A Laboratory Manual for

Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics

(Professional Core Course)
(3140611)

Semester 4 (B.E. Civil Engineering)

Government Engineering College, Godhra

Directorate of Technical Education
Gandhinagar, Gujarat
 Government Engineering College, Godhra
[Directorate of Technical Education, Gandhinagar]

Certificate

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ___________________________________

________ Enrollment No. _______________ of B.E. Semester 4 Civil
Engineering of this Institute (GTU Code: _____ ) has satisfactorily
completed the Practical / Tutorial work for the subject Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulics (3140611) for the even term in academic year 2024-25.

Place: __________
Date: __________

Name and Sign of Faculty member ​​ ​

Head of the Department​

 Preface

The basic aim of laboratory/practical/field work is to enhance the required skills as well as
creating ability amongst students to solve real time problem by developing relevant
competencies in psychomotor domain. By keeping this in view, GTU has designed competency
focused outcome-based curriculum for engineering degree programs where sufficient focus is
given to the practical work. It shows importance of enhancement of skills amongst the students
and pays attention to utilize every second of time allotted for practical amongst students,
instructors and faculty members to achieve relevant outcomes by performing the experiments
rather than having merely study type experiments. It is must for effective implementation of
competency focused outcome-based curriculum that every practical is keenly designed to serve
as a tool to develop and enhance relevant competency required by the various industry among
every student. These psychomotor skills are very difficult to develop through traditional chalk
and board content delivery method in the classroom. Accordingly, this lab manual is designed to
focus on the industry defined relevant outcomes, rather than old practice of conducting practical
to prove concept and theory.

By using this lab manual students can go through the relevant theory and procedure in advance
before the actual performance which creates interest and students can have basic idea prior to
performance. This in turn enhances pre-determined outcomes amongst students. Each
experiment in this manual begins with industry relevant skills, course outcomes as well as
practical outcomes (objectives). The students will also achieve safety and necessary precautions
to be taken while performing practical.

This manual also provides guidelines to faculty members to facilitate student centric lab
activities through each experiment by arranging and managing necessary resources in order that
the students follow the procedures with required safety and necessary precautions to achieve the
outcomes. It also gives an idea that how students will be assessed by providing rubrics.

Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics is the subject of professional core course which deals to
develop a basic understanding about the properties of fluids, their behavior under static and
dynamic conditions. Also Fluid mechanics & Hydraulics enables the students to apply the basic
principles of Fluid Mechanics to solve real life problems. Students also studies about the flow
measuring devices, flow through pipes after getting an insight into fluid statics, dynamics and
kinematics.

Utmost care has been taken while preparing this lab manual however always there are chances
of improvement. Therefore, we welcome constructive suggestions and comments for
improvement and removal of errors if any from those who use it.

1
 Practical – Course Outcome matrix

Course Outcomes (COs):

CO.1: Analyze pressure and forces on floating bodies and understand fluids properties
and fluids in relative equilibrium.
CO.2: Calibrate and demonstrate fluid flow measuring devices like venturimeter,
orificemeter, notches, orifice, mouthpieces.
CO.3: Compute and Analyze fluid flow through pipes in series, parallel and pipe
networks under laminar and turbulent flow conditions
CO.4: Differentiate and analyze open channel flow and design optimal sections;
calculate forces on sluice gates considering specific energy and momentum
principle.
CO.5: Design and carry out model studies for fluid flow problems
Sr.
Objective(s) of Experiment CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5
No.
To Determine the Value of Viscosity of a Given
1. Fluid at Different Temperature by Redwood √
Viscometer/ Other viscometer
To Study Pressure Measuring Device and Find
2. √
Velocity in Pipe Using Pitot Tube.

3. To measure hydrostatic force and center of √

pressure on flat/curved surfaces.
To determine stability of floating body
4. √ √
(Metacentric Height Experiment).
To determine characteristics of Laminar and
5. Turbulent flows (To perform Reynolds √ √
experiment)
6. To verify and prove Bernoulli’s theorum. √
To determine hydraulic coefficients of a small
7. √ √
circular orifice
To Calibrate flow measuring devices
8. (Venturimeter, Orificemeter, Rectangular and √ √
V-notch)
9. To measure fluid resistance in pipes √ √ √
To perform the experiment on uniform open
10. channel and to the determine Rugosity coefficient √ √
for open channel.
To perform model studies, similitude and develop
11. a model/sketch for fluid flow in pipes, open √ √
channel and dimensional analysis.

2
Industry Relevant Skills

The following industry relevant competencies are expected to be developed in the student by
undertaking the practical work of this laboratory.
1.​ Collection of important data and specific information required to complete a construction
project in a best way.
2.​ Analysis of the data and preparing reports about the geotechnical conditions of a location.

Instructions for Students

1.​ Students are expected to carefully listen to all the theory classes delivered by the faculty
members and understand the COs, content of the course, teaching and examination scheme,
skill set to be developed etc.
2.​ Students shall organize the work in the group and make record of all observations.
3.​ Students shall develop maintenance skill as expected by industries.
4.​ Student shall attempt to develop related hand-on skills and build confidence.
5.​ Student shall develop the habits of evolving more ideas, innovations, skills etc. apart from
those included in scope of manual.
6.​ Student shall refer research papers, technical magazines and data books.
7.​ Student should develop a habit of submitting the experimentation work as per the schedule
and s/he should be well prepared for the same.

Common Safety Instructions

Follow the safety instructions displayed in the laboratory.

3
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS LABORATORY

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lab is to teach students, the knowledge of various flow
meters and the concept of fluid mechanics and hydraulics. This lab helps to gain knowledge on
characteristics of fluids, pressure measurement devices, model studies and open channel flow.
Students will compare the performance of various fluid based equipment’s and machines at
different operating points. This course will provide a basic understanding of flow measurements
using various types of flow measuring devices, calibration and losses associated with these
devices. Knowledge of Energy conversion principles, analysis and understanding will be
discussed.
OUTCOMES:

After completing this course the student must demonstrate the knowledge and ability to:

1.​ Determine how properties of fluids change with temperature & their effect on pressure &
fluid flow.

2.​ Understanding the relationship between pressure & elevation as it relates to manometers &
other pressure measuring devices.

3.​ Apply Newton’s law of viscosity and explain the mechanics of fluids at rest and in motion
by observing the fluid phenomena.

4.​ Analyze force of buoyancy on a partially or fully submerged body and analyze the stability
of a floating body.

5.​ Apply the principles of Euler's equation, Bernoulli's equation in measurement of discharge
in pipes, and in other pipe flow problems.

6.​ Computation of major & minor losses in laminar & turbulent flows.

7.​ To develop understanding for solving problems related to Uniform and Non Uniform open
channels flow with its application.

8.​ To design the models of Pipe flow and Open channel flow.

4
 Index
(Progressive Assessment Sheet)

Date Date Sign. of

Assessm
Sr. Page of of Profess Rema
Objective(s) of Experiment ent
No. No. perfor submis or with rks
Marks
mance sion date
To Determine the Value of Viscosity of a
1. Given Fluid at Different Temperature by
Redwood Viscometer/ any other viscometer
To Study Pressure Measuring Device and
2.
Find Velocity in Pipe Using Pitot Tube.
To measure hydrostatic force and center of
3.
pressure on flat/curved surfaces.
To establish stability of floating body.
4.
(Metacentric height experiment)
To determine characteristics of Laminar and
5. Turbulent flows (To perform Reynolds
experiment)
6. To verify and prove Bernoulli’s theorum.
To determine hydraulic coefficients of a
7.
small circular orifice
To Calibrate flow measuring devices
8. (Venturimeter, Orificemeter, Rectangular
and V-notch)
9. To measure fluid resistance in pipes
To perform the experiment on uniform open
10. channel and to the determine Rugosity
coefficient for open channel.
To perform model studies, similitude and
develop a model/sketch for fluid flow in
11.
pipes, open channel and dimensional
analysis.
Total

5
 Experiment No: 1
Fluid Viscosity Measurement using Viscometer

Date:
Relevant CO:
CO-1: Analyze pressure and forces on floating bodies and understand fluids properties and
fluids in relative equilibrium.

Objectives: To Determine the Value of Viscosity of a Given Fluid at Different Temperature by

Redwood Viscometer/ any other viscometer.
Equipment/Instruments: Redwood Viscometer, Thermometer, Measuring Cylinder,Stop Watch
etc.
Theory:
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. The SI unit of viscosity is poiseiulle (PI) and other
units are newton-second per square metre (N s m-2). An ideal fluid has no viscosity. In reality there is no
fluid which can be classified as perfectly ideal fluid. However, the fluids with very little viscosity are
sometimes considered as ideal fluids. Viscosity of fluids is due to cohesion and interaction between
particles.
Newton’s Law of Viscosity
𝑑𝑣
τ=µ 𝑑𝑦

The above Equation is known as Newton’s Law of viscosity. The ratio dv/dy is known as the velocity

gradient. The constant (mu) is called the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity. The fluid which obeys this

law is called a Newtonian Fluid and the fluid which does not obey this law is called non Newtonian Fluids.
Dynamic Viscosity
​ The co-efficient of viscosity may be defined as the amount of tangential stress required to maintain
unit relative velocity between two parallel layers of fluid at unit distance apart.
In SI units, the unit of dynamic viscosity is N-s/m2 or kg/(m-s) or (kg m-1 s-1). The unit N-s/m2 is also
called Pascal- second (pa-s).
​ In CGS (Centimeter – gram – Second) units, viscosity is measured in poise which is equal to one
dyne-sec/cm2 or one (mass)/cm-sec.
Kinematic Viscosity

​ In fluid problems the coefficient of dynamic viscosity usually occurs together with mass

density in form . In such problems, it is convenient to use another coefficient called the

coefficient of kinematic viscosity (nu). It is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to mass density. Thus

6
The dimension of ν can obtained from equation, Thus ν is a kinematic terms

as it does not involve forces. In CGS units are measured in stoke, which is equal to one cm2/ sec. The unit
is named after Stoke. A smaller unit centistokes which is one hundredth of stoke is sometimes used. In SI
units, the unit is one m2/sec. obviously, 1 stoke = 10-4 m2/sec.

Determination of Viscosity Using Redwood Viscometer

​ It consists of a vertical cylinder provided with an orifice at the centre of its base. The
cylinder is surrounded by a water bath which can maintain the liquid whose viscosity is to be
determined at constant temperature. The cylinder is 88.90 mm deep and has 47.625 mm diameter.
The orifice is 1.70 mm diameter and 12 mm length. The Cylinder is filled up to fixed height with
the liquid as shown in Figure.
​ The orifice is opened and the time taken for 50 ml of the liquid to flow out is observed.
The viscosity is proportional to the time taken. This viscometer is frequently used to measure

kinematic viscosity ( ) thus, ​​ ​ ​ ​

Figure Courtesy: IITGN- Geotechnical Lab. Manual

In this Expression, although the head varies from h1 to h2, its variation is the same for all the
liquid for a known volume of the liquid (i.e. 50 ml). As such all the terms on the right- hand side
expect t may be considered as constants (say equal to C). Thus,
​ …………………………………………………………………….. (1)

7
Equation (1) shows that the kinematic viscosity varies linearly with time t. However, in this case
as the capillary tube is quite short, steady conditions do not exist in the tube Thus the Hagen –
Poiseuille equation is not strictly applicable. A correction factor is usually incorporated in Eq. (1)

to account for this error. The equation is modified as, ​ ​ ​ ​

For a Redwood Viscometer, the value of C and C1 are, respectively 0.26 and -172 thus​

PROCEDURE : -
1.​ Fill the cylindrical container of the viscometer up to the mark with the given sample of liquid
– SAE 30 oil.
2.​ Maintain constant temperature of the test liquid by means of surrounding constant
temperature bath.
3.​ Note the temperature.
4.​ Measure the time required to collect 50ml volume of the test liquid in the measuring cylinder
flask.
5.​ Repeat the procedure (1) to (4) by raising the temperature up to desired value by means of
attached electric heater.
OBSERVATION DATA : -
1)​ Depth of the cylindrical container ​ =​ H​ = mm
2)​ Diameter of the cylindrical container =​ d​ = mm
3)​ Diameter of the orifice ​ ​ =​ D​ = mm
4)​ Length (thickness) of the orifice plate=​ L​ = mm
5)​ Volume of liquid collected ​ =​ V​ = ml
6)​ Value of the Redwood Constants ​ =​ C​ = & C1= ​

OBSERVATION TABLE : -
Observation Temperature Time Kinematic Viscosity Remarks
No T t
0
( C) (Sec)
Centistokes Stokes m2/Sec
10-2 10-6

8
SAMPLE CALCULATION :-
Observation No​ =
C​ ​ ​ ​ =
C1​​ ​ ​ =
0
Temperature T​​ =​ ​ ​ C
Time of collection t​ = ​ ​ ​ sec

​= Ct + C2 / T ​ =​ ​ ​ Centistokes

​ = 10-2 ​ ​ =​ ​ ​ Stokes.

​ = 10-6 ​ ​ =​ ​ ​ m2 / s

Graph :-Temperature Vs Viscosity

Scope of Application: - Redwood and other types of Efflux viscometer are widely employed in
the petroleum and applied industries to determine the viscometer. Those Efflux viscometers
cannot give the viscosity in absolute units. However, they may be calibrated with some standard
liquids and the viscosity may be expressed in terms of the ratio of times taken with respects to the
standards liquid.

Result:

Conclusion:

Quiz/Assignment:

1. What is dynamic viscosity?

2. In which unit does the viscosity is measured.?

9
3. Differentiate between Dynamic and Kinematic viscosity?

Suggested Reference:

●​ Engineering Fluid mechanics, K.L. Kumar, 8th Edition S. Chand & Company Ltd.
●​ Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, P.M. Modi and S.M. Seth, Standard Book House
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, K. Subramanya, Tata McGraw Hill.
●​ Fluid Mechanics, A.K. Jain, 4th edition, Khanna Publishers.
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics by K Subramanya, McGraw Hill Publication
References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

10
 Experiment No: 2
Study of Pressure Measuring Device and Find Velocity in Pipe Using Pitot
Tube.
Date:
Relevant CO:
CO-1: Analyze pressure and forces on floating bodies and understand fluids properties and
fluids in relative equilibrium.
Objectives: To perform experimentation for pressure measurement devices (Using Manometer/
Pitot tube).
Equipment/Instruments: Pitot tube, Manometer (U-tube or digital), Fluid source (water, air,
etc.), Tubing and fittings, Leveling device, Vernier calipers or ruler, Stopwatch or timer, Safety
equipment (lab coat, safety goggles)
Theory: Pressure measurement devices in fluid mechanics are essential tools for quantifying the
force exerted by a fluid on a surface or within a closed system. These devices play a crucial role
in various applications, including engineering, meteorology, and scientific research. Here are
some common pressure measurement devices used in fluid mechanics:
●​ Manometers: Manometers are simple and versatile instruments used to measure fluid
pressure. They typically consist of a U-shaped tube filled with a liquid (e.g., mercury or
water) and are connected to the fluid whose pressure is being measured. The height
difference between the two liquid columns in the U-tube corresponds to the pressure
difference between the fluid and the atmosphere.
●​ Pitot Tubes: Pitot tubes are specialized instruments used to measure fluid velocity by
comparing the static pressure and the total pressure of the fluid. They are commonly
employed in aerodynamics to determine airspeed in aircraft and airflow in wind tunnels.
●​ Pressure Gauges: Pressure gauges are among the most common pressure measurement
devices. They provide a direct readout of pressure on a dial or digital display. Various types
of pressure gauges, including Bourdon tube gauges and diaphragm gauges, are available for
different pressure ranges and applications.
●​ Bourdon Tubes: Bourdon tubes are mechanical pressure sensors often found in industrial
applications. They consist of a curved, flattened tube that straightens when pressure is
applied. This straightening is converted into mechanical motion, which can be measured and
correlated to pressure.
●​ Piezoelectric Sensors: Piezoelectric sensors utilize the piezoelectric effect, where certain
materials generate an electric charge when subjected to mechanical stress. These sensors are
highly sensitive and can measure rapid pressure changes. They are commonly used in
dynamic pressure measurements, such as in aerodynamics and automotive applications.

11
●​ Strain Gauge Pressure Transducers: Strain gauges are electrical resistance-based sensors that
change their resistance when subjected to mechanical deformation. When attached to a
diaphragm or membrane exposed to fluid pressure, they can measure pressure changes. These
transducers are used in various industrial and laboratory settings.
●​ Capacitive Pressure Sensors: Capacitive pressure sensors work by measuring the change in
capacitance between two conductive plates as the distance between them varies due to
pressure-induced deflection of a diaphragm. They are known for their high accuracy and are
used in applications like medical devices and HVAC systems.
●​ Pressure Transmitters: Pressure transmitters are devices that convert pressure readings into
electrical signals, often using various sensing technologies mentioned above. These electrical
signals can be easily transmitted and processed by control systems, making them ideal for
industrial automation and control.
In fluid mechanics, selecting the appropriate pressure measurement device depends on factors
such as the type of fluid, pressure range, accuracy requirements, and environmental conditions.
These devices are indispensable for understanding and optimizing fluid flow, ensuring safety in
various industrial processes, and conducting research in fields ranging from aerospace
engineering to hydraulics.

Figure Courtesy: intrumentstool.com , https://me.iitp.ac.in

A Pitot Tube is a simple device used for measuring the velocity of flow. The basic principle used
in this device is that if the velocity of flow at a particular point is reduced to zero, which is known
as stagnation point, the pressure there is increased due to the conversion of the kinetic energy into
the pressure energy, and by measuring the increase in the pressure energy at this point the velocity
of flow may be determined. This principle is adopted for measuring the velocity in the River. The
" DYNAMIC " equipment enables to determine the co-efficient of velocity of Pitot Tube.
12
The apparatus consists of sump tank with centrifugal pump. A pitot tube made of copper provided
in the test section made of acrylic connected to pipeline with flow control valve. The pointer
gauge is provided to measure the vertical position of pitot tube in the given test section. A
manometer is provided to determine the pressure difference. we need to calculate the discharge
using the measuring tank and a stopwatch. The flow of water is regulated with the help of Control
and by pass valve. The following precautions have to be followed:​
Check electric supply matches with the requirement of the experimental setup. Here, we need
single phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5-15 Amp. combined socket with earth connection. The earth
voltage should always be less than 5 volts.
●​ Always use clean water.
●​ Keep apparatus free from dust.
●​ To avoid unnecessary clogging of components run the pump at least once in fortnight.
●​ While performing experiment always maintain the water in overhead tank.
●​ After experiment is complete drain the apparatus and Switch Off the power supply
●​ Avoid parallax error while noting down the reading from tubes.
Procedure : -
1.​ Setup and Safety Precautions:
●​ Ensure you are wearing appropriate safety gear, including a lab coat and safety
goggles.
●​ Set up the Pitot tube apparatus on a stable, level surface.
●​ Connect the Pitot tube to the fluid source using tubing and fittings. Ensure there are
no leaks.
●​ Position the manometer at the same level as the Pitot tube inlet.
●​ Ensure that the Pitot tube and manometer are properly zeroed or calibrated.
2.​ Measurement of Static Pressure (P1):
●​ Carefully insert the Pitot tube into the fluid flow, ensuring it faces directly into the
flow direction.
●​ Allow the fluid to flow steadily for a few seconds to ensure accurate pressure
measurements.
●​ Read and record the static pressure (P1) from the manometer. This represents the
pressure of the fluid at rest.
3.​ Measurement of Total Pressure (P2):
●​ With the Pitot tube still in the same position, record the total pressure (P2) from the
manometer. This represents the pressure at the Pitot tube tip when it's in the moving
fluid.
4.​ Calculate Dynamic Pressure (q):

13
 ●​ Calculate the dynamic pressure (q) using the formula: q = P2 - P1.
●​ This dynamic pressure represents the energy associated with the fluid's velocity.
5.​ Measurement of Velocity (V):
●​ Use Bernoulli's equation to find the velocity (V) of the fluid: V = √(2 * q / ρ) where ρ
is the fluid density.
6.​ Repeat Measurements:
●​ For accuracy, repeat the procedure at different points in the fluid flow, or at different
fluid flow rates, if necessary.
7.​ Data Analysis:
●​ Collect and record all data, including static and total pressures, fluid density, and
calculated velocities.
●​ Calculate the average velocity if you performed multiple measurements.
8.​ Conclusion:
●​ Summarize your findings and compare them to expected values or theoretical
predictions.
●​ Discuss any sources of error and suggest improvements for future experiments.
9.​ Cleanup:
●​ Turn off the fluid source and disconnect all equipment safely.
●​ Properly dispose of any fluids used during the experiment.
●​ Clean and store the equipment appropriately.
10.​ Safety: Ensure that all equipment is stored safely, and the lab area is clean and tidy.
Dispose of any chemicals or fluids according to lab safety protocols.
Observation Data : -
SR. MANOMETER DIFFERENCE h (mtrs.) TIME FOR 10 LITRES
NO. WATER DISCHARGE
( AT PITOT TUBE POSITIONS )
t (sec.)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1
2
3
4
5

Calculation :-
1. Actual discharge , Q= 0.01/t ________________m3/sec (Cumecs)
2. Actual Velocity , V_actual= Q_a/A ______________m/sec
Where,

14
 2
𝑑
A = c/s area of pipe = 3.14d2/4 = 3.14 4
2
𝑑
A = 3.14 4

A = ________________m2
𝑄(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)
V(actual)= 𝐴
= _______________m/s

3. Let ‘H’ be the water head across manometer in, mtrs

H = Manometer difference x ( sp. Gravity of Hg - sp. Gravity of water)
= h x ( 13.6-1 )
H = h x 12.6_______ m of water.
4)​ Theoretical Velocity -
V= √(2 g H) m/sec.
Where,
V = Theo. Velocity of flow, m/sec.
g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/sec2

V1= √(2 g H_1 )

V2= √(2 g H_2 )
Vg= √(2 g H_g )
Where, V1, V2, are the velocities at corresponding points in the test pipe along the
diameter
​ Average theoretical velocity -
Vtheo = (V1 + V2 + ……….+ Vg)/g __________________ m/sec.
​ Co-efficient of velocity
Cv = Vactual/Vtheo
​ Plot the graph of velocity distribution along the diameter.
Result:

Conclusion:

15
Quiz/Assignment:

1. What is Manometer?

2. In which unit does the pressure is measured?

3. Differentiate between pitot tube, manometer and pressure gauge?

Suggested Reference:

●​ Engineering Fluid mechanics, K.L. Kumar, 8th Edition S. Chand & Company Ltd.
●​ Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, P.M. Modi and S.M. Seth, Standard Book House
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, K. Subramanya, Tata McGraw Hill.
●​ Fluid Mechanics, A.K. Jain, 4th edition, Khanna Publishers.
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics by K Subramanya, McGraw Hill Publication
References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

16
 Experiment No: 3
Hydrostatic force and center of pressure Measurement on surfaces.

Date:
Relevant CO:
CO-1: Analyze pressure and forces on floating bodies and understand fluids properties and
fluids in relative equilibrium.

Objectives: To measure hydrostatic force and center of pressure on flat/curved surfaces.

Equipment/Instruments: Armfield F1-12 Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus, Flat or curved surface
(e.g., a plate, a wing section, or a curved body), Water tank or a large container for submerging
the surface, Fluid (usually water)Weighing scale or load cell, Ruler or calipers, Plumb line,
Protractor, Vernier calipers, Spirit level, Measuring tape, Support structure or frame, Leveling
device,
Theory: Measuring hydrostatic force and center of pressure on flat or curved surfaces is crucial in
fluid mechanics and engineering applications, especially for designing objects like dams, boats,
and submerged structures. The hydrostatic force is the force exerted by a fluid on a submerged
surface due to the pressure distribution, and the center of pressure is the point where this force
effectively acts. Hydrostatic forces are the resultant force caused by the pressure loading of a
liquid acting on submerged surfaces.

Figure Courtesy: Armfield F1-12 Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus (uta.pressbooks.pub)

Calculation of the hydrostatic force and the location of the center of pressure are fundamental
subjects in fluid mechanics. The center of pressure is a point on the immersed surface at which the
resultant hydrostatic pressure force acts. The location and magnitude of water pressure force
acting on water-control structures, such as dams, levees, and gates, are very important to their

17
structural design. Hydrostatic force and its line of action is also required for the design of many
parts of hydraulic equipment.
Procedure : -
1.​ Setup:
●​ Set up the water tank or container on a level surface.
●​ Construct a support structure or frame to hold the flat or curved surface in the
desired position within the tank.
●​ Ensure the surface is clean and free of debris.
2.​ Measuring the Surface Dimensions:
●​ Measure and record the dimensions (length, width, and height) of the surface using
a ruler or calipers.
3.​ Submerging the Surface:
●​ Submerge the surface in the fluid (water) within the tank, ensuring it is fully
immersed. The surface should be in a horizontal position if possible.
4.​ Measuring Depth and Angle:
●​ Measure the depth of the surface's leading edge (the point where it enters the fluid)
from the water surface using a measuring tape or ruler.
●​ Measure the angle of inclination (if any) of the surface using a protractor.
5.​ Steady State:
●​ Allow the fluid to come to a steady state with no visible motion or turbulence around
the submerged surface.
6.​ Measuring Hydrostatic Force:
●​ Attach a weighing scale or load cell to the submerged surface in such a way that it
measures the vertical force exerted by the fluid.
●​ Record the weight or force reading.
7.​ Calculating Hydrostatic Force:
●​ Calculate the hydrostatic force (F) using the formula: F = ρ.g.A.h, where:
●​ ρ is the fluid density.
●​ g is the acceleration due to gravity.
●​ A is the submerged surface area.
●​ h is the depth of the leading edge.
8.​ Determining the Center of Pressure:
●​ Use the plumb line to locate the center of pressure on the submerged surface. The
center of pressure is the point where the resultant hydrostatic force acts vertically.

18
 ●​ Measure the horizontal distance from the leading edge of the surface to the point
where the plumb line crosses the surface. This distance represents the position of the
center of pressure.
9.​ Data Analysis:
●​ Calculate the center of pressure in terms of the distance from the leading edge and any
angles if the surface is inclined.
10.​ State Conclusions:
●​ Summarize your findings, including the hydrostatic force and the center of pressure.
●​ Discuss the significance of these measurements in the context of your experiment or
application.
11.​ Cleanup: Ensure proper disposal of the fluid and cleanup of the equipment and lab area.
By following this procedure, you can measure the hydrostatic force and determine the center of
pressure on flat or curved surfaces submerged in a fluid. These measurements are critical for
understanding the behavior of submerged objects and designing them to withstand hydrostatic
forces.
Observation Data : -
Record the following dimensions:
Height of quadrant endface, D (m) =
Width of submerged, B (m)=
Length of balance arm, L (m)=
Distance from base of quadrant to pivot, H (m)=
All mass and water depth readings should be recorded in the table.
Observation Table : -

Density Height/Depth Hydrostatic force

Test No. Mass m(kg) Area (m2)
Calculation (ρ) observance H(m) Calculations (F in N)

10

19
Sample Calculation :-

Result:

Conclusion:

Quiz/Assignment:

1. Differentiate between force, stress, pressure?

Sr. Parameter Force Stress Pressure

No.
1 Definition

2 Formulae

3 Notation
4 SI Unit
5 CGS Unit
6 FPS Unit

2. What is Hydrostatic force, Write formulae.?

Suggested Reference:

●​ Engineering Fluid mechanics, K.L. Kumar, 8th Edition S. Chand & Company Ltd.

20
 ●​ Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, P.M. Modi and S.M. Seth, Standard Book House
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, K. Subramanya, Tata McGraw Hill.
●​ Fluid Mechanics, A.K. Jain, 4th edition, Khanna Publishers.
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics by K Subramanya, McGraw Hill Publication
References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

21
 Experiment No: 4
To determine stability of floating body
(Metacentric Height Experiment).
Date:
Relevant CO:
CO-1: Analyze pressure and forces on floating bodies and understand fluids properties and
fluids in relative equilibrium.
CO-5: Design and carry out model studies for fluid flow problems.
Objectives: To establish stability of floating body (Metacentric Height Experiment).
Equipment/Instruments: A stable tank or water-filled container with a still water surface.
Metacentric height apparatus setup: A model ship or body (scaled down representation of a ship)
with a known geometric shape and dimensions, A scale to measure the dimensions of the model
ship, A pendulum or pendulum-like apparatus with a graduated scale, A protractor or angle
measuring device, A depth gauge or ruler, Weights and pulleys for heeling the model ship, A
stopwatch or timer, Safety equipment (lab coat, safety goggles).
Theory: When a body is immersed in fluid, it is subjected to an upwards force which tends to lift
up the body. This is called buoyancy and the upward force is called buoyant force. Archimede's
principle states that when a body is immersed in a fluid, wholly or partially, it is buoyed or lifted
up by a force which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. When a body is
floating in liquid, it is acted upon by two forces, viz. Weight of body acting downwards through
center of gravity and upward buoyant force acting through center of -buoyancy. Both these forces
are equal and opposite in direction and the body is in equilibrium. Center of buoyancy of a body
is centroid of the volume of liquid displaced. If the body is tilted slightly, then position of center
of gravity remains the same but center of buoyancy occupies the new position, as geometry
volume changes. If a vertical line is drawn through the new center of buoyancy, it intersects the
line joining initial center of buoyancy and center of gravity at a point, known as metacenter. The
distance between metacenter and center of gravity is called metacentric height.
Stability of a floating body depends upon the metacentric height .If metacenter lies above the
center of gravity, the slight angular displacement of body causes to form a restoring couple, which
tends to bring the body to it's original position. This is called stable equilibrium. When metacenter
lies below the center of gravity, then slight angular displacement of body causes to form a couple
which tends to increase the angular displacement further. This is called unstable equilibrium.
When metacenter lies exactly on center of gravity then slight angular displacement does not create
any couple, hence body remains in it's new position. This is called neutral equilibrium. Hence, in
design of ship, care has to be taken to keep the metacenter well above the center of gravity, so that
ship is in stable equilibrium.

22
 Figure Courtesy: Internet
The ‘DYNAMIC’ apparatus consist of a ship model, which is made of half round shape. A
movable weight slides in a guide bar at the deck. When the weight is shifted from the center
position, the ship tilts slightly. The angle of tilt (or angle of heel) is measured with the help of
angular scale fitted on upside. The position of metacenter is then determine by displacement of
weight and angle of heel.
Procedure : -
1.​ Setup: Fill the tank or container with water until the water surface is calm and still.
2.​ Place the model ship gently onto the water's surface. Ensure it is free to move without
any external forces acting on it. Fill up water in the floating tank.
3.​ Keeps the ship floating over the water.
4.​ See that plumb indicates zero reading.
5.​ Displace the weight on the deck.
6.​ Measurement of Initial Parameters: Measure and record the length (L) and breadth (B) of
the model ship. Measure and record the initial draft (d), which is the vertical distance
from the waterline to the keel of the ship.
7.​ Measure the displacement of weight and distance indicated by plumb.
8.​ Repeat the procedure for different displacement of weight.

Determining the Initial Metacentric Height (GM_initial):

●​ Using the pendulum or pendulum-like apparatus, suspend a weight or mass below the
model ship. This will heel the ship to one side.
23
 ●​ Measure and record the angle of heel (θ) at which the ship starts to heel.
●​ Record the time (t) it takes for the ship to reach this angle.
●​ Calculate the initial metacentric height using the formula: GM_initial = (t^2 * g) / (8 *
sin(θ)) where: g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Observation Data and Table: -
Sr. Weight displacement x cm Angle of heel θ Metacentric Height (GM)
No.

Calculation :- 1.​ Weight of the ship, W = ____kg

2.​ Sliding weight on the deck, w=______kg.

3.​ Let distance moved by the weight w at the deck be x.

Let angle of heel [through which the slip is tilted] be θ.

Then metacentric height,

GM=w.x/W.tanθ
Result:

Conclusion:

Quiz/Assignment:

1. What is buoyancy and buoyant force?

2. What is meant by Metacentric Height.?

24
3. Write down the formulae for theoretical and experimental metacentric height?

Suggested Reference:

●​ Engineering Fluid mechanics, K.L. Kumar, 8th Edition S. Chand & Company Ltd.
●​ Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, P.M. Modi and S.M. Seth, Standard Book House
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, K. Subramanya, Tata McGraw Hill.
●​ Fluid Mechanics, A.K. Jain, 4th edition, Khanna Publishers.
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics by K Subramanya, McGraw Hill Publication
References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

25
 Experiment No: 5
Reynold’s Experiment

Date:
Relevant CO:
CO.1: Analyze forces on floating bodies and understand fluids in relative equilibrium.
CO.3: Compute and Analyze fluid flow through pipes in series, parallel and pipe networks
under laminar and turbulent flow conditions
Objectives: To determine characteristics of Laminar and Turbulent flows (To perform Reynolds
experiment)
Equipment/Instruments: Reynold’s Apparatus, Dye, Water, Water tank.
Theory: Whenever a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the flow is either laminar or turbulent. When
fluid is flowing in parallel layers or laminate, sliding past adjacent laminar, is called laminar flow.
When fluid does not flow in parallel layers and there is intermingling of fluid particles then the
flow is said to be turbulent. Existence of these two types was first demonstrated by ‘OSBORN
REYNOLDS’ in 1883. The apparatus consists of a constant head supply tank supplied with water.
Tank is provided with a bell mouth outlet to which a transparent tube is fitted. At outlet of the
tube a regulating valve is provided. A dye tank containing colored dye is fitted above the supply
tank. The water flow through pipe and dye is injected at the center of the pipe.

Figure Courtesy: Reynolds Experiment set-up

When velocity of flow is low, (i.e. flow is laminar) then dye remains in the form of straight
filament. As the velocity of water is increased, a state is reached when the dye filament becomes
irregular in flowing water. With further increases of water through the tube, dye filament becomes
more and more irregular and ultimately the dye diffuses over the entire cross section of the tube.

26
The velocity at which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent for the case of given fluid at
given temperature and in a given pipe is known as critical velocity. The state of flow between
these two types of flow is known as ‘transition state’ or flow in transition. The occurrence of
laminar and turbulent flow is governed by relative magnitude of inertia and viscous forces.
Reynolds related the inertia forces to viscous forces and arrived at a dimensionless parameter now
called ‘Reynolds number’.
Procedure : -
●​ Setup: Ready the setup do necessary connections and Fill up water up to the mark.
●​ Fill up sufficient water in dye tank and add a small amount of potassium permanganate in to
the water.
●​ Prime pump (remove the end plug & fill up water, remove all the air. Then tight the plug,
fitted near the flow control valve.) Connect the electric supply and start pump. Adjust the
water flow to about 2 lpm. Start the dye injection.
●​ Wait for some time. A steady line of dye will be observed. Adjust the dye flow if required.
●​ Slowly increase the water flow & see that water level in supply tank remains constant. At
particular flow rate, dye line will be disturbed. Note down this flow rate by using 1 litre
measuring flask and stop watch.
●​ Further increase the flow. This disturbance of dye line will go on increasing and at certain
flow; the dye line diffuses over the entire cross section. Note down this flow.
●​ Slightly slowly reduce the flow. Note down the flow at which diffused dye tends to become
steady, (beginning of transition zone while reducing velocity.)
●​ Further reduce the flow and note the flow at which dye line becomes straight and steady.
●​ After completion of experiment drain all of water and the tight the drain plug. Also clean the
dye container.

Observation Data : -
1.​ Increasing velocity
a)​ Flow at beginning of transition:
b)​ Flow at beginning of turbulence:

2.​ Decreasing velocity

a) Flow at beginning of transition:
b) Flow at beginning of turbulence:

27
Observation Table : -
Sr. No. Flow type Reynold’s Number Discharge

Sample Calculation :-
Assume I.D. of pipe = 20 mm (Write as per apparatus reading),
Therefore cross sectional area of pipe, A = 3.14 x 10-4 m2
Let, time required for 1liter in measuring flask be‘t’ sec.

Then flow,

Velocity, V = Q/A

Then Reynold’s number

= Density of fluid = 1000 Kg/m3

V = velocity m/sec.
D = Diameter of the pipe = 0.02 m (Write as per apparatus reading).

= Kinetic energy of fluid = 0.805 x 10-6 m2/s

= 801.2 x 10-6 N-s/m2

While increasing the velocity, laminar flow is disturbed at slightly higher velocity. But at the
reducing the velocity the flow does not turn to laminar at this velocity, but becomes laminar at
still lower velocity is called lower critical velocity.
Lower critical Reynold’s number flow is always laminar and above upper critical Reynold’s
number flow is always turbulent. Practically, upper critical Reynold’s number lies between 2000
& 4000 and lower critical Reynolds number is approximately 2000. Between Reynold’s numbers
2000 to 4000 the transition region exists.

28
Result:

Conclusion:

Quiz/Assignment:

1. What is the significance of Reynold’s experiment?

2. Differentiate the category of classifying laminar, transition and turbulent flow.?

3.​ Write down the formulae of Reynolds Number?

Suggested Reference:

●​ Engineering Fluid mechanics, K.L. Kumar, 8th Edition S. Chand & Company Ltd.
●​ Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, P.M. Modi and S.M. Seth, Standard Book House
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, K. Subramanya, Tata McGraw Hill.
●​ Fluid Mechanics, A.K. Jain, 4th edition, Khanna Publishers.
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics by K Subramanya, McGraw Hill Publication
References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

29
 Experiment No: 6
Bernoulli’s Theorem Experiment

Date:
Relevant CO:
CO-3:. Compute and Analyze fluid flow through pipes in series, parallel and pipe networks under
laminar and turbulent flow conditions
Objectives: To verify and prove Bernoulli’s theorem.
Equipment/Instruments: Bernoulli’s theorem apparatus with embedded manometer system, pipe
system, manometers, pump, measuring instruments, sump tank. Water reservoir, Tubing and
connectors, Stopwatch or timer, Ruler or measuring tape, Thermometer (optional, for temperature
measurements).
Theory:
Bernoulli's theorem is a fundamental principle in fluid dynamics that describes the behavior of an
ideal fluid as it moves along a streamline. It is named after the Swiss mathematician Daniel
Bernoulli. In brief, Bernoulli's theorem states: "When the velocity of a fluid (liquid or gas)
increases, its pressure decreases, and vice versa, provided that no energy is added to or taken
away from the fluid, and there is no change in height (gravitational potential energy) along the
streamline." It states that the sum of potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure energy is
constant for a fluid flow. As fluid flows along a streamline, if its velocity increases at a certain
point, the pressure at that point decreases. Conversely, if the velocity decreases, the pressure
increases. This relationship is a result of the conservation of energy.
In other words, if velocity energy of fluid is raised, its pressure will drop, i.e. total energy of fluid
is constant at any two points in the path of flow. The theorem is known as Bernoulli's theorem.
Hence, when applied to steady irrotational flow of incompressible fluids,
2
𝑃 𝑉
ω
+ 2𝑔
+ 𝑧= 𝑐

where,
P = pressure
V = velocity at the point
z = potential head from datum
ω = Specific weight = ρ.g

In summary, Bernoulli's theorem describes the relationship between the velocity and pressure of
an ideal fluid along a streamline, based on the conservation of energy principle. It is a useful tool
for analyzing and predicting fluid behavior in various applications but should be applied with
caution when real-world factors deviate from ideal conditions.

30
 Figure Courtesy: Bernoulli’s Theorum Apparatus (Source: me.iitp.ac.in)
The experimental set-up for Bernoulli's Theorem constitutes with self-contained re circulating
unit. It passes this through the use of sump tank, constant head tank and a centrifugal pump for
water circulation and maintaining discharge. The test section within apparatus, made up of
material Perspex, having a varying cross-section with converging and diverging portions is
provided in the set up. The flow of water in the test section is regulated through the use of control
and bypass valves. Piezometer tubes/ manometer tubes are fitted on this test tubes at various test
points. The inlet of the test-section is connected to the overhead tank. The discharge through the
test-section can be measured with the help of the measuring tank and a stop-watch. Actual set up
is shown in the figure above.
To perform experiments or demonstrations related to Bernoulli's theorem in fluid dynamics and to
measure fluid flow and pressure following apparatus is used for experiments involving:
●​ Flow Tube or Pipe: A tube or pipe through which the fluid (liquid or gas) flows. This is often
a key component to create a controlled flow of the fluid.
●​ Pump: A pump is used to provide a controlled and consistent flow of the fluid through the
system. It helps maintain a steady flow rate.
●​ Pressure Gauge or Manometer: Pressure measuring instruments like gauges or manometers
are used to measure the pressure at different points within the fluid flow. These instruments
help confirm the pressure changes predicted by Bernoulli's theorem.
●​ Bernoulli’s theorem apparatus with embedded manometer system.

31
Procedure : -
(1) Setup:
a. Set up the Venturi tube apparatus on a stable surface. Ensure that it is level and secure.
b. Connect the Venturi tube to the pump using tubing and connectors. Make sure there are no
leaks in the system.
c. Connect the manometer to the Venturi tube at appropriate pressure measurement points. The
manometer should be at the wider and narrower sections of the tube.
d. Fill the water reservoir and connect it to the pump.
(2) Calibration:
a. Before starting the experiment, calibrate the manometer to ensure accurate pressure readings.
Zero the manometer by aligning the liquid levels in both sides of the U-shaped tube.
(3) Flow Rate Control:
a. set up flow rate/ discharge in the set up. Maintain the flow rate for experiment.
b. Measure and record the flow rate by collecting water in a container for a known duration and
measuring the volume.
(4) Pressure Measurements:
a. Measure and record the pressure at the wider section (P1) and the narrower section (P2) of the
Venturi tube using the manometer.
b. Ensure that the pressure measurements are taken simultaneously, or record the time difference
if measurements are not simultaneous.
(5) Data Collection:
a. Record the observations in the manometer tubes. There may be aroud 14 junctions in 1 m pipe
at which height may be recorded. Temperature of water can also be recorded. Temperature can
affect the density of the fluid.
b. Measure the cross-sectional areas of both the wider and narrower sections of the Venturi tube
(if necessary).
(6) Calculations:
Maintain the uniform discharge throughout the experiment.
a. Calculate the velocity of the fluid at the wider section (V1) using the flow rate and
cross-sectional area (A1).
b. Calculate the velocity of the fluid at the narrower section (V2) using the flow rate and
cross-sectional area (A2).
c. Calculate the kinetic energy per unit volume (½ρV^2) at both sections.
d. Calculate the potential energy per unit volume (ρgh) at both sections, where ρ is the density of
water, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the height difference between the pressure
measurement points and a reference point (usually the bottom of the manometer).

32
(7) Analysis:
a. Compare the kinetic energy and potential energy per unit volume at the wider and narrower
sections of the Venturi tube.
b. Observe how the pressure difference (P1 - P2) corresponds to the change in kinetic and
potential energy, as predicted by Bernoulli's theorem.
(8) Repeat and Variations:
a. Repeat the experiment with different flow rates or by altering the geometry of the Venturi tube
to observe how it affects the pressure and velocity distributions.
b. Record and analyze the data to reinforce the principles of Bernoulli's theorem.
(9) Turn off the pump, drain the system, and properly clean and store all equipment.
This procedure provides a basic outline for conducting an experiment to demonstrate Bernoulli's
theorem using a Venturi tube apparatus. Depending on your specific goals and available
equipment, you may need to make adjustments and conduct additional measurements or
variations.
Observation Data : -
Pressure head (z or H) for different observations, Discharge/ Flow rate, Velocity.
Observation Table : -
Sr. Head Values (in cm or mm) Time in Constant
No. stop Discharge
watch for
10 liters
flow
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1
2
3
4
5

Calculation :-
( Consider section at 1st tapping)
Area of flow channel, A = __________ m2 ​ ​
​

0.01
(1) Discharge, 𝑄 = 𝑡 m3/sec
𝑄
(2) Velocity of water, 𝑉 = 𝐴
𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Hence,
2
𝑉
Velocity energy or head = 2𝑔
(3) Pressure head,
𝑃
𝐻= ω
or ​ ​ H = h + hi

33
 Where, h = Water rise from top channel, m
hi = Distance from top of channel to its center
(5) Now, datum line is same at inlet and outlet.​
Hence, Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = 0
According to Bernoulli's equation,
2 2
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
ω
+ 2𝑔
+ 𝑍1 = ω
+ 2𝑔
+ 𝑍2
2 2
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝐻1 + 2𝑔
+ 𝑍1 = 𝐻2 + 2𝑔
+ 𝑍2
As Z1 = Z2 for the channel,
2 2
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝐻1 + 2𝑔
= 𝐻2 + 2𝑔
Find out the value of C for each section (at same flow rate). It is same for all section
Note- Practically, value of 'C goes on reducing slightly towards outlet, due to various factors
which are not considered, e.g. friction, turbulence etc.,

Result: Write the results obtained during experimentation.

Conclusion: Summarize your findings and how they align with Bernoulli's theorem. Discuss any
sources of error or limitations in your experiment.

●​ As value of 'C’ is fairly constant, total energy of flow Is same over the entire length.
●​ As velocity of flow increases, pressure head drops.
2 2
𝑃 𝑉 𝑃 𝑉
●​ Bernoulli's equation, i.e. ρ𝑔
+ 2𝑔 + z = c OR ω
+ 2𝑔 + z = c is thus verified.

Quiz/Assignment:

1. Write the Euler’s equation and Bernoulli’s equation?

Euler’s Equation:

Bernoulli’s Equation:

34
2. What forces are considered in analyzing Euler’s equation and Bernoulli’s equation?

3. Differentiate between Fluid kinematics and Fluid Dynamics?

Suggested Reference:

●​ Engineering Fluid mechanics, K.L. Kumar, 8th Edition S. Chand & Company Ltd.
●​ Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, P.M. Modi and S.M. Seth, Standard Book House
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, K. Subramanya, Tata McGraw Hill.
●​ Fluid Mechanics, A.K. Jain, 4th edition, Khanna Publishers.
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics by K Subramanya, McGraw Hill Publication
References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

35
 Experiment No: 7
To determine hydraulic coefficients of orifice
Date:
Relevant CO:
CO-2: Calibrate and demonstrate fluid flow measuring devices like venturimeter, orificemeter,
notches, orifice, mouthpieces.
CO-3: Compute and Analyze fluid flow through pipes in series, parallel and pipe networks under
laminar and turbulent flow conditions:.
Objectives: To determine hydraulic coefficients of a small circular orifice.
Equipment/Instruments: A supply tank with circular orifice, scales and sliding apparatus, A
Measuring tank, A stopwatch, Micrometer contraction gauge.
Theory:
When flow takes place through an orifice from the supply tank, the water jet leaving the orifice
gets contracted at the downstream of the orifice and the point where it gets the maximum
contraction is called as vena-contracta. Following are three hydraulic coefficients of orifice:
Coefficient of Contraction (Cc): It is the ratio of area of water jet at vena-contracta to the area of
the orifice.
Cc= ac / a
Where,
ac = Area of jet at vena-contracta
a = Area of the orifice

Coefficient of Velocity (Cv): It is the ratio of velocity of water jet at vena-contracta to the
theoretical velocity.
2
𝑥
4𝑦ℎ

Where,
x = Horizontal ordinate
y = Vertical ordinate
h = Head
Coefficient of discharge (Cd): It is the ratio of actual discharge to the theoretical discharge.
𝑄
Cd =
𝑎. 2𝑔ℎ

Where,
Q = Actual discharge
a = Area of the orifice
g = acceleration due to gravity

36
The relation between the coefficient of contraction, coefficient of velocity and coefficient of
discharge can be expressed as :
Coefficient of discharge = coefficient of contraction X coefficient of velocity
Cd = Cc . Cv

Figure Courtesy from Lab: Orifice Apparatus

Procedure : -
The Procedure to determine hydraulic coefficients of an orifice is as follows:
●​ Fill the supply tank with water and allow the water to flow through the orifice.
●​ Maintain a constant head in the supply tank by adjusting the water supply valve provided.
●​ After attaining constant head, now observe the water jet coming from the orifice and note the
point where maximum contraction occurs which is nothing but vena-contracta.
●​ At vena-contracta, measure the diameter of jet using micrometer contraction gauge.
●​ Adjust the vertical scale to the position of vena-contracta such that the hook provided at the
bottom of the vertical scale should touch the center of the water jet. Note down the initial
coordinates (x1, y1) at this point.
●​ After recording initial coordinates, slide the vertical scale through the horizontal scale up to a
certain distance and adjust the vertical scale with its hook touching the water jet and record
the final coordinates (x2, y2).
●​ Take the stopwatch and note down the time taken for the rise of water up to a certain height
in the measuring tank and calculate the discharge.
●​ Repeat the above procedure for various constant heads and calcite the average values of
hydraulic coefficients of an orifice.

37
Observation Data : -
Diameter of the orifice, d =
Dimensions of the measuring tank =
Observation Table : -

Diameter Area of
Coefficient Discharge Coefficient
of Jet at Jet at Coefficient
Head of in of
N. vena-con vena-con x y of Velocity
(h) Contraction measuring discharge
tracta tracta (Cv)
(Cc) tank (Q) (Cd)
(dc) (ac)

Sample Calculation :-
●​ Volume of water collected in tank in t seconds,
V = area of tank X Rise of water level in t seconds

●​ Discharge in measuring tank, Q = volume/time

●​ Horizontal co-ordinate, x = x2 – x1

●​ Vertical co-ordinate, y = y2 – y1

π
●​ Area of the orifice = 4
d2

38
 π
●​ Area of jet at Vena Contracta = 4
dc2

●​ Coefficient of contraction of orifice, Cc = ac / a = _______________

2
𝑥
●​ Coefficient of velocity of orifice, Cv = 4𝑦ℎ
= _________________

𝑄
●​ Coefficient of discharge of orifice, Cd = = ________________
𝑎. 2𝑔ℎ

Result:
Coefficient of contraction of orifice, Cc =
Coefficient of velocity of orifice, Cv =
Coefficient of discharge of orifice, Cd =

Conclusion:

Quiz/Assignment:

1. What is Cc, Cv and Cd ?

Cc:
Cv :
Cd :

39
2. What is the formulae correlating different coefficients Cc, Cv and Cd.

3. Differentiate between orifice and mouthpiece?

Suggested Reference:

●​ Engineering Fluid mechanics, K.L. Kumar, 8th Edition S. Chand & Company Ltd.
●​ Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, P.M. Modi and S.M. Seth, Standard Book House
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, K. Subramanya, Tata McGraw Hill.
●​ Fluid Mechanics, A.K. Jain, 4th edition, Khanna Publishers.
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics by K Subramanya, McGraw Hill Publication
References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

40
 Experiment No: 8
To Calibrate flow measuring devices
(Venturimeter, Orificemeter, Rectangular and V-notch, Weir)

Date:
Relevant CO:
CO-2: Calibrate and demonstrate fluid flow measuring devices like venturimeter, orificemeter,
notches, orifice, mouthpieces, weir.
CO-3: Compute and Analyze fluid flow through pipes in series, parallel and pipe networks under
laminar and turbulent flow conditions:.
Objectives: To Calibrate flow measuring devices (Venturimeter, Orificemeter, Rectangular and
V-notch, weir).
*Note: At least one experiment from above mentioned device/ apparatus must be performed to
calibrate flow measurement.
Equipment/Instruments: Venturimeter device, Orificemeter apparatus, Rectangular- V Notch
apparatus, Pump, Sump, Tank, Pipes, Stop Watch.
Theory:
Venturimeter and orifice meter are two common devices used in fluid mechanics to measure the
flow rate of fluids (liquids or gases) through pipes or conduits. They work on the principle of
Bernoulli's theorem, which relates the velocity and pressure of a fluid in a streamlined flow.
Here's an overview of each device:

Figure Courtesy Internet: Venturimeter

Venturimeter: A Venturimeter is a device used to measure the flow rate of a fluid in a pipe. It
consists of three main components:

41
Converging Section: This is the part of the Venturimeter where the pipe narrows, causing the fluid
velocity to increase. According to Bernoulli's theorem, as the velocity increases, the pressure
decreases.
Throat: The throat is the narrowest part of the Venturimeter, where the fluid reaches its maximum
velocity. Pressure is typically lowest at this point.
Diverging Section: After passing through the throat, the pipe expands, causing the fluid velocity
to decrease, and the pressure to increase to some extent, although it remains lower than in the
converging section.
The key principle behind a Venturimeter is that the pressure difference between the converging
and throat sections is directly related to the flow rate of the fluid. By measuring this pressure
difference using a manometer or pressure gauge, one can calculate the flow rate. Venturimeters
are commonly used in industries where precise flow rate measurements are necessary, such as in
water supply systems.
Orifice Meter: An orifice meter is another device used to measure the flow rate of fluids through
pipes. It consists of a simple orifice plate, which is a flat, circular plate with a hole (or orifice) in
the center. The orifice plate is placed in the pipe through which the fluid is flowing. The key
components and principles of an orifice meter include:

Figure: Orifice Meter

Orifice Plate: This plate creates a restriction in the pipe, causing the fluid to accelerate as it passes
through the hole. This increase in velocity is associated with a decrease in pressure, according to
Bernoulli's theorem.
Pressure Taps: Two pressure taps, typically located upstream and downstream of the orifice plate,
are used to measure the pressure difference across the plate. Pressure taps are connected to a
manometer or pressure gauge.
Flow Rate Calculation: The flow rate is determined by measuring the pressure difference between
the taps and using a formula that relates this pressure difference to the flow rate. The formula used
depends on the fluid properties, orifice plate geometry, and other factors.

42
Orifice meters are widely used for flow rate measurement in industries such as oil and gas,
chemical processing, and water treatment. They are relatively simple and cost-effective but may
have limitations when dealing with highly viscous or non-Newtonian fluids.
In summary, both Venturimeters and orifice meters are devices used to measure fluid flow rates
based on the principles of Bernoulli's theorem. They are essential tools in various industries for
monitoring and controlling fluid flow.
Notches: Notches are openings or notches cut into a plate or structure that are placed in the path
of flowing water to measure its flow rate. Notches are often used in laboratories and small-scale
flow measurement applications. The shape of the notch, such as V-notch or rectangular notch,
determines how flow is measured. The water level in the notch is used to calculate the flow rate
based on established equations. Notches are useful for precise flow measurements, especially in
research and experimental settings.
Weir: Weirs are structures typically installed in open channels or rivers to measure and control
the flow of water. They consist of a barrier or obstruction over which water flows. Weirs are
commonly used for flow measurement, flood control, water level control, and diversion of water
for various purposes. They can have different shapes, including rectangular, V-notch, and
sharp-crested, depending on their specific application and the desired accuracy of flow
measurement.
Rectangular weirs, V-notch weirs, and sharp-crested weirs and Notches are all types of flow
measurement devices used in hydraulics and fluid mechanics. They are used to measure the flow
rate of liquids (usually water) in open channels or channels with free surfaces. Each type of weir
has its own distinct shape and characteristics. Here's a differentiation between these three types of
weirs:
Rectangular Weir:
Shape: A rectangular weir has a rectangular shape, and the flow passes over the top edge of the
rectangular structure.
Crest Shape: The crest (top edge) of a rectangular weir is flat and horizontal.
Applications: Rectangular weirs are commonly used for flow measurement in various
applications, including wastewater treatment plants, irrigation systems, and water monitoring in
open channels.
Flow Formula: The flow rate over a rectangular weir can be calculated using various empirical
formulas, with the most common one being Francis' formula.
Width: The width of the weir (distance from one end to the other) is one of the key parameters in
flow calculation.

43
 Types of Notches and Weir (Figure courtesy: Internet, Google Images)
V-Notch Weir:
Shape: A V-notch weir has a V-shaped notch or opening at the top, and the flow passes through
this V-notch.
Crest Shape: The crest of a V-notch weir forms a V-shape, with the apex of the V pointing
downstream.
Applications: V-notch weirs are often used for precise flow measurement in research and
laboratory settings. They are commonly used to measure small flow rates and are not as suitable
for large flows as rectangular weirs.
Flow Formula: The flow rate over a V-notch weir can be calculated using specialized formulas
based on the angle of the V-notch and the water level in the notch.
Angle: The angle of the V-notch (often expressed in degrees) is a critical parameter for flow
calculation.

Sharp-Crested Weir:
Shape: A sharp-crested weir has a sharp-edged crest, which can be either rectangular or triangular
in shape, depending on the design.
Crest Shape: The crest is characterized by its sharp-edged profile.
Applications: Sharp-crested weirs are used in a variety of flow measurement applications,
including monitoring water levels in rivers, streams, and industrial processes.

44
Flow Formula: Flow over a sharp-crested weir can be calculated using established equations, with
the most common one being the Francis or standard weir formula. The specific formula used
depends on the shape of the crest.
Crest Shape: The crest shape can vary, and it may be rectangular, triangular, or custom-designed
based on the flow conditions and requirements.
In summary, the key differences among rectangular weirs, V-notch weirs, and sharp-crested weirs
lie in their shapes, crest profiles, applications, and the formulas used to calculate flow rates. The
choice of which type of weir to use depends on factors such as the flow rate to be measured, the
accuracy required, and the specific application.
Specifications of the Device/ Apparatus used for Practical
Kindly tick mark the apparatus available for experiment. At Least one apparatus must be used to
conduct the practical.
Parameter of Venturimeter Orificemeter Rectangular/ Other Apparatus
specifications V-Notch
Supply pipe
Motor Capacity
Sump size

Tank size

Diameter/
Width
Throat Size

Length of Pipe
section/ test
section
Manometer
tappings size/
height
Dimensions of
notch etc.

45
Procedure for Venturimeter and Orificemeter: -
1.​ Check all the clamps for tightness
2.​ Open the gate valve and start the flow.
3.​ Open the outlet valve of the venturimeter and close the valve of orificemeter.
4.​ First open air cocks then open the venturimeter cocks, remove all the air bubbles and close the
air cocks slowly and simultaneously so that mercury does not run away into water.
5.​ Close the gate valve of measuring tank and measure the time for 10 litres water discharge and
also the manometer difference.
6.​ Repeat the procedure by changing the discharge and also for​
orificemeter.
Precautions:
●​ Operate manometer valve gently while removal of air bubble so that mercury in
manometer does not run away with water.
●​ Do not close the outlet valve completely.
●​ Drain all the water after completion of experiment.

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR VENTURIMETER :

Sr. No. Manometer diff. Time for 10 liter water discharge t (Sec.)
h(m)

CALCULATIONS FOR VENTURIMETER : -

0.01
1.​ Actual discharge , 𝑄 = 𝑡

2.​ Let 'H' be the water head across manometer in , m.

∴ H = Manometer difference (Sp. gravity of Mercury - Sp. gravity of water)
or H = Manometer difference x (13.6 -1 )
A = cross sectional area at inlet to venturimeter = ______________m2
a = Cross - sectional area at throat to venturimeter = ______________4 m2
Theoretical Discharge,
𝐴 𝑎 2𝑔ℎ
𝑄𝑡ℎ = 2 2
m3/s
𝐴 −𝑎

𝑄𝑡ℎ = ____________m3/s = __________ ( h in meter)

𝑄𝑎
3.​ Co-efficient of discharge Cd = 𝑄𝑡ℎ

46
OBSERVATION TABLE FOR ORIFICEMETER
Sr. No. Manometer diff. Time for 10 liter water discharge t (Sec.)
h(m)

CALCULATIONS FOR ORIFICEMETER: -

0.01
1.​ Actual discharge , 𝑄 = 𝑡
m3/sec

2.​ Let 'H' be the water head across manometer in , m.

∴ H = Manometer difference (Sp. gravity of Mercury - Sp. gravity of water)
or H = Manometer difference x (13.6 -1 )
H = Manometer difference x (13.6 -1 )
or H =h x 12.6 m
A = cross sectional area at inlet to Orificemeter = ____________ m2
a = Cross - sectional area to Orificemeter= ________________ m2
Theoretical Discharge,
𝐴 𝑎 2𝑔ℎ
𝑄𝑡ℎ = 2 2
m3/s
𝐴 −𝑎

𝑄𝑡ℎ = _________________ m3/s = __________ ( h in meter)

𝑄𝑎
Co-efficient of discharge Cd = 𝑄𝑡ℎ

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE FOR NOTCHES/ WEIR:-

1.​ Fit the required notch in the flow channel.
2.​ Fill up the water in the sump tank.
3.​ Close the water supply gate valve to the channel and fill up the water in the channel upto
sill level.
4.​ See that water does not leak from the notch.
5.​ Check the leakage of hose pipes also and keep the collector diverted in the sump tank.
6.​ Take down the initial reading of crest level (sill level) by piezometer.
7.​ Now start the pump and open the gate valve slowly so that water starts flowing over the
notch.
8.​ Let the water level become stable and note down the height of water surface at the
upstream side by piezometer.
9.​ Close the drain valve of measuring tank, direct the collector into the measuring tank and
measure the discharge.
47
 10.​ Take the readings for different flow rates.
11.​ Repeat the same procedure for other notch also.
OBSERVATIONS

Notch type- Triangular / Rectangular/ V-Notch

Notch Type Sill level Water height on Discharge time for 10

Sr.
reading upstream side litres
No.
's' mts 'h' mtr. ' t' sec.

CALCULATIONS:-

V-Notch-
1.​ Head over the notch, H = _______ m.
0.01
2.​ Discharge , 𝑄𝑎 = 𝑡
________________m3/sec

3.​ Crest length of notch = 0.075 m Now theoretical discharge.

Q = 8/15 ×Cd ×(2g)1/2 ×tan(θ/2) ×h3/2
Where, Q = Flow Rate
Cd = Discharge Constant
θ = V - Notch Angle
g = Gravity Constant (9.81 m/s²)
h = Head on the Weir
4.​ Co efficient of discharge
Cd = Qa / Qthe0

48
Rectangular notch -
1.​ Head over the notch, H = _______ m.
0.01
2.​ Discharge , 𝑄𝑎 = 𝑡
________________m3/sec

3.​ Crest length of notch = 0.075 m Now theoretical discharge.

Qth= 2/3. (2.g)05.L. H 4. Co efficient of discharge.
4.​ Co efficient of discharge
Cd = Qa / Qthe0

Triangular notch –
1.​ Head over the notch, H = _______ m .
0.01
2.​ Discharge , 𝑄𝑎 = 𝑡
________________m3/sec

3.​ Now theoretical discharge,

Qth = (8/15) (2.g)° 5 tan (60 / 2 ) ( H )5/2
4.​ coefficient of discharge , Cd = Qa / Qthe0

Result:
●​ Calibrated values of co-efficient of discharge for Venturimeter is_________________
●​ Calibrated values of co- efficient of discharge for Orificemeter is__________________
●​ Average co-efficient of discharge of V-notch is_____________
●​ Average co-efficient of discharge of Triangular notch is_____________
●​ Average co-efficient of discharge of Rectangular notch is_______________

Conclusion: Summarize the findings of experiments performed for flow rate measurements.

Quiz/Assignment:

1. What is coefficient of discharge?

49
2. Differentiate between orifice and mouthpiece?

3. Differentiate between notch, weir and orifice?

Suggested Reference:

●​ Engineering Fluid mechanics, K.L. Kumar, 8th Edition S. Chand & Company Ltd.
●​ Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, P.M. Modi and S.M. Seth, Standard Book House
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, K. Subramanya, Tata McGraw Hill.
●​ Fluid Mechanics, A.K. Jain, 4th edition, Khanna Publishers.
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics by K Subramanya, McGraw Hill Publication
References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

50
 Experiment No: 9
Fluid Resistance in Pipes/ Pipe Friction analysis

Date:
Relevant CO:
CO-1:.Analyze forces on floating bodies and understand fluids in relative equilibrium.
CO.3: Compute and Analyze fluid flow through pipes in series, parallel and pipe networks under
laminar and turbulent flow conditions
CO.5: Design and carry out model studies for fluid flow problems
Objectives: To measure fluid resistance in pipe. To analyze pipe friction.
Equipment/Instruments: Long pipeline of small diameter with piezometer tapings, sensitive
manometers, thermometer, stop – watch, measuring cylinder etc.
Theory:
Pipe carrying fluid under pressure always runs full. The flow in pipe is always subjected to
resistance due to shear between the fluid particular and boundary wall of pipe and between the
fluid particles themselves resulting from viscosity of fluid. Normally flow is laminar at low
velocity. The fluid particles move in parallel layers and this type of flow is termed as laminar
flow. At higher velocity turbulent flow occurs. The velocity at which flow changes from one type
to another in a given pipe is known as critical velocity. If the flow changes from laminar to
turbulent the critical velocity is termed as upper critical velocity whereas if the flow changes from
turbulent to laminar the critical velocity is termed as lower critical velocity

Now Reynold’s number = =

For laminar flow, head loss due to friction is hf = Where,

= Coefficient of dynamic viscosity of fluid

V = Average velocity of flow

L = Length of Pipe
γ = specific weight
D = diameter of Pipe

For turbulent Flow, head loss due to friction is hf = Where,

f = friction factor
L = Length of Pipe
51
V = average velocity
g = gravitational acceleration
D = Diameter of Pipe
The general form can be written as hf = k vn
k and n can be determine by plotting graph of log log hf v/s log v
Pipelines are the lifeblood of modern civilization, transporting vital resources such as water, oil,
and gas across vast distances. However, the efficiency of these pipelines depends on a variety of
factors, one of the most significant being frictional losses. In this brief exploration, we will delve
into both major and minor losses, shedding light on the often-underappreciated world of friction
within pipelines.
Major Losses:
Major losses in pipelines are primarily attributed to the resistance encountered when fluid flows
through the pipeline itself. This resistance is primarily a result of viscous effects as the fluid rubs
against the inner surface of the pipe. Several factors contribute to major losses, including the
diameter and roughness of the pipe, the flow rate, and the viscosity of the fluid. The
Hagen-Poiseuille equation, for laminar flow, and the Darcy-Weisbach equation, for turbulent flow,
are commonly used to calculate major losses.
It's essential to recognize that major losses can have a significant impact on the overall efficiency
of a pipeline. Engineers and designers must carefully consider these losses when designing
pipelines to ensure the desired flow rates and pressures are achieved while minimizing energy
consumption.

Figure: Fluid Resistance in Pipes Apparatus (Source: Intenet).

52
Minor Losses:
While major losses are predominantly a result of friction along the pipe's length, minor losses
occur at specific points within the pipeline. These losses are associated with changes in the flow
direction, sudden contractions or expansions in the pipe, and the presence of valves, fittings, or
other obstructions. Minor losses are often expressed as a coefficient (K) that depends on the
specific geometry and characteristics of the obstruction.
Minor losses can be particularly challenging to calculate accurately, as they depend on the local
conditions within the pipeline. However, they are no less important than major losses when it
comes to maintaining efficient fluid transport. Engineers must carefully account for minor losses
in pipeline design to prevent energy wastage and ensure that the system operates as intended.
Frictional losses in pipelines, encompassing both major and minor losses, are critical factors that
engineers and designers must consider when planning and operating fluid transport systems.
These losses can significantly affect the efficiency and performance of pipelines, impacting
everything from the cost of energy consumption to the reliability of the system. A deep
understanding of frictional losses is, therefore, essential to optimize the design and operation of
pipelines, contributing to sustainable and efficient fluid transport systems for our ever-growing
world.
Procedure : -
The water is discharged in a pipe of diameter D and length L which is connected to the bottom of
a supply tank. The flow of water is regulated by valve. The opening of valve is increased
gradually so that in the beginning the flow will be laminar when valve is completely open the
flow will be turbulent. Q is calculated from V and t when the discharge is divided by the cross
section area, it gives velocity ‘V’ of the flow. The loss of head ‘hf’ can be known from the
sensitive manometer connected to the pipe tapings. The graph of hf v/s v and log hf v/s log v are
drawn. n for laminar, n for turbulent, dynamic viscosity μ, friction factor f and upper critical
velocity can be worked out from the graphs and from the formula given above.
Experimental Procedure:
1.​ Fill up water in the sump tank.(This water should be free of any oil content.)
2.​ Open all the outlet valves and start the pump.
3.​ Check for leakage's by closing three of outlet valves, for each pipe, and correct the leaks, if
any.
4.​ Open the-outlet valves of the pipe to be tested.
5.​ Remove all the air bubbles from manometer and connecting pipes.
6.​ Reduce the flow. Adjust outlet valves, so that water heads in manometer are to the readable
height.
7.​ Note down the heads and flow rate.

53
8.​ Now, increase the flow and accordingly adjust the outlet valve, so that water will not
overflow. Note down heads and flow.
9.​ Repeat the procedure for other pipes.
(Note - during measuring the heads, slight variation may occur due to voltage changes,
valves etc. in such cases, average readings may be taken.)
Observation Data:
Temperature of flowing water​​ ​ ​ = ________.
Kinematic viscosity of water at the measured temperature = ________.
Length of pipe between two piezometer taping, L​ = ________.
Diameter of Pipe​ ​ ​ ​ ​ = _________.
Constant Head of water​ ​​ ​ = _________.

Observation Table:
Sr. Pipe type Manomete Volume Tim Q= Velocity Re = Log 10 Log10V
No r of water e in hf
. Difference collecte sec t V=
3
hf , cm d V cm
cm3 / s Cm /s

Calculation :-

54
Result:

Conclusion:

Quiz/Assignment:

1. Write down the Hagen-Poiseuille equation and Darcy Weisbach equation?

Hagen-Poiseuille equation:

Darcy Weisbach equation:

2. Enlist the different minor losses in pipes?

3. What are the different material types of pipes available in the market?
Eg. PVC Pipe, G.I. Pipe etc.

55
Suggested Reference:
●​ Engineering Fluid mechanics, K.L. Kumar, 8th Edition S. Chand & Company Ltd.
●​ Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, P.M. Modi and S.M. Seth, Standard Book House
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, K. Subramanya, Tata McGraw Hill.
●​ Fluid Mechanics, A.K. Jain, 4th edition, Khanna Publishers.
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics by K Subramanya, McGraw Hill Publication
References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

56
 Experiment No: 10
Experiment on uniform open channel flow
Date:
Relevant CO:
CO-4: Differentiate and analyze open channel flow and design optimal sections; calculate forces
on sluice gates considering specific energy and momentum principle.
CO-5: Design and carry out model studies for fluid flow problems.
Objectives: To perform the experiment on uniform open channel and to the determine Rugosity
coefficient for open channel.
Equipment/Instruments: A small or large open channel flume, Long open channel with
rectangular section. Discharge measuring tank, small water tank, sump, pump, sluice gates, stop
watch etc.
Theory:
Flow is said to be an open channel flow, if flowing with a free surface subjected to a constant
pressure, generally atmospheric pressure. A channel is said to be prismatic channel if cross
sections of channel remains constant along the direction of flow. The average shear stress along
wetted perimeter is τ = w r s

Velocity of is given by:​ Chezy’s formula: ​ V = C 𝑅𝑆 or

2 1
1
​ ​ ​ ​ Manning’s formula:​ V = 𝑛
𝑅 𝑆 ​
3 2

Where,​C = Chezy’s Constant

n = Manning’s Constant
V = Average velocity
R = Hydraulic mean depth
S = Slope of the channel.
Discharge of the channel is computed from velocity as Q = A x V
2 1 2 1
1 1 ​
Q= 𝑛
𝑅3𝑆2 𝑛
𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆 2

Q = K 𝑆 Where K is known as the Conveyance (Carrying capacity) of the channel.

Procedure : -
Longitudinal slope of the channel is adjusted by screw and jack mechanism and accurately
measured. The water is discharged in a channel of width b through a supply tank. The flow of
water is regulated by valve. The opening of valve is increased gradually so that in the beginning
there is constant flow. Depth of flow is measured. Q is calculated from volume of collected water
V and time of collection of water t. When the discharge is divided by the cross section area of
channel it gives velocity ‘V’ of the flow.
57
 Figure: Open channel flume (Source: Internet Image)
Observation Data : -
Length of Measuring Tank ​ : __________ m.
Width of measuring tank​ : __________ m.
Area of Measuring Tank A​ : __________ m2.
Observation Table : -
Obs.No Depth Initial Final Diff in Ht Volume of Time of Discharge
. of Ht Ht h2 h = h2 – h1 Collected collection Q = V/t
Flow h1 m. m. m. water t sec. m3/ s
d m. V = A x h m3
1

Width of channel b =​ : ______________ m.

Manning’s Equation:
S.No Dept Wetted C/S Hyd. Slop Act Act Manning’ Chezy’s Conveyanc
. h of Perimete are mea e of Discharg Velo s constan e
Flow r a of n Ch. e . Constant t
d P =b + 2d flo dept n
m. m. w h S Q V= C K
A= m3 / s Q/A
bx R= m/s
d A/P
m2 m.
1
2

58
 3
4
5
6

Average value of Manning’s coefficient: n = ____________ .

Average value of Chezy’s Coefficient: C = ____________.

Average value of conveyance: K =____________.

Calculation :-

Result:

Conclusion:

Quiz/Assignment:

1. What is open channel flow?

59
2. Differentiate between pipe flow and open channel flow?
Sr. No. Pipe Flow Open Channel Flow
1

3. Differentiate between Gradually varied flow and rapidly varied flow?

Suggested Reference:

●​ Engineering Fluid mechanics, K.L. Kumar, 8th Edition S. Chand & Company Ltd.
●​ Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, P.M. Modi and S.M. Seth, Standard Book House
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, K. Subramanya, Tata McGraw Hill.
●​ Fluid Mechanics, A.K. Jain, 4th edition, Khanna Publishers.
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics by K Subramanya, McGraw Hill Publication
References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

60
 Experiment No: 11
Model studies and Similitude
Date:
Relevant CO:
CO-4: Differentiate and analyze open channel flow and design optimal sections; calculate forces
on sluice gates considering specific energy and momentum principle.
CO-5: Design and carry out model studies for fluid flow problems.
Objectives: To perform model studies, similitude and develop a model/sketch for fluid flow in
pipes, open channel and dimensional analysis.
Equipment/Instruments: Ship models, prepared models by previous students.
Theory:
Model studies and similitude play a crucial role in various fields of science and engineering,
providing a means to study complex real-world phenomena in a controlled and manageable
laboratory environment. These techniques involve creating scaled-down replicas or models that
faithfully mimic the behavior of full-scale systems. The concept of similitude ensures that
physical properties and behaviors are preserved proportionally between the model and the real
system, allowing researchers to draw meaningful conclusions. This short note explores the
significance of model studies and similitude in scientific research and engineering applications.
The Principle of Similitude:
At the heart of model studies is the principle of similitude, which states that if the physical
properties, geometrical dimensions, and dynamic forces of a model are appropriately scaled down
with respect to a real system, the behavior and outcomes observed in the model will accurately
represent those of the full-scale system. To achieve similitude, three key types are considered:
Geometric Similitude: Geometric proportions between the model and the real system must be
maintained. For example, in fluid dynamics, the relative sizes and shapes of obstacles, such as
ships or aircraft, must be preserved.
Kinematic Similitude: This pertains to the similarity of motion between the model and the real
system. Velocity, acceleration, and displacement should be scaled correctly.
Dynamic Similitude: Forces and stresses within the model should be proportional to those in the
full-scale system. This ensures that the model's behavior under different conditions is
representative of the real-world scenario.
Applications of Model Studies and Similitude:
●​ Aerospace Engineering: In the aerospace industry, wind tunnels are used to create scaled
models of aircraft to study their aerodynamic properties. By preserving similitude, engineers
can evaluate an aircraft's performance and efficiency under different flight conditions without
the need for expensive full-scale tests.

61
●​ Civil Engineering: Model studies are employed to simulate the behavior of structures like
bridges and dams subjected to various loads and environmental conditions. This allows
engineers to optimize designs and ensure safety.
●​ Fluid Dynamics: Similitude is critical in understanding fluid flow phenomena. Models of
ships, submarines, or even entire water distribution systems can help analyze the impact of
fluid properties and geometrical variations on performance.
●​ Environmental Sciences: Ecologists use model ecosystems to study the behavior of species
and the effects of environmental changes. These models help predict ecological responses to
alterations in habitat and climate.
●​ Model studies and similitude are indispensable tools in scientific research and engineering.
They enable researchers and engineers to gain valuable insights, make predictions, and
optimize designs without the risks, costs, or complexity associated with full-scale
experiments. By faithfully replicating key attributes of the real system, model studies ensure
that findings and conclusions derived from the laboratory setting can be confidently applied to
the broader world, advancing our understanding and driving innovation across various
disciplines.
Practical Task for Similitude and Model studies:
In engineering and science, dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between
different physical quantities by identifying their fundamental dimensions (such as
length, mass, time, and electric charge) and units of measure (such as miles vs. kilometers, or
pounds vs. kilograms vs. grams) and tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are
performed.
Total Similarity = Geometric Similarity + Kinematic Similarity + Dynamic Similarity
●​ Cost of running full-scale, long-duration experiments is very high
●​ Incentive to obtain required info using small-scale models and/ or short-duration
(“accelerated”) tests
●​ LH Baeckeland (chemist): “Commit your blunders on a small scale, make your profits on a
large scale”
●​ Under what conditions can one quantitatively predict full-scale (“prototype”) behavior from
small-scale (“model”) experiments? Dynamic, thermal, chemical, geometrical similarity: Can
all be obtained simultaneously?
Vaschy (1892), Buckingham (1914): (Pi Theorem)
Any dimensional interrelation involving Nv variables can be rewritten in terms of a smaller
number, Np, of independent dimensionless variables
Nv - Np = number of fundamental dimensions (e.g., 5 in a problem involving length, mass, time,
heat, temperature)

62
e.g., drag relation: Nv = 5, Np = 2
Buckingham Pi Theorem:
●​ Can be used in any branch of science/ technology
●​ Relevant variables must be listed in their entirety
●​ Provides relevant similarity criteria for problems beyond geometrical & dynamical similarity
●​ Relevant dimensionless groups (p’s) are the quantities to be kept invariant in model testing
Steady heat flow from isothermal sphere in steady uniform (forced) fluid flow

Interrelation between 8 dimensional quantities can be restated in terms of 3 dimensionless groups:

OBJECTIVE OF TASK: All the students of batch will be divided into groups of 4 to 7 students
per group and they have to design/ sketch/ develop/ solve the model-prototype relationship.
Similarity and different symmetricity of the model studies such as Geometric Similarity +
Kinematic Similarity + Dynamic Similarity have to be verified, checked and assessed.

POSSIBLE MODEL STUDIES:

Each group in 4 to 7 need to choose an individual model based problem such that each group has
separate problem in the batch and they have to analyze the designing/ development of
model-prototype relationship. If in any case, two or more groups have the same problem than
their case study or dimension patterns may differ.
1.​ Dam model-prototype study.
2.​ Structural integrity related model.
3.​ Spillway model prototype study.
4.​ Environment and infrastructure project.
5.​ Machine model prototype study.
6.​ River channel model-protype study.
7.​ Urban planning related model study.
8.​ Canal’s similitude study.
9.​ Port- Harbour model study.
10.​Geological or manufacturing processes.
11.​Bridge pier destruction model study.
12.​Any other Civil Engineering or model related topic allotted by Lab in-charge.
Observation Data : -
Name of the Domain:
Title of Model to be prepared:

63
Sr. No. Name of the aspect/ Geometrical Kinematic Dynamic
dimensions details Details Details
1
2
3
4
5

Result/ Sketch/ Layout of the Model/ 2-D Sketch:

Conclusion:

64
Quiz/Assignment:

1. What is similitude?

2. What is the importance of model study?

3. State Buckingham’s Pi theorem?

Suggested Reference:

●​ Engineering Fluid mechanics, K.L. Kumar, 8th Edition S. Chand & Company Ltd.
●​ Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, P.M. Modi and S.M. Seth, Standard Book House
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, K. Subramanya, Tata McGraw Hill.
●​ Fluid Mechanics, A.K. Jain, 4th edition, Khanna Publishers.
●​ Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics by K Subramanya, McGraw Hill Publication
References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

65
 Civil Engineering

GTU Course Code: 3140611

Lab Manual prepared by:

Dr. Vinodkumar M. Patel

Professor & Head
Civil Engineering Department
Shantilal Shah Engineering College, Bhavnagar

Branch Coordinators
1. Dr. R.K. Jain
Professor
Civil Engineering Department
L.D College of Engineering, Ahmedabad

2. Dr. S.S. Singh

Professor
Civil Engineering Department
GEC Modasa

Committee Chairman
Dr. N. M. Bhatt
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
L. E. College, Morbi

66