed problem. This
was circumvented by using the adaptive method (Kochnev 1983, 1988, 1993).
33 Distribution of Sources of Magnetic Field … 287

(a) (b)

Y, km

Y, km
X, km X, km

(c) (d)

Y, km
Y, km

X, km X, km

(e) (f)
Y, km

X, km

Fig. 33.1 Contour lines of Earth’s magnetic field in geocentric coordinate system: a northern
hemisphere, b southern hemisphere. Z-component of Earth’s magnetic field: c northern
hemisphere, d southern hemisphere (viewed from the northern pole), e field lines of Earth’s
magnetic field with evenly magnetized core, f contour lines of Z-component of magnetic field with
evenly magnetized core
288 V. Kochnev

Adaptive Method for Solving Systems of Linear Equations

Key quality of adaptive method is its ability to deal with the systems of equations
by refining the unknown values based both on the initial conditions and newly
found values for each iteration. This refinement is performed successively for all the
equations and is based on the discrepancy between the initial and projected values.
Method is realised in the ADM-3D application for solving magnetometry
problems (Кochnev 2006), that is being used for solving various scientific and
engineering problems in geophysics.

Solving the Inverse Magnetometry Problem

The purpose of this work is to come up with a model of the sources for Earth’s
magnetic field that results in and accurate representation of actual Earth’s magnetic
field. Assuming these sources, as mentioned above, to be uniformly magnetized
rectangular prisms, based on the equivalence of currents and magnetized objects
(Alpin et al. 1985), the calculation uses two layers of rectangular prisms
(Fig. 33.2e) with 177 prisms in northern and southern hemispheres each. Prisms
dimensions in equatorial plane are 400 by 400 km. Effective magnetizations of the
prisms are considered the unknown values.
Using even distribution of magnetization for initial condition results in an
uneven distribution very similar to the one obtained with no initial magnetization.
Root mean squared discrepancies showed significant reductions as iterations went
on. This indicates stability and convergence of obtained solution.
Figure 33.2 a,b depicts effective magnetizations in northern and southern hemi-
spheres, varying between 0 and 1580 A/m for northern and −605 and 1315 A/m for
southern. Obtained distributions differ significantly from the initial values.

Estimation of Magnetic Moments and Currents

Having obtained effective magnetization i for each prism and knowing their volume
V, we can calculate the magnetic moment (Alpin et al. 1985):

M ¼ iV: ð33:2Þ

Figure 33.2 c,d depicts distributions of magnetic moment for prisms in northern
and southern hemispheres correspondingly. Obtained values vary between
−222  1018 and 512  1018 A m2. Total magnetic moment for northern hemi-
sphere is 4.87  1022 A m2, for southern 3.54  1022 A m2. Resulting total
magnetic moment of Earth ME ¼ 8:41  1022 A m2. Negative magnetic moment is
33 Distribution of Sources of Magnetic Field … 289

Fig. 33.2 Magnetization of a northern and b southern hemispheres of the Earth’s core, obtained
by solving inverse magnetometry problem; magnetic moments for c northern and d southern
hemispheres; Volumetric currents for e northern and f southern hemispheres
290 V. Kochnev

only observed in a small segment of southern hemisphere and amounts to

−3.63  1021 A m2 total.
Resulting estimation for the entire Earth’s core 8.65  1022 A m2 is close to the
value obtained from evenly magnetized model: 8.45  1022 A m2 and estimation
of 1023 A m2 by (Kaufman 1997).
Having obtained the values for magnetic moments we can estimate currents
necessary to create them. For rectangular prism M ¼ IS, therefore:

I ¼ M=S or I ¼ ih; ð33:3Þ

where I is total current flowing around the lateral surface of the prism, S is area of
the prism’s base, i is effective magnetization and h is the height of the prism.
Figure 33.2 e,f depict currents in northern and southern hemispheres corre-
spondingly. The highest current value reaches 3.2  109 A, while volumetric
currents lie within the 0.004–0.03 A/m2 margins.

Conclusion

Following new scientific results were obtained:

1. Using Earth’s global magnetic field on the surface, inverse magnetometry
problem was solved to estimate sources of Earth’s magnetic field in its core.
2. Z component of the global magnetic field model IGRF-2005 in the geocentric
coordinate system was used for solving inverse problem.
3. The Earth’s core was modeled with two layers of rectangular prisms, with even
effective magnetization within each prism.
4. An ADM-3D-earth application package was created and used to solve the
problem.
5. Model of magnetic moments in the Earth’s core was obtained, consistent with
earlier results.
6. The model of volumetric core currents is and constructed, which is consistent
with observed Earth’s magnetic field, including its main global anomalies:
Canadian, Asian-Siberian, Australian and South Atlantic.
Obtained results allow the following assumptions to be made:
1. The volumetric current in the Earth’s core is assumed to represent of the motion
of weakly charged core fluid.
2. The clockwise (if observed from north pole) motion of fluid in the core is due to
the and the influence of gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun.
In (Kochnev 2013, 2017) tidal forces are calculated and linear relationship
between tidal forces and a magnetic field is established for the planets of the solar
system. (The correlation coefficient is 0.997).
33 Distribution of Sources of Magnetic Field … 291

Acknowledgements The author expresses his gratitude to L. Tabarovsky, A. S Dolgal, Y.I.

Bloch for advice and constructive criticism, as well as I.V. Goz and A. E. Koroleva for help with
editing and formalization.

References

Aleksidze M.A. (1987) Approximation methods for solving direct and inverse problems of
gravimetry. Moscow, Nauka, 1987, 336 p.
Alpin L.M., Daev D.S., Karinsky A.D. (1985) Theory of fields used in exploration geophysics.
Textbook for Universities. Moscow, Nedra, 1985, 407 p.
Bulakh E.G., Shuman V.N. (1998) Fundamentals of vector analysis and field theory. Kiev,
Naukova Dumka, 1998, 359 p.
Kaufman A.A. (1997) Introduction to the theory of geophysical methods. Gravitational, electric
and magnetic fields. Moscow, Nedra, 1997, 520 p.
Kochnev V.A. (1983) Adaptive tracking of reflected waves and an estimation of their parameters
according to the data of multiple observation systems.// Geologiya i Geophysika, 1983, no. 2,
p. 95–103.
Kochnev V.A. (1988) Adaptive methods of interpretation of seismic data.// Novosibirsk, Science.
Sib., 1988, 152 p.
Kochnev V.A. (1993) Adaptive methods for solving inverse geophysical problems.// Krasnoyarsk,
ICM SB RAS, 1993, 130 p.
Kochnev V.A., Khvostenko V.I. (1996) Adaptive method for solving inverse problems of
gravimetry// Geology and Geophysics, 1996, No. 7, p. 120–129.
Kochnev V.A. (1997) Adaptive method for solving systems of equations in inverse geophysical
problems// Proceedings of the Siberian Conference on Applied and Industrial Mathematics,
dedicated to the memory of LV Kantorovich. Novosibirsk, 1997, p. 129 – 137.
Kochnev V.A., Goz I.V. (2006) Unsolved possibilities of magnetometry// Geophysics, 2006, no.
6, p. 51–55.
Kochnev V.A. (2013) Kinematic-gravitational model of geodynamo// Geophysical Journal, 2013,
v. 35, No. 4, p. 3–15.
Kochnev V.A. (2017) Dynamo models created on the planets under the influence of the tidal forces
of the satellite and the Sun// 17th International Multidisciplinary Scientific
GeoConference SGEM 2017, 2017, vol. 17, issue 62, Section Space Technologies and
Planetary Science, p. 899–906.
Peddie N.W. (1979) Current loop models of the Earth’s magnetic field// Journal of Geophysical
Research, 1979, vol. 84, No. B9, p. 4517.
Chapter 34
Efficiency of High-Precision Gravity
Prospecting at Discovery of Oil Fields
at Late Stage of Development

Z. Slepak

Abstract This paper contains information about technologies and results of

solving a number of oil geology problems based on data of high-precision gravity
measurements in various structural levels of sedimentary complex in the Urals and
Volga region. The examples of predicting oil-and-gas bearing structures, undis-
covered formations in areas of previously discovered oil fields, areas of increased
rock porosity in carbonate complexes, to which non-structural fields may be con-
fined, as well as accumulations of high-viscosity oil (natural bitumen) are provided
here. This paper shows that high-precision gravity prospecting and well survey
results at the late stage of oil field development allow effectively discovering the
features of geological structure of predicted objects and deposits, inclosing them.

Keywords High-precision gravity prospecting
Well survey
Oil fields

New prediction technologies

Introduction

The majority of oil fields in the Urals and Volga region are confined to local
structures, discovered in the second half of the last century in Devon and Carbon
deposits. At present, the late stage of these fields development is performed.
The methodology of their prediction and hydrocarbon extraction has changed.
Much attention is paid to the development of new drilling technologies, using
horizontal, inclined and other types of wells (Muslimov 2011).
Successful application of high-precision gravity measurements in prediction of
oil fields requires the creation of geophysical technologies characterized by reliable
physical and geological justification. In order to solve each specific problem of oil
geology, it is necessary to use well-known technologies or create new ones to

Z. Slepak (&)
Institute of Geology and Petroleum Technologies, Kazan Federal University,
Kazan, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 293

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_34
294 Z. Slepak

interpret anomalous gravitational field. The author developed an effective method

of geological and geophysical modeling (GGM). Unlike many methods of quali-
tative interpretation of gravitational anomalies, the method of geological and
geophysical modeling allows creating density models of predicted objects and
deposits, inclosing them. This paper presents examples of discovering
high-precision gravity prospecting of oil-and-gas bearing structures, areas of
increased rock porosity in carbonate deposits, to which non-structural fields and
natural bitumen accumulations can be related.

Methods of Geological and Geophysical Interpretation

and Research Results

Prediction of Oil-and-Gas Bearing Structures

The solution of oil geology problems requires studying physical and geological
features of predicted objects. The lateral heterogeneity of composition and physical
properties of sedimentary complex rocks is characteristic for the Urals and Volga
region (Andreev 1957; Proceedings of All-Russian Geological Research and
Development Oil Institute 1974; Slepak 1989, 2015). The density measurements
were performed for 6000 core samples from well intervals with continuous sam-
pling and according to data on oil-and-gas bearing complex and gas bearing
complex for 300 wells. This allowed establishing regular deconsolidation of rocks
above oil reservoirs in areas of oil-and-gas bearing structures discovered in indi-
vidual sedimentary complex horizons. The variability of average values of total
porosity factors Kp and densities r determined from well survey data on crests and
flanks of 23 structures of the South Tatar crest within sulfate-carbonate complex
was studied. The thickness of intervals studied for oil-and-gas bearing complex and
gas bearing complex was 200–600 m or more. It has been established that in crests
of 17 out of 23 structures the decrease in average values of densities compared with
flanks is −0.01 to −0.07 g/cm3 (74%). The increase in the parameter by 0.03–
0.06 g/cm3 (26%) observed for 6 structures is related to the features of secondary
processes, occurring within them. This allowed stating (with high reliability) the
presence of regular deconsolidation of rocks within local structures above oil fields
(equal to the hundredths of g/cm3), the gravitational influence of which is the main
prospecting indicator of their prediction. (Slepak 2005; 2014; 2015).
The presence of regular deconsolidation of rocks is discovered in carbonate
deposits in sections of many oil-and-gas bearing structures of the Urals and Volga
region. It is significantly associated with the formation of Karstic forms. When
drilling wells, there are often “cavings” of drilling tool and the absorption of drilling
mud and it is not always possible to eliminate its withdrawal. Karstic areas with
thickness of tens of meters may match with the structural plan. Their influence is
associated with increase in the intensity of local minima above structures created by
34 Efficiency of High-Precision Gravity Prospecting at Discovery … 295

rock deconsolidation. The deconsolidation of rocks is also observed in separate

horizons of local highs not only in carbonate, but also in terrigenous deposits of
other regions (Proceedings of All-Russian Geological Research and Development
Oil Institute 1974; Slepak 1989, 2015).
The author developed an effective method of geological and geophysical mod-
eling (GGM), which consists in solving the inverse linear problem (Strakhov 1995)
of gravity prospecting with simultaneous creating density models of geological
media and predicted objects directly from Bouguer anomalies without dividing the
field into components. Unlike many methods of qualitative interpretation of grav-
itational anomalies, the geological and geophysical modeling method allows
extracting information about features of the structure of oil fields and deposits,
inclosing them (Slepak 1989, 2005, 2015).
The method is successfully applied to solve two oil geology problems at
quantitative level: prediction of oil-and-gas bearing structures in sedimentary
complex and study of block structure of crystalline basement and fractures, dividing
them, which affect the formation of structures in deposits, overlapping them. Both
problems are being solved on quantitative level. The technologies of the geological
and geophysical modeling method allow creating physical and geological 2D and
3D models of oil-and-gas bearing structures of different morphological and genetic
types and identifying areas of rock deconsolidation above oil reservoirs. The results
of inverse modeling depending on physical and geological features of the structure
of objects under study are presented in digital form with their prismatic approxi-
mation in isolines of density variability in vertical plane and graphic representation
of density variability depending on depth. At the same time, the reliability of
solutions based on priori data is estimated (Slepak 2005, 2015).
Stepnovskaya structure (Saratov region) is a high of tectonic type, which is a
brachianticlinal box fold with wide flat crest located on the southern side of the
Marxian draw-down. The crystalline basement lies here at the depth of about
3.0 km according to geophysical data. The amplitude of the high on the surface of
Devon deposits is 0.35 km and it is characterized by large slope of flanks. Up the
section the amplitude of the high decreases up to 0.050 km. The structure is
industrial oil-and-gas bearing deposit concentrated mainly in Devon and Carbon
deposits. The total thickness of oil-and-gas bearing formations exceeds 0.10 km
(Slepak 2015).
Based on the interpretation results presented in digital form along the profile,
which crosses the structure across strike (Fig. 34.1), the complete correspondence
of the observed and matched fields is stated. The local gravity minimum between
the 7th and 11th km can be observed above the structure crest against the back-
ground of local field decrease. The lateral change in densities of model layers
characterized by different composition of deposits with prismatic approximation of
geological section presented in digital image (Fig. 34.2) allows estimating decon-
solidation of rocks in upper layer by value of −0.07 g/cm3, on average layer
−0.03 g/cm3, in lower layer −0.01 g/cm3.
The features of lateral variability of rock densities in structure model layers
(Fig. 34.2) represented in graphic image indicate that the deconsolidation of rocks
296 Z. Slepak

Fig. 34.1 Physical and geological model of Stepnovskaya structure: A is Bouguer anomaly, B is
theoretical (matched) anomaly, C is structure density model

Fig. 34.2 Graphs of density change in layers of Stepnovskaya structure model. 1—changes in
densities in upper layer; 2—changes in densities in middle layer; 3—changes in densities in lower
layer

in the upper layer is the closest to the actual value and gradual decrease of this value
in the second and third layers can be explained by their distant location from the
ground surface. Judging by the model the average value of lateral deconsolidation
of densities on the structure crest in sedimentary complex represented by three
layers, differing in the rock composition, is −0.04 g/cm3. The influence of the field
created by the lower layer varies within the thousandths of g/cm3 and can be
attributed to its background component.
34 Efficiency of High-Precision Gravity Prospecting at Discovery … 297

The geological section in the field area of one of the Solikamsk draw-down
structures of the Pre-Ural for deep also has three-layered structure. The upper layer
with thickness of about 0.25 km (P2) is represented mainly by terrigenous for-
mations. The salt deposits (P1 ir) underlay under them with thickness of 0.30 km.
Permian and Tournaisian carbonate deposits are located below in the section (the
third layer) with total thickness of about 1.5 km (P1 ar - C1t), overlapping the
Upper Devonian oil-bearing reef with dimensions of 5  5 km and amplitude of
more than 0.1 km. The values of densities in chosen layers are determined
approximately and taken correspondingly equal to: 2.45–2.50, 2.05–2.15 and 2.64–
2.67 g/cm3 (Bychkov 2010). The inverse modeling results obtained by the geo-
logical and geophysical modeling method are presented in the form of graphs of
density variability along the profile in the model layers (Fig. 34.3).
The example of 3D model creation by the geological and geophysical modeling
method is the Aktanyshskaya structure located in the northeast of the South Tatar
crest, which is represented by local intensity minimum of about 1.0 mGal
(Fig. 34.4). The subsequent drilling allowed determining the structure contours.
Some features of lateral variability of densities are observed in the model. The
rock deconsolidation section is observed in its central part. It is limited by rock
thickening along the edges and their local changes, characterizing the geological
structure components, which are of undoubted interest for determining the drilling
location. Similar 3D model is constructed according to the data of high-precision
gravity measurements for the Yamashinskaya structure section, the reliability of
which is confirmed by well survey results (Slepak 2005, 2015).
The creation of 3D models by the geological and geophysical modeling method
based on profile-areal high-precision gravity measurements gives evidence of high
geological information content of applied technologies for interpretation of

Fig. 34.3 Physical and geological model of structure A is Bouguer anomaly, B is theoretical
(matched) anomaly, C is structure density model
298 Z. Slepak

Fig. 34.4 Density 3D model of sedimentary complex in area of predicted Aktanysh-skaya

structure (isolines of densities in g/cm3)

anomalous gravitational field. They allow identifying physical and geological

heterogeneities of geological media under study. Also simultaneously with 2D
models they can serve as justification for using the geological and geophysical
modeling method for studying the structure and predicting oil fields.

Discovery of Areas of Increased Porosity of Deposits

in Carbonate Complexes

The comparison of physical and geological models, created as a result of inverse

modeling by the geological and geophysical modeling method for high-precision
gravity measurements, with well survey results is especially effective in studying
the geological structure and predicting “missing” oil formations at the late stage of
their development. There is the possibility of gaining information on the spatial
variability of porosity and density according to the data on oil-and-gas bearing
complex in deposits under study. The areas of increased porosity of rocks within
sulfate-carbonate complex, traced by graphs of oil-and-gas bearing complex along
regional geological and geophysical profiles are of particular interest.
The regional profile of about 80 km in length extends from the southwest to the
northeast through the western slope of the South Tatar crest (Fig. 34.5) as presented
as an example. The total porosity factor Kp is on average 5–7% along the profile
within the Tournaisian-Devon deposits. The average weighted capacity in
34 Efficiency of High-Precision Gravity Prospecting at Discovery … 299

Fig. 34.5 Geological and geophysical profile along line of wells No. 308–104: surfaces:
I—ground, II—Bashkirian stage C2, III—Yasnaya Polyana superhorizon C1, IV—Tournaisian
stage C1, V—Middle Frankish substage D1; 1—diagram; 2—areas of increased porosity; rocks:
3—limestones, 4—dolomites, 5—sandstones, 6—clays, 7—siltstones

individual wells varies from 5 (well No. 103) to 12% (wells No. 71, 116) and
reaches 14–15% in individual intervals of the section (wells No. 116, 252). (Slepak
2005, 2015).
Abnormal increase in Kp by 3–4% is observed throughout the carbonate thick-
ness in regions of local highs discovered along the profile (wells No. 308, 116–142,
253–248). The most significant increase is observed in the area of the
Yamashinskaya structure (well No. 231–140), where the area of increased porosity
of lenticular rocks with value of Kp of 10–12% is clearly observed. It is possible that
the area surface can be a contact—“cap rock” of sharp reduction in Kp by 7–8% for
accumulation of oil reservoirs of non-structural type. They can be discovered with
more detailed processing and interpretation of well survey data for drilled wells. It is
reasonable to perform high-precision gravity measurements on certain sections of
the profile and determine drilling location. Areas of increased porosity (similar to
that shown in Fig. 34.5) discovered in other areas, should also be considered.

Discovery of Ultra-Viscous Oils (Natural Bitumen)

Ultra-viscous oils (natural bitumen) are discovered on the western and south-eastern
slopes of the South Tatar crest and associated with carbonate and sandy-siltstone
formations with thickness up to 40 m. Ultra-viscous oils of the majority of
300 Z. Slepak

discovered reservoirs (80–85%) are liquid, semi-liquid, travelling (Khisamov,

Fayzullin 2011).
Since the density of bitumens is close to the groundwater density, it is practically
impossible to determine their gravitational influence. The sand lenses in the Ufa
deposits, which are bitumen reservoirs, are characterized by high factor of total rock
porosity (22–46%) and low density (1.5–2.2 g/cm3), which differ significantly from
parameters of deposits, inclosing them. Therefore, the gravitational anomalies
created by the influence of sand lenses are characterized by local field decreases,
which are prospecting indicators of possible accumulation of natural bitumen
reservoirs. The resultative example of discovering the sand lenses with
high-precision gravity prospecting is the Studeno-Klinskoe field of natural bitumen
(Slepak 2005, 2015). Since the field, sand lenses differ significantly in density from
deposits, inclosing them, the method of recalculating the measured gravitational
field into the lower half-space was used to discover them. The method allows
analyzing the change in the gravitational field with the approach to predicted
objects, using maps and graphs of gravitational field constructed in vertical plane
(Fig. 34.6).
The most important is the thickening of field isolines in the center of the sand
lens base (Fig. 34.6) in so-called “singular point” at depth of 117 m, completely
matching with the drilling data, which undoubtedly indicates high reliability of the
prediction results.
The sand lenses with accumulation of natural bitumens are often located in areas
of rock deconsolidation above oil reservoirs in underlying deposits of sedimentary
complex and reach ground surface. Such deconsolidation areas are typically

Fig. 34.6 Results of recalculating the measured gravitational field to the depth along the profile
above the Studeno-Klinskoe field of natural bitumens: 1—measured gravitational field; 2, 3, 4, 5—
graphs of measured field anomalies recalculated at depths of 50, 100, 150, 200 m correspondingly;
6—isolines of field in vertical plane
34 Efficiency of High-Precision Gravity Prospecting at Discovery … 301

associated with crests of structures and inevitably appear in gravitational field in the
form of local gravity minima, which are the prospecting indicator of their
prediction.
The influence of the Ufa sand lenses may be added to the gravitational influence
of the deconsolidation created by the areas, which can enhance the intensity of their
representation in the gravitational field. When performing high-precision gravity
measurements in monitoring mode, this necessarily should increase the extraction
of bitumen and allow correcting the drilling process at the late stage of
development.

Conclusion

The geological and geophysical modeling (GGM) method developed by the author
is characterized by high efficiency in discovering oil-and-gas bearing structures and
recommended for prediction of oil fields in different regions.
The above examples of solving the oil geology problems allow stating that
high-precision gravity prospecting and well survey results should be used to specify
geological structure features of predicted objects and deposits, inclosing them.
During the development of previously discovered oil fields the physical and
geological features of sedimentary complexes significantly change under the
influence of groundwater dynamics, secondary rock reorganizations, lithological-
facial reorganizations of rocks and neo-tectonic movements. As a result, the con-
ditions are created for the migration of oil reservoirs to other layers. Therefore, the
performance of high-precision gravity measurements in monitoring mode in
oil-and-gas bearing areas during the late stage of field development should
undoubtedly contribute to discovering new hydrocarbon accumulations.

References

Andreev B.A. (1957) Layer-by-layer zonality of physical properties of sedimentary rocks and its
relationship with platform area structures / Andreev B.A. - Soviet geology - 1957 - No. 61 -
pp. 112-120.
Bychkov S.G. (2010) Methods of processing and interpretation of gravity measure-ments in
solving problems of oil-and-gas geology. - Ekaterinburg: Ural Division of Academy of
Sciences of Russia, 2010. - p. 188.
Lateral variability of composition and physical properties of sedimentary thick-ness within
structures and its reflection in zoning of geophysical fields/Proceedings of All-Russian
Geological Research and Development Oil Institute, 1974. - Issue 160 – p. 417.
Muslimov R.Kh. (2011) Oil production: past, present, future. - Kazan: FEN publishing house,
Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, 2011, Russia. - p. 663.
Slepak Z.M. (1989) Use of gravity prospecting in search for oil-bearing structures. Moscow:
Nedra, Russia. 1989. - p. 200.
302 Z. Slepak

Slepak Z.M. (2005) Gravity prospecting in oil geology. Kazan, Kazan University Pub-lishing
House.Russia. - 2005. p. 222.
Slepak Z.M. (2015) Gravity prospecting. New technologies for prediction of oil fields. - Kazan:
Publishing house of the Kazan University, Russia. 2015. - p. 168.
Strakhov V.N. (1995) Major trends in the development of theory and methodology of geophysical
data interpretation at boundary of XXI century. Part I // Geophys-ics, No. 3, 1995, pp. 9–18.
Khisamov R.S., Fayzullin. (2011) Geological and geophysical study of oil fields at late stage of
development. Kazan: Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, FEN publishing
house, Russia. 2011, p. 228.
Z.M. Slepak. (2014) New Opportunities of High-Resolution Gravimetry for the Studies of
Subsurface Geology and Prediction of Oil Fields. - 14th International Multidisciplinary
Scientific GeoConference on Science and Technologies in Geolocy Exploration and Mining.
Volume 1. Bulgaria, 2014, pp. 743 – 750.
Chapter 35
Geophysics in Archeology

Z. Slepak and B. Platov

Abstract This paper contains information about possibilities of exploration

geophysics in solving archeological problems. High effectiveness of electromag-
netic sounding at revealing ancient buildings remnants in urban conditions, dating
the layers of anthropogenic formations and tracing their bottoms using Impulse-auto
M-1/0-20 electromagnetic surveying system is demonstrated herein. The
measurement procedure and developed computer technologies for processing
geophysical information, which allow solving particular archeological problems
and evaluating their veracity, are stated in this paper. The results of conducted
researches on the examples of archeological objects of the Kazan Kremlin,
Bogoroditsky Monastery, Bilyar and Bulgar settlements of the Republic of
Tatarstan are considered here.

Keywords Geophysics
Electromagnetic sounding
Cultural layer

Archeology

Introduction

Geophysical research methods have no negative impacts on anthropogenic layer.

They are widely used in solving geological problems, in engineering geology and
archeology. Because of limited space and numerous interferences in modern cities
(presence of buildings, ground and underground pipelines, moving vehicles, etc.)
the results of geophysical operations are characterized by significant errors and
require using specific measurement procedures and interpretation of the data
obtained. The study of anthropogenic layer structure and revealing archeological
objects is a difficult task, as weak changes in physical fields created thereby are
practically equal to errors of used geophysical instruments.

Z. Slepak (&)
B. Platov

Institute of Geology and Petroleum Technologies, Kazan Federal University,
Kazan, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 303

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_35
304 Z. Slepak and B. Platov

High effectiveness of the procedure for solving archeological problems devel-

oped by the author was demonstrated in the territory of historical center of Kazan
(and in areas of ancient settlements of Volga Bulgaria). The main object of research
was the Architectural ensemble of the Kazan Kremlin located on a high hill. Its
peak reaches 30 m relative to the surrounding streets from the north, east and west,
which created certain difficulties for geophysical researches. Despite this the results
of predicting remnants of ancient buildings in anthropogenic layer using geo-
physical methods were confirmed by subsequent archeological excavations.

Measurement Procedure and Research Results

The geophysical technologies used in the territory of the Kremlin for the first time
allowed determining the location of lost ancient buildings in conditions of urban
area, study the features of anthropogenic layer structure practically from the earth
surface and solve other problems (Slepak 1997, 1999, 2007, 2010).
The testing of various geophysical methods for solving archeological problems
in the territory of the Kremlin allowed selecting the most effective geophysical
method, i.e. the method of transient electromagnetic sounding using Impulse-auto
M-1/0-20 electromagnetic surveying system developed and constructed at the
Siberian Research Institute of Geology, Geophysics and Mineral Resources
(SNIIGGiMS) of the Russian Academy of Sciences, which allows researching
near-surface section.
Simultaneously with the observation of current source behavior in the process of
measurements the secondary field is registered at super-short times, which allows
electromagnetic sounding of uppermost layers of geological section. The electro-
magnetic surveying system includes current generator, transmitter and receiver
antennas, measuring unit and software. After interruption of the current pulse
created by the generator, the measuring unit with the receiver antenna registers the
electromotive intensity of transient processes induced in earth at field changes
(signal fall). The signal is displayed on the monitor in real time beginning from tens
of nanoseconds, which allows sounding the upper part of geological section
practically from the earth surface.
Optimal distance between electromagnetic sounding points was selected
according to the current problems. The use of 4  4 m square transmitter antenna
and 1.3  1.3 m receiver antenna (loop in loop) allowed sounding the anthro-
pogenic layer all the way down to its bottom. The electromagnetic surveying
system was used for discrete and continuous measurements (in the process of
motion). When studying lateral in-homogeneities of the anthropogenic layer and
revealing archeological objects, the pitch of soundings along the profiles was
1.0–2.5 m.
The sounding results were presented in the form of vertical sections of total
electrical conductivity S(H) along profiles, horizontal sections of total electrical
conductivity S(H) at different depths, maps of constant S(H) values in isolines of
35 Geophysics in Archeology 305

absolute depths (and in the axonometric projection) and maps of variability in the
thickness of anthropogenic layer. The comparative analysis of these data allowed
controlling the materials processing reliability, and the comparison of the sounding
results with the drilling data and the results of subsequent archeological excavations
allowed assessing the geological interpretation reliability.
A number of archeological problems confirmed by archeological excavations
were successfully solved in some sections of the Kazan Kremlin based on the
electromagnetic sounding results. The wall remnants were revealed (Fig. 35.1), the
map of anthropogenic layer bottom was plotted and archeological dating of
extracted layers in anthropogenic deposits in the area of the former Junker
Academy (Fig. 35.2) was performed. Also some other tasks were solved (Slepak
2007).
The developed technologies of geophysical researches for prediction of arche-
ological objects of the Kazan Kremlin were applied during the survey of the ter-
ritory of the former Kazan Bogoroditsky Monastery, which is practically located at
the eastern slope of the Kremlin Hill. The geophysical prediction here was possible
only along separate profiles between the buildings and backyard buildings, as well
as in some open areas and driveways covered with asphalt. The research objectives
were to reveal the location of the Cathedral in the name of Icon of Our Lady of
Kazan (the Cold Church), churches and towers of the monastery destroyed in the
30s of the twentieth century.

Fig. 35.1 Vertical sections of total electrical conductivity S(H) along profiles on the site of
Suyumbeki Tower and the Governor’s Palace
306 Z. Slepak and B. Platov

Fig. 35.2 Vertical sections of total electrical conductivity S(H) along profiles on the site of former
Junker College

The only area where it was possible to perform areal geophysical measurements
was the central part of the Kazan tobacco factory, which was covered with asphalt.
According to archival data, the location of previously destroyed Cathedral in the
name of Icon of Our Lady of Kazan was supposed to be there. The electromagnetic
sounding was performed over 2.5  2.5 m grid. Vertical sections of total electrical
conductivity identified with geological and geophysical profiles were constructed
along longitudinal and transverse profiles, which allowed studying the features of
anthropogenic layer structure. The results of measurements along the profiles are
presented in the form of vertical sections of total electric conductivity S(H)
(Fig. 35.3). Vertical lines in sounding points show the electromagnetic signal
penetration at various depths. Minimum signal depths characterize the predicted
buildings remnants closest to the earth surface. In observation points 6.25, 6.50 and
6.75 of profiles 2.25 and 2.75, as well as in observation points 6.25, 6.50 and 6.75
of profile 2.50 the sharp decrease in penetration depths of signal is observed
(indicated by arrows). These data allowed assuming the possible presence of
remnants of arc-shaped stone building belonging to the eastern part of the Cathedral
under the earth surface.
During subsequent archeological excavations the location of the eastern apse of
the Cathedral was revealed, which confirmed the geophysical prediction results
(Fig. 35.4). The use of obtained data and archival drawings allowed identifying the
location of the entire building, which is being reconstructed at the present time. The
remnants of the churches and the southeast tower of the monastery were revealed
along separate profiles (Slepak 2007, 2010, 2016). The recommendations are given
to perform archeological excavations in the areas of minimum penetration depth of
electromagnetic signal, which will allow limiting the amount of excavation work
upon their renewal.
The geophysical measurements in open areas significantly increase the possi-
bility of studying the bottom of anthropogenic layer and revealing details of its
structure. The results of tracing the bottom of anthropogenic layer in the territory of
35 Geophysics in Archeology 307

Fig. 35.3 Vertical sections of total electrical conductivity S(H) along profiles on the site of former
tobacco factory in the Kazan Bogoroditsky Monastery

Fig. 35.4 Archeological excavation with the remains on the geophysical data of the surviving
remnants of apse of the Cathedral in the name of Kazan Icon of Our Lady

the Bilyar settlement, the ancient capital of the Volga Bulgaria (X—beginning of
the XIII century), can be the prime example. The anthropogenic layer here is
characterized by small thickness, and its bottom is extracted fairly confidently
(Fig. 35.5).
308 Z. Slepak and B. Platov

Fig. 35.5 Vertical sections of total electrical conductivity S(H) along profiles 19, 21, 23 on the
site of the Bilyar settlement, displaying the bottom of anthropogenic layer

According to the data of electromagnetic soundings the traces of the ancient city
streets were displayed in the area of the ancient settlement (Fig. 35.6). Along the
profiles 20, 22, 27, 29 the “chains” of depressions, which are separated by local
elevations of the relief on the extracted surface and show traces of streets or roads
directed towards the city center, are especially clearly observed. According to the
archeological researches, the depressions may display traces of pantry pits,
barn-cages, cellars, etc. located near former buildings. Their dimensions are prac-
tically the same as those determined during archeological excavations (Khuzin
2001; Khuzin and Sitdikov 1996).
Significant possibilities of the applied electromagnetic sounding method were
demonstrated in one of the areas of Balynguz settlement necropolis (Fig. 35.7)
located south of Bilyar settlement, where the features of anthropogenic layer bottom
and the place of ancient burials are traced.
The results of the archeological dating within the cultural layer in the form of
extraction of individual strata, which differ in color from the areas of the Bulgarian
settlement (Fig. 35.8), are of particular importance, as during excavations the
archeological dating can be performed only fragmentarily according to archeolo-
gists’ data.
Because the layers age determination of separate periods is carried out only
fragmentary by archaeological data (Khusin 2001, Khusin and Sitdikov 1996),
results of age determination using geophysics on the territory of Bolgarian
Historical and Archaeological museum-preserve are of particular importance. Here
is traced the earliest Bulgarian layer (X–XI centuries), premongolian layer
35 Geophysics in Archeology 309

Fig. 35.6 Surface of the bottom of anthropogenic layer on the site of the Bilyar settlement, a in
isogipses, b in isometric image

Fig. 35.7 Forecasting results of surface of the bottom of anthropogenic layer in one of the areas
of the Balynguz settlement necropolis, where ancient burials are traced
310 Z. Slepak and B. Platov

Fig. 35.8 Vertical sections of total electrical conductivity S(H) along profiles 1–7 on the site of
the Bulgarian settlement

(XII–XIII centuries), Bulgarian layer (XIII–XIV centuries), layer of desolation

period (XV–XVI centuries) and two Russian layers (XVI–XIX centuries and XX
century) simultaneously with the selection of the anthropogenic layer. The three
most ancient layers are clearly traced (Fig. 35.8) using the electromagnetic
sounding data (Slepak 2010).
35 Geophysics in Archeology 311

Summary

The confirmation of geophysical prediction results by archeological excavations is

extremely important. Joint geophysical and archeological research allows promptly
adjusting the performance of archeological excavations, reducing negative impacts
on geological environment and significantly reducing the amount of excavation and
material costs.
Thus, the results of solving archeological problems presented in the article are
based on the application of new geophysical technologies developed by the author.
They give evidence of the geophysics possibilities in solving specific archeological
problems in modern cities between buildings and allow studying the features of the
structure of the ancient settlements in details.
In the practice of solving archeological problems several different geophysical
methods are often applied simultaneously without their proper physical-and-
geological justification. The author is deeply convicted that to solve the problems of
archeology it is extremely important to apply these methods to known objects and
choose the ones that can effectively solve particular task or several tasks. The
electromagnetic sounding method appeared to be such method. Some of its
application results are considered in this article.

Acknowledgements This study was funded by the subsidy allocated to Kazan Federal University
as part of the state program for increasing its competitiveness among the world’s leading centers of
science and education.

References

Khuzin F.Sh. (2001) The Bulgarian city. – Kazan: Master Line, 2001.
Khuzin F.Sh., Sitdikov A.G. (1996) Ancient Kazan through the eyes of contemporaries and
histo-rians. – Kazan: Fest, 1996.
Slepak Z.M. (2007) Urban geophysics, – M. EAGO, GERS Publishing house, 2007, p. 239.
Slepak Z.M. (2010) Exploration geophysics in archeology, Publishing house of Kazan University,
2010, p. 222.
Slepak Z.M. (2016) Geophysical researches to identify the remnants of the Cathedral in the name
of Icon of Our Lady of Kazan and churches in the territory of the Kazan Bogoroditsky
Monastery. Collection of selected articles based on the results of the International Practical
Conference: The Miraculous Kazan Image of the Virgin in the fates of Russia and World
Civilization. Kazan, Center for Innovative Technologies, 2016. pp. 139–144.
Slepak Z. (1997) Complex geophysical investigations for Studying the Cultural Layer and
Re-mains of Ancient Buildings in the Territory of Kazan Kremlin // Archeological prospection.
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1997. Vol. 4. P. 207–218.
Slepak Z. (1999) Electromagnetic Sounding and Highprecision Gravimeter Survey Define Ancient
Stone Building Remains in the Territory of Kazan Kremlin // Archeological prospection. John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1999. Vol. 6. P. 147–160.
Chapter 36
Using of Probabilistic-Statistical
Characteristics in the Interpretation
of Electrical Survey Monitoring
Observations

L. A. Khristenko, Ju. I. Stepanov, A. V. Kichigin,

E. I. Parshakov, A. A. Tainickiy and K. N. Shiryaev

Abstract It is within the Verkhnekamsk salt deposit, on the potentially dangerous

sections of the mine fields the geologic-geophysical monitoring, which includes the
electroprospecting researches by the methods NF and SEP on three spans of the
power line AB is carried out regularly. The analysis of statistical characteristics of
values of potentials of the natural field and apparent resistance by means of the
theory of estimates allows to increase significantly the volume of useful information
and more accurately to trace the features of a geological structure which are
implicitly expressed in the observed fields. For a more distinct allocation of the
hidden regularities of change of amplitude of the apparent resistance (AR) field, a
fast wavelet-transformation (FWT) of discrete values of AR by means of the
HAAR_2 program was executed previously. The statistical characteristics of SEP
values and potential of NF were calculated by various methods realized in the
COSCAD 2D software package (in the sliding window, in one-dimensional and
two-dimensional dynamic windows), and with different sizes of windows. The
statistical characteristics of values of NF potential were combined in turn with the
statistics of AR obtained at AB 100, 200 and 400 m, i.e. three multi-attribute spaces
were formed. Their structure was analyzed by means of various methods of
non-standard classification. The using of procedures of non-standard classification
allowed to break the analyzed sets on homogeneous, by formal mathematical cri-
teria, the classes spatially answering to sites of possible engineering-geological
complications, that it is extremely difficult by results of only the qualitative analysis
of field observations.

L. A. Khristenko (&)
Ju. I. Stepanov
A. V. Kichigin
E. I. Parshakov

A. A. Tainickiy
K. N. Shiryaev
Laboratory of Surface and Underground Electrometry, Mining Institute
of the Ural Branch Russian Academy of Sciences, Perm, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 313

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_36
314 L. A. Khristenko et al.

Keywords Verkhnekamsk salt deposit Monitoring observations



Electroprospecting researches Wavelet-transformation Statistical


characteristics Methods of non-standard classification

The results of electrometric observations by the methods of the natural field

(NF) and those of the resistances in the modification of the symmetric electro-
profiling (SEP) allow to allocate and delineate sites of engineering-geological
complications that promotes their wide use in the conditions of the urbanized
territories. It is within the Verkhnekamsk salt deposit, on the potentially dangerous
sections of the mine fields the geologic-geophysical monitoring, which includes the
electroprospecting researches by the methods NF and SEP on three spans of the
power line AB is carried out regularly. The main objective of the carried-out works
is the control of the condition of the waterproof strata and the identification of the
negative changes in the mountain massif. However, the interpretation of the field
measurements data by the methods of electroprofile is most often based either on
the simplest methods of estimating the depths and sizes of solid or on qualitative
analysis. Such a method entails ambiguous of the conclusions about the presence
and nature of the phenomena which caused changes of observed parameters. The
data obtained as a result of the geologic-geophysical researches, owing to the
objective reasons, can be considered as a selection of one or several random
variables. It allows to analyzing their statistical characteristics by means of the
theory of estimates. Such an analysis significantly increases the volume of useful
information contained in observations, and also allows to underline features of
change in geofields and to evaluate the patterns of distribution of the studied
parameter. Thus, there is an opportunity to increase the efficiency of the geological
interpretation process and the quality of the final results (Petrov and Soloha 2006).
As practice showed, the analysis of statistical characteristics of values of
potentials of the natural field and apparent resistance by means of the theory of
estimates allows to increase significantly the volume of useful information and
more accurately to trace the features of a geological structure which are implicitly
expressed in the observed fields (Khristenko and Stepanov 2014, 2015; Khristenko
2015; Khristenko et al. 2017).
In 2015–2016 years on the mine field Solikamsk-2 monthly observations on 4
profiles (Fig. 36.1) were being executed from May till October.
The spans of the power line AB at measurements by the SEP method were 100,
200 and 400 m. The length of the receiving line MN and a step along a profile for
the SEP and NF were 20 m.
For a more distinct allocation of the hidden regularities of change of amplitude
of the apparent resistance (AR) field, a fast wavelet-transformation (FWT) of dis-
crete values of AR by means of the HAAR_2 program was executed previously
(Dolgal 2004). The program implements the compression of the signal, presented in
the form of amplitude values, using decomposition in the Haar basis.
The short impulses–wavelets constructed on the basis of orthogonal basis
functions are applied to execute so-called discrete direct and inverse wavelet
36 Using of Probabilistic-Statistical Characteristics … 315

Fig. 36.1 Scheme of the research site: a scheme of the Verkhnekamsk salt deposit; b plan of
electroprospecting profiles

transformation with the use of FWT. Haar’s functions are the elementary an
example of orthogonal wavelets. In the practical analysis of signals, they (and their
more difficult variants) are called broadband and narrowband filters, respectively,
because they filter out signal components at big and small scales (Dremin et al.
2001).
Now, algorithms of the wavelet-transformation (WT) are presented in the
widespread systems of computer mathematics (SCM), such as Mathcad, MATLAB,
Mathematika. International standards JPEG-2000, MPEG-4, graphic software
Corel DRAW and many others widely use WT for processing of images. In spite of
the fact that in Russia the first works on application of WT appeared almost with a
ten-year delay and originally had overview character, now practical use of wavelets
is so extensive, and results so impressive that it prompted on the assumption of the
possibility of obtaining more informative results of complex interpretation of
electrical survey data. There is a fairly successful experience of use of the
316 L. A. Khristenko et al.

wavelet-analysis in problems of interpretation of geopotential fields (Dolgal 2004;

Dolgal and Pugin 2006; Dolgal and Simanov 2008).
Processing of a signal by means of FWT allows to significantly compress an
information content, to discard its small details and allocate the most significant
features. The authors investigated efficiency of application of wavelet-
transformation as a procedure of preliminary preparation of the electrometric
observations data for further estimation and calculation of their statistical charac-
teristics and for using of classification procedures for the solution of problems of
borders mapping on the sites of engineering-geological complications within the
areas of complex geologic-geophysical monitoring observations potentially dan-
gerous on karst and technogenic manifestations. The analysis of the obtained results
showed that using of wavelets allows to gain an impression of schedules of
apparent resistance, convenient for the analysis, and, as a result, more exact space
position of the class contours with the subsequent using of procedures of the
non-standard classification (Hristenko and Stepanov 2014; 2015). Calculations
were carried out on each profile for 3, 4 and 5 levels of decomposition of a signal at
the set error of approximation of observed values 1 and 2 Xm. Calculations at 4
levels with an error of approximating 2 X made it possible to obtain the signal
decomposition, which is preferable for the solution of the problem (to reject many
relatively small features of a signal when saving its main characteristics).
To allocate the zones of possible engineering-geological complications by uni-
form criteria, it is reasonable to carry out classification of the general character
space for all 4 research profiles. Therefore values of potential of NF and the values
of AR reconstructed after applying FWT procedure were interpolated into the nodes
of regular network. The statistical characteristics of SEP values and potential of NF
were calculated by various methods realized in the COSCAD 2D software package
(in the sliding window, in one-dimensional and two-dimensional dynamic win-
dows), and with different sizes of windows. (Petrov and Soloha 2006). The algo-
rithms of adaptive linear filtration realized in the complex give the opportunity of
correctly processing geofields, which are non-stationary on spectral-correlation
characteristics.
The statistical characteristics calculated in the sliding window of 3  3 points of
network, in our opinion, in the best way reflect features of change of the analyzed
parameters. They were selected for multi-attribute space.
The statistical characteristics of values of NF potential were combined in turn
with the statistics of AR obtained at AB 100, 200 and 400 m, i.e. three
multi-attribute spaces were formed. Their structure was analyzed by means of
various methods of non-standard classification (total distance, dynamic condensa-
tions and the method of Petrov).
The using of procedures of non-standard classification allowed to break the
analyzed sets on homogeneous, by formal mathematical criteria, the classes spa-
tially answering to sites of possible engineering-geological complications, that it is
extremely difficult by results of only the qualitative analysis of field observations.
The method of the general distance allowed to receive the most informative
classes. The classification algorithm by method of the general distance realized in
36 Using of Probabilistic-Statistical Characteristics … 317

the KOSKAD program complex is a typical example of a heuristic algorithm. The

heuristic methods of classification are based on splitting range of values of each
sign into the set number of gradations and, in the majority, come down to calcu-
lation of complex parameter, which is the corresponding number of gradation
interval linear combination on set of the analyzed signs in each point of the
observations.
The essential lack of the heuristic methods is that circumstance that they are
under construction in the assumption of independence of separate signs among
themselves. However the existence of separate shortcomings of classification
algorithms does not reduce their importance in the processing of geologic-
geophysical observations.
In the applied problems of automatic classification (in the absence of the ref-
erence objects), the heuristic algorithms began to be applied by one of the first and
still keep great value thanks to visualization of the received results and simplicity of
implementation. The main idea of the general distance method is that the set of the
objects which are at identical distance from each of k-standards forms compact
group (Petrov et al. 2010).
Figure 36.2 shows results of performing of the classification procedure with data
of NF and SEP received in August, September and October of 2015 and 2016 years
with the span of power electrodes AB = 100 m. It is visible that in 2016, in general,
the space provision of contours 2–4 of the classes allocated in 2015 remains. This
can indicate the presence of time-stable zones of the water vertical migration. Some
increase in the area of class contours in comparison with 2015, which is possibly
caused by the intensification of migration processes is observed. The results of
implementation of the classification procedure with data of NF and SEP at
AB = 200 and 400 m showed that the depth of vertical overflows is limited by the
terrigenous-carbonate stratum. I.e. the class contours obtained at various power line
spans reflect the dynamics of disturbance areas distribution in the rock massif.
The space position of the contours of classes was compared with the areas of the
wavefield complications revealed by the results of the seismic surveys observations.
Their coincidence is noted on Pr. 5 between pickets 70–300; on Pr. 6 between
pickets 400–600; Pr. 8 between pickets 240–520 and on Pr. 9 in the interval
between pickets 480–620 (Fig. 36.3). It can be regarded as indirect evidence about
sufficiently high degree of the reliability of the executed transformations.
For forecasting of the direction of possible cracking zones development on the
site gas-geochemical profile observations were carried out. By results of observa-
tions the anomalies reflecting zones of demultiplexing of upper-salt stratum on
which intake of migratory gases in the near-surface part of the section are marked
out. Geological structures and also different structure complications of the
upper-salt part of the section (the zones of natural and technogenic cracking)
revealed by the results of seismic observations are followed by gas-geochemical
anomalies (Bachurin and Borisov 2013).
318 L. A. Khristenko et al.

Fig. 36.2 The results of

classifications by the method
of the general distance on
statisticians of potentials NF
and AR with a span of
AB = 100 m in the periods
from August to October in
2015 and 2016 years

By comparison of seismic and electrometric data it is necessary to consider that

the high porosity, leading to considerable reduction of seismic waves speed, can
have little effect on unit resistance changing therefore depths of wave guides and
conductor layers do not always coincide. The structure of the pore space has a
special effect on the conductivity in different layers. It matters whether the pores are
joined together or not. Only through the canals give a contribution to conductivity.
The deadlock branches and the isolated pores absorb most of the solutions and,
increasing porosity, do not affect the electrical conductivity.
The characteristics of classes within the Verkhnekamsk salt deposit for one more
site—SKRU-2 are as a result received that will significantly add already available
data on other sites (Khristenko and Stepanov 2014; Khristenko et al. 2017) for their
analysis and definition of a possibility of using classifications results at the solution
36 Using of Probabilistic-Statistical Characteristics … 319

Fig. 36.3 The results of the complex interpretation of seismic and gas-geochemical data

of the tasks set for monitoring researches. The effective set of procedures and the
sequence of their application during the processing and interpretation of electro-
metric observations allowing to carry out more authentically mapping of borders of
engineering-geological complications sites are defined.

Acknowledgements This work was supported by a grant RFBR № 16-45-590046.

320 L. A. Khristenko et al.

References

Bachurin B.A., Borisov A.A. (2013) Modern gas-geochemical technologies for controlling
technogenesis processes in the development of the resources of the Verkhnekamsk region.
Gornyj zhurnal, 2013, no. 6, pp. 78–82.
Dolgal A.S. (2004) The use of the fast wavelet transform in the solution of the direct problem of
gravity prospecting. Report of the Academy of Sciences, 2004, vol. 399, no. 8, pp. 1177–1179.
Dolgal A.S., Pugin A.V. (2006) Construction of analytical approximations of geopotential fields
taking into account their fractal structure. Report of the Academy of Sciences. 2006, vol. 410,
pp. 1152–1155.
Dolgal A.S, Simanov A.A. (2008) The application of multi-scale wavelet analysis for analytic
approximations of geopotential fields. Report of the Academy of Sciences, 2008, vol. 418, no.
2, pp. 256–261.
Dremin I.M., Ivanov O.V., Nechitaylo V.A. (2001) Wavelets and their use. Physics-Uspekhi,
2001, vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 447–478.
Petrov A.V., Yudin D.B., Syueli Khou. (2010) Processing and interpretation of geophysical data
by methods of probabilistic and statistical approach with use of the computer technology
«KOSKAD 3D». Journal KRAUNTs. Science of Earth, 2010, no. 2, issue. 16, pp. 126–132.
Petrov A.V., Soloha E.V. (2006) Technology for analyzing geofields in sliding windows. The
theory and practice of geological interpretation of gravity, magnetic and electric fields: 33-rd
SES. Intern. workshop them. D. G. Uspensky. Ekaterinburg, Russian Acad., Sci., Inst. of
Geophysics Ural Branch, 2006, pp. 272–275.
Khristenko L.A., Stepanov Ju.I. (2014). Electrometric observations when assessing the influence
of a goaf of the subsoil at the base of the railway embankment. Natural and technical Sciences,
2014, no. 7, pp. 58–62.
Khristenko L.A., Stepanov Ju.I. (2015). A fast wavelet transform with Haar basis functions in
interpreting electrical profiling data. International conference “Eighth scientific reading of Yu.
Bulasevich” Deep structure, geodynamics, thermal field of the Earth, interpretation of
geophysical fields. Ekaterinburg, Russian Acad., Sci., Inst. of Geophysics Ural Branch, 2015,
pp. 354–356.
Khristenko L.A. (2015) Use of a fast wavelet transform in the complex interpretation of electrical
prospecting data. Strategy and processes of development of geo-resources: Collected papers.
Russian Acad., Sci., Mining Inst. of the Urals Branch, Perm, 2015, issue 13, pp. 220–222.
Khristenko L.A., Kichigin A.V., Parshakov E.I., Stepanov Y.I., Tainickiy A.A., Shiryaev K.N.
(2017) Improvement of interpretation of the monitoring data electrical investigation by means
of the theory of estimates. 13th International Scientific and Practical Conference and Exhibition
“Engineering Geophysics 2017” on 24–28 April. Kislovodsk, EAGE. https://doi.org/10.3997/
2214-4609.201700419. Available at: http://www.earthdoc.org/publication/publicationdetails/?
publication=88140 (Accessed 25 April 2017).
Chapter 37
Multi-Electrode Electrical Profiling
Results in the Northern Ladoga Area

V. E. Kolesnikov, M. Yu. Nilov and A. A. Zhamaletdinov

Abstract DC electrical profiling with the use of Method of External Sliding Dipole
(MESD) has been made along the profile Sevastyanovo-Hijtola-Sujstamo of
200 km length. The profile crosses the Ladoga anomaly of high conductivity.
Interpretation of MESD results is performed in two stages. At the first stage, a
one-dimensional inverse problem is solved using the Zohdy procedure (Zohdy
1989). The starting model is set in the form of a multilayered section with the
number of layers equal to the number of deletions from the feeding line plus one
(first) layer for the results of measurements inside the line. The depths to the base of
the layers and their resistivity are taken equal to the corresponding values of the
effective distances and to the apparent resistivity at corresponding distance. Further,
an iterative selection of the theoretical model of the medium occurs before
obtaining agreement with the experimental data within the error of observations. At
the second stage, a quasi-2D section is constructed by symmetrically shifting the
deep sounding centers with relation to the supply line AB to the southwest and
northeast as the receiving dipoles MN move in opposite directions. The results of
profiling, as well as the results of the study of samples from outcrops and boreholes,
indicate the connection of anomalies with the presence of electron-conducting
sulphide-carbonaceous rocks. Obviously, they explain the nature of the upper part
of the regional Ladoga conductivity anomaly.

Keywords Multi-electrode electromagnetic sounding
DC resistivity method

Modeling

V. E. Kolesnikov (&)
A. A. Zhamaletdinov

Geological Institute of the Kola Science Centre of RAS, Apatity, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
A. A. Zhamaletdinov
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Yu. Nilov
Institute of Geology of the Karelian Centre of RAS, Petrozavodsk, Russia
A. A. Zhamaletdinov
St. Petersburg Filial of IZMIRAN, St. Petersburg, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 321

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_37
322 V. E. Kolesnikov et al.

Object, Aims and Tasks of the Research

An electrical anomaly in the North Ladoga area has been revealed by magne-
totelluric (MT) investigations (Lazareva 1967) and magnetovaritional profiling
(MVP) (Rokityansky et al. 1979) (Fig. 37.1). At the next years the territory was
further on studied with the use of MT and AMT methods by groups of researchers
in Finland (Adam et al. 1982) and Russia (Vasin 1988; Kovtun 1989; Kovtun et al.
2004; Sokolova et al. 2016). Investigations made by different research groups
provided contradictory results.
That required frequent revision of parameters of the Ladoga anomaly. The sit-
uation happens due to absence of the data about electrical conductivity of rocks near
to the day time surface. To obtain this information our team has made the DC
geoelectric investigations with the use of multi-electrode installations. Two tech-
niques have been used—Method of External Sliding Dipole (MESD) and the
Method of the Inner Sliding Contact (MISC). At the first stage there have been
performed MESD measurements along the Sevastyanovo-Hiitola-Suistamo profile
of 180 km length with the step of 500 m. That profile crosses the entire width of the
Ladoga anomaly. The profile location is shown on the Fig. 37.1. At the second
stage detailed measurements with the step of 50 m have been performed with the
use of MISC method over the most contrast anomalies detected by MESD method.

Fig. 37.1 Location of the Ladoga anomaly after (Rokiryansky et al. 1981) and the DC profile
Sevastyanovo-Hijtola-Suistamo
37 Multi-Electrode Electrical Profiling Results … 323

Technique of Measurements and Data Processing

Method of External Sliding Dipole (MESD)

The method of electrical profiling according to the MESD scheme was developed
especially for observations along the winding roads of the Northern Ladoga area.
The MESD installation is shown in the Fig. 37.2.
Arrows show measuring lines, displaced along and across he road. A thin dotted
lines show position of the diagonal measuring lines N1–N2.—the angle between the
line AB and the lines OMi connecting the centers of the receiving lines MNi with
the center AB. A light dashed line is a road.
The principle of the MESD installation is based on dipole-dipole sounding and
profiling with the measurement of the totall vector of the horizontal electric field
intensity (the mode of vector observations). Feeding line AB of 500 m length is
located in the central part of the installation. Current up to 1–2 A is supplied from
an EMAK generator with a power of 1 kW at a frequency of 4.88 Hz.
Measurements of electric field strength are performed with the ANCH-3
equipment. The measuring lines moved in two opposite directions in steps of 500 m
at distances up to 2 km from the nearest supply grounding (Fig. 37.2). MESD
technique relies on the use of the satellite positioning system (GPS) and complete
computerization, starting from the digital input of the coordinates and results of
observations into the computer’s memory and finishing with data processing and
graphical display of the results straight in the field conditions.
When processing the MESD results a following equation was used to calculate
the absolute value of the total vector of electric field strength (Zhamaletdinov
2012).

Fig. 37.2 Scheme of work with the installation of MESD (method of external sliding dipole)
Legend: AB—current line of 500 m long. Black points—position of groundings of receiving lines
and AB
324 V. E. Kolesnikov et al.

" #1=2

theor
q
I rA2 þ rB2  l2AB

~
Etot ¼
4 4

rA þ rB  ; ð37:1Þ
2p ðrA
rB Þ3

where lAB —the length of transmitting line AB, rA and rB —distance from the central
(common for two receiving lines) electrode to groundings A and B, respectively.
Calculation of apparent resistivity qtot
k values was carried out by the formula
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
qtot
k ¼ Ktot
Etot =I; where Etot ¼
exp exp 2
EM1N1 þ EM1N22 ;

I —the strength of current in AB line, geometric factor

Ktot ¼ 1=Etot
theor
; EMN ¼ DUMN =lMN :

Interpretation of MESD results is performed in two stages. At the first stage, a

one-dimensional inverse problem is solved using the Zohdy procedure (Zohdy
1989). The starting model is set in the form of a multilayered section with the
number of layers equal to the number of deletions from the feeding line plus one
(first) layer for the results of measurements inside the line. The depths to the base of
the layers and their resistivity are taken equal to the corresponding values of the
effective distances and qki . Further an iterative selection of the theoretical model of
the medium occurs before obtaining agreement with the experimental data within
the error of observations. At the second stage, a quasi-2D section is constructed by
symmetrically shifting the deep sounding centers with relation to the supply line
AB to the southwest and northeast as the receiving dipoles MN move in opposite
directions.

Method of the Inner Sliding Contact (MISC)

The method of internal sliding contact (MISC) is a multi-electrode profiling scheme

realized by a special installation with variable spacing AM, BM and MN
(Zhamaletdinov et al. 1995).
The MISC installation (Fig. 37.3) consists of a fixed length feeding line and
several receiving lines with a common electrode N, assembled in a “scythe”. On
each pair “electrode Mi-electrode N” a signal fed through the supply line is mea-
sured. The ANCH-3 equipment is used for current generation and signal mea-
surement. Changing the distance between the supply electrode A and the receiving
electrode Mi (“internal sliding contact” in the receiving line) gives information
about the change in the properties of the medium with depth (sounding).
Moving the entire MISC installation with fixed spacings between the electrodes
along the profile with regular step allows to prform the conductivity studies along
37 Multi-Electrode Electrical Profiling Results … 325

Fig. 37.3 Scheme of the installation of MESD. The explanations are given in the text

the earth-air surface (profiling). Thus, two-dimensional investigation (scanning) of

the upper part of the geoelec-trical section is provided.
The location of the receiving electrode Mi provides a change in the configuration
of the installation from the potential to the three-electrode and then to the quasi
dipole-dipole. During the field work the following parameters were used:
AB = 50 m, AN = 100 m, AMi = 5, 7, 10, 14, 20, 30, 50, 70 m.
The initial processing of the field data of the MISC consists in calculating the
apparent resistivity values, plotting the graphs in the profiling format (depending on
the distance along the profile), and sounding curves in the VES format (depending
on the effective spacing). The apparent resistivity is calculated using expression

2p
AM
AN
BM
BN
qk ¼ K
DU=I ¼ : ð37:3Þ
MN
ðBM
BN  AM
ANÞ

Effective spacing (effective depth of sounding) is determined with the use of

empirical formula

AM AM
r3// ¼ AM þ 0:5MN
ð Þ2 þ 0:5AB
ð Þ2 ð37:4Þ
AN BM

The inverse problem of the MISC is solved by two-dimensional numerical

modeling. The modeling was performed using ZondRes2D software for direct and
inverse problems of the DC resistivity method (Kaminsky 2010). The simulation is
performed by constructing a polygonal two-dimensional model of the resistance
section, in which each polygon is assigned the value of the resistivity. For the
constructed model and the electrode configuration used in the experimental works,
the solution of the direct problem (calculation of an array of apparent resistivity
values) is performed with the subsequent calculation of the misfit between the
model and experimental data. Taking into account the distribution of the misfit with
respect to the configuration of the installation and the experimental data, the
operator corrects the model and subsequently repeats the calculation cycle to
achieve the required misfit values (as a rule, the discrepancy should not exceed 5%).
326 V. E. Kolesnikov et al.

Results

The first stage of the study was the implementation of work on the 180 km profile
by the MESD method. The total examination of graphs 2 and 4 on the loiwer part of
the Fig. 37.4 shows that geoelectric section on the profile is characterized on
average by high values of rock resistivity (range from the first hundreds to the first
tens of thousands of X m).
Two anomalies of lowest resistivity (up to 1 X m and less) were fixed on the
profile. One anomaly (about 7 km wigth) is situated to the south of Ihala village,
between sites 60–67 km on the Fig. 37.4. It has been conventionally called as
Grand anomaly. The second anomaly of 0.2 km width is situated in the extreme
north-eastern part of the profile, near to Suistamo village at the site 175 km on the
Results of MISC studies over the Suistamo anomaly (Fig. 37.5) indicate the
complex shape of anomalous body with resistivity falling till tenths of X m.
2D modeling of geoelectrical MISC results created the model in the shape of two
plates in-clined in opposite directions to each other. Such structure of the anomaly
can be caused by the geological structure of the site located at the junction of the
massives of Archean (from the north-east) and Proterozoic (south-west) rocks and
the proximity of the Janisjärvi fault zone.
Over the Grand anomaly (Fig. 37.4) collation of MESD results with geological
data shows that it is located in the field of distribution of mica gneisses, shales,
sandstones and siltstones of the Naatselka suite (Sviridenko et al. 2017) At 15 km

Fig. 37.4 MESD profiling results on the Sevastyanovo-Hiitola-Suistamo profile Legend:

1—MESD profile and 2—apparent resistivity graphs for 2015 on the Hiitola-Suistamo profile,
3—MESD profile and 4—apparent resistivity graphs for 2017 on the Sevastyanovo-Hiitola profile,
5—position of a hypothetical conductivity anomaly in the Priozersk fault zone. Asterisks indicate
the AMT–MT sites
37 Multi-Electrode Electrical Profiling Results … 327

Fig. 37.5 Presentation of the MISC results on Janisjärvi anomaly: a apparent resistivity
pseudosection, b resistivity section by results of 2D digital modeling

Fig. 37.6 MISC results on Ihala site: a apparent resistivity pseudo-section, b resistivity section by
results of 2D digital modeling

to the north from the Grand anomaly there is a graphite mineralization site in the
Ihala settlement area. The MISC profiling on Ihala graphite mineralization site
(Fig. 37.6) showed a complex structure of the section, different thickness of the
moraine deposits overlapping the conductive rocks and the presence of interbedded
structural elements of high (up to 5 thousand of X m) and low (tenths of X m)
resistivity.
328 V. E. Kolesnikov et al.

Conclusion

Electro profiling with multi-electrode installation of MESD was performed along

the 180-km profile crossing the Ladoga electrical conductivity anomaly. Two, the
most contrast zones of high electrical conductivity of rocks have been noted, one of
which—the Grand anomaly has an apparent thickness of 7 km, the second,
Janisjärvi anomaly has an apparent thickness of 200 m. The high resistivity has
been registered over the Priozersk fault zone that was supposed as conductive
structure. The detailed MISC profiling was carried out on Janisjärvi, Ikhala and
Grand anomalies. On all three profiles, the resistivity values drop to units of
ohmmeter and less. The results of profiling, as well as the results of the study of
samples from outcrops and boreholes, indicate the connection of anomalies with the
presence of electron-conducting sulphide-carbonaceous rocks. Obviously, they
explain the nature of the upper part of the regional Ladoga conductivity anomaly.

Acknowledgements This work was supported by RFBR grant No 18-05-00528. Authors are
thankful to A.A. Sko-rokhodov, A.N. Shevtsov and P.A. Ryazantsev for the help in the field work.

References

Adam A., Kaikkonen P., Hjelt S.E., Pajunpaa K., Szarka L.,Vero J., Wallner A.
(1982) Magnetotelluric and audiomagnetotellurics measurements in Finland. Tectonophysics
90, 77–90.
Kaminsky A.E. (2010). ZondRes2D. Software for two-dimensional interpretation of DC
re-sistivity and IP data. Zond Geophysical Software, Saint-Petersburg (Russia). 139 p.
Kolesnikov V.E. (2016). Multi-electrode electrical exploration using the internal sliding contact
technique - the experience of numerical 2D modeling. Seismic equipment 52 (3), 27–34.
Kovtun A.A. (1989). The structure of the crust and upper mantle in the northwest of the East
European Platform based on magnetotelluric sounding data. Leningrad University, Leningrad
(USSR). 284 p.
Kovtun A.A., Vardaniants I.L., Legenkova N.P., Smirnov M.Yu., Uspensky N.I. (2004). Features
of the structure of the Karelian region according to geoelectric studies. Deep struc-ture and
seismicity of the Karelo-Kola region and its surroundings. (edited by Sharov, N.V.).Karelian
Science Center of RAS, Petrozavodsk (Russia). pp. 102–130.
Lazareva N.V. (1967). Some features of natural electromagnetic field behaviour on the southern
slope of the Baltic Shield. Issues of exploration geophysics 6. Nedra, Leningrad (USSR).
Rokityansky I. I., Vasin N. D., Golod M. I., Novitsky G. P., Rokityanskaya D. A., Soko-lov S.Ya.
(1979). Anomalies of electrical conductivity in the south of Karelia. Geophysical collection 89.
Naukova dumka, Kiev (USSR). pp. 36–39.
Sokolova E. Yu., Golubtsova N. S., Kovtun A. A. et al. (2016). Results of synchronous
magnetotelluric and magnetovariational soundings in the area of the Ladoga electrical
con-ductivity anomaly. Geophysics 1. pp. 48–61.
Sviridenko L. P., Isanina E. V., Sharov N. V. (2017). The deep structure, volcanoplutonism and
tectonics of the Ladoga area. Proceedings of the Karelian Research Center of RAS 2.
Pe-trozavodsk (Russia). pp. 73–85.
Vasin N.D. (1988). Geoelectric characteristics of the section of southwestern Karelia. Notes of
Mining Institute. 113. pp. 57–63.
37 Multi-Electrode Electrical Profiling Results … 329

Zhamaletdinov A.A., Ronning J.S., Vinogradov Yu.A. (1995). Electrical profiling by the MISC
and Slingram methods in the Pechenga-Pasvik area. Norges Geologiske Undersokelse, Special
publication 7. pp. 333–338.
Zhamaletdinov A.A. (2012). Theory and methodology of deep electromagnetic soundings with
powerful controlled sources (the experience of critical analysis). SPbSU, Saint-Petersburg
(Russia). 163 p.
Zohdy A.A.R. (1989). A new method for the automatic interpretation of Schlumberger and
Wenner sounding curves. Geophysics 54 (2), 245–253.
Chapter 38
The Indication in the Potential Fields
of Structures Controlling
Diamondiferous Magmatism

S. G. Alekseev, P. A. Bochkov, N. P. Senchina and M. B. Shtokalenko

Abstract The general features of spatial distribution of excess density and mag-
netization along profiles crossing major diamond deposits of Russia, Canada,
Australia and the USA are revealed. Geophysical and geological explanation of
these regularities is given. Possibility of their application is shown at the prognosis
of the various structures controlling kimberlite and lamproite magmatism.

Keywords Gravity and magnetic survey
Tomography
Structure

Kimberlite Diamond deposits

Formulation of the Problem

The recommendations of the workshop (Meeting 2017) note the need for the
development of prognosis and prospecting models of mineralogenous taxa of
various rank. The development of these models is based on the integrated use of the
results of different-scale geological and geophysical work. Naturally, the main task
of prognostic geophysical studies is to distinguish structures that control diamon-
diferous magmatism. Among geophysical methods, an important role is played by
deep seismic exploration, MTS, and gravity and magneto-prospecting.
In recent years, various ways of interpretation-tomographic techniques on
potential fields have appeared (Babayants et al. 2004, Dolgal et al. 2012). The
authors developed a variant of tomographic method, which makes it possible to
obtain layerwise sections of spatial distributions of excess density or magnetization
of rocks (Shtokalenko and Alekseev 2013). Comparison of the results with seismic
sounding on a number of regional profiles showed their satisfactory correspondence
(Kozlov et al. 2009).

S. G. Alekseev
P. A. Bochkov
N. P. Senchina (&)

Saint Petersburg Mining University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
M. B. Shtokalenko
Geological Survey of Estonia, Tallinn, Estonia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 331

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_38
332 S. G. Alekseev et al.

Tomographic models of deposits of a number of ore elements (gold, uranium,

lead, zinc, copper) in Russia have shown their common features, namely the
confinement to extensive regional structures with lower values of density and
magnetization of rocks (Alekseev et al. 2010a, b). At the same time, the sizes of the
structures controlling the unique deposits and ordinary deposits differed among
themselves. Similar data were obtained for a number of ore deposits in the USA,
Canada, and Australia. The aim of this paper is to consider tomographic models of
diamond-bearing areas constructed on gravity and magnetic data.

Progress of Work

For modeling, the areas of the largest diamond deposits in Australia, Canada, the
USA and Russia are taken. To construct models, we used matrices of gravity (in the
Bouguer reduction) and magnetic fields with a step of 4 km (USA), 2 km (Canada
and Russia) and 1 km (Australia). The data processing technique included a number
of sequential operations (Shtokalenko and Alekseev 2013; Alekseev et al. 2016,
2017). Calculations are carried out in 3D geometry. In this variant, the calculated
depth depends on the geometry of the field source and may differ from the true
value (Alekseev et al. 2011). However, unlike 2D geometry, this variant of cal-
culations allows one to obtain for each point of the study area the distributions over
the depth of excess density and magnetization, which do not depend on the
direction of the profile. The final results of the processing are maps of the spatial
distribution of excess density (for the gravity) and magnetization (for the magnetic
field) of rocks in horizontal sections (over the entire area of the matrix) and sections
(along the lines of given profiles). Diamond deposits are chosen as the anchor
points for the profiles. This made it possible to exclude the diversity of the
boundaries of mineralogical diamondiferous taxa described in the literature.

The Results

There are shown the distributions of excess density and magnetization along 3 deep
cross-sections with approximately W-E direction for 3 regions of Russia in the
Fig. 38.1. The lines of the sections are chosen to cross kimberlite pipes of the known
deposits (Vaganov 2000). Dashed lines in the figure denote Moho boundary on the
depth of about 40 km and asthenosphere surface on the depth of about 200 km.
The cross-sections show common features of the regions such as funnel-shaped
structures of various sizes. For Yakutia (Fig. 38.1a–d) the size of the structures of
low density is 500–600 km along the profile. These structures are surrounded with
the rocks of greater density. Supposed contours of the structures are shown with
short-dashed lines in the Fig. 38.1. The structures are characterized of low values of
magnetization of rocks. Within the structures, which can be assigned to the rank of
38 The Indication in the Potential Fields of Structures … 333

Fig. 38.1 Spatial distributions of excess density (a, c, e) and magnetization (b, d, f) along the
cross-sections with about meridian direction over the regions of kimberlite magmatism in Russia.
The section lines cross the pipes Mir (a, b) and Udachnaya (c, d) in Yakutia and Lomonosov (e,
f) in Arkhangels region 1—location of kimberlite pipes with their names on the section line; 2—
contours of supposed funnel-shaped structures; long-dashed lines denote Moho and asthenosphere
surfaces; vertical scale—in calculated kilometers

regional ones, separate blocks of dense rocks are observed. The size of the blocks in
the width and in the depth of about 100–150 km. There are two dense blocks in
Fig. 38.1a. To the western one the Mir pipe is confined. Within these densified
blocks, the location of the pipes is connected with inclined stem-shaped zones of
increased magnetization, tracing through the entire Earth’s crust, practically up to
the day surface directly to the pipes (Fig. 38.1b, d). The pipes themselves are
associated with small outcropping blocks of rocks of low density.
The Lomonosov deposit in the Arkhangelsk region is also associated with the
regional funnel-shaped structure formed by the rocks of reduced density
(Fig. 38.1e). The size of the structure along the profile line is 400 km. The structure
includes a funnel-shaped block of dense rocks. The size of this block along the
profile line is 120 km, the Lomonosov deposit itself is confined to its western flank
(Fig. 38.1e). The structure is marked by increased magnetization of the rocks. From
a depth of about 40 km to the Lomonosov deposit is traced a zone of rocks of
increased magnetization (Fig. 38.1f).
Funnel-shaped structures of decreased density and magnetization with the size of
400–600 km are shown in the Fig. 38.1 according to data of gravity and magnetic
surveys of the scale of 1:1,000,000. These structures are surrounded with the rocks
of relatively increased density and magnetization. Analogical structures are char-
acterized for the diamond deposits of Australia (Argyle), Canada (Victor, Ekati) and
334 S. G. Alekseev et al.

the USA (Kelsey Lake). Vertical projections of the structures onto the day surface
can be attributed to the rank of the diamondiferous subprovince.
The diamond deposits themselves are observed within the funnel-shaped
structures above the blocks of rocks of higher density of size of 100–150 km, lying
in the Earth’s crust and upper mantle. The projections of these blocks onto the day
surface can be attributed to the rank of diamondiferous kimberlite control zones.
Inside the blocks, linear channels of increased magnetization of rocks are noted,
tracing through the entire Earth’s crust almost to the day surface. In some cases,
fields of reduced density and magnetization are directly under the deposits. To
distinguish such fields, it is necessary to involve data from larger-scale surveys.
As an example in Fig. 38.2, the sections of the distribution of excess density and
magnetization calculated by the method of interpretation tomography along a
profile across the Lomonosov and Grib pipes are given (Arkhangelsk region). The
sections are calculated using data of surveys of a scale of 1:200,000. In this figure
the upper part of the section is more clear than in Fig. 38.1e. In the block of dense
rocks, the Lomonosov and Grib pipes are located above the channels of reduced
density, traced from the southwest to the northeast from a depth of 20 km to the day
surface. The diameter of these channels is 10–15 km (Fig. 38.2a). The upper part of
this channel and can be attributed to the rank of the diamondiferous kimberlite field.
In this case, two such channels are observed, extending directly to the pipes of
Lomonosov and Grib.
From the north-east, from the depth of 20 km to the day surface stretch linear
zones of increased magnetization (Fig. 38.1b). These zones coincide with increased
values of density of rocks.
In general, the results of gravity interpretation can be presented in two variants.
These variants are conventionally divided into “ore” and “structural” ones. In the
first case, the gravity field is interpreted as the presence of masses in a

Fig. 38.2 Spatial distributions of excess density (a), magnetization (b), total density (c) and
standard deviation of magnetization with the filter size 5–5 km (d) in the section along the profile
across Lomonosov and Grib pipes according to data of surveys of the scale of 1:200,000. The
legend is in Fig. 38.1
38 The Indication in the Potential Fields of Structures … 335

homogeneous medium. This version of the representation allows us to visualize

extremely insignificant excess density anomalies, whose range of variation is
hundredths and tenths of g/cc. Such a representation allows confidently fixing ore
bodies, tectonic faults, fluid-conducting zones, and the like. It is in this variant the
data in Figs. 38.1 and 38.2a.
The second variant assumes that the entire anomalous gravity field is created by
the plicative structures located in a medium with the density depending on depth.
Usually, the density of rocks on the surface is taken as 2.67, and 3.3 g/cc at the
Moho boundary. Such a structural transformation of the section from Fig. 38.2a is
shown in Fig. 38.2c. Within the diamondiferous zones under the Lomonosov and
Grib pipes the raise of the upper mantle and according thinning of Earth’s crust is
observed. The lateral size of the raise is about 30 km.
Above, at depths of 20–30 km, the amplitude of the raise increases. And higher,
at depths of 5–10 km, this single raise is divided into two anticlinal structures,
which are obliquely traced to the Lomonosov and Grib deposits. Linear zones of
increased magnetization of rocks are confined to these structures (Fig. 38.2b).
The parts of the Earth’s crust confined to the kimberlite fields are sharply dis-
tinguished by increased values of the dispersion of the magnetization of the rocks at
depths of 5–15 km (Fig. 38.2d).
By analogy with known deposits, we can assume potential prospects for the
discovery of a new kimberlite field with a length of about 15 km in the area at the
120 km of the profile. Within this new field, channels of reduced density, anticlinal
structures of total density and channels of increased magnetization and an increase
in its dispersion are also observed.

Discussion of the Results

One of the first questions arising when considering the results of gravity and
magneto-prospecting is the depth of the interpretation. According to the Gauss
theorem, the entire gravity and magnetic field of deep sources can be explained by
the distribution of the density and magnetization of the rocks on any surface above
the source of the field. However, the same type of sections obtained for diamond
deposits in various regions of the world testify the commonness of regional struc-
tures that determine kimberlite magmatism and the possibility of their mapping by
means of interpretation tomography. With such mapping, small deviations of the true
depths from the calculated depths due to the application of 3D geometry are possible.
The second question is the depth of magneto-prospecting, which is limited by the
Curie isotherm. Our data on the change of the magnetization of rocks with depth show
that their magnetic properties begin to decrease sharply in terms of ancient platforms
with a depth of 40–60 km, but do not disappear at all. The question of changing of the
values of the Curie point with depth is still controversial. Some experimental data
indicate an increase in the Curie point as pressure increases in metal-hydrogen sys-
tems (Poniatowski et al. 1982), which may exist in the Earth’s mantle.
336 S. G. Alekseev et al.

When processing gravity and magnetic prospecting data at a scale of

1:1,000,000, the funnel-shaped structures are distinguished by the method of
interpretation tomography, characterized by lower values of density embedded in
the structures of increased density. Within the structures of reduced density, similar
regions of rocks of reduced or increased magnetization are observed. The projection
of such structures on the day surface may be attributed to the rank of the dia-
mondiferous subprovince.
Within the subprovince, isolated blocks of dense rocks are distinguished, most
likely with the basic or ultrabasic composition, above which the deposits them-
selves are observed. The projections of such blocks on the day surface are related to
the rank of diamondiferous kimberlite control zones. We can assume the partici-
pation of these dense rocks in the direct formation of diamonds (catalytic effect) or
their conservation (in the process of slowing the migration of diamond-bearing
intrusions from depth to day surface).
A more detailed analysis of the structure of the blocks of dense rocks based on
the results of surveys of a scale of 1:200,000 shows the presence within their
boundaries of channels with size of 10–15 km, characterized by both increased and
decreased density, traced directly to the deposits. In these channels, there is a direct
correlation between the values of excess density and magnetization of the rocks.
Channels with rocks of increased magnetization and increased dispersion of the
magnetization are noted in the sections. The deposits themselves in the upper part
of the section are confined to relatively small zones of decreased density. The area
of the projection of these channels on the day surface is about 100–200 km2 and
corresponds to the rank of the diamondiferous kimberlite field.
Within the kimberlite-controlling zones on the surface of Moho there is a rise of
the upper mantle and, correspondingly, a decrease of the thickness of the Earth’s
crust. Above, at the level of the middle crust, the amplitude of the rise increases. In
some cases, at the level of the upper crust, single rise are divided into separate
anticline structures traced to the deposits.
A site at the 120 km of the profile in the Arkhangelsk region was distinguished
because its structural plan, according to geophysical data, is similar to the criteria of
the kimberlite field considered above.
In the work carried out, the results of small-scale gravity and
magneto-prospecting are used. For a detailed study of the upper part of the section,
it is necessary to involve the results of surveys of a scale of 1:50,000 and larger.

Conclusions

1. Methods of interpretative tomography in processing of small-scale data gravi-

metric and magnetic surveys (scale 1:1,000,000) allow to allocate funnel-shape
mantle structure relating to the rank of diamond subprovince and characterized
by reduced values of rock density. These structures are also distinguished by the
distribution of the magnetization of the rocks. It’s quite difficult to identify such
38 The Indication in the Potential Fields of Structures … 337

structures in spatial distribution of density and magnetization in the Earth’s crust

and for their mapping is necessary to involve the measurement of gravity and
magnetic fields in the area of at least many hundreds of thousands of sq km. It
should be noted that the described structures correspond to the hypothesis of S.
E. Haggerty on the origin of diamonds, published in 1986.
2. Within the subprovinces (funnel-shaped structures), isolated blocks of dense
rocks, probably of the basic or ultrabasic composition, are distinguished. The
considered diamond deposits are observed only in the zones of the projection of
these blocks on the day surface, which can be attributed to the rank of dia-
mondiferous kimberlite control zones. It is of interest to evaluate the role of the
rocks of these blocks to the migration of kimberlite magmas, to possible syn-
thesis or conservation of diamonds.
3. When processing data of a larger scale (1:200,000) channels are observed within
the blocks of dense rocks characterized by both reduced and increased values of
excess rock density. At the same time, channels of increased density are spa-
tially associated with areas of increased values, both the magnetization of rocks
and its dispersion. At the very top of the section these channels reach the small
areas of low density that can be attributed to the rank of the kimberlite field.
4. The performed works show the effectiveness of the application of interpretation
tomography of gravity and magnetic fields for the detecting of structures con-
trolling diamond-bearing magmatism, and also prove the similarity of such
structures in different regions of the world. During the work, new potentially
prospective sites were distinguished in the rank of kimberlite fields. In the
course of further research, it is necessary to compare the results obtained with
the data of other geophysical (seismic and electrical prospecting MTS) and
geological methods (Pospeeva 2017).

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effective excess density and effective magnetization of rocks. In: Proceedings of the 36th
Session of the Intern. sci. Seminar named after D.G. Uspensky, Kazan, Kazan State University,
pp. 164–166.
Meeting 2017 “Scientific and methodological and technological problems of prognosis and
prospecting for low contrast kimberlite pipes in the East European and East Siberian
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men/ru/conf/summary/index.php?ELEMENT_ID=98213.
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metal-hydrogen systems. IN: Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk, vol. 137, No. 4, p. 684.
Pospeeva E.V., Conducting lithospheric heterogeneities as a criterion of predictive assessment for
promising diamond areas (on the example of Siberian kimberlite province), Journal of Mining
Institute. 2017. Vol. 224. p. 170–177.
Shtokalenko MB, Alekseev SG (2013) New technology of density and magnetic tomography from
gravimetric and magnetic surveys. Algorithms and application. In: The 83rd session of the
Scientific and Methodological Council on Geological and Geophysical Technologies for
Prospecting and Exploration of Mineral Deposits (NMS GGT) pp. 164–167.
Vaganov V.I. (2000) Diamond deposits of Russia and the world. Moscow, ZAO Geoinformmark,
371 p.

In English

Haggerty S.E. (1986) Diamond genesis in a multiplay-contrained model. In: Nature, vol. 320,
pp. 34–38.
Chapter 39
Horizontal Shear Zones and Their
Reflection in Gravitational Field

V. Philatov, L. Bolotnova and K. Vandysheva

Abstract Deposits and ore-deposits of various minerals are genetically and spa-
tially related to geological structures. Therefore, prospecting and exploration are
impossible without their mapping, the study of the internal structure and determine
the mechanism of education. Horizontal shears are great importance among the
large variety of geological structures and their certain parts are connected ore
mineralization. The study of the structural paragenesis of shear zones and their
density characteristics showed gravimetry is that an effective method of studying
these areas. The gravimetry allows to define the sign of shear (right, left), width of a
shear zone, position of its active and passive wings and rheological conditions of a
shear formation. Thus, this method allows for an unambiguous mapping of the
shear zone in the gravitation field and studying their internal structure, especially in
confined areas. In the article petro density basing for the use of gravimetry for the
study of shear zones and examples of their mapping for different regions of the
Urals are suggested.

Keywords Gravitation field Shear zones Modeling

Structural paragenesis



Mapping Tominsky ore zone Durinsky Trough

Horizontal shear zones (as well as zones of ruptures of other genetic types) are
three-dimensional geological objects with a complex internal structure. When
forming horizontal shear in a zone of his dynamic influence as a result of redis-
tribution of mechanical stress conditions for formation of various secondary fault
and folded structures are created. A large number of theoretical and experimental

V. Philatov
Vladimir State University, Vladimir, Russia
e-mail: fi[email protected]
L. Bolotnova (&)
K. Vandysheva
Ural State Mining University, Yekaterinburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
K. Vandysheva
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 339

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_39
340 V. Philatov et al.

works is devoted to questions of studying stresses, processes of deformation and

secondary structurization in shear zones (Gzovsky 1975; Stoyanov 1977; Gintov
and Isay 1988; Tapkin 1986; Sherman 1977; Shear tectonic … 1988).
Having analysed the results of numerous experiences of physical modeling,
Stoyanov (1977) has established the minimum set of structural elements or a
structural paragenesis which can be formed in a shear zone. He has referred two
conjugated chips R and R′; cleavage cracks T which are oriented at elastic defor-
mation at an angle 45° to the direction of moving; the echeloned folds (Fd) which
are formed at deformation of layered environments (medium); the backslashes chips
(P) and longitudinal chips (L) characteristic of a final stage of process of a shear
formation to elements of a structural paragenesis.
Results of studying of an internal structure of shear zones in the earth’s crust and
the data of physical modeling demonstrate that in both cases not all elements of a
structural paragenesis are formed. At physical modeling the lack of some elements
of a paragenesis is explained by the properties of material of the model and
inconstancy of speed of deformation by a number of random factors. The earth’s
crust the condition of shear formation are even more complicated and difficult
estimation. Therefore the answer to the question of why some elements of shear
tectonics in field conditions weren’t shown, in some cases is not answered. An
example of incomplete development of a shear paragenesis is the zone of the shear
which was becoming more active in one of regions of the Spitak earthquake in 1988
(Fig. 39.1). When mapping this zone only separation cracks (T), the echeloned
folds (Fd) and cleavage cracks (R) were established.
Studying the shear process on models of bentonite clay, Stoyanov, S. has
established that the interfaced chips R and R′ arise and develop at the same time,
repeating along the axial line of shear; R′ cracks are shorter and meet more often
then R cracks. In the process of development of the crack shear R; the displacement
like slays, is the result crack R crosses R′ cracks which lose the independence and
do not gain development.

Fig. 39.1 A structural paragenesis of a zone of shear by the results of field observations around
the earthquake in Spitak of 1988: 1—axial line of a fault; 2—the separation crack (T); 3—the
echeloned folds (Fd); 4—cracks without the shear (R cleavage cracks); 5—direction of shering
39 Horizontal Shear Zones and Their Reflection … 341

According to Sherman et al. (1983) the research of a shear process was made on the
models of clay paste and two stages of deformation were revealed: plicate and
disjunctive-plicate. In the second stage, there is a formation of two systems of cracks:
cracks along the strike, which make a corner of about 85° with the axial line displace-
ment and diagonal, forming a corner of 15°–30° with the same axial line. Both systems
consist of the set of smaller cracks (primary) on which there is a displacement.
In results of comparison of physical modeling show that the systems of cracks of
R and R′ and the cross and diagonal are identical. These are the systems of the
cleavage cracks. Higher detail of the researches described in Sherman et al. (1983),
allowed to trace dynamics of the development of a shear zone as a process of
coalescence of primary cracks in large cracks.
Planes of incidence of the integrated cross cracks in an axial part of the shear are
vertical, and on the periphery, there is a decrease in dip and they acquire the
“propeller” shaped form. The same plane of incidence, as the cross, characterizes
diagonal cracks, arising after the cross and gaining intensive development.
According to the researches made on models of clay, damp sand and a petro-
latum with stearine and some other materials formation along the line of future
shear of system echelon located “S” shaped separation cracks which in the shear
formation process of unite in the wavy rupture representing alternation of zones of
stretching and compression has been established (Gzovsky 1975). These results are
confirm by researches on models from pyrophyllite (Sobolev 1980).
Researches of process of shear formation with use of a luminescent method have
shown that after emergence the echelon crack at further increase of the load from
mouth of cracks the cracks parallel to the direction of shearing begin to
develop. These are cleavage cracks (P and L). Merging, they form one or two
rectilinear rupture parallel to the axial line of shearing.
According to Spencer (1981) the shear zone consists from anticlinal and the
sinklinal folds which are on one or both sides of the axial line of displacement,
which was broke by normal fault. These faults are form in structures of stretching.
Therefore, they were consider as the transformed separation cracks.
The analysis of a results of studying of the shear zones on models and in
operating conditions, has allowed drawing a number of conclusions on regularities
of their development and an internal structure:
1. The development is gained generally by cracks of a separation and a cleavage
cracks from elements of a structural paragenesis, which form the ordered echelon
sequences of the same structures of relatives in a form and orientation and remote
from each other at identical distance. This structural-morphological sign «is the
direct instruction on the development of a shear formation» (Voronin 1988).
2. Separation cracks and a cleavage cracks consist of big set of smaller primary
cracks, which promote improvement of permeability of the geological medium
and growth of her dilatation on the layer thickness involved in the shear process
(Stakhovskaya 1988). On these permeable zone of destruction as on the chan-
nels there is a transportation of crustal and mantle fluids and are formed of a
chain chains of explosion tubes (Voronov 1988), small Intrusive bodies of a
342 V. Philatov et al.

granitoids (Pavlinov 1988; Sintsov 1988), developing endogenous ore genesis

(Morakhovsky 1988) and other geological phenomena.
3. Permeable sections of destruction are offset from the axial line of the dis-
placement on the periphery of a shear zone towards the active, offset wing.
Process of a crack formation in a fixed wing occurred with significantly smaller
intensity (Pavlinov 1988; Lobatskaya 1987; Seminsky 1988).
4. The elements of a structural paragenesis are shown in development the plicate of
structures in a sedimentary cover, and in increase in porosity and permeability of
cover rock over zones of intensive crushing of the base rocks in the closed areas
(Yure 1988).
5. The structure of the shear zones is same at all large-scale levels both for deep
shears and for shears of higher orders arising in areas of dynamic influence of
deep shears. Results of studying of the shear cracks on samples of rocks and in
the regions of Gobi-Altai and San Francisco earthquakes, in particular,
demonstrate to it (Stakhovskaya 1988).
Big role of the shear zones as structural-ore-controls a factor was predetermine
considerable interest in their studying. Mapping of these zones and studying of their
internal structure presents considerable difficulties even in open areas. The major
role when studying shear belongs to geophysical methods among which basic is the
gravimetry in the closed areas.
The crack formation, is widely shown in the shear process (as well as in general
at deformation of the geological environment at structurization) and leads to con-
siderable change of density of the geological medium that is a physical basis of
application of a gravimetry for studying of shears. Density of rock in a sample and
in the massif significantly differ. This distinction well comes to light by comparison
of data the petro density of the measurements with results of the determination of
density by integrated methods (registration of intensity of space radiation in
excavations, results of gravitational logging, etc.).
Results of the detailed geological and petrophysical researches executed in zones
of dynamic influence of Pervomaisky, Talkovsky Faults of Ukraine, Trans-Baikal
and other regions (Belichenko and Isay 1987), demonstrate to what the main
mechanism of plastic and fragile deformations of the rocks is cataclasis, expressed
in crushing of the minerals grains and development of micro fracturing. Thanks to
this process density of rocks decreases by (0.01–0.07) g/cm3. Communication
between density of rocks and volume of open cracks is well described by the linear
equation of regression (Filatov and Bolotnova 2015). In the structural relation zones
of development of cleavage cracks are expanded.
When studying physical properties of the tektonite developed in shear zones to
which many ore fields of Tajikistan are dated it is established that deformation is
practically not resulted by change of mineral density of tektonite. Considerable
reduction of density of tektonite (up to 0.40 g/cm3) is caused only by their frac-
turing. At the same time sites of development of tektonite are genetically connected
with mineralization. Namely, the industrial ore mineralization is in a shear zone in
places of distribution the tektoni rudaceous of big thickness. She is almost not in
finely dispersed of tektonit (Kuddusov 1988).
39 Horizontal Shear Zones and Their Reflection … 343

Thus, structures of a separation and a cleavage crack represent objects, abnormal

on density. These objects located along strike of a shear zone have the close sizes
and the elliptic form in the plan. Big half shafts of ellipses are parallel and form an
acute angle with a shear axis. Distance between ellipses approximately identical. In
the anomaly field of gravity to such distribution of density heterogeneity there
corresponds systems an echelon of the local negative anomalies close on intensity, a
form, the sizes and orientation. Existence of systems of such anomalies (systems,
but not separate anomalies) is reliable morphological feature of a shear zone.
Density heterogeneity (anomalies) have a steep drop and their lower edges are at a
considerable depth, which reaches the layer thikness (involved in the shear process)
to several kilometers even tens of kilometers (Filatov and Bolotnova 2015), if the
shear process captures the earth’s crust, for all its layer thickness.
Expressive examples of shear zones are the Tominsky ore zone and the Durinsky
Trough on a roof of salts on the Verkhnekamsky field of potassium-magnesium
salts (Filatov and Bolotnova 2016a, b). Importance of both examples is that they
give an idea not only of common features of morphology of the field of gravity of
shear zones, but also about their distinction, the caused different rheological situ-
ation in which the Tominsky ore zone and Durinskoy Trough was formed.
The Tominsky ore zone was created in volcanogenic and sedimentary thickness;
she has north northwest pro-deleting; its width is about of 3–5 km, along the strike
about of 25 km. A characteristic complex of local anomalies in gravitational and
magnetic fields maps this zone. The faults, which limiting structure are fixed by
systems the cleavage of the linear magnetic anomalies close on intensity and the
sizes. Long axes of these anomalies are parallel each other and have the northeast
direction. Anomalies are caused by the systems of a separation cracks in which the
streaky disseminated magnetite mineralization is developed. In the field of gravity a
part of faults is mapped by anomalies like “gravitational step” (Fig. 39.2a).
The gravitational field of internal parts of a zone is characterized by the system
cleavage of the located local negative anomalies of relatives on intensity. The form
of anomalies is close to elliptic; the sizes in the plan change from 1.0  0.5 km to
2.0  1.0 km; long axes of ellipses are parallel and focused in the northeast
direction under corners of (40°–45°) along the strike of the axial line of a zone—to
the direction of displacement; almost all anomalies are displaced to northeast border
of a zone (Fig. 39.2b).
These interpretations of gravity anomalies and drilling have shown that sources
of anomalies are small intrusive bodies of diorites, quartz diorites and quartz of
porfirit which lie in more dense volcanogenic rocks of sedimentary and neutral
structure of Silurian age. Central parts of bodies stock shaped; intrusions are fol-
lowed the apofizam complicating their form; horizontal sections of intrusions are
close to elliptic to the sizes of axes from 2.0  1.0 km to 2.0  0.5 km and to the
same orientation, as at local anomalies of gravity. The lower edges of intrusions
with which porphyry-copper mineralization is connected are at a depth in the first
kilometers. Rocks of intrusive bodies are strongly crushed.
Brought given and about a character of the gravity field and geological data
demonstrate that the Tominsky zone represents left-side shear.
344 V. Philatov et al.

Fig. 39.2 Tominsky ore zone; scheme of local anomalies of gravitational and magnetic fields (a):
1—granitoid massifs and their borders; 2—provision of gradient zones of the gravitational field; 3
—axes of local gravitation anomalies; 4—axes of local anomalies of magnetic field: (a) negative;
(b) positive; 5—the local decreases in the gravitation field caused by small intrusive bodies
and zones of a decompaction; 6—the ruptures allocated according to geologic-geophysical data;
7—the directions of shearing on ruptures; 8—direction of falling of a surface of ruptures; 9—signs
of vertical shears on ruptures: “+”— a raising; “−”—lowering; 10—position of wells of drilling;
scheme of an internal structure (b): 1—zone borders; 2—contours of small intrusive bodies;
3—isolines of local gravitation anomalies; 4—a copper ore-deposits with the maintenance of 0.3%
and above

The Durinskoy Trough on a roof of salts of the Verkhnekamsky field of

potassium-magnesium salts was created in other rheological situation, than the
Tominsky ore zone. The represents the imposed structure in a zone of dynamic
influence of the width deep fault of the before Palaeozoic age crossing a platform
part of Cisural area and a part of structures of the folded Urals.
The gravitational field of a deflection is raised in comparison with the neigh-
boring territories. On this background the chain of the located positive local
anomalies “S” shaped form is mapped. Interpretation of anomalies has shown that
their sources are immersions in a roof of salts which are filled with terrigenous
material, more dense, than salt. Drilling has confirmed this Trough conclusion:
immersions have also “S”—shaped form in the plan; long axes and immersions and
anomalies are parallel and extended in the northeast direction under corners of 10°–
20° along the strike and trough, and a deep fault (Fig. 39.3a, b).
Proceeding from morphology of the gravitation field follows that the eshelon
system of local anomalies and the system of local immersions were formed as a
result of left-side shear which has happened on the Durinsky Deep Fault. This
conclusion was confirmed with tool measurements on leveling lines of
Tyulkino-Chusova and Serov-Kushva. These lines cross a fault and in places of
their crossing anomalies of shear from 25 to 40 km wide are noted.
39 Horizontal Shear Zones and Their Reflection … 345

Fig. 39.3 Scheme of gravitational field (a) and geological section of the Durinsky Trough (b):
1—quaternary deposits; 2—deposits of the Belebey suite; 3—deposits of Sheshminsky suite; 4—
tectonic breccia; 5—deposits of Verkhnesolikamsky subsuite; 6—deposits of Nizhnesolikamsky
subsuite; 7—sylvinite-karnallite thickness of Verkhnepopovsky subsuite; 8—sliding mirrors;
9—silvinite thickness of Verkhnepopovsky subsuite; 10—top and lower galite thicknesses of
Verkhnepopovsky subsuite; 11—Nizhnepopovsky subsuite, halogen and terrigenous and carbon-
ate thickness; 12—lines of tectonic displacement; 13—position of the well and its number;
14—line of a section

The most important question of establishment of a trough genesis is the question

of formation of local immersions. These immersions were formed as a result of
leaching of potash salts by subsalt waters and brines with the subsequent filling of
emptiness with overlying dense terrigenous deposits. The movement of subsalt
waters and brines happened on zones of fracturing and loosening of salt rocks as a
result of a shear formation. Therefore spatially process of leaching happened in a
346 V. Philatov et al.

trough not everywhere, and is selective in compliance with situation in a shear zone
of elements of a structural paragenesis, first of all, of cleavage cracks and separation
cracks.
The essential difference in orientations of big axes of local gravitation anomalies
in the Tominsky zone and in the Durinsky Trough is caused by distinction of
rheological situations in which these structures were formed. At formation of the
Tominsky zone of rocks at a shear formation experienced significantly elasto-plastic
deformations. In such situation, the main axes of deformation form the corner close
to 40°–45° with the direction of displacement. In the Durinsky Trough the major
role was played by plastic deformation of rocks. In this case the ellipsoid of
deformation becomes strongly extended with a deviation by length of an axis of
rather elastic component of deformation on a corner of 20°–25°. Therefore in a
trough all systems of cracks are focused under smaller corners to the direction of
displacement.
Generalizing qualitative results of the tektonofizic analysis of the gravitation
field of two shear structures, it is possible to draw the following conclusions: the
gravimetry is the effective method of mapping of shear zones allowing to define
unambiguously the sign of shear (right, left), width of a shear zone, position of her
active and passive wings, an internal structure and rheological conditions of a shear
formation.

References

Belichenko P., Isay V. (1987). Tektonofizic studying the dilatation of effects in the Central part of
the Ukrainian board//Experimental tectonics in the solution of problems of theoretical and
practical geology: II symposium in USSR. Kiev (USSR), pp. 112–113.
Filatov V., Bolotnova L. (2015). Gravimetry. Method of the tektonofizic analysis of gravitational
field. – Yekaterinburg (RF). 284 p.
Filatov V., Bolotnova L. (2016a) Nature and dynamics of the Durinsky Trough. Yekaterinburg
(RF). pp. 111–119.
Filatov V., Bolotnova L. (2016b) Genesis of the Tominsky ore zone according to
geologic-geophysical data. Yekaterinburg (RF). pp 111–119.
Gzovsky M. (1975). Tektonofizic bases. Moscow (USSR). 536 p.
Gintov O., Isay V. (1988). Tektonofizic of a research of faults of the consolidated crust.– Kiev
(USSR). 225 p.
Kuddusov H, (1988). Tectonics shear violations of ore fields and their role in an ore deposits (on
the example of Tajikistan)//Shear tectonic violations and their role in formation of mineral
deposits: I meetings on shear tectonics. Issue 3. – Leningrad (USSR), pp 85–88.
Lobatskaya R. (1987). Structural zonality of faults. Moscow (USSR). 128 p.
Morakhovsky V. (1988). Shear deformations and shears in crust//Shear tectonic violations and
their role in formation of mineral deposits. I meetings on shear tectonics in USSR. Issue I.
General questions of shear tectonics, results of laboratory modeling. Leningrad (USSR),
pp. 41–43.
Pavlinov V. (1988). A role of deep shears in an arrangement of granite bodies//Shear tectonic
violations and their role in formation of mineral deposits: I meetings on shear tectonics in
USSR. Issue I. General questions of shear tectonics, results of laboratory modeling. –
Leningrad (USSR), pp. 45–47.
39 Horizontal Shear Zones and Their Reflection … 347

Stoyanov S. (1977). Mechanism of formation of explosive zones. Moscow (USSR). 144 p.

Sherman S. (1977). Physical regularities of development of faults of crust. – Novosibirsk (USSR).
102 p.
Shear tectonic violations and their role in formation of mineral deposits (1988): I meetings on
shear tectonics in USSR. Leningrad (USSR), Issue 1. - 95 p. Issue 2.-108 p. Issue 3. -144 p.
Spencer E. (1981). Introduction to structural geology. Leningrad (USSR). 308 p.
Sherman S., Bornyakov S., Buddo V. (1983). Areas of dynamic influence of faults. – Novosibirsk
(USSR). 112 p.
Sobolev G. (1980). Studying of education and harbingers of a rupture of shear type in vitro//
Physical processes in the centers of earthquakes Moscow (USSR), pp. 86–99.
Stakhovsky I. (1988). Crack formation and superficial deformations in a zone of the formed shear
trough in a sample of rocks. No. 5. Khabarovsk (USSR), pp. 88–94.
Sintsov A. (1988). A structural paragenesis of shears of Patom Highland//Shear tectonic violations
and their role in formation of mineral deposits: I meetings on shear tectonics in USSR. Issue 2.
Planetary, regional and local manifestations of shear tectonics in a lithosphere of Earth and
planets. Leningrad (USSR), pp. 72–75.
Seminsky K. (1988). Modeling of large shear zones and specifics of development of their wings//
Shear tectonic violations and their role in formation of mineral deposits. I meetings on shear
tectonics in USSR. Issue I. General questions of shear tectonics, results of laboratory modeling.
Leningrad (USSR), pp. 74–77.
Tyapkin K. (1986). Studying faulted and folded structures of the Precambrian by
geologic-geophysical methods. – Kiev (USSR). 168 p.
Voronin P. (1988). The principles of shear tectonics//Shear tectonic violations and their role in
formation of mineral deposits: I meetings on shear tectonics in USSR. Issue I. General
questions of shear tectonics, results of laboratory modeling. Leningrad (USSR), pp. 8–22.
Yurel G. (1988). Tectonic interpretation of results of experimental geomechanics//Shear tectonic
violations and their role in formation of mineral deposits: I meetings on shear tectonics in
USSR. Issue I. General questions of shear tectonics, results of laboratory modeling. Leningrad
(USSR), pp. 68–71.
Chapter 40
Intermediate Conducting Layers
in the Continental Earth’s
Crust—Myths and Reality

A. A. Zhamaletdinov

Abstract The nature and scale of intermediate conducting layers propagation in

the continental earth’s crust are discussed in this paper. The myth on the existence
of intermediate conducting layers in the Earth’s crust at the depth of 10–20 km
firstly appeared owing to results of the super-deep dipole-dipole sounding per-
formed in the Gulf of Finland in 1946. Since then for the many decades a large
number of anomalies of electrical conductivity in the earth’s crust have been
detected. The authors of these studies interpreted the anomalies as the existence of
intermediate (sub horizontal) conducting layers of fluidal (or temperature) origin at
the depths of the first tens of kilometers, same as in the Gulf of Finland. But
analysis of experimental data presented in the article allows to conclude that in most
cases the anomalies of electrical conductivity in the Earth’s crust appears due to
presence of a steeply dipping electronically conductive sulfide and carbon (gra-
phite) bearing rocks of organic nature («SC-Layer» of Semenov). Fluids exist only
in the uppermost part of the continental Earth’s crust in the depth interval from 2–3
to 7–10 km. They are detected as intermediate conductive area associated with the
influence of dilatancy-diffusive processes and named as “DD-layer”. The nature of
electrical conductivity anomalies in the Earth’s crust represents fundamental
problem in the interpretation of the deep sounding data. Solution of the problem
determines the role of crustal conductors in the study of geological structure and
composition of the Earth’s interior.

Keywords Sulfide and carbon bearing rocks SC-layer

Fluids

Earth crust Dilatancy-diffusive layer DD-layer

A. A. Zhamaletdinov (&)
St. Petersburg Branch of Pushkov Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism,
Ionosphere and Radio Wave Propagation of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
St. Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
A. A. Zhamaletdinov
Geological Institute of the Kola Science Center of RAS, 184209, Apatity, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 349

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_40
350 A. A. Zhamaletdinov

Introduction

The myth on the existence of intermediate conducting layers in the Earth’s crust
firstly appeared owing to results of the super-deep dipole-dipole sounding per-
formed by the team of Physical Department of the Leningrad University in the Gulf
of Finland in 1946 (Fig. 40.1) (Kraev et al. 1947).
A feeding line of 1000 m length was located along the southern coast of the
Kronstadt island. The current strength reached to 1000 A. A battery of accumulators
assembled from submarines of the Baltic Navy served as a source of the current.
The soundings were conducted along the marine and land traces at distances of up
to 70 km (Fig. 40.1a). The apparent resistivity curve at distances up to 40 km had
an ascending appearance, and then, at more distances (more then 40 km) underwent
a sharp decline (Fig. 40.1b). On the marine trace the first decline happened at
distance 9 km (Fig. 40.1a). But at more distances the apparent resistivity curve
again has asquired an ascending shape.
Professor A. P. Kraev, scientific supervisor of this experiment, being a theo-
retical physicist, interpreted the decrease in apparent resistivity at spacings of more
then 40 km by existence of the conducting layer in the earth’s crust at the depths of
10–20 km. He explained the nature of this “layer” by increase of temperature with
depth. However the second participant of the experiment (professor A. S. Semenov)
have had another opinion. He believed that the lowering of apparent resistivity at
distance 40 km (same as at 9 km on the Fig. 40.1b) is due to the lateral influence of
a steeply dipping conductive objects, a zones of sulfide or graphite mineralization.

Fig. 40.1 Results of the first in the world super-deep sounding that have fixed the seeming
conductive layer at the depth of 10–20 km Kraev et al. 1947). a Location of transmitting line AB
and receiving tracks—sea track (M) and land track (L). The arrows indicate electric field vectors
on the land route. b Diagram of apparent resistivity curves (Xm) versus spacing between
transmitter AB and receiving sites on the sea and land tracks
40 Intermediate Conducting Layers in the Continental … 351

That idea of A. S. Semenov has been published only many years later (Semenov
and Zhamaletdinov 1981) and for a long time did not find supporters.
Since then for the many decades a large number of experimental studies have
been made on the deep electrical sounding with controlled and natural sources.
They indicated existence of anomalies of electrical conductivity in the earth’s crust.
The authors of these studies, using a formal, one-dimensional model, interpreted the
nature of anomalies by existence of intermediate conducting layers at the depths of
the first tens of kilometers. A summary diagram of geoelectrical sections of the
continental lithosphere from results of soundings with natural and controlled
sources is given in Fig. 40.2.
This property of the crustal conducting anomalies is of planetary scale of
spreading. The depths of anomalously conductive objects vary from units to tens
of kilometers. Their influence substantially limits the possibilities for studying of
electrical conductivity in deeper horizons of the upper mantle of the Earth. At the
same, time crustal conductors are of special interest for fundamental and applied
geology. They are indicators of physical state and geodynamic development of
corresponding blocks of lithosphere. The nature of electrical conductivity anoma-
lies in the Earth’s crust represents fundamental problem in the interpretation of the
deep sounding data (Joedicke 1992). Solution of the problem determines their role

Fig. 40.2 Summary diagram of geoelectrical sections of the continental lithosphere from results
of the deep soundings with controlled (a) and natural (b) sources. a The soundinds with controlled
sources: 1—(Zhamaletdinov 1990); 2—(Kraev et al. 1947); 3—(Lundholm 1946); 4—(Zijl 1969);
5—(Blohm et al. 1977), 6—(Zhamaletdinov et al. 2011). b The soundinds with natural
(MT-AMT) sources: 7—(Kovtun et al. 1986); 8—(Vladimirov and Dmitriev 1972); 9—(Vanyan
1997); 10—(Varentsov et al. 2002); 11—section from laboratory data (Cermak and Lastovickova
1987)
352 A. A. Zhamaletdinov

in the study of geological structure and composition of the Earth’s interior. Two
principal concepts of this problem are being developed at present: the electronically
conductive and the fluidal one.

The Fluid Conception

Thermal dehydration observed in rocks of low metamorphic grade such as ser-

pentinites and amphibole schists, is commonly accepted as the most probable
mechanism of fluid formation at depth. The dehydration phenomenon in interpre-
tation of the origin of crustal electrical conductivity anomalies was first described
by Keller (1963) on the example of two samples from a deep sea well in the vicinity
of Puerto Rico. During heating of these samples, which had considerable porosity
(up to 8%), their electrical resistivity decreased to 103 Ω m in the temperature range
of 500–600 °C. On further heating to 1000 °C, the resistivity increased to 104 Ω m.
The authors explained the obtained trend of temperature curves by the release of
bound water and its subsequent evaporation. They supposed that if water evapora-
tion were prevented by confining pressure, the resistivity could decrease to 10 Ω m
at 800–900 °C. In the subsequent years, the phenomenon of thermal dehydratation
was investigated in greater detail by E. Lyubimova, I. Fel’dman, R. Hyndman,
P. Shearer, L. Van’yan and many other researchers.
At any interpretation the fluid conception should assume that in deep layers of the
Earth’s crust the connected systems of pores filled with brine solutions should exist.
However, such an assumption contradicts data of petrology, according to which
under deep conditions of granulitic facies metamorphism all free fluid (H2O, CO2) is
intensely absorbed by the rock and enters into the composition of a crystal lattice
(Yardley and Valley 1997). Furthermore, the possibility of free fluid existence in
the crystalline Earth’s crust of the shields and ancient platforms is doubtful since
pores and cracks are closed up at the depth under effect of litho static pressure, and
the fluids should move upward under influence of squeezing out effect (Rodkin
1993).
The dehydration can give rise to intermediate conductive layers only in tec-
tonically active zones, where the thermal field is non-stationary, and where
above-crystalline solutions can exist in the intergranular space of rocks at the
boundaries of temperature fronts. Otherwise, in case of stable lithospheric plates it
would be necessary to assume at least a two-layer division of the crust as in the
work by Jones (1987).
The first condition is related to the evaluation of the least possible value of
electrical resistivity for a fluid-saturated rock ðqr Þ. This can be computed with the
Archie law qr ¼ qfl =pn where qfl is the resistivity of fluid in Ω m, p is the volume
porosity of deep matter, n varies from 1.5 to 2 depending on the rocks matrix.
40 Intermediate Conducting Layers in the Continental … 353

In crystalline rocks we can use n = 2 after (Vanyan 1997). The lowest average
values of resistivity of brine solutions at depth lie in the range of 0.02–0.04 Ω m,
and the possible porosity in the crust according to the data from the Kola Super
Deep Well even if seal failure effects are considered, does not exceed 0.015 of the
rock volume at a depth of 10 km. Thus, if one assumes n = 2, the least permissible
value of resistivity of fluid-saturated rocks at the low crust does not exceed
100 Ω m. In (Fel’dman and Zhamaletdinov 2009) the estimate increases up to
1000 Ω m.
The second condition of the fluidal conception is related to the depth of
anomalies. The depth is determined by the minimum required temperature of rock
dehydration, 500–600 °C. Finally, the third, completely qualitative condition is
based on the assumption that the fluidal anomalies should be characterized by
smooth boundaries, weak spatial gradients of electric field, small or absent aniso-
tropy, and large sizes comparable with the depth of anomaly occurrence.
If the deep (crustal) anomalies of electrical conductivity doesn’t not fit to the
framework of the above-mentioned conditions for the fluid mechanism, their nature
should be interpreted on the basis of electronically-conductive conception. In
Fig. 40.3 is a diagram of the distribution of the largest anomalies of electrical
conductivity in all the world.

Fig. 40.3 The largest anomalies of electric conductivity in the world: 1—North American;
2—Bitterroot-Cascade Mountains; 3—Sierra Nevada; 4—North Greenland; 5—Andean; 6—
Kenya, 7—Carpentaria; 8—Flinders; 9—South-West Queensland; 10—New Guinea; 11—Trans-
Himalayan; 12—Urals; 13—South Tien Shan; 14—Alpine-Pannonian; 15—Carpathian; 16—
Kirovograd; 17—Pyrenees; 18—Ladoga-Bothnia; 19—Polmak-Pechenga-Imandra-Varzuga
354 A. A. Zhamaletdinov

The Electronically-Conductive Conception

Prof. M. N. Berdichevsky, who actively developed the fluid concept and was at the
root of its development, was the first to organize the All-Soviet Union program for
study the nature of crustal anomalies of electrical conductivity and actually sup-
ported the idea of A. S. Semenov (Semenov 1970) and A. Adam (Adam 1974).
Figure 40.3 appeared due to result of this activity (Zhamaletdinov 1996, 2014).
At the present time only some conductive anomalies of the continental litho-
sphere are considered as fluidal, but even then, as a rule, only because they are
insufficiently studied. In the overwhelming majority of cases, it has been proved
that conductive anomalies in the earth’s crust are due to the existence of
electron-conducting sulfide-carbon rocks developed in the composition of
primary-sedimentary super-crustal complexes of all ages - from the Archaean to the
Phanerozoic. They include anomalies of electrical conductivity of up to thousand of
kilometers long.
The most outstanding are such anomalies (Fig. 40.3) as Great North American
(1), Andean (5), Trans- Himalayan (11), South Tien Shan (13), Alpine-Pannonian
(14), Carpathian (15) and many others. Undoubtedly, the transformation of organic
residues into sulfide-carbon electron-conducting rocks could not occur without the
influence of regional tectonic factors—temperature, pressure and fluids. But they
happened millions and billions of years ago. At present time the fronts of high
temperature and fluids disappeared and we fix only traces of their activity in the
form of sulfide-carbon conductive bands. The area of their manifestation has got the
conventional name of “SC-layer” of Semenov.

Fluidal Conception of Dilatancy-Diffusive Nature

(“DD-Layer”)

Along with this, there is a place in the continental crust for real intermediate
conducting layers, which are associated with the presence of fluids. This is so-called
layer of dilatancy-diffusive nature(«DD layer»). The notion of “layer” in this case is
accepted conditionally, since the «DD layer» is a system of cracks in the form of
listrick faults, along which the fluid (meteoric water) penetrates to the depth from
the day surface. The fluids at the depths from 2–3 to 7–10 km are preserved in the
free state due to the dilatancy-diffusive phenomenon. Dilatancy is an irreversible
cracks opening under interaction of tangential and lithostatic pressures described in
the geotectonic scheme by Nikolayevsky (1996). Deeper than 10–12 km, the
existence of “«DD layer»” is problematic, since the conditions for the existence of
free fluids disappear. Rocks at these depths are transformed into a quasi plastic
(“ductile”) state due to a reduction in the role of tangential pressure.
40 Intermediate Conducting Layers in the Continental … 355

Especial experiment on the deep sounding has been implemented for to study the
structure of the “DD-layer”. The scheme of the experiment, named as
“Kovdor-2015”, is shown on the Fig. 40.4.
Electromagnetic soundings were carried out on the Kovdor–Yensky segment of
the White Sea block, which is composed of relatively homogeneous, high resistive
rocks of the Archaean basement (Fig. 40.1). The installation includes axial and
equatorial multibeam soundings. Mutually orthogonal L-shape grounded lines
(dipoles) of about 1.5 km long have been used for that. The distances between the
sources and receivers changed around 25 and 50 km. Soundings were carried at two
sites (western and eastern) located at 85 km apart from each other (Fig. 40.4). The
electromagnetic field was created by an Energia-3 M generator of 29 kW power
operating in the frequency range from 4 Hz to 2 kHz. The maximum current was
22 A at an output voltage of 1000 V.
The total results are shown on the Fig. 40.5, where apparent resistivity and
inversion data are presented. The intermediate conducting layer, identified with the
“DD layer”, is clearly visible at all the sounding sites in Fig. 40.5I–III. Along with
this, one can notice a regular displacement of the apparent resistivity curves.
The curves for the total magnetic field (Fig. 40.5-III), free from static shift
distortions, occupy the highest position on the apparent resistivity scale. The
curves, calculated for the total electric field (Fig. 40.5-II) are shifted downward
relative to the curves over the total magnetic field (Fig. 40.5-III) by three to five
times. Finally, the apparent resistivity curves for the total input impedance
(Fig. 40.5-I) are shifted down relative to the curves for the total magnetic field

Fig. 40.4 The layout of transmitting and receiving lines in the frequency sounding experiment
“Kovdor-2015”, implemented for to study the “DD-layer. Legend: 1—centers of L-shape
transmitting lines AB, 2—centers and numbers of receiving sites at 25 km distance from AB lines,
and 3—the same at 50 km distance from AB lines
356 A. A. Zhamaletdinov

Fig. 40.5 Resulting curves of “DD-layer” study in the Archaean crystalline basement on the
Kovdor area. Legend: I–III apparent resistivity curves, calculated with the use of total impedance
(I), total electric field (II) and total horizontal magnetic field (III). IV Inversion data. Arabic digits
in circles indicate the numerals of points of sounding with spacing of 50 km between transmitter
and receiver. Location of transmitting and receiving sites is shown in Fig. 40.4

(Fig. 40.5-III) by 10–20 times due to the action of static distortions. These offsets
are in a good agreement with the theory of static shift distortions (Rokitjansky
1981). Static correction had been taken into account when solution the inversion
problem. Results of this inversion are shown in Fig. 40.4-IV. They point out on the
existance of intermediate inhomogeneous conductive layer (“DD-layer”) in the
depth interval from 2–3 to 7–10 km in all observation regions (Fig. 40.4-IV). The
longitudinal conductivity of the layer varies from tenths of a share of Siemens to
1–2 S.
Results of the Kovdor 2015 experiment, depicted above, are completely con-
sistent with results of frequency soundings in Central Finland in 1997
(Zhamaletdinov et al. 2002) that gave the first opening of the “DD-layer”.
40 Intermediate Conducting Layers in the Continental … 357

Conclusion

Thus, it should be concluded that the continental Earth’s crust for its entire
thickness is, in general, “dry”. The so-called intermediate conductive layers, erro-
neously associated with the existence of fluids at depths of the first tens of kilo-
meters, are in fact the result of lateral influence of steeply dipping or inclined sulfide
and carbon bearing electronically conducting rocks having longitudinal electrical
conductivity up to several thousand Siemens. These rocks are distributed within the
upper 10-kilometer stratum of the earth’s crust and have received the conventional
designation as “SC-layer” of Semenov.
Weak traces of fluids are supposedly detected in the form of an inhomogeneous
conductive layer in the uppermost thickness of the continental earth’s crust in the
depth range from 2–3 to 7–10 km. The longitudinal conductivity of the layer varies
from tenths to 1–2 S. Following after the geodynamic model of V.N. Nikolaevsky
we explaine the nature of the layer by dilatancy-diffusive phenomena in the upper
“brittle” part of the Earth’s crust. The hypothesis of dilatancy-diffusive phenomena
suggests that liquids (water brines) penetrate to the depth through a system of
cracks that are flattening with depth under the influence of tangential stresses. The
phenomena of dilatancy-diffusive expansion of pores and cracks occur due to
rupture of brittle rocks as a result of the interaction of tangential and lithostatic
pressures. Due to the dilatancy-diffusive effecting, free liquids fill up the opening
cavities. The electrical conductivity of the rocks increases within a fairly narrow
interval of depths, forming an intermediate conducting region. The area received the
symbol “DD-layer”. The “layer” itself should be understood as an inhomogeneous
zone of reduced resistivity. This region exists due to a large number of cracks that
are known in the geological literature as “listrick” cracks (Goryainov and
Davidenko 1979). Thus the nature of the intermediate conducting layers in the
continental Earth’s crust should be explained either by the presence of electroni-
cally conductive sulfide and graphite bearing rocks or by the influence of
“DD-layer” having fluidal, dilatancy-diffusion nature of conductivity.

References

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the Cabora Bassa power line. // Journal of Geophysics, 43. Pp. 665–679.
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Electrical conductivity Models. // Pageoph, vol. 125. Pp. 255–284.
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// In: Proc. of Int. Conf. Apatity. Geological Institute of the KSC RAS. Pp. 100–107.
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important new phenomenon ingeodynamics. // Doklady FN USSR, Vol. 247, No 5.
Pp. 1212–1215.
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Joedicke H. (1992). Water and graphite in the Earth’s crust —An approach to interpretation of
conductivity models // Surveys in Geophysics, 13. Pp. 381–407.
Jones A.G. (1987). MT and reflection: an assential comb. // Geophys. J.R. astr. Soc., N89.
Pp.7–18.
Keller G.V. (1963). Electrical properties in the deep crust. // IEE Trans. Antennas and Propagat.,
V. 11, N 3. Pp. 615–637.
Kovtun A.A., Moiseev O.N., Vagin C.A., Vardanjants I.L., Kokvina E.L., Saveljev A.A.,
Uspensky N.I. (1986). MT- and AMT-sounding on the Kola peninsula and in Kareliya. // Deep
electrical conductivity of the Baltic shield. Petrozavodsk. Karelian branch of RAS. Pp. 34–48.
Kraev, A.P., Semenov, A.S., Tarkhov, A.G. (1947). Ultra-deep Electrical Sounding. // Razvedka
Nedr, 1947, no. 3. Pp. 40–41.
Lundholm R. (1946). The experimental sending of d.c. through the Earth in Sweden. //
Proceedings of the Conf. Internat. des Grands Reseaux Electriques a Haute Teusion . Paper No
134
Nikolaevsky V.N. (1996). Cataclastic breaking down of rocks of earth crust and anomaly of
geophysical fields. // Izv. Akad. Nauk, Ser. Fiz. Zemlin No. 4, Pp. 41–50.
Rokitjansky I.I. (1981). Inductive soundings of the Earth. // Kiev. Naukova Dumka. 296 p
Rodkin M.F. (1993). The Role of a Deep Fluid Regime in Geodynamics and Seismotectonics //
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Semenov A.S. (1970). The Nature of Electrical Conductivity in the Ancient Basement. // Vestnik
SPb Univ. No. 12. Pp. 19–26.
Semenov A.S. & Zhamaletdinov A.A. (1981). Deep Electrical Soundings. // SPb. Vestn. Leningr.
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Vanyan L.L. (1997). Electromagnetic soundings. // Moscow. ”Nauchny Mir”. 218 p
Varentsov Iv.M., Engels M., Korja T., Smirnov M.Yu. and the BEAR Working Group. (2002).
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Zhamaletdinov A.A. (1996). Graphite in the Earth’s Crust and Electrical Conductivity Anomalies.
// Izvestiya, Physics of the Solid Earth, Vol. 32, No. 4. Pp. 272–288.
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with controlled sources (Baltic shield, Russian plateform). // Leningrad. “Nauka”. 159 p.
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beneath the CFGC // Izvestiya, Physics of the Solid Earth, Vol. 38, No. 11. P. 954–967.
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Chapter 41
A Map of the Total Longitudinal
Electric Conductivity of the Sedimentary
Cover of the Voronezh Crystalline
Massif and Its Framing

V. I. Zhavoronkin, V. Gruzdev, I. Antonova and Y. Austova

Abstract In the central part of the region, a digital version of the conductivity map
of the sedimentary cover. When constructing the S map, electro-prospecting data
was used by the VES method. In general, sedimentary rocks are characterized by a
large range of variation in the specific electrical resistance (from 0.1 to several
thousand X m). The values of S vary from Sm units in the VCM territory to the first
thousand Sm in the neighboring valleys. In the arch part of anteclise, the values of
the longitudinal conductivity are within the first tens of Sm. The increase in con-
ductivity is observed along the Losevskaya suture zone. In the area of transition of
the array to adjacent large-scale tectonic structures, the values of S are from 40 to
120 Sm. In the central part of the DDV and RSP, S is equal to 2000 Sm. However,
there is an area with S = 3500–4000 Sm.

Keywords The Voronezh crystalline massif Sedimentary cover


The total longitudinal conductivity Geoelectric section

Over the past few years, the Department of Geophysics of the Voronezh State
University has been studying the petrophysical characteristics of the sedimentary
cover of the Voronezh anteclise and adjacent areas (Muravina et al. 2013). Within
the framework of these works, a digital version of the sedimentary cover conduc-
tivity map was compiled in the central part of the region. A map of the total

V. I. Zhavoronkin (&)
V. Gruzdev
I. Antonova
Y. Austova

Voronezh State University, Voronezh, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
V. Gruzdev
e-mail: [email protected]
I. Antonova
e-mail: [email protected]
Y. Austova
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 359

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_41
360 V. I. Zhavoronkin et al.

longitudinal conductivity (S) of the sedimentary rocks of the Voronezh crystalline

massif was used. It was compiled in 1982 in the Voronezh geophysical expedition.
This map was supplemented by the results of subsequent studies (Muravina and
Zhavoronkin 2014).
When constructing the S map, the results of electro-prospecting studies using the
VES method were used, performed mainly in the Voronezh geophysical expedition.
Electrical exploration using the VES method was carried out in different places on
different scales (1:10,000–1:200,000). In some areas (near Voronezh) the data were
obtained in 1–2 points at a distance of 10–20 km. The central part of the KMA was
unevenly studied, where only a route survey was carried out at certain sites.
However, the accuracy of interpretation of the VES, including the determination of
parametric conductivity, is high, which is confirmed by drilling.
The value of the electrical conductivity of the sedimentary cover depends on
the thickness of the sediments and their material composition. The thickness of the
sedimentary cover is determined by the level of the day surface and the relief of the
Precambrian base.
The surface in the regional plan is relatively smooth. The absolute level of the
watershed spaces is 140–180 m (the Oksko-Don plain) and 220–260 m on the
neighboring elevations. At some sites in the valleys of major rivers, there are gutters
of the depth of tens of meters.
The relief of the crystalline basement has a much more complex form. In
General, the crystalline massif is elongated in a North-westerly direction (azimuth
305°). The surface of crystalline rocks asymmetrical. The greatest dip is noted in
the South-Western and South-Eastern slopes. The Northern slope is relatively flat.
Crystalline massif articulates with negative structures. The amplitude of the dis-
placements can reach considerable size and be accompanied by a gradient of
conductivity zones of the sedimentary cover.
In the central part of anteclise, the relief of the soles of sedimentary formations
ranges from 50–100 to 800–1000 m. In the axial part of the Ryazan-Saratov
Trench, the thickness of the sediments reaches up to 4000 m. In the Dnipro-Don
basin, the thickness of the sediments is 9000 m. This is reflected in the conductivity
map.
In general, the relief of the central part of the crystalline massif changes. Against
the background of flat areas, individual isometric depressions and ascents of various
forms are recorded. This is especially true for sections with linear layers of fer-
ruginous quartzites. These quartzites form crest-like uplifts up to several tens of
meters in sedimentary deposits. Linear conductivity anomalies are associated with a
decrease in the thickness of the sedimentary cover. The magnitude of such
anomalies is the first tens of Cm.
The influence of the lithological composition of sedimentary formations on the
regional component of electrical conductivity has not been studied to date.
However, it should be expected that the difference in the real composition of locally
distributed layers can affect the distribution of the electrical conductivity parameter.
41 A Map of the Total Longitudinal Electric Conductivity … 361

In general, sedimentary rocks are characterized by a large range of variation in

the specific electrical resistance (from 0.1 to several thousand X m).
The geoelectric section of the sedimentary cover is in the first approximation
three-layered. The first layer in the arched part of the VCM is represented by the
sediments of the Cenozoic. On the slopes of the crystalline massif and in the valleys
it is represented by sediments of the mesocanozoic. Its power varies from 5–10 m
to 200–300 m, and the specific electrical resistance varies from 20 to 100 X m. The
second layer consists of rocks of Cretaceous age (the central part of VCM) or rocks
of Carboniferous and Devonian age (slopes of the massif and valleys). Its power is
from 10 to 500 m. It has a higher electrical resistivity (from 100 to 1000 X m). The
third layer is associated with Paleozoic deposits. It has a power from several meters
to 2000–4000 m and a specific resistance of 1–20 X m. In all layers, the resistivity
decreases with depth due to an increase in the mineralization of solutions that
saturate the rock.
The values of S vary from Sm units in the VCM territory to the first thousand Sm
in the neighboring valleys (Gruzdev 2012). In the arch part of anteclise, the
anomalies of the electrical conductivity S form mosaic forms, and the longitudinal
conductivity values are within the limits of the first tens of Sm. There are several
regions with values greater than 50 Sm. Often the region of conduction coincides
with the contours of tectonic structures. For example, against a background of small
values (2.5–10 Sm), zones with high conductivity values are observed in the center
of the arched part of the VCM. These zones have a north-western extent. They
coincide with Tim-Yastrebovskaya and Volotovskaya tectonic structures. A similar
increase in conductivity is observed along the Losevskaya suture zone. The Mossic
character of the distribution of the total longitudinal electrical conductivity is also
observed in the Rossoshan massif. Here, against a background of small values (up
to 10 Sm), there are anomalous regions (the first tens of Sm). To the east of the
Losevskaya suture zone to the Khopersky megablock, the conductivity values
gradually increase to 30 Sm. On the slopes of the massif, the isolines of longitudinal
conductivity coincide with the isohypses of the surface of the crystalline basement.
In the area of transition of the array to adjacent large-scale tectonic structures, the
values of S are from 40 to 120 Sm. In the central part of the DDV and RSP, S is
equal to 2000 Sm. However, there is an area with S = 3500–4000 Sm. The con-
ductivity gradient in some places is 100 S/km.
Thus, the constructed digital map of total conductivity is of interest from the
point of view of modeling the electrical conductivity of various layers of the earth’s
crust and upper mantle. If the anomalous features of the conductivity of the sedi-
mentary cover are not taken into account, this can lead to significant errors in the
interpretation.

Acknowledgements Work performed under the grant RFBR 16-05-00975a.

362 V. I. Zhavoronkin et al.

References

Gruzdev, V. (2012). Electrical conductivity of the territory of the VKM and adjacent regions.
Lithosphere of the Voronezh crystal massif by geophysical and petrophysical data: monograph.
Voronezh “Scientific Book”, pp. 74–138.
Muravina, O. and V. Zhavoronkin (2014). Magnetic susceptibility of the Phanerozoic deposits of
the Voronezh anteclise. Herald of KRAUNTS. Earth sciences. Vyp. No. 23. pp. 79–88.
Muravina, O., V. Zhavoronkin, and V. Glaznev (2013). Petrophysical characterization of the
sedimentary cover of the Voronezh anteclise. Herald of the Voronezh state University. Series:
Geology. - No. 1. pp. 189–196.
Chapter 42
Geophysical Monitoring
for the Preservation of Architectural
Monuments

Z. Slepak

Abstract Preservation of buildings and structures always was and remains to be an

urgent problem for the mankind. Cracks and deformations of walls and subsidence
of foundations eventually resulting in destruction of buildings are very common,
and measures taken for their elimination are fairly expensive and often belated. All
this makes it necessary to control the course of active geological processes,
determine their nature, and take timely measures for prevention and mitigation of
possible adverse impacts. Geophysical methods of measurement from the ground
surface causing no impact on the state of geological environment should play an
important role in preservation of buildings, towns and cities. At the same time,
traditional measurements of this kind in urban conditions with limited space and
numerous hindrances and interferences are often inefficient and inexpedient. A new
methodology of geophysical exploration and studies is put forward and analyzed
for investigating the negative influence of geological processes in the upper layer of
the geological section on buildings and engineering structures.

Introduction

The importance of a survey of the technical condition of architecture monuments

and other structures and the need for restoration and repair work was noted in the
publications of many researchers (Aidarov 1978; Bakhireva and Rodina 1992;
Vyazkova and Pashkin 1989; Zaitsev 1989 Pashkin 1975; Slepak 1997, 1999a, b,
2007; Slukin 1989).
The service life of buildings depends on their mechanical strength characteristics
laid up during construction and, to a considerable extent, on the negative impact of
geological processes on their foundations after construction. Such processes

Z. Slepak (&)
Institute of Geology and Petroleum Technologies,
Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 363

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_42
364 Z. Slepak

include, first and foremost, changes in hydro-geological conditions of ground

waters and modern tectonic movements.
In urban conditions, the influence of these processes is intensified by techno-
genic impacts associated with water leaks and breakthroughs from underground
water pipelines, floods, destruction of dams, etc. Apart from that, the established
geological environment is disturbed by construction of facilities with extensive
earthwork, archeological excavation, road surface replacement, and other works.
Changes in directions of ground water flows and the course of karst, suffusion, and
soil slip processes cause more soil subsidence and caving.
This methodology is based on high-precision geophysical measurements and
monitoring of physical fields and their variation in time, which reflect the course of
geological processes deep under the ground surface. The most efficient methods of
geological monitoring are high-precision gravity measurements and transient
electromagnetic sounding.
High-sensitivity equipment, specific measuring procedures, special data processing
methods, and comprehensive geophysical, geodetic and archeological studies were
used for practical implementation of the new geological exploration methodology.
The new methodology, first tested by the author on the territory of the Kazan
Kremlin architectural ensemble, made it possible to investigate the course of geo-
logical processes both near and immediately underneath buildings and structures,
determine their nature, and assess their influence on the foundations of buildings.

Research Results

The Kazan Kremlin standing on a high hill is an architectural complex of unique

landscape and buildings. The top of the hill is occupied by architectural monu-
ments, such as the Suumbeki Tower, former Governor Palace, Annunciation
Cathedral, Spasskaya Tower, and other structures. The strike of the Kremlin hill is
elongated in the northwest direction. From the north, it is bounded by the Kazanka
river, which is now somewhat separated from the hill by a rock-fill dam with a road.
The Kremlin hill base measures approximately 750  350 m. The highest eleva-
tions of the relief equal to 84 m above sea level correspond to the eastern periphery
of the hill top (Fig. 42.1).
The Kremlin hill went through most intensive changes in recent years due to
construction of the Kul-Sharif Mosque and other buildings, archeological excava-
tions, repair and restoration works, replacement of old and laying of new under-
ground communications, replacement of asphalt with block pavement, extensive
excavation works, and operation of heavy construction machinery. All these works
and activities disturbed the anthropogenic layer and changed the structure and
strength of soil. At the same time, the activity of surface and ground waters
intensified and changed. It is clear that one of the most important tasks now is to
continue studies of the geological structure and composition of the Kremlin hill and
geological processes in its subsoil.
42 Geophysical Monitoring for the Preservation … 365

0 50 100 m 150 200

Fig. 42.1 Vertical sections of total electrical conductivity S(H) along profiles on the site of
Suyumbeki Tower and the Governor’s Palace

The first gravimetric measurements in monitoring mode were carried out in the
northern part of the Kremlin hill, on the territory around the Suumbeki Tower and
former Governor Palace (now residence of the President of the Republic of
Tatarstan). These measurements consisted in two high-precision horizontal gravi-
metric surveys conducted at the same points of a regular 5  5 m grid. The
accuracy of measurement of Bouguer anomalies at the survey grid points attained
by multiple measurements at every grid point (up to 6–10 measurements in inde-
pendent series) did not exceed 10 µgal. The results of these surveys were used for
construction of maps of gravity anomalies with an isoanomaly interval of 30–40
µgal and detect local field changes caused by active geological processes in the
earth crust. Two maps of Bouguer gravity anomalies and anomaly patterns along
longitudinal profiles and transverse profiles were constructed according to the
results of these gravimetric surveys. The Bouguer anomaly map based on the results
366 Z. Slepak

of survey 2 is very similar to the map based on the results of survey 1. At the same
time, noticeable changes are observed in the strike of certain isoanomaly curves,
which points to changes of the gravitational field that took place in the period
between the two series of gravimetric surveys.
The map of differences in Bouguer anomalies based on the results of mea-
surements performed at the same points during the two independent surveys con-
ducted in the spring and fall of 1995 makes it possible to state more confidently that
the gravitational field changed between the two surveys (Fig. 42.2). In the central
part of the surveyed area, a positive anomaly of north-south strike outlined by
isoanomaly curve +10 µgal is traced together with several relatively small local
anomalies of similar intensity (Fig. 42.2). Gravity changes like those occurred in
the period between the two series of surveys are traced in even greater detail along
the transverse and longitudinal profiles (Slepak 2007).
The non-tidal gravity anomaly of the positive sign in the central part of the study
area (Fig. 42.2) in Fig. 42.3 almost disappeared. Its “remnants” delineated by an
isoline of 10 lGal, were preserved only to the northeast of the Syuyumbeki Tower
and the gravitational field was “restored”. This indicates the loss of water. It follows
that the positive anomaly of non-tidal gravity changes can correspond to the natural

24

22

20

18

16
Governor's Palace 37

14 S 9 10
Points

12
1 4
Suyumbeki
W

10 2
S

3
W

8 Tower

6 W
S

4
W

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Lines of profiles 1 10 2 2 3 S 4 W 5 6
0 5 10 15 20 m

Fig. 42.2 Map of non-tidal gravity changes. Spring 1995–autumn 1995: 1—points of observa-
tion, 2—wells drilled before 1999, 3—wells drilled in 1999, 4—sewerage, 5—water conduit,
6—line of geological profile
42 Geophysical Monitoring for the Preservation … 367

Governor's Palace
14 Gal

13

12

11 50
Suyumbeki
10

9
10
8 Tower

6 -30

4
-70
3

1 -110
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

0 5 10 15 20m

Fig. 42.3 Map of non-tidal gravity changes. Spring 1995–summer 1996

H, m
80 4 9 10 37 36
78 173 1
128
76 124 tQIV
172
74
72

70 111 alQII
68
66
64
eP2kz2
62

60
34

58
56 P2kz2
54
1 2 3 4 5
52
P2kz1 6 0 10 20 40 m
30
50

Fig. 42.4 Geological section through the Kremlin Hill: 1—cultural layer, 2—alluvial sediments,
3—siltstone-carbonate dust, 4—dolomite, limestone, 5—sandstone, 6—wells

reservoir of ground and technogenic waters accumulation that could migrate

towards the Kazanka River and the lower layers of the Kremlin Hill.
The geological profile that crosses the Kremlin Hill near the Syuyumbeki Tower
and the Governor’s Palace is characterized by a five-layered structure (Fig. 42.4).
The maximum depth of the upper anthropogenic layer at the eastern side of the
368 Z. Slepak

8 2
G H ·10 , m/s

Fig. 42.5 Curves of measured gravity values and non-tidal gravity changes at the eastern wall of
Kazan Kremlin along profile 11: curves of gravity values measured in: 1—December1997; 2—
December 1998; 3—curve of non-tidal gravity changes between the two series of measurement

Syuyumbeki Tower is 7 m and corresponds to the local anomaly observed in

Fig. 42.2.
It is established that ground and technogenic water are the main cause of the tilt
(almost 2 m) of the Tower. Also, the negative impact of groundwater on other
buildings and fortress walls has been studied and measures for their elimination
have been recommended (Fig. 42.5).
The comparison of the measured gravity values graphs shows that gravitational
field along the profile 11 in the section of the fortress wall during this period has
significantly increased, especially between pickets 47–72, which is due to the
accumulation of groundwater at its base in front of the steep slope from the inside
walls.
Similar results of gravimetric monitoring were obtained at other sites of the
Kazan Kremlin walls.
Also, useful data were obtained on the results of gravimetric measurements in
the monitoring mode inside the Taynitskaya Tower, the Governor’s Palace and the
travel part of the Syuyumbeki Tower.
The presence of a natural water reservoir at the top of the Kremlin Hill
(Figs. 42.1 and 42.2) confirmed by the electromagnetic sounding. Changes in the
thickness of anthropogenic layer can be seen on the maps of the total electric
42 Geophysical Monitoring for the Preservation … 369

conductivity S(H), which correspond to the boundaries between different geological

strata (Slepak 2007).
The most elevated part of the bottom of anthropogenic layer in absolute depths
(in the axonometric projection) is located under the southern pylon of the
Syuyumbeki Tower (Fig. 42.6).
The surface is dipping in the northeast direction and forms a deflection, which
can be traced near the Governor’s Palace, located on the northern slope of the
Kremlin Palace. Thus, the results of electromagnetic sounding not only confirmed
the existence of an underground reservoir of ground and technogenic waters,
identified by the high-precision gravimetric measurements in the monitoring mode,
but also allowed to specify its location and direction of strike.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 42.6 Earth surface (a) and surface of the water-impermeable layer 4a (b) in elevation isolines
above sea level according to the results of electromagnetic sounding on the territory of the
Suumbeki Tower: 1—electromagnetic sounding points; 2—contours of Suumbeki Tower pylons
370 Z. Slepak

Conclusion

The main results of the research are a survey of the technical state of architectural
monuments in the city, without violating the foundations of buildings and ecology.
Geophysical monitoring helped us study the variations of physical fields caused
by active geological processes. Gravimetric monitoring does not require proper
account of the gravitational effects of the relief, buildings and structures. That use of
original surveying methods and modern geological data processing technologies
makes it possible to study the influence of hydro-geological conditions on archi-
tectural monuments and solve various geological and geophysical problems
Geophysical surveys in monitoring mode including high-precision gravimetric
surveys and transient electromagnetic sounding turned out very efficient for
preservation of architectural monuments of the Kazan Kremlin. The results were
demonstrated on an example of the Suumbeki Tower—a unique monument of
ancient architecture. The dynamics of long-term negative influence of ground
waters and technogenic waters on the foundation of this tower was studied by
analyzing the variations of physical fields on the territory of the Suumbeki Tower.
The influence of these waters was found to be the main reason behind the tilt of the
Suumbeki Tower. The negative impact of ground waters on other structures and
fortification walls was studied, the factors of this impact were analyzed, and rec-
ommendation for their elimination were worked out.

References

Aidarov S.S. (1978) Architectural Heritage of Kazan, Kazan, 1978. P. 96.

Bakhireva L.V. and Rodina E.E. (1992) Geological engineering surveys for preservation of
architectural and historical monuments in urbanized territories (examples of foreign experi-
ence) // Inzhenernaya Geologiya, 1992, No.6, pp. 121-127.
Pashkin E.M. (1975) Influence of anthropogenic changes of rocks on integrity of architectural
monuments // Monuments of Russia, Moscow, Sovremennik, 1975, pp. 158–163.
Slepak Z. (1997) Complex geophysical investigations for studying the cultural layer and remains
of ancient buildings in the territory of Kazan Kremlin, Kazan, Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. //
Archaeological prospection, 1997, vol. 4, pp. 207–218. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Slepak Z.M. (1999) Electromagnetic sounding and high-precision gravimeter survey define ancient
stone building remains in the territory of Kazan Kremlin (Kazan, Republic of Tatarstan,
Russia). // Archeological prospection, 1999, vol. 6, pp. 147–160, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Slepak Z.M. (1999) Geophysical monitoring for preservation of architectural monuments on an
example of the Kazan Kremlin, Kazan: Kazan State University Press, 1999, P. 176.
Slepak Z.M. (2007) Urban Geophysics – Tver, GERS Publishing Hous, 2007, 240 pages.
Slukin V.M. (1989) Non-destructive engineering methods for surveys of historical territories and
architectural monuments and buildings // Engineering and technical aspects of preservation of
historical and architectural monuments, Moscow, Izd-vo NMS MK SSSR, 1989, pp. 132–144.
Vyazkova O.E. and Pashkin E.M. (1989) Engineering geology and preservation of historical and
architectural monuments, Moscow, Izd-vo NMS MK SSSR, 1989, pp. 6–15.
Zaitsev A.S. (1989) Application of geophysical methods for assessing the integrity of architectural
monuments // Subsoil Exploration and Protection, 1989, No. 10, pp. 58–60.
Chapter 43
Application of Detailed Magnetics
in Intensive Industrial Noise Conditions

P. N. Novikova

Abstract The use of detailed magnetics for the localization of underground

communications and engineering-geological wells is considered. Special technique
aspects of field survey and data processing in the intensive industrial noise con-
ditions are presented. The amplitude-frequency spectrum of technogenic noise is
analyzed by means of empirical mode decomposition (EMD) decomposition. The
qualitative interpretation results of detailed magnetics are revealed when different
types of communications and wells are detected.

Keywords Detailed magnetics Intensive industrial noise
Empirical mode


decomposition (EMD) Underground pipeline Well

The study of soils by geophysical methods is an effective approach used in engi-

neering and geological surveys for construction purposes, environmental studies,
etc. One of the specific tasks of the urban and industrial areas survey is the current
project documentation restoration related to the detection and localization of
underground communications and structures. Also, problems of atypical anthro-
pogenic objects searching, such as running and liquidated wells, sunk production
equipment, etc., and anthropogenic objects that are have a historical value is
appeared. Timely diagnosis of modern cities engineering systems is an important
task to prevent dangerous situations and accidents, both at the stage of facilities
construction and of their operation process. At the moment, georadiolocation
methods, detailed geoelectrics, active and passive electric field recording (locators),
acoustic location and infrared thermography are used for these purposes.
In this paper propose an alternative approach to the urban areas geomonitoring—
detailed magnetics, tested in several experimental field works.
Performing field measurements of the magnetic field within urban areas is
complicated by the presence of intense electromagnetic noise of various nature.
A qualitative analysis of the magnetic field variations within the study sites showed

P. N. Novikova (&)
Mining Institute UB of RAS, Perm, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 371

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_43
372 P. N. Novikova

that the measured signal represents a set of rapidly changing low-frequency com-
ponents (Novikova and Voroshilov 2017; Novikova et al. 2017; Utkin et al. 2010;
Fomenko et al. 2016). Thus, for the successful method application in intense
industrial noise conditions in the standard processing of magnetic data, it is nec-
essary to place the magnetovariational station as closely as possible or directly at
the measurement site with a minimum set of magnetometers during field works
(Novikova and Voroshilov 2017).
The modified field survey technique can not fully account for the entire spectrum
of industrial noise, so the Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) method was used
to filter the observed data. EMD is a method of spectral analysis of non-stationary
signals using predetermined internal signal modes. In practice, for such a trans-
formation, the function should consist of a series of extrema, along which two
signal envelopes are formed—along the maxima and minima. Internal oscillations
are defined as the average value for signal envelopes and represent an adaptive basis
with variable frequency and amplitude, functionally dependent on the content of the
data itself (Fig. 43.1). Ultimately, in an iterative procedure, a complex signal can be
represented as the sum of empirical mode functional dependened on the residual
trend component (Davydov and Davydov 2010; Dolgal and Hristenko 2017).
Usually the measured magnetic variations contain up to 20 internal close to
periodic modes, whose amplitude ranges from 20 to 400 nT, the frequency varies
within the range (0.56–133) 10−3 Hz (Table 43.1). Figure 43.2 shows the most
commonly encountered forms of magnetic field variations within the urban envi-
ronment, obtained by EMD-decomposition. Comparison of EMD-components of
profile and variations measurements makes it possible to obtain adequate data
reflecting the magnetic field of near-surface sources.
A qualitative data interpretation of the detailed magnetics is also of special
interest. According to the magnetic anomalies morphology, it is possible to separate
sources into different technogenic objects types. Below the results of practical
application of the described technique for detection of underground engineering
infrastructure tasks are offered.

Fig. 43.1 Empirical mode decomposition of nonstationary signal: 1—an analytical signal; 2—
signal extremum envelopes; 3—average signal—empirical model
43 Application of Detailed Magnetics in Intensive Industrial … 373

Table 43.1 An example of Mode Frequency (10−3 Hz) Maximal amplitude (nT)
the internal mode frequency
composition of the magnetic 1 133.3 ±375
variations within the urban 2 71.4 ±400
environment 3 26.3 ±375
4 24.4 ±210
5 7.1 ±200
6 5.46 ±75
7 1.9 ±100
8 1.43 ±200
9 1.48 ±50
10 0.56 ±40
11 0.56 ±30
12 0.56 ±25

Fig. 43.2 Empirical modes

of magnetic variations within
the urban environment

In the case of linear underground communications detection, the following types

of magnetic anomalies can be classified. High-voltage electric networks are sharply
allocated, which are displayed in most cases by intense negative anomalies of
several tens of thousands of nT. Low-voltage cable lines for various purposes are
displayed in the magnetic field with dynamic, rapidly changing in time both
374 P. N. Novikova

positive and negative anomalies. In this case, the sign of the anomaly DTa is usually
conserved, and the amplitude can vary by several hundreds and even thousands of
nT. Also, along the electrical cable line, there may be separate “emissions”
exceeding the total level of the pulsating anomaly (Fig. 43.3a, b).
Water and sewerage pipelines on the map DTa are traced by linear positive
anomalies with a varying amplitude in the range (200–500) nT. The most intense
anomalies are observed over welds and at the pipelines intersection with cable lines.
This type of magnetic anomalies is rather difficult to trace by existing methods of
recognizing linear structures, therefore at this stage of the investigation the detec-
tion of such anomalies was made visually by maps and graphs of an anomalous
magnetic field (Fig. 43.3a, c). It is worth noting that most magnetic anomalies are
localized in space within 1 m.
As a further example, anomalous magnetic field fragments are presented in the
study sites containing the active (Fig. 43.4a) and abandoned (Fig. 43.4c)
engineering-geological wells.

Fig. 43.3 Fragment of

anomalous magnetic field
containing underground
engineering networks effects
(a) and DTa graphics above
sewer net (b) and low-voltage
conductor cable
43 Application of Detailed Magnetics in Intensive Industrial … 375

Fig. 43.4 Anomalous magnetic field and DTa graphics on running (a, b) and abandoned (c,
d) engineering-geological wells

Magnetic anomalies from wells are extremely localized, isometric, can be both
positive and negative and reach several hundred nT. If the bottom hole is at a
relatively shallow depth, then there are anomalies accompanying the opposite sign.
Sewage wells with cast iron hatches, lampposts, as well as household and con-
struction “magnetic” debris also have a similar form. Therefore, in the case of a
search for wells, such “false” anomalies can be observed, which must be eliminated
by special filtration methods and direct verification.
The above studies demonstrate the possibility of using detailed magnetic
prospecting in conditions of intense technogenic jamming for localization of linear
and limited technogenic objects with a special technique of field survey and initial
data filtering by means of EMD-analysis. The possibility of recognizing the various
linear types of engineering networks based on the magnetic anomalies morphology
is shown.

References

Davydov, V.A. and Davydov, A.V. (2010). Purification of geophysical data from noise using the
Hilbert-Huang transformation. Electronic scientific publication «Aktual’nye innovacionnye
issledovanija: nauka i praktika» . №1.
Dolgal, A.S. and Hristenko, L.A. (2017). Application of empirical mode decomposition in the
processing of geophysical data. Izvestija Tomskogo politehnicheskogo universiteta. Inzhiniring
georesursov. T. 328. № 1. pp. 100–108.
376 P. N. Novikova

Fomenko N.E., Zhurbickij B.I., Fomenko L.N. (2016). Prediction of electromagnetic pollution of
urban areas using special hardware and software. Geofizicheskie metody pri razvedke nedr:
materialy Vserossijskoj nauchno-prakticheskoj konferencii s mezhdunarodnym uchastiem,
posvjashhennoj 70-letiju osnovanija v Tomskom politehnicheskom institute kafedry
«Geofizicheskie metody poiskov i razvedki mestorozhdenij poleznyh iskopaemyh». Tomskij
politehnicheskij universitet. Tomsk : Izd-vo Tomskogo politehnicheskogo universiteta.
pp. 283–288.
Novikova, P.N. and Voroshilov, V.A. (2017). Detection of underground infrastructure in
conditions of intensive industrial noise on magnetic field data. Geophysics. № 5. pp. 4–9.
Novikova, P.N., Voroshilov, V.A., Kopytin, V.V., Subbotin, P.A., Kalashnikova, M.M., Temirov,
P.A. (2017). Detection of underground communications by engineering magnetic prospecting
in conditions of anthropogenic origin noise. Vosemnadcataja ural’skaja molodezhnaja
nauchnaja shkola po geofizike: Sbornik nauch. Materialov. Perm: GI UrO RAN. pp. 147–151.
Utkin, V.I., Tjagunov, D.S., Sokol-Kutylovskij, O.L., Senina, T.E. (2010). Distortion of magnetic
field by electromagnetic noise of low frequencies of technogenic origin. Vestnik KRAUNC.
Serija: Nauki o Zemle. Vyp. 15. № 1. pp. 216–222.
Chapter 44
The Results of Numerical Simulation
of the Electromagnetic Field Within
the Voronezh Crystalline Massif
and its Framing

V. Gruzdev and I. Antonova

Abstract On the territory of the Voronezh crystalline massif the results of

numerical simulation of the electromagnetic field are obtained. The resistivity
curves contain information on regional changes in the conductivity of the sedi-
mentary cover of the VKM and adjacent structures. Areas of minimum and max-
imum values are identified, as well as the character of the change in the apparent
resistance along different profiles, secant structures. The estimation of galvanic and
induction distortions of apparent resistance curves in different VCM zones is given.
Attention should be paid to the large errors in the interpretation of the experimental
MTZ curves within the framework of one-dimensional models, especially in the
central part of the BКM. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the
two-dimensional distribution of conductivity in the structures of VCM, RSP and
DDV in interpreting the MTZ curves.

Keywords Voronezh crystalline massif (VCM) Numerical simulation of



electromagnetic fields Apparent resistivity curves The total conductivity of
sedimentary cover

As a result of numerical modeling of the electromagnetic field, curves of apparent

resistivity qM
a were obtained in the range of periods from 900 to 43,200 s for
various points on the territory of the Voronezh crystalline massif (VKM), the
Ryazan-Saratov trough (RSP) and the Dneprovo-Donetsk depression (DDV)
(Gruzdev 2012). Model curves qM a contain information about the regional changes
of conductance of the sedimentary cover of all considered structures. Model curves
qXYM
a , qYXM
a of apparent resistivity along a profile intersecting structures of VCM,

V. Gruzdev (&)
I. Antonova

Voronezh State University, Voronezh, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
I. Antonova
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 377

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_44
378 V. Gruzdev and I. Antonova

RSP and DDB in their Central parts are shifted on the y-axis under the influence of
the conductive sedimentary cover of 4 orders of magnitude. At the central part of
the VCM the resistivity curves qXYM a , qYXM
a are maximally displaced along the
ordinate axis to values of 10,000 X m. The values of the longitudinal apparent
resistivity qXYM
a 10 times higher than the values of the transverse apparent resistivity
qa . Within the central part and slopes of the Voronezh crystal massif the resis-
YXM

tivity curves qM a are shifted along the vertical axis by 2 orders of magnitude.
The minimum values of the apparent resistivity qM a are observed in the central part
of the PCП and DDV (up to 0.2 X m). In this case, the values of the longitudinal
resistivity curves qXYMa are 10 times smaller than the values of the transverse
resistivity curves qa . For periods of 900–432,00 s in the central part and on the
YXM

slopes of the VCM there is a weak dependence on the period of the magnitude of
the displacement of the resistivity curves qM a along the ordinate. This indicates a
slight effect on the apparent resistivity curves of regional induction effects. Whereas
in the Central part of the Ryazan-Saratov trough and Dniprove-Donets basin, these
distortions become significant.
When carrying out numerical simulation, a number of simplifications of the
model were made, which naturally affect the quality of the interpretation of the
experimental data.
First, the calculations did not take into account the leakage of electric currents
from the sedimentary cover to the crystalline part of the crust. Thus, the conduc-
tivity of the upper part of the crystalline basement was not taken into account. What
for the territory of the VCM is essential. As a consequence, the value of the
calculated resistivity curves qM a does not reflect their actual position, but only the
displacement along the ordinate axis as a result of the presence of a regional
galvanic effect due to the sedimentary cover.
Secondly, averaging of the values of S was carried out over a rather large cell
(35  35 km) and local variations in the longitudinal conductivity of the sedi-
mentary cover in the calculations were not taken into account. The values of S differ
significantly in the arched part of the VCM and changed in the range from 2.5 up to
20–30 Sm. Therefore, local galvanic and inductive distortions of the electromag-
netic field in the examined structures, this modeling does not take into account.
The values qXYMa for T = 1800 s along the profile vary from fractions of units of
X m (RSP, DDD) to over 10000 X m. There is also strong differentiation and large
gradients qXYM
a in VCM junction areas with RSP and DDB, as well as in the central
part of the VCM. For T = 1800 s the values qXYM a and qYXM
a change more smoothly
along the profile, which crosses the tectonic structures (from tens of X m to hun-
dreds of X m). It should be noted a significant difference between values qLa for
one-dimensional local models and qXYM a , qYXM
a for the two-dimensional model. This
fact indicates large errors in the interpretation of the experimental MTZ curves in
the framework of one-dimensional models, especially in the central part of the
VCM. Two-dimensional distribution of conductivity within the structures of VCM,
RSP and DDV in the interpretation of the MTZ curves must be considered.
44 The Results of Numerical Simulation of the Electromagnetic … 379

The results of numerical simulation of film allowed us to assess the effect of

sedimentary cover on the low-frequency branch of the experimental curves qa .
Most of the observed curves qa within the VCM and its slopes in varying degrees
are lower level compared to the model curves (Zakutsky 1984). This can be
explained by local galvanic effects due to the influence of well-conducting sedi-
ments of the upper part of crystalline basement. The individual observed curves qa
in the low frequency region is similar in level to model curves. Consequently, they
do not contain local galvanic distortion. It is of great importance for interpretation
of experimental curves qa . This allows them to be divided into distorted and not
distorted by local galvanic effects.

Acknowledgements Work performed under the grant RFBR 16-05-00975a.

References

Gruzdev, V. (2012). Electrical conductivity of the territory of the VKM and adjacent regions.
Lithosphere of the Voronezh crystal massif by geophysical and petrophysical data: monograph.
Voronezh “Scientific Book”, pp. 74–138.
Zakutsky, S. (1984). On the results of magnetotelluric sounding on the Voronezh crystalline
massif. Korovye anomalies of electrical conductivity. - L., pp. 90–100.
Chapter 45
Predural Depression Structures
in the Arctic Urals Magnetic Field

V. A. Pyankov and A. L. Rublev

Abstract We have investigated the morphology of the negative regional magnetic

anomaly of Arctic Urals. This magnetic anomaly spatially coincides with structures
of Predurals depression. In this paper we applied the method of construction 3-D
surfaces using magnetic data. We suggest modified iterative local correction
method for solving structure magnetic inverse problem. The 3D-magnetic model of
the Arctic segment of the Earth crust has been constructed. The main elements of
subsurface structure at southern latitudes are preserved.

Keywords Magnetic data
Depression
Local correction method

Introduction

Crustal structure of the Arctic sector of Urals fold system is of great interest due to
the complex nature of the positional relationship of geological structures of the first
order. The greatest interest, in our opinion, is the study of the deep structure of
Predurals depression. This structure is the reference for the entire length of the Urals
fold system. In a magnetic field, it is manifested in the form of regional submerid-
ional negative magnetic anomaly rather complex morphology. This is apparently due
to the fact that there are certain differences in the geological structure of the different
segments of the Urals fold system. The Arctic Ural segment is characterized by a
complex mosaic geological structure, which is reflected in the magnetic field. In the
deep structure of arctic part of the Urals, there are certain similarities and differences.
Similarity is in the first place, in the presence of a single sequence general structural
elements. The most important sources of complex geological and geophysical data
on the deep structure of the Urals fold system are the Arctic Ural transects (Rybalka
et al. 2011), and magnetic data intersecting the Northern Urals at different altitudes
profiles aeromagnetic survey (Shapiro et al. 1993). The need to pass several refer-

V. A. Pyankov
A. L. Rublev (&)

Institute of Geophysics, Ural Branch of RAS, Ekaterinburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 381

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_45
382 V. A. Pyankov and A. L. Rublev

ence profiles was called as a desire to create a three-dimensional model of the Urals
fold system, and the existence of certain differences in the geological structure of the
main fragments of the Urals.

Restoration of the Layer Surface on the Magnetic Data

We introduce the rectangular Cartesian coordinates with axis Z pointing down-

wards and plane XOY coinciding with the surface of the observations. We consider
the two-layer model of the earth’s crust. Surface separating the upper and lower
layers at a sufficient distance from the center of area goes to the asymptote. The
vertical component of the magnetic induction Z at the point (x, y) on the ground
surface of the contact surface, separating the layers with vertical magnetization, I1
and I2 is calculated by the formula:
0 1
Zþ 1 Zþ 1
B zðx; yÞ H C
Zðx; yÞ ¼ DI @h i3=2 h i3=2 Adxdy;
1 1 ðx  x0 Þ2 þ ðy  y0 Þ2 þ z2 ðx; yÞ ðx  x0 Þ2 þ ðy  y0 Þ 2 þ H2

ð45:1Þ

where z(x, y)—the equation of the surface separating the upper and lower layers, the
DI—magnetization jump at the boundary layers, H—horizontal asymptote.
To solve this equation and find the function z(x, y) programs have been devel-
oped based on the modified method of local corrections (Martyshko and Prutkin
2003). Method of local corrections were proposed for the approximate solution of
nonlinear inverse problems of gravimetry (Prutkin 1986) and is based on the
assumption that a change in the value of the field at some point most affected by the
change in the nearest to a given point of the surface S, which is the boundary
between the two layers with different physical properties.
We have developed an iterative method of finding the borders of magnetized
layers defined by the equation z = z(x, y). At each step, an attempt is made to reduce
the difference between the given and the approximate values of the field at a given
point is only due to changes in the values of the required function at the same point.
Discretization of Eq. (45.1) leads to the following system of nonlinear equations:
XX
c Ki0 j0 ðzij Þ ¼ Ui0 j0 ; ð45:2Þ
i j

where c—a weighting factor of the cubature formula, Ui0 j0 ¼ DZðxi0 ; yj0 ; 0Þ—
left-hand side of Eq. (45.1), zij ¼ zðxi ; yj Þ, Ki0 j0 ¼ Kðxi0 ; yj0 ; xi ; yj ; zij Þ—the
integrand.
45 Predural Depression Structures … 383

 2
As a result, we received an iterative formula for finding znij þ 1 : znij þ 1 ¼
ð Þ
2
znij
, where a—regularization parameter, fznij g—the values of the
1 þ að
Þ ð Þ
2
zij
Uij Uijn
n

unknown function z(x, y), n—the number of iteration.

Simulation of the Magnetization Distribution in the Crust

of the Arctic Segments of the Urals Fold System

To construct surfaces of separation necessary to know the parameters of the

asymptotic surface and the estimated magnetization of layers. It is believed that the
first layer is practically non-magnetic I1 = 0.1 A/m (Shapiro et al. 1993), and the
magnetization of the next layer is produced from a study of data interpretation of
the magnetic observations profile. To this end, in the Urals within the trapezoid
52–72°E * 52–68°N special precision aeromagnetic survey on 8 latitude geotra-
verses and two submeridional profiles at altitudes of 150–4000 m was carried out
(Shapiro et al. 1993). The main purpose of this survey was to study the regional
structure of the magnetoactive layer of the lithosphere of the Urals and adjacent
regions. The final stage of this research was the interpretation of the anomalous
magnetic field.
Interpretation of magnetic anomalies was carried out according to the method
developed at the Institute of Geophysics, UB RAS (Martyshko and Prutkin 2003).
According to this technique, anomalous magnetic field of each profiles approxi-
mated by singular sources fields that allowed to allocate the sources that generate
the regional component of the magnetic field. As a result of research 2D-magnetic
models for all profiles have been constructed. For the western margin of the Urals
intensive depression under the folded Urals extended object with magnetization
I2 = 0.7–1 A/m was noted. Carried out researches of the features of the magneti-
zation distribution of rocks with depth show that the magnetization much larger 1–
2 A/m for large blocks improbably To define the parameters of the asymptotic
surface seismic data of Arctic Urals transects are used. Arctic Urals transect has a
length of 300 km and crosses the main structure of the Urals fold system. The
western boundary of the transect is located in Predurals depression, further east it
crosses the plate packs of Lemva allochthon (Fig. 45.1) (Rybalka et al. 2011).
To divide the long—and short-wave components of the amplitude spectrum of
anomalies, geophysicists utilize numerical methods of field simulation at various
altitudes (Martyshko et al. 2015a). In order to eliminate the influence of surface
sources, we used the method of upward and downward magnetic data continuation.
In our paper we investigate the magnetic field for a rectangular area of 62–64°E *
65–67°N. The software implementing parallel algorithms of altitude transforma-
tions are developed using the MVAPICH2 library in Fortran programming
language. The parallel algorithms for recalculation were implemented in the
384 V. A. Pyankov and A. L. Rublev

Fig. 45.1 Schematic geological-geophysical model of the western segment of the Polar Urals
transect. Legend: 1—Permian and early Mesozoic deposits of Predurals depression, 2—shallow
terrigenous-carbonate formation, 3—Late Proterozoic volcanic and sedimentary formations,
4—gneisses and amphibolites of pre-Riphean basement projections

Fig. 45.2 Magnetic field obtained by upward and downward continuation to 10 km

multiprocessor computing machine for 512  512 points of the mesh using 512
cores (processors) (Martyshko et al. 2015b).
In Fig. 45.2 a map of Z component of the magnetic field obtained by upward
continuation to 10 km, and then downward continuation to the zero level is shown.
45 Predural Depression Structures … 385

Fig. 45.3 The contact surface, calculated by local correction method

For recalculated field Z 3D-magnetic inverse problem for of the contact surface with
the asymptote H = 10 km and jump in the magnetization of 1 A/m by local cor-
rections method is solved. The depth to the asymptote is selected based on the
analysis of geological and geophysical structure of the crust of the Arctic Transect.
By analyzing of the contact surface morphology (Fig. 45.3), we conclude that
the depth to the surface increases to the south-east by a few kilometers, i.e., dipping
of the contact surface under the Ural is observed. Apparently, thus subduction zone
manifests in a magnetic field.

Conclusions

Our investigations have shown:

1. Analysis of the morphology of the regional negative magnetic anomaly for the
Arctic Urals characterizes mainly a single structure Predurals depression.
2. As a result of solving the magnetic inverse problem by local corrections method
3D-model of the distribution of the magnetization of the Arctic Urals crust was
obtained. As a consequence, it is shown that the contact surface separating
nonmagnetic and magnetic rock is inclined to the south-east under the Urals.
Thus, the dipping of the Timan-Pechersk plate to the south-east is observed
(subduction zone).

Acknowledgements The study is funded by the RAS Institute of Geophysics, UB RAS (project
18-5-5-23) and carried out in the Institute of Geophysics, UB RAS.
386 V. A. Pyankov and A. L. Rublev

References

Rybalka A.V. et.al. (2011) The deep structure of the Urals based on data of Polar-Urals transect,
Regionalnaya geologiya I metellogeniya, Russia, pp 25–36.
Shapiro V.A. et. al. (1993) The structure of the magnitoactive layer of the Northern Urals based on
the geomagnetic data, Dokladi Akademii nauk, Geofizika, Russia, vol.330/issue 6, pp 771–777.
Martyshko P.S. and Prutkin I.L. (2003) Method of separation of gravity field sources at depth,
Geophys. Zh, (In Russian), pp 159–170.
Prutkin I.L. (1986) The solution of three-dimensional gravimetric problem in the class of contact
surfaces by the method of local correction, Physics of the Solid Earth, vol. 22, issue 1, pp 49–55.
Martyshko P., Pyankov V., Rublev A. (2015a) Manifestation of the predurals depression structures
in the magnetic field of the Arctic Urals // 15th International Multidisciplinary Scientific
GeoConference SGEM 2015, Conference Proceedings, Albena. Bulgaria. Book1 Vol. 3,
887–894 pp. https://doi.org/10.5593/sgem2015/b13/s5.115.
Martyshko P.S., Pyankov V.A., Rublev A.L. (2015b) The new technique of solving the
inversemagnetic problem for Denezhkin Kamen dunite‐gabbro massif // XIVth International
Conference – Geoinformatics: Theoretical and Applied Aspects. Kiev, Ukraine. https://doi.org/
10.3997/2214-4609.201412427.
Chapter 46
Results of the Complex Airborne
Geophysical Survey in the Central
African Ridge Area

Yu. G. Podmogov, J. Moilanen and V. M. Kertsman

Abstract We review the results of different-scale airborne geophysical survey

performed in the territory of the Republic of Rwanda. Such parameters as the
modulus of the magnetic field vector, electromagnetic sounding data in time and
frequency domain, as well as data from a gamma-ray spectrometer with a total
scintillator volume of 32 L were continuously recorded during the flight. The
software automatically performed the necessary navigation management on a
real-time basis. Automated execution of flight tasks allowed to exclude an operator
from the surveying process. It took only 6 months of field works to perform the
survey at a scale of 1:50,000 over the area of 26,000 km2, as well as detailing
works. The total workscope amounted to 57,718 line km. Maps of anomaly mag-
netic field and its local part, apparent resistivity maps for the most informative
frequency and time channels, Th, U, K concentration maps and Th-K ratio maps
have been prepared for a short period of time. Based on the results of map inter-
pretation we selected prospective sites for further study. Detailed airborne survey
was performed for 5 sites, and ground geological and geophysical survey was
performed for 3 sites. Based on the detailed survey results we selected new local
objects associated with quartz-magnetite veined mineralization, dyke bodies, and
mafic rock intrusions. Multiple pegmatite intrusions were identified. The informa-
tion about magnetic, electrical and radiometric characteristics of rocks allowed to
reliably classify the identified anomaly objects.

Keywords Electromagnetics
Magnetometry
Gamma-ray spectrometry

EQUATOR

Yu. G. Podmogov
LLC«Geotechnologies», Moscow, Russia
J. Moilanen (&)
ICS RAS, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
V. M. Kertsman
Geological Faculty of Lomonosov MSU, Moscow, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 387

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_46
388 Yu. G. Podmogov et al.

Introduction

Airborne geophysical survey began in Rwanda using EQUATOR (Fig. 46.1)

technology (Felix et al. 2014, Karshakov et al. 2017) by 12th of October 2016. It
was fully completed by 12th of April 2017. A survey at a scale 1:50,000 and infill
works was completed on a square of 26,000 km2. Total survey volume is 57,718
line km. About half of the survey time was in the rain season. And half of the
survey area are situated in the rough terrain conditions. Average productivity of
airborne geophysical survey is 9620 line km per month. Detailed characteristics of
EQUATOR system are described by Karshakov et al. (2017).

Mapping of Granite Intrusions and Their Material

Composition Definition

The local component of the magnetic field (Babayants and Tararuhina 2009) is
weakly differentiated for granite massifs of different composition in Rwanda. Its
intensity does not exceed the first units of nT (Fig. 46.2a). The outer contours of
granite intrusions are determined reliably.
The apparent resistivity of granites, depending on their types, varies from 300 to
2500 X m (Fig. 46.2b). The most significant granites differ in their radiogeo-
chemical specialization (Fig. 46.2d). The map of classes of radiogeochemical
specialization (Babayants et al. 2015) was built on the basis of a two-dimensional
correlation analysis. Originally maps of K and Th values were considered as

Fig. 46.1 Original construction of towed platform of EQUATOR technology

46 Results of the Complex Airborne Geophysical Survey … 389

Fig. 46.2 Mapping of granite intrusions according to the technology of EQUATOR: a local
component of the magnetic field; b apparent resistivity at a time gate 5 mcs; c digital elevation
model; d map of radiogeochemical specialization classes for K-Th; e geological map; f varieties of
granites from the interpretation of airborne geophysical data
390 Yu. G. Podmogov et al.

Table 46.1 Physical properties of different types of granites

N Pattern K_Th dTloc qk (X m) K (%) Th (ppm) Characteristic of
class (nT) granite massive
1 22–24 0–4 500–700 0.2–0.4 3.6–17.1 Low-radioactive
granites,
characterized by low
potassium content,
relatively low
resistivity.
2 53–54 0–4 700–2500 2.0–2.15 11.2–16.4 Radioactive granites,
high potassium
content and medium
thorium content, high
resistivity.
3 33–35 0–4 300–600 0.86–0.91 10.9–24.2 Leucogranites, the
content of potassium
is below average, the
content of thorium is
medium, conductive.
4 63–65 0–4 1300–2500 3.6–3.9 10.4–24.3 Highly radioactive
potassium granites,
high content of
potassium and
thorium, high
resistivity.

independent random variables. Each map was represented in the form of

“stable-homogeneous” areas. The belonging of regions to different general popu-
lations was determined by the known rules of mathematical statistics. After this,
algebraic intersections of maps of the domains K and Th were formed. As a result,
stable areas of joint distribution of these elements were obtained. In general, the
outer boundaries of granite massifs are in good agreement with the geological
map. According to airborne geophysical data, it was possible to clarify their internal
structure and distinguish four different types of granitoids (Table 46.1).

Results of Airborne Geophysical Survey at a Scale

of 1:10,000

The work was carried out with the aim of detailing high-intensity linear magnetic
anomalies and accompanying high-conductivity zones, revealed by the results of
airborne geophysical survey at a scale of 1: 50,000. Detailed studies allowed to
determine the shape, dimensions, and epicenters of magnetic anomalies (Fig. 46.3).
A rapid assessment of the depths to the upper edge of the magnetic objects was
performed. Objects with a minimum depth were selected for further study.
46 Results of the Complex Airborne Geophysical Survey … 391

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

The axes of local linear anomalies: magnetic: a _ positive, b _ negative; c –

conductive.
The contours of local magnetic anomalies and their epicenters:
a _ positive, b _ negative

Fig. 46.3 Example of infill survey at a scale of 1: 10,000: a magnetic field reduced to the pole;
b local component of the anomaly magnetic field; c apparent resistivity map at a gate of 5 ls;
d map of apparent resistances for a window of 1000 ls; e fragment of the geological map

All picked up magnetic anomalies are situated in linear zones. They are
accompanied by an increased density of lineaments which were picked up along the
axes of linear magnetic and electrical anomalies, as well as relief forms.
Apparent resistivity maps show rocks with anomalously high resistivity (1000–
10,000 X m). They correspond to quartzites. Rocks with medium resistivity are
typical for metamorphic shales. Anomalously conductive zone (20–250 X m) with
substantial vertical thickness (more than 100 m) is very interesting. Its conductivity
sharply increases with depth. There is a magnetic anomaly in that zone. Such
low-resistivity zones do not always coincide with depressive forms of relief and are
most likely associated with the intrusion of igneous rocks of a younger age. Within
the infill area, low-resistivity anomalies with limited vertical thickness (up to 30 m)
are also fixed. We associate them with the weathering crust.
392 Yu. G. Podmogov et al.

Fig. 46.4 Results of airborne geophysical survey at a scale of 1: 25,000. a an anomaly magnetic
field map reduced to the pole; b local part of anomaly magnetic field map; c apparent resistivity
map for depth interval 0–30 m; d a map of the difference of the normalized concentrations of
Th-K; e a map of the digital elevation model; f a fragment of the geological map
46 Results of the Complex Airborne Geophysical Survey … 393

Results of Airborne Geophysical Survey at a Scale

of 1:25,000

The area (Fig. 46.4) is situated in the field of shale development and granite-gneiss
rock formation. The basic tectonic faults have a meridional strike, and orthogonal to
them—sublatitudinal. This is also emphasized by modern hydro-network and relief.
A large number of ore occurrences of cassiterite, wolframite and coltan are con-
centrated to the south of the infill block.
We have identified a number of intense anomalous objects in various geo-
physical fields. They are not reflected in the modern geological map. They represent
a significant search interest.
Intrusions of ore pegmatites are distinguished by weakly-medium intensive (20–
100 nT) isometric magnetic anomalies with dimensions of 300–500 m. It has been
established on known objects. Pegmatite bodies are usually characterized by high
resistivity of 900–2000 X m. Unfortunately, they do not create contrast anomalies
with host rocks.
It is interesting that the revealed magnetic anomalies have different radiogeo-
chemical specialization. There are individual objects with a dominant potassium or
thorium, as well as a general increase in radioactivity.
A number of intense linear magnetic anomalies of the meridional orientation are
revealed. They are accompanied by linear conduction zones. Probably, magnetic
anomalies are associated with dikes of amphibolites, and conduction zones with
sulphide mineralization. These bodies are absent on the geological map and rep-
resent a certain search interest.

Conclusions

Survey at a scale of 1:50,000 allowed:

• to significantly clarify information about the geological structure of the territory;
• to classify granite massifs;
• to pick up linear and isometric intrusions of the basic and ultrabasic
composition;
• to pick up laterite weathering crusts of bauxite and (or) rare-earth types.
Different geochemical specialization of young volcanogenic formations in the
north-west of the territory was revealed. 35 perspective targets perspective for
various minerals have been identified.
Infill survey at a scale of 1:10,000–1:25,000 allowed to identify contours, shape,
size and position of the epicenters of local geophysical anomalies and their radio-
geochemical specialization. Local anomalies are also highlighted which associated
with intrusions of mafic rocks, promising for sulfide, copper-nickel mineralization.
Infill survey results allow to reduce volume of ground geophysical and drilling
operations.
394 Yu. G. Podmogov et al.

References

Babayants P.S., Tararuhina N.M., (2009). Principles of the modern interpretation technology of
complex airborne geophysics data in a broader development of trap rocks. Modern airborne
geophysical methods and technologies. vol. 1 issue 1, p. 71–110 (in Russian).
Babayants P.S., Kertzman V.M., Levin F.D., Trusov A.A. (2015). Principles of modern airborne
gamma-ray spectrometry. Exploration and conservation of mineral resources. p. 11–16
(in Russian).
Felix, J.T., Karshakov, E.V., Melnikov, P.V., and Vanchugov, V.A. (2014). Data comparison
results for airborne and ground electromagnetic systems used for kimberlites exploration in the
Republic of Angola: Geophysika, 4, 17–22 (in Russian).
Karshakov, E.V., Podmogov, Yu. G., Kertsman, V.M., Moilanen J. (2017). Combined Frequency
Domain and Time Domain Airborne Data for Environmental and Engineering Challenges.
Journal of Environmental & Engineering Geophysics, Allen Press, Inc. 22(1):1.
Chapter 47
The Forecast of the Structural Surfaces
Along the Top of the Pre-Jurassic Base
on the Gravitational Field
and the Evaluation of Productivity
in the Poorly Studied Regions
of Western Siberia at Various Stages
of Work

N. N. Yaitskii, I. I. Khaliulin and M. V. Melnikova

Abstract The principal possibility and necessity of using the method of correlation
separation of the gravitational field for the prediction of the structural plan of the
foundation roof in poorly studied territories. Based on the results of the studies
conducted in the poorly studied areas of Western Siberia, promising areas were
identified, within which the subsequent drilling operations opened hydrocarbon
deposits and proved the prospects of new areas. The further use of the similar
studies allows us to hope for the discovery of new oil and gas fields in poorly
studied areas of the AP.

Keywords Gravity prospecting Magnetic prospecting
Integration of geo-


physical methods Seismic survey

The Method of Predict Structural Plans for Potential Fields

A full cycle of the geological research, with the aim of forecasting and searching the
hydrocarbon fields, is conventionally divided into two main stages in any territory:
regional—the study of the general features of the structure of the study area in order
to elucidate its potential oil and gas content and detailed—the research and study of
specific hydrocarbon deposits).
The structural bases within Western Siberia in recent years are mainly based on a
seismic data based on drilling results, but in the poorly explored areas other

N. N. Yaitskii (&)
I. I. Khaliulin
M. V. Melnikova

Gazprom Geologorazvedka”, Tyumen, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 395

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_47
396 N. N. Yaitskii et al.

approaches should be used to forecast the structural plan. The best way out in such
conditions for the construction of the structural surfaces is to use the gravitational
and magnetic fields in combination with the available data of exploratory drilling
and regional seismic exploration.
There are various methods for forecasting structural plans for potential fields
(Berezkin 2002; Kosarev and Gerasimova 2000; Segal et al. 1996, Smirnov 1970,
Shraybman et al. 1977, 1980, 1984; Shchekin et al. 1998). The use of data on
potential fields for forecasting the structural plan has been practiced since the
middle of the last century using various methods. In general, this is the research of
Berezkin (2002), (Shraybman et al. 1977, 1980, 1984) etc. For Western Siberia—
the work of Smirnov(1970) (60s), (Kosarev and Gerasimova 2000), S.N. Pianov
(Segal et al. 1996); (Shchekin et al. 1998) (in recent decades).
The authors used the correlation field separation method (KOMR) to solve the
structural geological problems, using gravimetric data. This method makes it pos-
sible to extract a local component in the gravitational field, that is most correlated
with a given geological surface and then use it to construct the predictive structural
maps. The direct calculations of the structural surfaces were performed by using the
program “Correlation method of prediction” of various versions and modifications
(author—S. N. Pianov), where the algorithms of correlation and correlation inter-
polation methods for separating fields within a sliding window of variable size are
realized. These algorithms are a further development of the method COMR
(Shraybman et al. 1977, 1980, 1984).
The authors of this paper have a positive experience of applying the KOMR
method for constructing predictive structural maps in Western Siberia (Segal et al.
1996; Yaitskiy and Segal 2006; Yaitskiy 2010). The authors developed a scheme
for predicting the structural surfaces of the roof of the pre-Jurassic basement and the
bottoms of the platform cover using this technique, and also using them to identify
promising areas for industrial hydrocarbon deposits (Fig. 47.1).
From the end of the last century to the present time, a number of predictive
structural maps for the roof of the pre-Jurassic basement in poorly studied regions
of Western Siberia (the Urals part of the AP, the Priobskaya zone of the
Yamal-Nenets Autonomous District, the Yamal Peninsula region, the eastern part of
the AP, etc.) were built by the authors on this method. In some areas, the subse-
quent seismic and the exploratory drilling operations in general, the structural trend
and the prospects of these sites on industrial hydrocarbon deposits were confirmed
(Gemini and Menshikov 2002; Yaitskiy and Segal 2006; Yaitskiy 2010). At one of
the sites identified by the authors, as a promising openly commercial oil and gas
field. Earlier (Yaitskiy 2010), the authors predicted a promising site in the region of
this hydrocarbon field based on the results of the regional structural construction. At
present, in the area of the open field of hydrocarbons, a forecast was made for the
productivity of sediments in two stages. From the beginning, the structural plan was
refined by the method of correlation separation of the gravitational field. Taking
into account the new borehole data and using new parameters of the sliding win-
dow, more detailed structural constructions of the pre-Jurassic foundation were
carried out (Fig. 47.2).
47 The Forecast of the Structural Surfaces Along the Top … 397

Selection of parameters of the gravity field grid,

window parameters, number of control points in the window.

Selection of parameters of the gravity field grid,

window parameters, number of control points in the window.

Forecast of the structural plan for the roof of the basement

and the bottom of the platform cover

Allocation of sites for setting

detailed seismic works
and support drilling

Fig. 47.1 The scheme for predicting the structural surfaces of the roof of the pre-Jurassic
basement and the bottoms of the platform cover using the KOMR

The Method Predict Areas Promising for the Accumulation

of Hydrocarbon Deposits

In the second stage, the “Pangea® IP” was used to identify the areas promising for
the accumulation of hydrocarbon deposits. For the potential fields, as well as using
the new structural constructions on the foundation, forecasting of the areas of the
most probable presence of hydrocarbon raw materials was made (Fig. 47.3).
The forecast was based on the theory of regression analysis of predicted
parameters from wells-standards to the adjacent area. The more detailed structural
constructions and the forecast of productivity made on its basis, allow to count on
similar industrial deposits of oil and gas in the given area.
The forecasting of oil and gas potential at the regional stage of works for the
purpose of zoning of the poorly studied lands according to the degree of their
398 N. N. Yaitskii et al.

New open hydrocarbon deposit

Fig. 47.2 The predict structural surfaces of the roof of the pre-Jurassic basement in the area of the
open field of hydrocarbons on the gravitational field using the KOMR

prospects allows concentrating further work in the most important areas, signifi-
cantly shortening the time for identifying priority sites for setting prospecting
operations, and improving the reliability of the forecast of oil and gas potential.

The Conclusions

In the course of the research carried out by the authors of many years of research:
1. The principal possibility and necessity of using the method of correlation sep-
aration of the gravitational field for the prediction of the structural plan of the
foundation roof in poorly studied territories.
47 The Forecast of the Structural Surfaces Along the Top … 399

New open hydrocarbon deposit

Fig. 47.3 Forecasting of the areas of the most probable presence of hydrocarbon raw materials
was made

2. Based on the results of the studies conducted in the poorly studied areas of
Western Siberia, promising areas were identified, within which the subsequent
drilling operations opened hydrocarbon deposits and proved the prospects of
new areas.
3. The further use of the similar studies allows us to hope for the discovery of new
oil and gas fields in poorly studied areas of the AP.
400 N. N. Yaitskii et al.

References

Berezkin V.M. (2002) The full gradient for geophizical work – M: Nedra, 1988. – 188 c.
Gemini MT, Menshikov Yu.P. ``Bright spot'' in the Lower Cretaceous deposits of the Shaim oil
and gas bearing region of Western Siberia ``Geophysics No. 4, 2002 M.
Kosarev I.V., Gerasimova E.V. (2000) Integration of geological and geophysical information and
data on the morphology of the modern relief with the purpose of forecasting buried uplifts // Sb.
“Geology, drilling, development and operation of gas and gas condensate fields”. The gas
industry, No. 5, M., 2000. p. 3-6.
Segal Yu.Z., Yaitskiy N.N., Pyanov S.N. (1996) “Local forecast of hydrocarbon deposits in poorly
studied regions” Geophysics No. 2 for 1996.
Smirnov V.G. (1970) Anomalies of gravitational and magnetic fields as search criteria for the
structures of the cover of the West Siberian plate within the boundaries of the Tyumen region).
- Tyumen, ZapSibNIGNI, 1970. P. 3–10.
Shraybman V.I., Zhdanov M.S., Vitvitsky O.V. (1977) Correlation methods of transformation and
interpretation of geophysical anomalies. M., Nedra, 1977.
Shraybman V.I., Zhdanov M.S., Vitvitsky O.V. (1980) Complex interpretation of field geophysics
data, based on correlation transformations. - Geology of oil and gas, 1980, №7.
Shraybman V.I., Fuchs I.B., Vitvitsky O.V., Titkova N.G. (1984) Study of the geological structure
of the southern part of the Siberian platform by correlation methods. - Geology of oil and gas,
1984, №3.
Shchekin S.N., Nezhdanov A.A., Turenkov N.A., Mikolaevsky E.Yu. (1998) “New methods for
integrating geophysical methods in the Pangea system for forecasting oil and gas potential”
Geophysics No. 6, 1998.
Yaitskiy N.N., Segal Yu.Z. (2006) “Efficiency of joint interpretation of geological and geophysical
information in poorly explored areas” Geophysics No. 1, 2006.
Yaitskiy N.N. (2010) Forecast of the structural plan of the roof of the pre-Jurassic base in the Urals
part of the AP on the gravitational field and the assessment of the prospects of oil and gas
bearing on its basis // Tyumen, Gornye Vedomosti, 2010. №7. Pp. 52–59.
Chapter 48
Well Logging During the Processes
of Field Development of Native Bitumen
and Super-Viscous Oil Deposits

S. I. Petrov, R. Z. Mukhametshin, A. S. Borisov and M. Y. Borovsky

Abstract The article proposed to use the cross-well tomography to improve the
efficiency of the bitumen deposits development and to obtain reliable information
about the features of the geological structure and, consequently, for the optimal
choice of sites for well testing and operations. Also proposed to use well logging
techniques for investigating of the Permian hydrocarbons deposits in the deep
wells. We consider the complex of well logs applied to the specific features of these
wells. Noted that the design used in the Permian deposits has a critical diameter
(0.4 m) for well logging and it is recommended to drill the first part of the well with
a smaller diameter (not exceed 8.5′′). More intensive introduction of “new” well
logs, tested and successfully applied in the study of traditional oils (gamma spec-
trometry, C/O logging, VIKIZ, dielectric scanner and others) is needed.

Keywords Well logging
Native bitumen
Super-viscous oils

The main objects of bitumen-field development in Tatarstan region are reservoirs of

the bedding of ufimian sand pack occurring at a depth of 150–200 m. The standard
suite of well logging methods is currently being used to study native bitumen
(NB) or super-viscous oils (SVO) deposits in terrigenous sediments of permian
system, that is to solve the following common tasks of well logs (Khisamov et al.
2007; Petrov 2014; Abdullin and Rakhmatullina 2012): (a) separation of layers and
estimation of reservoir properties—porosity factor (PF) and shale volume (Vsh);
(b) evaluation of bitumen saturation factor.
As the analysis of similar investigations shows, there is no clear-cut solution of
this problem. Consequently, the problem of increase of the efficiency of well
logging for native bitumen and high-viscosity oil arises. It should be noted, unlike

S. I. Petrov (&)
R. Z. Mukhametshin
A. S. Borisov

Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Y. Borovsky
Geophysservic Ltd, Kazan, Russia

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 401

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_48
402 S. I. Petrov et al.

conventional hydrocarbon accumulations, NB and HVO deposits have some

specific characteristics:
– the boundary surface between bitumen and water-saturated sandstones is rough
and heterogeneous (Borovskiy et al. 2000);
– the content in the porous space of free water capable to migration, along with
bitumen and bound water;
– the presence of water-saturated lenses as well as free of bitumen interlayers in the
productive part of the profile which, according to V. N. Napalkov, I. M. Klimushin
et al. mainly accounts for the water encroachment in the bitumen well stream.
Low salinity and some variability in chemical composition (Table 48.1) and
various resistivity of intracounter formation waters of NB (HVO) deposits introduce
complementary errors in evaluation of saturation in the productive layer.
Geophysical service companies are currently bringing into use new techniques of
well-logging and integrating modern equipment. As it is known, in early stages of
choice of rational well-logging complex for native bitumen electromagnetic propa-
gation log (EMPL) was tested to identify oil-bitumen saturation factor. The results of
field trials on the territory of the republic of Tatarstan are indicative of rather high
efficiency of the given technique. Afterwards, due to missing of production equip-
ment, EMPL was no longer used in standard complex. At the same time, many
well-log analysts (Kozhevnikov et al. 2001) find the application of EMPL desirable for

Table 48.1 Salinity (S) and electrical resistivity of intracounter water (Rw) within the sandstone
pack P1n
Deposit, area S, g/dm3 Rw, X m Composition of water NB
from— average (HVO) deposits
to
Averyanovskoye 4.4–4.96 No data Sodium bicarbonate (sodic)
and calcium bicarbonate type
Ashalchinskoye 3.1–5.9 No data Sodium bicarbonate (sodic)
Chumachkinskoye 5.3–6.7 No data Sodium bicarbonate (sodic)
Kamenskoye 2.5–3.7 No data Sodium bicarbonate (sodic)
Karmalinskoye 2.7–5.0 No data Sodium sulfate
Melnichnoye 7.02 1.1 1.1 No data
Mordovo-Karmalskoye 1.02–4.9 2.2–7.0 1.9 Sodium bicarbonate (sodic)
Nizhne-Karmalskoye 2.04–7.8 1.05– 2.25 No data
3.6
Sarabikulovskaya 3.8 2.1 2.1 No data
Severo-Ashalchinskoye 2.5–4.1 No data Sodium bicarbonate (sodic)
Vostochno-Sheshminskoye 2.3–5.9 No data Sodium bicarbonate (sodic),
sodium sulfate
Yuzhno-Ashalchinskoye 2.9–7.4 1.1–2.6 1.4 No data
48 Well Logging During the Processes of Field Development … 403

thorough watercut interval-boundary resolution and enhancement of accuracy of

bitumen saturation assessment for well-logging (under low bitumen saturation); but as
far as thin water-bearing interbed resolution in the productive layer of the reservoir
concerns, it is required to use microzonation data. The application of nuclear-physical
methods in modification of gamma-ray spectrometry GRL-S (Kozhevnikov et al.
2001; Borovskiy et al. 2007; Borovskiy et al. 2000) and carbon-oxygen logging C/O
(Akhmetov et al. 2013) also appears to be effective. The use of gamma-rays spectral
log makes it possible (even in limited scope in key wells) to enhance the accuracy of
quantitative identification of petrophysical properties of formations by specifying the
content of polymictic sandstones (Kozhevnikov et al. 2001).
The error of measuring of bitumen content value in the layer depends on (Petrov
and Abdullin 2016) the validity of porosity factor determined from well-logging data.
The porosity histogram according to well-logging data is often directly opposed to the
porosity histogram determined using core test. Logging data indicates porosity index
increase in low and medium porous layers and, on the contrary, decrease in high
porosity reservoirs is noted. The similar pattern can be seen while comparing the
distribution of the values of bitumen content ratio. It has been shown (Abdullin and
Rakhmatullina 2012, Petrov and Abdullin 2016) that the essential part of the reservoir
according to well-logging data has more than 56% bitumen content, but according to
laboratory data the main masses of the same layers are characterized by less than 44%
bitumen content ratio. Decrease of porosity value by WL data is likely to affect the
calculations of bitumen content ratio value by WL. Inaccuracy in assessment of
porosity factor (PF) and resistivity of formation water (Rw) lead to obtaining inade-
quate values of bitumen content ratio in the reservoir. Gamma-ray spectrometry
(GRL-S) data make it possible to do reliable calculations of effective porosity of the
layer that estimate thorium (Th) and potassium (P) content; this enables to measure the
quantity of hydromica concentration in matrix of reservoir rock (Table 48.1).
Foreign service companies often use Pickette plott to evaluate the resistivity of
formation water (Rw) which is based on Archei algorithm. In this case we need
porosity and electrical resistivity data for estimation of resistivity of brine water.
Using the plot for water-bearing interval (if there is any) electrometry readings are
taken and porosity is calculated. Pickette plot is also needed to evaluate readings of
R of formation water.
Figure 48.1 presents the results of well-logging interpretation from well No.433
of Bolshekamensky upheaval of native bitumen deposits of RT. The left illustration
shows the standard suite data (SPL, GRL, CALI, RL) within the interval of
Sheshminsky horizon. The next track indicates core and neutron log-derived
reservoir parameters with the account of clay content. In the figure we can observe
the coincidence of estimated value on log and core based porosity. The fourth track
gives the evaluation of bitumen saturation ratio (Sb_ZAK) by Rw 2.0 X m (as
established by interpretation model) and bitumen saturation ratio (Sb_cor) calculated
by Rw equal to 3.9 determined using Pickette plot. The given bitumen saturation is
somewhat lower than Sb stand, but practically coincides with core samples
404 S. I. Petrov et al.

saturation. Consequently, we can come to the conclusion that undercount of the

degree of porous water salinity substantially distorts the results of standard WL
interpretation of bitumen content estimation.
Salinity assessment of intracounter waters in different deposits or in some of
their parts has a significance while determining their conservation (degree of dis-
integration). In this connection, occurrence of low-salinity water of sodic compo-
sition with the degree of 1.02 g/dm3 salinity in the region of well 4 of Mordovo-
Karmalskoye field is accounted for by the destruction of the deposit, which also
validates high content of hydrogen sulphide (Khisamov 2016). Hydro-chemical
anomalies can reflect fractured caprock, that is necessary to take into account in
choosing thermo-chemical methods of impact (Mukhametshin and Punanova
2012).
In order to enhance the efficiency of bitumen deposits development works in the
RT and to obtain the relevant information on the characteristics of the geological
feature, and, as a result, to make an optimal choice of the objects to be tested and
operated we suggest that interwell tomography seismic data be used. Sample data in
conditions of oil and gas field in Bashkortostan and abroad indicate a high potential
of method of Tatarstan super-viscous oil field structure investigation and the
reserves recovery control. The work (Borovskiy et al. 2007) presents a program of

Fig. 48.1 Comparison of Sb determined by standard technologies of well-logging interpretation

using Pickette plot with the results of the laboratory core research (well 433, Bolshekamensky
upheaval) (according to figures from TNG-Group Co)
48 Well Logging During the Processes of Field Development … 405

assessment of cross-hole tomography capability to reveal “delicate” geological

aspects of native bitumen and super-viscous oil deposits. Investigation methodol-
ogy includes:
• carrying out of field interwell observation on the field test site;
• processing of experimental investigation materials using interwell seismic
tomography method;
• geological interpretation of data received (interpretation in conjunction with
well log data);
• formulation of recommendations of cross-hole tomography method application
for revealing of structural features of native bitumen accumulations in natural
conditions and in case of thermal bed stimulation (applicability of cross-hole
tomography is essentially increased when SAGD technology is applied while
using super-viscous oil deposits in operation).
The problem of recovery of hydrocarbon feedstock reserves includes the search
of additional sources of information about availability of super-viscous oil accu-
mulations in the near-surface geological section of the perspective territories. An
option of hydrocarbons search in the upper stages of geological cross section was
proposed by Akhmadishin et al.(2014) during the drilling of deep wells. A suite 7of
well logging methods has been reviewed with respect to specific features of the
design of such wells. It is noted that the design applied in the intervals of Permian
deposits provides for use of a drill steel guide, which has a critical diameter of
0.4 m for geophysical well logging. According to company TNG-Group data the
standard suite of well logging methods ensures the radial depth of investigation less
than 0.5 m (Akhmadishin et al.2014).
An example of geophysical well logging of Permian deposits at the raising
“Odinochnoye” of Sokolkinskiy field is given in the report. In the exploratory well
1057, in the interval of 0–310 m, the logging of well was performed at the scale of
1:200 before running in hole of 13′′ drill steel guide, using the following methods:
inclinometry, GRL, NNL, SPL, LL, IEL, ASL, CL, RL, resistivimetry and NML.
Based on well logging data terrigenous and carbonate reservoirs have been iden-
tified and their petrophysical characterstics have been determined. It is indicated
that the above set of methods is insufficient for identification of hydrocarbon
(HC) saturated intervals. To determine oil and gas saturation factor it is necessary to
complement the well logging suite with the following methods: gamma ray spec-
trometry logging (GRL-S), gamma-gamma density logging (DL), carbon-oxygen
logging (COL). At the same time it is noted that the proposed geophysical methods
have small radial depth of logging. In the interval of Permian deposits it is sug-
gested to drill with the drill bit of 8.5′′, to apply a complemented suite of well
logging with the subsequent reaming of the diameter of the well bore with the drill
bit of 15.5′′ and case the well with a drill guide (12.75′′) for continuation of drilling
in the sublayers. Thus, it will be possible to obtain important information about
saturation of Permian deposits with hydrocarbons and determine reservoir proper-
ties of identified intervals.
406 S. I. Petrov et al.

Monitoring of development of native bitumen and super-viscous oil deposits is of

importance currently. It is essential to determine the character of the current and
residual bitumen saturation of productive reservoirs. In order to solve this problem,
importance is being increasingly attached to PNGL-S method and its modification—
carbon/oxygen logging (C/O logging) (Akhmetov et al. 2013). Separation of
developed terrigenous reservoirs into oil saturated and water-encroached types is the
main common task of carbon/oxygen logging. To specify the possibility of quan-
titative determination of terrigenous reservoir bitumen saturation factor, a test survey
was carried out by OOO TNG Group for pilot testing of suite of nuclear-physical
methods, including C/O and GRL-S logging at the well of Mordovo-Karmalskiy
region. Experience of application and the results of C/O logging, new for bitumen
saturated terrigenous reservoirs, show a principal possibility of quantitative deter-
mination of current bitumen content.
According to geophysical well logging data an algorithm of isolation of gas
bearing formation can also be referred to modern geophysical technologies. During
well construction identification of gas accumulations in Permian deposits, as well as
their predicting, help to anticipate and prevent unforeseen consequences from the
point of view of both negative impact on environment and safety engineering.
Critical values of NL and GGL readings at which gas bearing rocks are identified
have been determined for Permian deposits of Tatarstan. Gas saturated intervals in
the terrigenous part of Permian deposits are clearly identified at NL readings of
higher than 1.4 relative units and in the carbonate part—of higher than 2.4 relative
units, while GGL readings should be higher than 5 relative units. These digital
criteria are correct at full dissipation of mud-filtrate penetration area. The analysis of
geophysical well logging data, based on a wide range selection of wells of
Novo-Yelhovskiy, Arkhangelskiy and other fields, allowed to identify the presence
of multiple gas bearing beds in the productive interval of Ufimian age Permian
deposits.

Conclusions

The following three ways of increasing the efficiency of geophysical well logging
for native bitumen (super-viscous oil) on the territory of Tatarstan Republic have
been specified:
• successful approbation and large scale implementation of the modern technol-
ogy of interwell seismic tomography will allow to increase the efficiency of
geological exploration works both at preparation stage and during the processes
of development of native bitumen (super-viscous oil) deposits;
• development of rational suite of well logging methods for obtaining important
information under different mining technological conditions (deep drilling
wells);
48 Well Logging During the Processes of Field Development … 407

• implementation of geophysical well logging methods appraised at a small

number of prototype objects and successfully applied for study of conventional
oils (gamma spectrometry, C/O logging, high frequency induction logging with
isoparametric sounding (HFL), electromagnetic propagation log (EMPL) etc.)

References

Abdullin R.N., Rakhmatullina A.R. (2012). New technology of determining reservoir properties
and bitumen saturated factor of Ufimian age terrigeneous deposits // High viscosity oils and
native bitumen: problems and increase of efficiency of exploration and development of fields.
International Research and Practice Conference. – Kazan: Fen Publ., pp. 35–37.
Akhmadishin F.F., Suleymanov A.Y., Musayev G.L. (2014). Prospecting for high viscosity oils in
the Permian deposits at deep well drilling // The book of scientific works of TatNIPIneft,
publication, No. 82. – Moscow : OAO VNIIOENG, pp. 240–242.
Detailed elaboration of geological structure of bitumen deposits (2007) // Current problems
of petroleum geology: International Research and Practice Conference / M.Y. Borovskiy,
A.G. Bolgarov, I.N. Faizullin et.al. – St. Petersburg : VNIGRI, pp. 301–304.
Gamma spectrometry in the suite of well logging methods for study of bitumen deposits of
Tatarstan (2001) / D.A. Kozhevnikov, N.E. Lazutkina, G.A. Petrov et al. // Geofisika, No. 4,
pp. 82–86.
Geophysical methods of preparation and monitoring of operation processes of native bitumen
deposits (2000) / M.Y. Borovskiy, E.K. Shvydkin, R.Z. Mukhametshin et al.; under the
editorship of R.Z. Mukhametshin. – Moscow : Geos, 170 p.
Hydrogeological conditions of heavy high viscosity oils and bitumen fields (2016) / R.S. Khisamov,
R.N. Gatiyatullin, R.L. Ibragimov et.al.; under the editorship of R.S. Khisamov. – Kazan : Ihlas,
176 p.
Khisamov R.S., Borovskiy M.Y., Gatiyatullin N.S. (2007). Geophysical methods of exploration
and prospecting for native bitumen deposits in the Republic of Tatartsan. – Kazan : Fen, 247 p.
Mukhametshin R.Z., Punanova S.A. (2012). Non-traditional sources of hydrocarbon raw material:
geochemical features and aspects of development // Neftyanoe khozyaystvo – Oil Industry,
No. 3, pp. 28–32.
Petrov S.I. (2014). Current status and perspectives of studying Permian bitumen in Tatartstan
applying well logging techniques // Hard to recover and non-conventional hydrocarbon
reserves: experience and prediction: International Research and Practice Conference. – Kazan :
Fen Publ., pp. 313–316.
Petrov S.I., Abdullin R.N. (2016). Determination of oil/bitumen saturation of Ufimian age
sanstone series based on well logging data under the conditions of variable salinity of brine
water. Innovations in exploration and development of oil and gas fieds: proceedings of
V.D. Shahin Int. Research and Practice Conference. – Kazan : Ihlas, vol. 2. pp. 208–211.
The specifics of interpretation and perspectives of application of nuclear-physical suite of well
logging methods for native bitumen and high viscosity oil deposits of the republic of Tatarstan
(2013) / B.F. Akhmetov, V.V. Bazhenov, L.I. Limonova, D.R. Abdullina // Geophysical,
geochemical, and petrophysical investigations and geologic modelling for exploration and
production monitoring of oil and gas fields: reports of Int. Research and Practice Conference
(1–4 of October, 2013, Bugulma). – Moscow : VNIIgeosystem, pp. 29–36.
Chapter 49
Preliminary Results of a Satellite Image
Frequency-Resonance Processing
of the Gas Hydrate Location Area
in the South China Sea

S. Levashov, N. Yakymchuk, I. Korchagin and D. Bozhezha

Abstract The experimental studies with the frequency-resonance method of

satellite images processing using were carried out on a local site in the South China
Sea, studied by a 3D seismic survey and drilling, where gas hydrates were suc-
cessfully extracted by Chinese oilmen. In the area of the drilled wells that opened
the gas hydrates, the resonant frequencies of the gas hydrates were refined, with
which further investigation was conducted. At the specified resonant frequency, two
anomalous zones “Gas-hydrate-1” and “Gas-hydrate-2” were detected and mapped
on the entire image area. These anomalies are located within the BSR zones,
identified by 3D seismic data, and are significantly smaller in area. At resonance
frequencies of gas, four anomalous zones of the “gas reservoir” type have been
mapped over the entire area of the image: Gas-1, Gas-2, Gas-3 and Gas-4. Within
all these anomalies the reservoir pressure intervals were estimated: (1) 19.8–
21.0 MPa; (2) 21.0–21.5 MPa; (3) 21.0–21.5 MPa; (4) 21.2–21.5 MPa. In the
contours of “Gas-hydrate-1” and “Gas-hydrate-2” anomalies, anomalous responses
at the resonance frequencies of gas were not fixed. It can be concluded that there are
no sub-hydrate deposits of gas here. Within the surveyed area, anomalous zones at
resonant frequencies of oil were not detected. In the Gas-2 anomaly contour a
channel for deep fluids vertical migration was revealed and localized—a small local
area with very high reservoir pressure values of 67 MPa. There are good reasons to
state that the obtained results are a significant addition to the data of earlier studies
on this local site.

S. Levashov
N. Yakymchuk
D. Bozhezha

Institute of Applied Problems of Ecology, Geophysics and Geochemistry,
Kiev, Ukraine
e-mail: [email protected]
I. Korchagin (&)
Institute of Geophysics, NAS Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 409

D. Nurgaliev and N. Khairullina (eds.), Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Geological
Interpretation of Gravitational, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Springer Proceedings in
Earth and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97670-9_49
410 S. Levashov et al.

Introduction

In May 2017, the information (data) about the successful extraction of gas hydrates
in the South China Sea by Chinese oilman’s appeared in the mass media (Internet
sites including) (On the eve…, 2017). This event caused a wide resonance in the
world. It was estimated by some sources as a revolution in the energy sector of the
world economy.
This event was not ignored by the authors of this paper. Our interest in this event
is due to the fact that for many years we have purposefully carried out experimental
studies, aimed at introducing mobile, low-cost and direct-prospecting methods into
oil and gas exploration (and gas hydrate, including). These methods were also used
to search for accumulations of gas hydrates in the Antarctic region during seasonal
work in Ukrainian Antarctic expeditions (Soloviev et al. 2017; Yakymchuk et al.
2015).
In this regard, the authors have the opportunity to promptly (operatively) con-
duct additional testing of the frequency-resonance method of satellite images pro-
cessing on a sufficiently well studied by 3D seismic survey and drilling site (area) of
a successful gas-hydrate production.

Object and Purposes of Research

Experimental studies using mobile and direct-prospecting technology were carried

out on a local site in the South China Sea, studied by a 3D seismic survey and
drilling, where gas hydrates were successfully extracted with technology using,
developed by Chinese specialists.
Additional approbation of the frequency-resonance method of processing and
interpretation (decoding) of remote sensing data of the Earth (satellite images) for
the purpose of detection and localization of hydrocarbon accumulation areas (oil,
gas, gas-condensate, gas hydrates) on onshore and on the offshore. Demonstration
on a specific example of the potential of this mobile, low-cost and
direct-prospecting technology in a thoroughly studied local area.

Method of Research

Mobile technology of frequency-resonance processing of remote sensing data

(Levashov et al. 2010; 2011; 2012) is widely used during the experimental studies
conducting of various kinds. The individual components of this technology have
been developed on the principles of “substance” (“matter”) paradigm of geophys-
ical research (Levashov et al. 2012), the essence of which is searching for a specific
(desired in each case) substances—oil, gas, gas condensate, gold, iron, water, etc.
49 Preliminary Results of a Satellite Image Frequency … 411

Distinctive features of the methods are described in many publications, including

those listed in the list of references (Levashov et al. 2010, 2011, 2012, 2016, 2017a;
2017b; Yakymchuk et al. 2015). Some information about this technology may be
found also at the site [http://www.geoprom.com.ua/index.php/ru/].
The search work by mobile methods can be carried out in three main stages
(Levashov et al. 2017a): (1) frequency-resonance analysis of satellite images of the
major search areas (blocks) in a relatively small scale (the study of reconnaissance
character); (2) a detailed frequency-resonance analysis of satellite images of certain
areas (site) of anomalous zones, allocated at the first stage (detailed work);
(3) geoelectric field work on the most promising local sites, allocated at the second
phase of the work (ground-based studies).
Processing of satellite images of search areas, taken from open access sources, is
carried out operatively in the laboratory. In this regard, this technology can be
considered as a super-operative.

Preliminary Research Results

In the course of the research, the materials, published in journal articles, were used
to study the area of 3D seismic prospecting and wells drilling (Su et al. 2016; Zheng
et al. 2011).
Thus, when preparing a satellite image of a site for processing, the information
(data) from (Zheng et al. 2011) were used: site coordinates, contours of the 3D
seismic survey area, location of the drilled wells, contours of the gas hydrate
reservoir (BSR zone), detected by seismic data.
The satellite image of the survey site was placed on a sheet of A3 format (an
element of the technological processing scheme) on a scale of 1: 70,000 (Fig. 49.1).
Some data from (Zheng et al. 2011) are shown on satellite image.
When carrying out the frequency-resonance processing of the prepared image,
materials from paper (Su et al. 2016) were used, including Fig. 49.2, which presents
more complete information (data) on the site structure, based on the results of the
studies. In particular, it shows another zone of gas hydrate location (BSR zone), as
well as the outlines of gas columns (pipes), detected by seismic study.
At the initial stage of the image processing, in the area of the drilled wells that
opened the gas hydrates, the resonant frequencies of the gas hydrates were deter-
mined (or, more accurately, refined), with which further detection and mapping of
anomalous zones of the “gas hydrate deposit” type was conducted. We note here
that the refined values of the resonant frequencies differ slightly from the fre-
quencies, which were used during the gas hydrate accumulation searching in the
Antarctic region (Soloviev et al. 2017; Yakymchuk et al. 2015).
At the specified resonant frequency, two anomalous zones of the “gas hydrate
deposit” type (“Gas-hydrate-1” and “Gas-hydrate-2”) were detected and mapped on
412 S. Levashov et al.

Fig. 49.1 Sketch-map of anomalous zones of the “gas” and “gas-hydrates” type on a satellite
image of the 3D seismic survey area in the South China Sea (based on the results of
frequency-resonance processing of a satellite image). Yellow circuit—gas hydrate zone according
to seismic data (BSRs zone); red dots—drilled wells; a small area (red color) in the Gas-2
anomalous zone is the vertical channel of deep fluids migration with a reservoir pressure of
67 MPa. Gas hydrates are found in drilled wells that enter the contour of the anomalous zone
“Gas-hydrate-1”

the entire area, shown in the image (including outside the 3D seismic study contour)
(Fig. 49.1 and Fig. 49.2). These anomalies are located within the BSR zones,
identified by 3D seismic data, and are significantly smaller in area.
49 Preliminary Results of a Satellite Image Frequency … 413

Fig. 49.2 Sketch-map of anomalous zones of the “gas” and “gas-hydrates” type superimposed on
figure with the results of the 3D seismic survey at the site (Su et al. 2016) in the South China Sea
(based on the results of frequency-resonance processing of a satellite image). Red dots—drilled
wells; a small area (red color) in the Gas-2 anomalous zone is the vertical channel of deep fluids
migration with a reservoir pressure of 67 MPa. Gas hydrates are found in drilled wells that enter
the contour of the anomalous zone “Gas-hydrate-1”

Let’s pay attention to the fact that wells, drilled on this local area, do not get into
the contours of the anomaly of “Gas-hydrate-2”.
In the next stage of studies on resonance frequencies of gas, four anomalous
zones of the “gas reservoir” type have been detected and mapped over the entire
area of the image: Gas-1, Gas-2, Gas-3 and Gas-4 (Fig. 49.1 and Fig. 49.2). In this
case, the Gas-3 anomalous zone was detected outside the 3D seismic survey area.
Within all the anomalous zones, the formation (reservoir) pressure intervals were
414 S. Levashov et al.

estimated: (1) 19.8–21.0 MPa; (2) 21.0–21.5 MPa; (3) 21.0–21.5 MPa; (4) 21.2–
21.5 MPa.
In the contours of the “Gas-hydrate-1” and “Gas-hydrate-2” anomalous zones,
anomalous responses at the resonance frequencies of the gas were not fixed. In this
connection, it can be concluded that there are no sub-hydrate deposits of gas
here.
Within the surveyed area, anomalous zones at resonant frequencies of oil were
not detected (satellite image processing was also performed with resonant fre-
quencies of oil using).
Additional studies in the contour of the Gas-2 anomalous zone revealed and
localized a channel for deep fluids vertical migration—a small local area with very
high reservoir pressure values of 67 MPa (Fig. 49.1 and Fig. 49.2).

Possible Additional Studies

A small volume of research using the frequency-resonance method of satellite

images processing was operatively (quickly) performed at the site of the survey.
The carried out researches can be classified as reconnaissance works of a demon-
stration character. The mobile method used allows the following additional work to
be carried out operatively.
1. In the contours of the detected “Gas-hydrate-1” and “Gas-hydrate-2” anomalous
zones, a geological cross-section can be scanned to estimate the depths and
thicknesses of anomalous polarized layers (APLs) of “gas-hydrate” type.
Scanning in a sufficient number of points along the area of anomalous zones will
allow to estimate the volumes of gas hydrate deposits, as well as the forecasted
gas resources in them.
2. Scanning of the geological cross-section within the anomalous zones of the
“gas” type will provide an opportunity to determine the volumes of the APLs of
“gas”type in each anomalous zone, and also to estimate the predicted gas
resources in the contours of the anomalous zones. In the process of scanning by
a detailed technique, the reservoir pressures in individual APLs of “gas” type as
well as porosity of reservoir can also be assessed.
3. In order to improve the accuracy of the results obtained, satellite images of the
locations of individual anomalous zones can be processed on a larger, detailed
scale. Other channels of deep fluids vertical migration can also be detected. To
this we should add that in Fig. 49.2, the contours of 13 gas columns (pipes),
detected by seismic data, are shown in the survey area.
When processing satellite images of individual sites of the survey area, the
anomalous zones of small dimensions can be detected also.
4. The ones shown in Fig. 49.2 gas columns (pipes), as well as the detected
channel of deep fluids vertical migration indicate at a deep source of gas. In the
49 Preliminary Results of a Satellite Image Frequency … 415

limits of the detected anomalous zones of the “gas” type, the reservoir pressures
in one interval of the cross-section were estimated. However, during the vertical
migration of gas, its accumulations can be formed in reservoirs, located in
different intervals of the cross-section. In this regard, in the contours of gas-type
anomalies, it is advisable to perform a procedure for estimating reservoir
pressures to a prior predetermined depth.

Conclusions

1. Investigations of reconnaissance character within the surveyed area in the South

China Sea were carried out quite operatively (in a very short time period). In
comparison with the time, spent on seismic studies conducting, these are dis-
parate values (quantities).
2. Taking into account the considerable volume of earlier conducted experimental
studies in different regions of the world, the authors have good reasons to state
that the obtained results are a significant addition to the materials of earlier
studies on this local site. Analysis of Fig. 49.2 allows us to conclude the
following:
(a) the contours of the anomalous zones of the “gas hydrate” type are refined
(localized); wells in which gas hydrates are found fall into the contours of
detected anomalies;
(b) four anomalous zones of the “gas” type were additionally identified and
mapped; by the total area, these zones are even larger than the area of anomalies
of the “gas hydrates” type; one anomalous zone of the “gas” type was detected
outside the site of seismic studies;
(c) the materials (data) of conducted research can be used to select the location of
production wells;
(d) the channel of deep fluids vertical migration is detected, which can be con-
sidered an important factor (element) for understanding the mechanisms of
formation of gas and gas hydrate accumulations.
3. The volume and quality (reliability) of the received information can be sig-
nificantly increased if more detailed studies with using the technology of
frequency-resonance processing of satellite images will be carried out within
the survey area.
4. In paper (Wu et al. 2008) there is a map of the location of BSR zones and sites
of wells drilling in the northern and western parts of the South China Sea. It is
possible to operatively assess the prospects for the detection of industrial
accumulations of gas hydrates and gas within these zones using the
frequency-resonance method of satellite images processing and decoding.
5. We also note that the authors carried out a large volume of experimental
research in the areas of the crystalline rocks distribution (the Ukrainian and
Baltic shields), in coal basins (Donbass, Kuzbass, England), in the areas of the
416 S. Levashov et al.

distribution of shales, dense sandstones and rocks of the Bazhenov suite. In

paper (Zou et al. 2013) there is a map of the location of unconventional oil and
gas resources on China onshore. The technology of frequency-resonance pro-
cessing of remote sensing data of the Earth (satellite images) can also be used
for operative detection and localization of “Sweet spots” zones in the areas of
distribution of unconventional collectors (hydrocarbons) in China.
6. The results of long-term application of direct-prospecting methods to search for
oil and gas accumulations have led the authors to the position of proponents of
deep (abiogenic) synthesis of hydrocarbons. This was repeatedly noted by us in
many published works. In articles and presentations, we also many times
referred to publications (Krayushkin, 1986 p. 582; Kutcherov and Krayushkin
2010, p. 5), in which the mechanism of hydrocarbon accumulations formation
is formulated in the following form: “… The formation of oil and gas deposits
occurs differently. Rising from sub-crustal layers abiogenically synthesized
oil and gas along the fault and its feathering fractures are “injected” under
tremendous pressure of mantle fireplace in any porous and permeable
environment, extending within it from the fault like a mushroom cloud. They
remain relatively fixed, not float in any anticline or syncline or in an inclined or
horizontal formation till the new portions of oil and gas not promoted their
deposit. This is indicated by experiments and practice of construction of
underground gas storage facilities in the horizontal and inclined water-saturated
layers of sand or sandstone”.
In the above reference, we draw attention to a fragment of the text “oil and gas
along the fault and its feathering fractures” are injected “under tremendous
pressure of mantle fireplace in any porous and permeable environment.” On
the area of the survey, the following facts may be indicative for the described
mechanism: (a) the presence of a significant number of faults, pockmarks and gas
columns (pipes), established by seismic studies; (b) channel of deep fluids vertical
migration, local area with very high reservoir pressure−67 MPa; c) anomalous
zones of the “gas” and “gas hydrates” type.
It follows from the described mechanism of hydrocarbon accumulations for-
mation that deposits of gas, oil, gas hydrates can be formed only in collectors
(porous and permeable rocks). The absence of a sub-hydrate gas in the contours of
anomalies of the “gas hydrates” type may be due to the fact that in this part of the
cross-section there are no reservoir (collectors) rocks. In this situation, gas into the
sub-hydrate rocks can not be “pumped” even under great pressure.
The research, operatively carried out by authors in 2016–2017 within many
areas (sites), located in different regions of the globe, have provided a considerable
amount of additional and independent information as of petroleum prospects of the
surveyed areas, so and of methodological features of practical application of mobile
and direct-prospecting technology for the specific prospecting tasks solving. To
carry out such volume of research in such a short time allows only the super-mobile
and super-operative frequency-resonance technology of RS data processing and
decoding. The above experimental results once again demonstrate the feasibility of
49 Preliminary Results of a Satellite Image Frequency … 417

this technology using in the search and exploration process. More active and
purposeful use of different technologies components to solve specific practical
problems will significantly speed up, streamline and reduce the cost of exploration
process for industrial (commercial) oil and gas accumulations prospecting and
exploration in reservoirs of traditional and non-traditional type. During the sharp
drop of oil prices in the world, this problem is extremely urgent.
Testing of advanced techniques and methodological procedures of remote
sensing data processing and interpretation (decoding) on the fields and promising
areas in different regions (onshore and offshore), and the received results provide
additional evidence (arguments) for the understanding of the oil and gas genesis and
the nature of their industrial accumulations formation. Thus, numerous data on the
existence within the surveyed areas of anomalous zones with multiple intervals of
reservoir pressure and of the vertical channels of deep fluid migration can be
considered as powerful arguments in favor of the endogenous (deep) origin of
hydrocarbons.
The results of numerous experimental studies in various regions indicate that the
use of mobile and operative methods of “direct” searching for hydrocarbon accu-
mulations in areas of non-conventional and conventional reservoirs spreading will
significantly increase drilling success rate (an increase in the number of wells with
commercial hydrocarbon inflows). The wells laying within areas of vertical chan-
nels of fluids migration location may lead to an increase in hydrocarbon inflows.
Proven direct-prospecting technology of remote sensing data
frequency-resonance processing is recommended to be used for the preliminary
assessment of petroleum potential of large by area (remote and inaccessible) poorly
studied blocks. Application of this technology can bring significant impact during
the search for commercial hydrocarbon accumulations in unconventional reservoirs
(including the areas of shale, rocks of the Bazhenov formation, coal-bearing for-
mations and crystalline rocks spreading). Mobile technology can also be success-
fully used during studies within the poorly studied areas and blocks in the known
oil and gas-bearing basins.

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