Introduction

Product Design and Development

Chapter 1
Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger
5th Edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2012.

By: Ibrahim AL-Adwan,

Associate Professor in
Mechatronics Engineering
 Chapter Outline
• Characteristics of successful product
development
• Who designs and develop products
• Duration and cost of product development
• The challenges of product development
• Structured methods
• Organizational Realities

01/16/25 2
 Research and Development

R T D
Basic Technology Product
Research Development Development
•Discovery process •Loosely structured •Structured methods
•No set timing •Difficult to plan •Planned timing
•Unpredictable returns •Less predictable •Predictable outcome
•Long term •Medium term •Short term
 Changing Dimensions of
Competition

Manufacturing: Product Development:

Cost and Quality Features and Function

Competitiveness today is more than ever based

on product development capability.
Creating Value through
Product Development:

It’s all about the product.

Apple: Simply Better Products
Black & Decker Snake Light
GoodGrips Angled
Measuring Cups
Target Prescription Pill Bottle
Bodum Pavina Glasses
iRobot Roomba
 Back to the History
• Corporate stories of success and failure:
– Nokia digital mobile phones
– Ford Sport/utility vehicles
– George Foremen grill
– Apple computer: iPod, iPad, i…
– Digital cameras
– Thermo care

01/16/25 12
 Lessons learned from the
stories
• It is products like these that make companies
successful
– and competitors retreat.
• What in common is that their developers
understood their customers and their
competitors
• They created products that met or exceeded
their customers’ expectation
• With these products, these companies became
competitive at that time.
01/16/25 13
 Characteristics of successful
product development
• Product quality (features and value)
• Development lead time
• Product cost
• Development cost
• Accumulation of development capability and
experience of the team.

01/16/25 14
 Today’s business environment
– Innovation
• Be the first in the market
– Shortened product life cycle & shortened product
development cycle
• concurrent engineering/operation
– Frequent changes & agile operations
• mass customization
– Smaller lots and just-in-time production
• lean manufacturing/thinking
– Core business and supply network
– Global economy and corporate intelligence
– Internet and wireless integration

01/16/25 15
 Scope of development efforts
• The team
– Development time: 1-5 years
– Development cost: US$100K-3B
– Team size (internal): 3-10K
– Team size (external): 3-10K
• The product
– Product cost: US$1-200M
– Numbers of parts: 3-130K
– Annual production volume: 50-50M
– Sales lifetime: 1-40 years
– Initial production cost: US$100K-3B

01/16/25 16
01/16/25 17
 Product development team –
core team
• Marketing professional
• Design professionals
– ME
– EE
– Industrial designer
• Manufacturing professionals
– Manufacturing engineer (manufacturability)
– Purchasing specialist (supply chain)
01/16/25 19
 Product development team –
extended team
• Legal, sales, finance professionals
• Consulting firms
• Government agencies
• Universities
• Environmental groups
• Professional regulatory groups (such as the
ASME)
01/16/25 20
01/16/25 21
 Benefits of integration
• The best practice is to involve a team of
people representing the necessary
disciplines and skills (a cross-functional
team)
• Note:
– Assemble your project team of multi-
disciplinary backgrounds as required.

01/16/25 22
 Challenges of product
development
• Trade-off
• Dynamics in the environment
• Tremendous amount of design details
• Time pressure
• Satisfaction of societal and individual needs
• Team diversity & spirit

01/16/25 23
 Organizational realities
– leading to dysfunctional product development team

• Lack of empowerment of the team

• Functional allegiances transcending project
goals
– That is, allegiance to functional department vs.
project success
• Inadequate resources
• Lack of cross-functional representation on the
project team
01/16/25 24
 Structured methods
• Product development process
– is a creative effort
– is a process of design-related activities,
which can be documented, studied and
improved.
• Question?
– Is product development an art or an
science?
01/16/25 25
 Product development process
• Major steps:
–Planning
–Concept development
–Architectural (system-level) design
–Detailed design
–Testing and refinement
–Production design and ramp-up
• Also refer to ex. 2-2 on page 14 in chapter 2 for detail.

01/16/25 26
 Textbook
Product Design and Development
Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger
5th edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2012.
1. Introduction
2. Development Processes and Organizations
3. Opportunity Identification
4. Product Planning
5. Identifying Customer Needs
6. Product Specifications
7. Concept Generation
8. Concept Selection
9. Concept Testing
10. Product Architecture
11. Industrial Design
12. Design for Environment
13. Design for Manufacturing
14. Prototyping
15. Robust Design
16. Patents and Intellectual Property
17. Product Development Economics
18. Managing Projects
 Chapter 1: HW assignment
• Homework assignment
– Do exercise #2 on page 10
– Follow exhibit 1-3 to identify the scope of efforts
for a PC (or cellphone) development project.
• Due date: next week

01/16/25 28
Development Processes and
Organizations

Teaching materials to accompany:

Product Design and Development
Chapter 2
Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger
5th Edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2012.

Dr. Ibrahim Aladwan

 Product Design and Development
Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger
5th edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2012.
Chapter Table of Contents:
1.Introduction
2.Development Processes and Organizations
3.Opportunity Identification
4.Product Planning
5.Identifying Customer Needs
6.Product Specifications
7.Concept Generation
8.Concept Selection
9.Concept Testing
10.Product Architecture
11.Industrial Design
12.Design for Environment
13.Design for Manufacturing
14.Prototyping
15.Robust Design
16.Patents and Intellectual Property
17.Product Development Economics
18.Managing Projects
 Concept Development Process

M is s io n D e v e lo p m e n t
S ta te m e n t E sta b lish G e n e ra te S e le ct Te s t Set P la n P la n
Id e n tify
Targ e t P ro d u ct P ro d u ct P rod u c t F in a l D o w n stre a m
C u sto m e r N e e d s C o n c e pts C o n ce pt(s ) C o n ce pt(s)
S p e cifica tio n s S p e cifica tio n s D e v e lo p m e n t

P e rfo rm E co n o m ic A n alysis

B e n ch m a rk C o m p etitiv e P ro d u cts

B u ild a nd Te st M o d e ls a n d P ro to typ e s
Generic Product Development
Process

Concept System-Level Detail Testing and Production

Planning Development Design Design Refinement Ramp-Up

Mission Concept System Spec Critical Design Production

Approval Review Review Review Approval
 Core development stages
• Solution approach
• Concept design
• Architectural design
• Detailed design
• Process design
• Fabrication and assembly
• Test and deployment
01/16/25 6
 Solution Approach
• Concept for solutions
• DFX

01/16/25 7
 Concept development
• A description of the form, function, and
features of a product
• A set of specifications
• An economic justification of the project.

01/16/25 8
 System (architectural) design
• Definition of product architecture, with an
assembly layout.
• Division of the product into subsystems and
components, each with a functional
specification.

01/16/25 9
 Detailed design
• Complete specification of the geometry,
materials, and tolerances of each of the
unique parts
• Identification of all standard parts to be
purchased.
• Establishment of a process plan and tooling

01/16/25 10
 Test and refinement
• Construction and evaluation of multiple pre-production
versions of the product.
• Early (alpha) prototypes are usually built with production-
intent parts (but may not be with the intended production
processes) for testing in the designer's environment, if the
design intent and key customer needs are met.
• Later (beta) prototypes are built with parts supplied by the
intended production processes (but may not be with the
intended-assembly process), tested by customers in their
environment, and to evaluate product performance and
reliability.

01/16/25 11
 Production ramp-up
• The product is made using the intended
production system.
• To train the work force and to work out any
remaining problems in the production
processes.

01/16/25 12
 A generic concept
development process
1. Identifying customer needs
2. Establishing target specifications
3. Concept generation
4. Concept selection
5. Concept testing
6. Setting final specifications
7. Project planning
8. Economic analysis
9. Benchmarking of competitive products
10. Modeling and prototyping
01/16/25 13
 Rapid Iteration PD Process

Many Iteration Cycles

Concept System-Level Production
Planning Design Build Test
Development Design Ramp-Up

Mission Concept Cycle Plan Cycle

Approval Review Review Review
Complex System PD Process
Design Test

Design Test
Concept System-Level Integrate Validation
Planning Development Design and Test and Ramp-Up
Design Test
Mission Concept System Production
Approval Review Review Approval
Design Test
 Concept Development Process

Mission Development
Statemen Identify Establish Generate Select Test Set Plan Plan
t Customer Target Product Product Product Final Downstream
Needs Specifications Concepts Concept(s) Concept(s) Specifications Development

Perform Economic Analysis

Benchmark Competitive Products

Build and Test Models and Prototypes

• Front-end of PD need not be a fuzzy process.

• Structured methods exist for each process step
(see text chapters 4 to 8).
• This is not strictly sequential -- generally a
parallel and iterative process.
Tyco Product Development Process

Project Concept Feasibility Preliminary Final Product Process Post-Launch

Launch
Registration Definition and Planning Design Design Verification Verification Assessment

RP RP RP RP RP RP RP RP RP
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Tyco Product Development Process
 Organizational types
• Strict functional organization
• Strict project organization
• Matrix organization

01/16/25 20
 Matrix organization
• A hybrid of functional and project organizations
• Each individual is linked to others according to
both the project they work on and their functions
• Each has two supervisors: project manager and
functional manager.
• Two variants of the matrix organizations
– Heavyweight project organization (i.e., strong project
links).
– Lightweight project organization (strong functional
links).
01/16/25 22
 Factors for affecting an org.
structure
• Importance of cross-functional integration
• Criticalness of cutting-edge functional
expertise to business success
• Utilization of resources from each function
• Importance of product development speed

01/16/25 23
 Organizational linkages
 Reporting relationship
 Financial arrangement
 Physical layout.

01/16/25 24
Other Images
 Variants of the development
process
• Market pull products
• Technology push products
• Platform products
• Process-intensive products
• Customized products
• high-risk product
• Quick build products
• Complex systems
01/16/25 26
 Variants
• Market-pull products
– The firm finds a market opportunity and a technology to meet
customer's needs. Thermo care.
• Technology-push products
– The firm begins with a new technology and then finds a
market for it. Glue for “post-it.”
• Platform products
– Use of a proven technology platform to build a new product.
Instant film used in Polaroid cameras.
• Process-intensive products
– Develop product and process simultaneously.
01/16/25 27
 Variants
• Customized products
– Build a new product by varying existing configurations.
• High-risk products
– Intensive and early test and analysis
• Quick-build products
– Rapid modeling & prototyping at testing phase
• Complex systems
– Subsystems and integration worked by teams

01/16/25 28
 Traditional design methods
• Aggregation
– (include new functions)
• Adaptation
– (adapt to new conditions)
• Application
– (apply a proven technology to a new area)
• analysis of properties
– (thorough analysis of an existing design to improve)
• Brainstorming
– (find many solutions to a problem)
01/16/25 29
 Traditional design methods
• systematic search of field
– (obtain complete possible information)
• Questioning
– (apply a system of questions to produce mental simulation)
• mental experiment
– (observe an idealized mental model at work)
• value analysis
• Evaluation
– (find best variant among a few by point-counting)

01/16/25 30
 Traditional design methods
• invention
• Iteration
– (to solve a system with complicated
interactions)
• experimentation
• division of totality
• math & computer modeling
01/16/25 31
 Chapter 2: Home work
• Exercise (Analysis of Properties)
• Focus on materials selection for an existing product
• Steps:
• 1. Examine each component of a product (an incandescent bulb, stapler, can opener).
• 2. Break the product or decompose it, avoiding injury to eyes or hands and damage to
the other components.
• 3. Construct and complete a table consisting the following items on its columns.
– a. list each component of the product
– b. define the function of each component
– c. identify the material used
– d. reason why it was selected
– e. select possible alternative.
• 4. List five failure mechanisms

01/16/25 32
Identifying Customer Needs

Teaching materials to accompany:

Product Design and Development
Chapter 5
Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger
5th Edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2012.

Dr. Ibrahim Aladwan

 Product Design and Development
Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger
5th edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2012.
Chapter Table of Contents:
1.Introduction
2.Development Processes and Organizations
3.Opportunity Identification
4.Product Planning
5.Identifying Customer Needs
6.Product Specifications
7.Concept Generation
8.Concept Selection
9.Concept Testing
10.Product Architecture
11.Industrial Design
12.Design for Environment
13.Design for Manufacturing
14.Prototyping
15.Robust Design
16.Patents and Intellectual Property
17.Product Development Economics
18.Managing Projects
 Product Development Process

Concept System-Level Detail Testing and Production

Planning Development Design Design Refinement Ramp-Up
 Concept Development Process
Mission Development
Statement Identify Establish Generate Select Test Set Plan Plan
Customer Target Product Product Product Final Downstream
Needs Specifications Concepts Concept(s) Concept(s) Specifications Development

Perform Economic Analysis

Benchmark Competitive Products

Build and Test Models and Prototypes

 Outline
• Nature of needs
• Need identification process
• An exercise

01/16/25 5
 Nature of needs
• Needs in the “use” environment
• Products have to serve a real need and
affordable to the customer
• Focus on user’s needs, instead of
“wants”

01/16/25 6
Customer Needs Process
• Define the Scope
– Mission Statement
• Gather Raw Data
– Interviews
– Focus Groups
– Observation
• Interpret Raw Data
– Need Statements
• Organize the Needs
– Hierarchy
• Establish Importance
– Surveys
– Quantified Needs
• Reflect on the Process
– Continuous Improvement
 1: Define the scope of the
effort
• Use the project’s mission statement
– Brief (one sentence) description of the product
– Key business goals
– Target market(s) for the product
– Secondary market
– Assumptions that constrain the development effort
(boundary, scope, limit)
– Stakeholders (end users, retailers, sales, service
centers, production, legal, etc.)

01/16/25 8
 Mission Statement
Example: Screwdriver Project
Product Description
•A hand-held, power-assisted device for installing threaded fasteners
Key Business Goals
•Product introduced in 4th Q of 2000
•50% gross margin
•10% share of cordless screwdriver market by 2004
Primary Market
•Do-it-yourself consumer
Secondary Markets
•Casual consumer
•Light-duty professional
Assumptions
•Hand-held
•Power assisted
•Nickel-metal-hydride rechargeable battery technology
Stakeholders
•User
•Retailer
•Sales force
•Service center
•Production
•Legal department
 2-1: Gather raw data from
customers (methods)
• Methods
– One-on-one interviews
– Focus groups (selected customers in a discussion
with a moderator
• Better than one-on-one as shown in Fig 4.4 on page 57
– Observing the product in use
– Survey
• Customer selection matrix
– Applications (industrial, household, personal) vs.
customer types (user, lead user, retailer, service
center, etc.)
01/16/25 10
 How Many Customers?
100

80
Percent of Needs Identified

60
One-on-One Interviews (1 hour)

Focus Groups (2 hours)

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Respondents or Groups

From: Griffin, Abbie and John R. Hauser. “The Voice of the Customer”,
Marketing Science. vol. 12, no. 1, Winter 1993.
 2-2: Art of eliciting need data
from customer
• Go with the flow
• Use existing and competitor’s products, or other
stimuli
• Suppress pre-conceived hypotheses about the
product technology
• Have the customer demonstrate the product and/or
typical tasks related to the product
• Be alert for surprises and the expression of latent
(non-articulated) needs
• Watch for nonverbal information (comfort, image, or
style)
01/16/25 12
Customer Needs Example:
Cordless Screwdrivers
Visual Information Example: Book Bag Design
2-3: Documenting interactions
with customer
• Customer statements, accompanied
with the documentation methods
– Audio recording
– Notes
– Video recording
– Still photography

01/16/25 15
 3: Interpret raw data in terms
of customer needs
• Guidelines
– Express the need in terms of what the product has
to do, not in terms of how it might do it.
– Express the need as specifically as the raw data
– Use positive, not negative, phrasing.
– Express the need as an attribute of the product
– Avoid the words must and should.

01/16/25 16
 Five Guidelines for Writing Needs Statements
Guideline Customer Statement Need Statement-Wrong Need Statement-Right
“Why don’t you put The screwdriver battery The screwdriver battery
What Not
protective shields around contacts are covered by is protected from
How the battery contacts?” a plastic sliding door. accidental shorting.

Specificity “I drop my screwdriver all The screwdriver is The screwdriver

the time.” rugged. operates normally after
repeated dropping.

Positive “It doesn’t matter if it’s The screwdriver is not The screwdriver
Not raining, I still need to disabled by the rain. operates normally in
Negative work outside on the rain.
Saturdays.”

Attribute “I’d like to charge my An automobile cigarette The screwdriver battery

of the battery from my cigarette lighter adapter can can be charged from
Product lighter.” charge the screwdriver an automobile cigarette
battery. lighter.

Avoid “I hate it when I don’t The screwdriver should The screwdriver

“Must” know how much juice is provide an indication of provides an indication
and left in the batteries of my the energy level of the of the energy level of
cordless tools.” battery. the battery.
“Should
01/16/25 18
 4: Organize the needs into a
hierarchy
• Print each need statement on a separate card
or a self stick note
• Eliminate redundant statement
• Group the cards according to the similarity of
the needs they express
• Choose a label for each group
• Consider creating super-groups consisting of
two to five groups.
• Review and edit the organized need statements

01/16/25 19
Organized List of Customer Needs
 A Survey Design for Ranking
Customer Needs

01/16/25 21
 5: Establish the relative
importance of the needs
• Use the customers (to rank importance
as well as criticality)
• See a survey in Fig 4.9 on page 67

01/16/25 22
 6: Review the Result and
Reflect on the Process
• Whether the product is focused on needs of
customers
• Whether all critical needs are addressed
• Whether we sent out “thank you” notes to
customers.
• Whether there are rooms to improve the
process for future efforts.
• Whether the entire team understands the
needs

01/16/25 23
 Caveats
• Capture “What, Not How”.
• Meet customers in the use environment.
• Collect visual, verbal, and textual data.
• Props will stimulate customer responses.
• Interviews are more efficient than focus groups.
• Interview all stakeholders and lead users.
• Develop an organized list of need statements.
• Look for latent needs.
• Survey to quantify tradeoffs.
• Make a video to communicate results.
Class Example: Identify customer needs
through discussion of a selected group
• Method: discussion of a group of lead customers
• Product: powered screwdriver (& book bag)
• Rules:
– No one criticizes anyone.
– Willing to compromise and reach a consensus.
– Identify customer needs or wants. It does not matter
whether they are a "must" or "should.
– It is not yet a product specification. Therefore
qualitative statement is fine.
01/16/25 25
 Class exercise: Identify customer needs
through discussion with a selected group
• Four-step procedure:
1. Individual writes down five need statements
(expectations) for the product (powered hand-held
screwdriver and then book bag)
2. Consolidate the need statements.
3. Classify need statements into groups and super-groups
in a hierarchical fashion.
4. Rank each need in terms of its relative importance and
criticality (e.g., Each one picks 5 needs and add them
up
01/16/25 26
 Customer Needs
Example:Cordless Screwdrivers

01/16/25 27
 1: Write down need
statements
• Group the lead users into groups of 4
• Each group come up with 5 need
statements

01/16/25 28
 2: Consolidate the needs
• Detachable tips
• Sufficient accessory tips
• Adjustable speed
• Adjustable torque
• Minimum vibration
• Light weight
• Easy to use
• Easy to carry
• Cordless
• Long-lasting rechargeable battery
• Weather proof
• Reversible
• Heavy duty casing
• Reasonable price
• Quick to re-charge
• Re-chargeable from car cigarette lighters

01/16/25 29
 3: Classify/group the needs

• Price
• Weight
• Function
• Operations
• Power source
• Maintenance

01/16/25 30
 4: Rank Customer Needs

• Each user picks five needs

– by their importance
• Each user picks five needs
– by their criticality.

01/16/25 31
 Class Exercise: Book Bag Design

01/16/25 32
 Chapter 4 HW
• Exercise 1, on page 90
• Due next week

01/16/25 33
 Needs Translation Exercise:
Book Bag Design Example
“See how the leather on the bottom of the bag is all
scratched; it’s ugly.”
“When I’m standing in line at the cashier trying to
find my checkbook while balancing my bag on
my knee, I feel like a stork.”
“This bag is my life; if I lose it I’m in big trouble.”
“There’s nothing worse than a banana that’s been
squished by the edge of a textbook.”
“I never use both straps on my knapsack; I just
sling it over one shoulder.”
Product Specifications

Teaching materials to accompany:

Product Design and Development
Chapter 6
Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger
5th Edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2012.

Dr. Ibrahim Aladwan

 Product Design and Development
Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger
5th edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2012.
Chapter Table of Contents:
1.Introduction
2.Development Processes and Organizations
3.Opportunity Identification
4.Product Planning
5.Identifying Customer Needs
6.Product Specifications
7.Concept Generation
8.Concept Selection
9.Concept Testing
10.Product Architecture
11.Industrial Design
12.Design for Environment
13.Design for Manufacturing
14.Prototyping
15.Robust Design
16.Patents and Intellectual Property
17.Product Development Economics
18.Managing Projects
 Concept Development Process
Mission Development
Statement Identify Establish Generate Select Test Set Plan Plan
Customer Target Product Product Product Final Downstream
Needs Specifications Concepts Concept(s) Concept(s) Specifications Development

Perform Economic Analysis

Benchmark Competitive Products

Build and Test Models and Prototypes

Target Specs Final Specs

Based on customer needs Based on selected concept,
and benchmarking feasibility, models, testing,
and trade-offs
 Outline
• Nature of specifications
• Spec vs. specs.
• Target vs. final specs.
• Process for setting target specs
• Process for setting final specs

01/16/25 4
 Spec vs. Specs
• A spec consists of a metric, a unit, and
a value
• Specs has a set of specs.

01/16/25 5
 Target vs. Final Specs
• Target specs: the hope and aspiration
of the design (ideal and marginal)
• Refined specs: trade-offs among
different desired characteristics.
– Intermediate specs
• Final specs
– It is in the project’s contract book

01/16/25 6
 Nature of Specifications
• The reference point for functionality
design and quality planning

• A product assembly usually requires a

hierarchy of specs, for the final product
and each of its components

01/16/25 7
 The Product Specs Process
1. Set Target Specifications
– Based on customer needs and benchmarks
– Develop metrics for each need
– Set ideal and acceptable values
2. Refine Specifications
– Based on selected concept and feasibility testing
– Technical and economic modeling
– Trade-offs are critical
3. Reflect on the Results and the Process
– Critical for ongoing improvement
 Procedure for establishing
target specifications
1. Identify a list of metrics and measurement
units that sufficiently address the needs
2. Collect the competitive benchmarking
information
3. Set ideal and marginally acceptable target
values for each metric (using at least, at
most, between, exactly, etc.)
4. Reflect on the results and the process

01/16/25 9
 Process for setting the final
specifications
1. Develop technical models to assess technical feasibility. The
input is design variable and the output is a measurement using
a metric.
2. Develop a cost model of the product.
3. Refine the specifications, making tradeoffs, where necessary
to form a competitive map.
4. “Flow down” the final overall specs to specs for each
subsystem (component and part).
5. Reflect on the results to see
 Whether the product is a winner, and/or
 How much uncertainty there is in the technical and cost model, or
 Whether there is a need to develop a better technical model.

01/16/25 10
Product Specifications Example:
Mountain Bike Suspension Fork
Start with the Customer Needs
 Metrics Exercise:
Ball Point Pen
Customer Need:
The pen writes smoothly.
Establish Metrics and Units
Link Metrics to Needs
Benchmark on Customer Needs
Benchmark on Metrics
Assign Marginal and Ideal Values
 Concept Development Process
Mission Development
Statement Identify Establish Generate Select Test Set Plan Plan
Customer Target Product Product Product Final Downstream
Needs Specifications Concepts Concept(s) Concept(s) Specifications Development

Perform Economic Analysis

Benchmark Competitive Products

Build and Test Models and Prototypes

Target Specs Final Specs

Based on customer needs Based on selected concept,
and benchmarking feasibility, models, testing,
and trade-offs
Perceptual Mapping Exercise

Crunch KitKat
Opportunity?
Nestlé
Crunch

Hershey’s
w/ Almonds

Hershey’s
Milk Chocolate

Chocolate
 Specification Trade-offs
120
Rox Tahx Ti 21
Estimated Manufacturing Cost ($)

110
Maniray 2 Trade-off Curves
Estimated Mfg. Cost ($)

Gunhill Head for Three Concepts

100
Shox

90
Rox Tahx Quadra
.

80 marginal values Tonka Pro

70
ST Tritrack
60 ideal values

50
3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4

Score
Scoreon
on Monster (Gs)
Monster (Gs)

01/16/25 24
Set Final Specifications
Quality Function Deployment
(House of Quality)
technical
correlations

relative engineering
importance metrics

customer benchmarking
needs on needs
relationships between
customer needs and
engineering metrics

target and final specs

 Profit margin

Where:
M: profit margin
P: price
C: cost

01/16/25 28
 Target Cost

Where:
C = target cost
P = price to the end user
Mi = the margin at the ith stage.

01/16/25 29
 Mark up
Markup = P/C - 1

Where:
P: price
C: cost

01/16/25 30
 Chapter 6 HW

Metric Exercise: Ball Point Pen

 Identify five possible metrics and the unit of measure for a customer
need as stated below:

The pen writes smoothly.

01/16/25 32
 Introduction to Computer-
Aided Design (CAD) Systems

• Definition: CAD systems are software

tools used to create, modify, analyze, and
document engineering designs.

• Importance: Accelerates design process,

enhances design accuracy, reduces
errors.

• Examples: AutoCAD, SolidWorks, CATIA.

2D Geometry
•Basic Concepts: Points, lines, shapes.
•Representation: How shapes are represented in a 2D
coordinate system.
Homogeneous Coordinates (2D)

Transformation:
Definition: A way to
How to convert
represent points and
between Cartesian
lines in 2D using an
coordinates and
additional
homogeneous
dimension.
coordinates.
Transformations in 2D

Types of Transformations: Scaling,

translation, rotation, reflection.
Transformation Matrices: How matrices
are used to perform these
transformations.
 Scaling
•Definition: Changing the size of shapes.

•Scaling Matrix

Example: Scaling a rectangle.

 Translation (2D)

•Definition: Moving shapes to a new location.

•Translation Matrix:

• Example: Moving a circle to a new position.

 Rotation (2D)
•Definition: Rotating shapes around a point.
•Rotation Matrix:

• Example: Rotating a triangle by a specific

angle.
 Reflection (2D)

•Definition: Reflecting shapes across an axis.

•Reflection Matrices:
 Reflection across the X-axis:

 Reflection across the Y-axis:

 1 2
2D Viewing Concept of Viewing
Viewing: How to Matrices:
view shapes Setting up the
within a defined viewports and
window. clipping
windows.
3D Geometry

•Basic Concepts: Points, faces,

volumes.
•Representation: How shapes
are represented in a 3D
coordinate system.
Homogeneous
Coordinates in 3D

•Definition: Using homogeneous

coordinates to represent points in three
dimensions.
•Transformation: How to convert between
Cartesian and homogeneous coordinates
in 3D.
3D Transformations

•Types of Transformations: Scaling,

translation, rotation, reflection.
•Transformation Matrices: Using
matrices to perform these transformations
in 3D
 Scaling (3D)

•Definition: Changing the size of shapes in 3D.

•Scaling Matrix:

• Example: Scaling a cube.

 Translation (3D)
•Definition: Moving shapes to a new location in 3D.

•Translation Matrix:

• Example: Moving a sphere to a new

position.
Rotation (3D)

•Definition: Rotating shapes

around axes in 3D.
•Rotation Matrices:
Reflection (3D)

•Definition: Reflecting shapes

across a plane.
•Reflection Matrices:
 Chapter 3: Product Planning

Product Design and Development

Fourth Edition
by Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger

Dr. Ibrahim Aladwan

 LECTURE 1
INTRODUCTION
Part 1
Production system: is a collection of people,
equipment, and procedures organized to
accomplish the manufacturing operations of a
company (or other organization).
 Production systems can be divided into two
categories or levels as indicated in the following
figure.
The production system consists of facilities and
manufacturing support systems.
 Facilities

The facilities of the production system consist of

the factory, the equipment in the factory, and
the way the equipment is organized.
 Manufacturing support systems

This is the set of procedures used by the

company to manage production and to solve
the technical and logistics problems
encountered in ordering materials, moving
work through the factory, and ensuring that
products meet quality standards. Product
design and certain business functions are
included among the manufacturing support
systems.
In modern manufacturing operations,
portions of the production system are
automated and/or computerized. However,
production systems include people. People
make these systems work. In general, direct
labor people (blue color workers) are
responsible for operating the facilities, and
professional staff people (white color
workers) are responsible for the
manufacturing support systems.
 Production System Facilities

The facilities in the production system are the

factory, production machines and tooling,
material handling equipment, inspection
equipment, and the computer systems that
control the manufacturing operations.
 Facilities also include the plant layout, which
is the way the equipment is physically
arranged in the factory. The equipment is
usually arranged into logical groupings, and
we refer to these equipment arrangements
and the workers who operate them as the
manufacturing systems in the factory.
• Manufacturing systems can be individual
work cells, consisting of a single production
machine and worker assigned to that
machine.
We more commonly think of manufacturing
systems as groups of machines and
workers, for example, a production line. The
manufacturing systems come in direct
physical contact with the parts and/or
assemblies being made. They "touch" the
product.
A manufacturing company attempts to
organize its facilities in the most efficient
way to serve the particular mission of that
plant.
One of the most important factors that
determine the type of manufacturing is the
type of products that are made.
 Two types of manufacturing systems:

Discrete manufacturing systems and

continuous manufacturing systems.

 Discrete Manufacturing Systems
The quantity produced by a factory has a very
significant influence on its facilities and the
way manufacturing is organized.
Production quantity refers to the number of
units of a given part or product produced
annually by the plant.
 The annual part or product produced in a
given factory can be classified into three
ranges:
Low production: Quantities in the range of 1 to
100 units per year.
Medium production: Quantities in the range of
100 to 10,000 units annually.
High production: Production quantities are
10,000 to millions of units.
 Some plants produce a variety of different
product types, each type being made in low
or medium quantities. Other plants
specialize in high production of only one
product type.
It is instructive to identify product variety as a
parameter distinct from production quantity.
Production variety refers to the different product
designs or types that are produced in a
plant.
Relation between product variety and
production quantity in discrete product
manufacturing.
 Low Quantity Production
The type of production facility usually
associated with the quantity range of 1 to
100 units/year is the job shop, which makes
low quantities of specialized and customized
products. The products are typically
complex, such as space capsules, aircraft,
and special machinery. Job shop production
can also include fabricating the component
parts for the products. Equipment in a job
shop is general purpose and the labor force
is highly skilled.
A job shop must be designed for maximum
flexibility to deal with the wide part and
product variations encountered. If the
product is large and heavy and therefore
difficult to move in the factory, it typically
remains in a single location, at least during
its final assembly. Workers and processing
equipment are brought to the product, rather
than moving the product to the equipment.
This type of layout is referred to as a fixed-
position layout.
The individual parts that comprise these large products are
often made in factories that have a process layout, in which
the equipment is arranged according to function or type.
The lathes are in one department, the milling machines are
in another department and so on. Different parts, each
requiring a different operation sequence, are routed
through the departments in the particular order needed for
their processing, usually in batches. The process layout is
noted for its flexibility; it can accommodate a great variety
of alternative operation sequences for different part
configurations. Its disadvantage is that the machinery and
methods to produce a part are not designed for high
efficiency. Much material handling is required to move parts
between departments, so in-process inventory can be high.
Various types of plant layout: (a) fixed-position layout, (b) process layout, (c) cellular layout, and
(d) product layout.
 Medium Quality Production
In the medium quantity range (100-10,000 units annually), we
distinguish between two different types of facility,
depending on product variety. When product variety is
hard, the traditional approach is batch production, in which
a batch of one product is made, after which the facility is
changed over to produce a batch of the next product, and
so on. Orders for each product are frequently repeated.
The production rate of the equipment is greater than the
demand rate for any single product type, and so the same
equipment can be shared among multiple products.
Batch production is commonly used in make-to-stock situations,
in which items are manufactured to replenish inventory that
has been gradually depleted by demand. The equipment is
usually arranged in a process layout.
An alternative approach to medium range production
is possible if product variety is soft. In this case,
extensive changeovers between one product style
and the next may not be required. It is often
possible to configure the equipment so that groups
of similar parts or products can be made on the
same equipment without significant lost time for
changeovers. The processing or assembly of
different parts or products is accomplished in cells
consisting of several workstations or machines.
The term cellular manufacturing is often
associated with this type of production. The layout
is called a cellular layout.
 High Production
The high quantity range (10,000 to millions of
units per year) is often referred to as mass
production. The situation is characterized by
a high demand rate for the product, and the
production facility is dedicated to the
manufacture of that product.
Two categories of mass production can be
distinguished:

(1) quantity production and

(2) flow line production.
 Quantity production involves the mass
production of single parts on single pieces of
equipment. The method of production
typically involves standard machines (such
as stamping presses) equipped with special
tooling (e.g., dies and material handling
devices), in effect dedicating the equipment
to the production of one part type. The
typical layout used in quantity production is
the process layout.
Flow line production involves multiple
workstations arranged in sequence, and the
parts or assemblies are physically moved
through the sequence to complete the
product.
The workstations consist of production
machines and/or workers equipped with
specialized tools. The collection of stations
is designed specifically for the product to
maximize efficiency.
The layout is called a product layout, and the
workstations are arranged into one long line,
or into a series of connected line segments.
The work is usually moved between stations
by powered conveyor. At each station, a
small amount of the total work is completed
on each unit of product.
The most familiar example of flow line production is the
assembly line, associated with products such as cars and
household appliances. The pure case of flow line
production is where there is no variation in the products
made on the line. Every product is identical, and the line is
referred to as a single model production line. However, to
successfully market a given product, it is often necessary to
introduce model variations so that individual customers can
choose the exact style and options that appeal to them.
From a production viewpoint, the model differences
represent a case of soft product variety. The term mixed-
model production line applies to those situations where
there is soft variety in the products made on the line.
Modern automobile assembly is an example. Cars coming
off the assembly line have variations in options and trim
representing different models (and, in many cases, different
nameplates) of the same basic car design.
The following figure summarizes the discussion
of the types of production facilities. As the
figure shows, some overlap exists among
the different facility types.
Types of facilities and layouts used for different levels of production quantity
and product variety.
 Manufacturing Support Systems
To operate the production facilities efficiently, a
company must organize itself to design the
processes and equipment, plan and control
the production orders, and satisfy product
quality requirements. These functions are
accomplished by manufacturing support
systems-people and procedures by which a
company manages its production
operations. Most of these support systems
do not directly contact the product, but they
plan and control its progress though the
factory.
Manufacturing support involves a cycle of
information-processing activities, as
illustrated in the following figure.
The information-processing cycle in a typical
manufacturing firm.
The production system facilities are pictured in
the center of the figure. The information-
processing cycle, represented by the outer
ring, can be described as consisting of four
functions:
(1) business functions,
(2) product design,
(3) manufacturing planning, and
(4) manufacturing control.
 Business Functions
The business functions are the principal means of
communicating with the customer. They are, therefore, the
beginning and the end of the information-processing cycle.
Included in this category are sales and marketing, sales
forecasting, order entry, cost accounting, and customer
billing.
The order to produce a product typically originates from the
customer and proceeds into the company through the sales
and marketing department of the firm. The production order
will be in one of the following forms: (1) an order to
manufacture an item to the customer's specifications, (2) a
customer order to buy one or more of the manufacturer's
proprietary products, or (3) an internal company order
based on a forecast of future demand for a proprietary
product.
 Product Design
If the product is to be manufactured to customer
design, the design will have been provided
by the customer. If the product is to be
produced to customer specifications, the
manufacturer's product design department
may be contracted to do the design work for
the product as well as to manufacture it.
If the product is proprietary, the manufacturing
firm is responsible for its development and
design. The cycle of events that initiates a
new product design often originates in the
sales and marketing department.
 Manufacturing Planning
The information and documentation that
constitute the product design flows into the
manufacturing planning function. The
information-processing activities in
manufacturing planning include process
planning, master scheduling, requirements
planning, and capacity planning.
Process planning consists of determining the
sequence of individual processing and
assembly operations needed to produce the
part.
 Master production schedule
The master production schedule is a listing of the products to be
made, when they are to be delivered, and in what
quantities. Based on this schedule, the individual
components and subassemblies that make up each
product must be planned. Raw materials must be
purchased or requisitioned from storage, purchased parts
must be ordered from suppliers, and all of these items must
be planned so that they are available when needed. This
entire task is called material requirements planning. In
addition, the master schedule must not list more quantities
of products than the factory is capable of producing each
month with its given number of machines and manpower. A
function called capacity planning is concerned with
planning the manpower and machine resources of the firm.
 Manufacturing Control
Manufacturing control is concerned with
managing and controlling the physical
operations in the factory to implement the
manufacturing plans. Included in the
manufacturing control function are shop
floor control, inventory control, and
quality control.
Shop floor control deals with the problem of
monitoring the progress of the product
as it is being processed, assembled,
moved, and inspected in the factory.
Inventory control attempts to strike a proper
balance between the danger of too little
inventory (with possible stock-outs of
materials) and the carrying cost of too
much inventory. It deals with such issues
as deciding the right quantities of
materials to order and when to reorder a
given item when stock is low.
The mission of quality control is to ensure that the
quality of the product and its components meet
the standards specified by the product
designer. To accomplish its mission, quality
control depends on inspection activities
performed in the factory at various times
during the manufacture of the product. Also,
raw materials and component parts from
outside sources are sometimes inspected
when they are received and final inspection
and testing of the finished product is
performed to ensure functional quality and
appearance.
 Automation in Production Systems

Some elements of the firm's production

system are likely to be automated,
whereas others will be operated manually
or clerically.
Automation can be defined as a technology
concerned with the application of
mechanical, electronic, and computer-
based systems to operate and control
production.
The automated elements of the production
system can be separated into two
categories:
(1) automation of the manufacturing
systems in the factory and
(2) computerization of the manufacturing
support systems. The term computer-
integrated manufacturing is used to
indicate the extensive use of computers
in production systems.
Opportunities of automation and computerization in a production
system.
 LECTURE 1
INTRODUCTION
Part 2
Production Systems
Goal: Introduce new products with better quality at
lower cost and with shorter lead time (delivery)
Why Computer?
Huge memory capacity, fast processing speed and
used-friendly "Interactive" graphics capabilities
 Technologies:
CAD, CAM and CAE are the technologies used
for this purpose during the product cycle.
 Manufacturing/ Production
• Manufacturing is a series of interrelated
activities and operators involving design,
material selection, planning, production,
quality assurance, management, and
marketing of discrete consumer and durable
goods.
• A Manufacturing System is an organization
that comprises several subsets responsible of
performing manufacturing activities. Its
objective is to interface with outside production
functions to optimize the total productivity
performance of the system.
 Product cycle:
Composed of 2 main processes: The design
process and the manufacturing process
 Product cycle

Product Design Drafting

Concept Engineering

Customer PRODUCT Process

Market New Equip. Planning
CYCLE Tooling

Quality Production
Control Production Scheduling
 Design process:
Starts from customer's demands and ends
with a complete description of the product
(Model)
Manufacturing process:
Starts from the design specifications and
ends with shipping of the actual product
 Design Activities:
Two large types:
Synthesis: Identification of the design need,
formulation of the design specifications, feasibility
study with collecting relevant design information,
and design conceptualization
Result of the synthesis subprocess: A conceptual
design – a sketch or a layout drawing that shows
the relationships among the various product
components
Analysis: Analysis and optimization of the design
 Manufacturing Process:
Process planning: A function that
establishes which processes and the proper
parameters for the processes to be used,
machines, and so on
Outcome: A production plan, materials
orders, machine programming, and so on
Actual product is produced and inspected
against quality requirements (Quality
control)
 CAD
Is a technology concerned with the use of
computer systems to assist in creation,
modification, analysis and optimization of a
design
 Basic role of CAD:
Define the geometry of design
Technologies: Computer-aided drafting and
geometric modeling
 CAM
The technology concerned with the use of
computer systems to plan, manage, and
control manufacturing operations through
either direct or indirect computer interface
with the plan's production resources
 What is CAM?
The effective utilization of computers in
manufacturing.
Applications of computers:
Direct application - device monitoring and
control, NC, PLC, manufacturing cell.
Indirect applications – manufacturing
support - planning, MRP, process planning,
scheduling, inventory, shop floor control.
 THE TREND OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Facts:
1. Rapid changing market place
2. Fast development of new technologies
3. Fierce competition
4. A "use brain" generation, not willing to learn the
trade which requires hand skill.
To survive:
1. Lower cost
2. Higher quality
3. Lower product development cycle
 SOLUTIONS DEVELOPED
1. Small batch production 95% in lot size of 50 or
less.
2. Just in time production, reduce inventory
(union?)
3. Automation - quality, labor cost
Automated lathe, screw machine (Swiss
machine), transfer line
4. Flexible automation - further reduce lead time,
automation of small batch (NC, FMS, FMC,
Robotics, ...)
5. Integration - CAM, CIM, concurrent engineering,
 BENEFITS OF CAM
•90% Inventory reduction
•50% more efficient use of factory &
warehouse space
•75% reduction in machine setup time - item
setup (re-measurement, repositioning, and
replacement of cutting tools,..)
•Does not change product specific set-up.
•25% reduction in direct and indirect labor
•90% reduction in lead time
 ADDITIONAL COSTS OF USING CAM VS
MANUAL OPERATION
• Programming
• Special tooling design and manufacturing
• Program proof out, 1st good part is a
dream, not a reality.
• Maintenance - more sophisticated system.
 CURRENT PROBLEMS
1. Manufacturing not emphasized enough
2. Designer tend to design for functionality
along
3. Manufacturing engineers lack overall
concept in manufacturing
4. Systems are not integrated.
 CAE
Computer-aided Engineering is the use of
computer systems to analyze CAD
geometry, allowing the designer to simulate
and study how the product will behave so
that the design can be refined and
optimized
 Computer-Aided Manufacturing
Computer Computer
CA
Aided Aided
Drafting
Design Engineering

Product Design Drafting

Concept Engineering

Customer PRODUCT Process

Market New Equip. Planning CAPP
CYCLE Tooling

Quality Production
Control Production Scheduling

Computer - Computerized
Aided Q.C. CAM, NC Scheduling, MRP
S.P.C. Robotics - Shop Floor Control
Introduction to CAD
Systems
Computer-aided design (CAD) systems are used by engineers,
architects, and other professionals to design and create
everything from cars to buildings. They enable precise and
efficient design creation using computer software.

aa
2D Geometry
2D geometry involves the study of shapes and figures in a two-dimensional plane. It forms the foundation for 2D CAD drawings and representa

1 Points 2 Lines
Points are the most basic element of 2D geometry. They Lines are formed by connecting two points. They have
represent a location in space. length and direction.

3 Curves 4 Polygons
Curves are continuous lines that change direction Polygons are closed shapes formed by connecting
smoothly. They can be straight or curved. multiple line segments.
Homogeneous Coordinates

Homogeneous coordinates are a way of representing 2D and 3D

points using three or four dimensions. This allows for simpler
mathematical calculations and representations of geometric
transformations.
Advantages Applications
Simplify transformations Used in computer graphics,
and allow for more efficient computer vision, and
computation. robotics.

Representation
A 2D point (x, y) is represented as (x, y, 1) in homogeneous coordinates.
Transformations
Transformations are operations that manipulate the position, size, and
orientation of geometric objects in a CAD system.

1 Translation
Moving an object to a new location.

2 Rotation
Rotating an object around a fixed point.

3 Scaling
Changing the size of an object.

4 Reflection
Mirroring an object across a line.
Scaling
Scaling is a transformation that changes the size of an object. It can be uniform or non-uniform, and the scaling
factor determines how much the object is enlarged or reduced.

Uniform Scaling Non-uniform Scaling

All dimensions are scaled by the same factor. Different dimensions are scaled by different factors.
Translation
Translation is a transformation that moves an object from one
location to another. The direction and distance of the movement
are determined by a translation vector.

Direction Distance
The direction of movement is The distance of movement is
defined by the translation determined by the
vector. magnitude of the translation
vector.
Rotation
Rotation is a transformation that rotates an object around a fixed point.
The angle of rotation determines how much the object is turned.

Axis of Rotation
The point around which the object is rotated.

Angle of Rotation
The amount of rotation.

Direction of Rotation
Clockwise or counter-clockwise.
Reflection
Reflection is a transformation that mirrors an object across a
line. The line of reflection determines the orientation of the
reflected object.
Type Description

X-Axis Reflection Reflects the object across

the x-axis.

Y-Axis Reflection Reflects the object across

the y-axis.

Origin Reflection Reflects the object across

the origin.
2D Viewing
2D viewing involves projecting a 3D object onto a 2D plane. This allows users to view and interact with the object from
different angles and perspectives.

Orthographic Projection Perspective Projection

Parallel lines remain parallel. Parallel lines converge at a vanishing point.
3D Geometry
3D geometry involves the study of shapes and figures in a three-
dimensional space. It allows for creating more realistic and
complex objects in CAD systems.

1 Points 2 Lines
Points in 3D space are Lines in 3D space have
represented by three length and direction
coordinates. and are represented by
two points.

3 Planes 4 Surfaces
Planes are flat surfaces Surfaces are curved or
that extend infinitely in flat areas that enclose
two dimensions. a volume.
 Lecture 2
Design Process
Relationship between Manufacture and Production
Manufacturing System
 Lecture 2
Design Process
Relationship between Manufacture and Production
Production System
 Lecture 2
Design Process
What is CAD/ CAM?
CAD/ CAM is a term, which means computer-aided design and
computer-aided manufacturing. It is the technology concerned
with the use of computers to perform certain functions in design
and production. This technology is moving in the direction of
greater integration of design and manufacturing.
 Lecture 2
Design Process
The design process
The main tasks of computer application in manufacturing
systems are:
1. How computers are used in the generation and management
of design information describing products?
2. How computers are used in the management of information
about the manufacturing system, which makes the
products?
 Lecture 2
Design Process
The process of designing something is characterized as an interactive
procedure, which consists of six identifiable steps or phases:
1. Recognition of need.
2. Definition of problem.
3. Synthesis.
4. Analysis and optimization.
5. Evaluation.
6. Presentation.
 Lecture 2
Design Process
 Lecture 2
Design Process
The applications of computers for design
The design-related tasks performed by CAD system are:
1. Geometric modeling.
2. Engineering analysis.
3. Design review and evaluation.
4. Automated drafting.
5. Parts classification and coding
 Lecture 2
Design Process
 Lecture 2
Design Process
Fundamental reasons for implementing CAD system:
1. To increase the productivity of the designer.
2. To improve the quality of design.
3. To improve communication
4. To create a data base for manufacturing
 Lecture 2
Design Process
CAD systems can be classified in several ways:
1. By the system hardware: Mainframe, Minicomputer,
Engineering workstation, Microcomputer
2. By the application area: Mechanical engineering, Circuit
design and board layout, Architectural design and
construction engineering, Cartography
3. By the modeling method: 2-D drafting, 3-D drafting,
Sculptured surface, 3-D solid modeling
 Lecture 2
Design Process
CAD systems can be classified in several ways:
1. By the system hardware: Mainframe, Minicomputer,
Engineering workstation, Microcomputer
2. By the application area: Mechanical engineering, Circuit
design and board layout, Architectural design and
construction engineering, Cartography
3. By the modeling method: 2-D drafting, 3-D drafting,
Sculptured surface, 3-D solid modeling
 Lecture 2
Design Process
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)
CAM can be defined as the use of computer systems to plan,
manage, and control the operations of a manufacturing
plant through either direct or indirect computer interface
with the plant's production resources.
 Lecture 2
Design Process
The applications of CAM fall into two broad categories:
1- Computer monitoring and control. These are the direct
applications in which the computer is connected directly to
the manufacturing process for the purpose of monitoring or
controlling the process.
2- Manufacturing support applications. These are the indirect
applications in which the computer is used in support of
the production operations in the plant, but there is no direct
interface between the computer and the manufacturing
process.
 Lecture 2
Design Process
The distinction between monitoring and control
 Lecture 2
Design Process
Interactive relationship between computer and
manufacturing processes
 Lecture 2
Design Process
Some examples of CAM for manufacturing support
Numerical control part programming: control programs are prepared for
automated machine tools.
Computer-automated process planning: the computer prepares a listing of
the operation sequence required to process a particular product or
component.
Computer-generated work standards: the computer determines the time
standard for a particular production operation.
Production scheduling: the computer determines an appropriate schedule
for meeting production requirements.
 Lecture 2
Design Process
Some examples of CAM for manufacturing support
Material requirements planning: the computer is used to determine when to
order raw materials and purchased components and how many should
be ordered to achieve the production schedule.
Shop floor control: in this CAM application, data are collected from the
factory to determine progress of the various production shop orders.

In all of these examples, human beings are presently required in the

application either to provide input to computer programs or to interpret
the computer output and implement the required action.
 Lecture 2
Design Process
Modeling
Many properties of products have to be modeled, including
form, dimension, tolerance and structure. In all of these
areas geometry, images and spatial manipulation are very
important. For this reason, CAD is founded on
computational geometry and computer graphics.
 Lecture 2
Design Process
The role of modeling and communication
It is important to distinguish between models of the design
process, which essentially attempt to describe the pattern
that designers follow in the design of products and models
of the designs themselves.
Models of the design are used for a variety of purposes. They
are used to record and manipulate ideas and to evaluate
the design. The models have a major role in the
communication of the design between participants in the
process, and to those involved in the manufacture,
development and subsequent use of the product.
 Lecture 2
Design Process
Types of design model
In practice, the designer uses a host of different
models depending on what property of the design
is to be modeled, and who or what is the target, or
receiver, for any communication. The designer
has to model the function of a design, its structure,
the form of the component parts, and the
materials, surface condition and dimensions that
are required. He may also wish to form
mathematical models, or other computer-based
representations, to assist in the evaluation of
design.
 Lecture 2
Design Process
For any particular combination of modeled property and
receiver there will be a type of model and a technique for
its generation that will be the most appropriate.
Of all the modeled properties, form and structure are of
particular importance in engineering, and the most
appropriate method of representing these has traditionally
been graphical, by drawings of form, by a system
engineering approach, or by diagrams showing structure,
or system arrangement.
The target receiver for the communication influences in
particular the technique that is used for the generation of
the model. In order for any communication to be
successful, the "language" that is employed must be
agreed and understood by all those involved.
 Lecture 2
Design Process
Modeled properties in design (a diagram of a simple electrical circuit)
 Lecture 2
Design Process
 CAD/CAM
LECTURE 3
First Semester 2005/2006
Dr. Hussein Sarhan
Mechatronics Engineering Department

Applications & Representations

of
CAD Models

1
 Applications of CAD Models
Let us turn now to the receiver of the communication, and
consider the sort of actions that are taken with the design
information that is received. These may be divided into two
main classifications:
Evaluating actions, taken to assess the properties or merit of
the design.
Generative actions that generate information from the model for
use downstream of the design process, usually in order to
progress its manufacture.
In each case the actions involve the extraction of information
from the design representation, and the combination of this with
further information to form a new model.

2
 Applications of CAD Models
Model Transformations in Design

3
 Applications of CAD Models
Example : The evaluation of the connecting rods, which connect the
crankshaft of an automotive engine to its pistons.

4
 Applications of CAD Models
Modeling using computer-aided design (CAD)
To support the design task, designers form a series of models
using various representations of the design, and others
involved in the evaluation of the design and in the manufacture
of the product extract information from these models and, in the
process, form new models to assist them in their work.

5
 Applications of CAD Models
The use of models in design

6
 Applications of CAD Models
The Aim of CAD
To apply computers to both modeling and communication of
designs.
There are two different approaches:
At a basic level, to use computers to automate or assist in such
tasks as the production of drawings or diagrams and the
generation of lists of parts in a design.
At more advanced level, to provide new techniques, which give
the designer, enhanced facilities to assist in the design
process.

7
 Defining the Model
Representation of Models
There are two types of models:
Models of form typically represented by drawings of
components and their arrangement in assemblies.
Models of structure normally represented by diagrams
that show the components of a system and how
they are connected.

8
 Defining the Model
The representation of form using drawings
The technique of representing three-dimensional
forms in two-dimensional space by means of
engineering drawings -on paper or on a computer
screen- is formally known as descriptive geometry.

Standards of drawings:

9
 Defining the Model
The representation of structure using diagrams
In engineering diagrams the logical or physical structure of a
system, in terms of the assembly of the primitive parts and
the relationship between these, is shown by a series of
symbols joined by connections. The rules for the symbols,
and for the connections, are governed by conventions that
have been established in standards.

10
 Defining the Model
Examples of Electrical and Fluid Power Symbols

11
 Defining the Model
Block Diagrams
At an early stage in the design process it may only be possible
to define overall relationships between parts of a system,
and a block diagram may be most appropriate. As a design
is prepared for construction and manufacture, detailed
wiring or piping diagrams are required.

12
 Defining the Model
Block diagram of injection system

13
 Defining the Model
Top-Down Design
By exploiting representations such as block diagrams, the
designer is able to subdivide a design problem into smaller
elements. These in turn may be subdivided, such that a
hierarchical decomposition of the problem is obtained. This
technique is known as "top-down" design.

14
 Defining the Model
Example: Top-Down Design “A hierarchical
arrangement of diagrams”

15
 Defining the Model
Strengths and Weaknesses of Conventional
Representations
Strengthens: serve engineers, communication.

Weaknesses: skill is required, it is possible to have conflicting

models (errors), and complexity in the product may stretch
the techniques to their limits, there is a risk of error
misinterpretation when extraction of information from
drawings and diagrams.

16
 Defining the Model
computer representation of drawings and diagrams
Defining the graphic elements
The user has a variety of different ways to call a particular graphic element
and position it on the geometric model. There are several ways of
defining points, lines, arcs, and other components of geometry through
interaction with the ICG (interactive computer graphics) system. These
components are maintained in the database in mathematical form and
referenced to a 3D coordinate system.

17
 Defining the Model
Basic geometry
A component must be modeled before it can be drawn.

18
 Defining the Model
Methods of defining elements in interactive computer graphics
Points
Methods of defining points in computer graphics include:
1. Pointing to the location on the screen by means of cursor control.
2. Entering the coordinates via the alphanumeric keyboard.
3. Entering the offset (distance in x, y, and z) from a previously
defined point.
4. The intersection of two points.
5. Locating points at fixed intervals along an element.

19
 Defining the Model

20
 Defining the Model
Lines
Methods of defining lines include:
1. Using two previously defined points.
2. Using one point and specifying the angle of the line with
the horizontal.
3. Using a point and making the line either normal or
tangent to a curve.
4. Using a point and making the line either parallel or
perpendicular to another line.
5. Making the line tangent to two curves.
6. Making the line tangent to a curve and parallel or
perpendicular to a line.

21
 Defining the Model

22
 Defining the Model
Arcs and circles
Methods of defining arcs and circles include:
1. Specifying the center and the radius.
2. Specifying the center and a point on the circle.
3. Making the curve pass through three previously defined
points.
4. Making the curve tangent to three lines.
5. Specifying the radius and making the curve tangent to
two lines or curves.

23
 Defining the Model

24
 Defining the Model
Surfaces
Some of the methods for generating surfaces include:
1. Using a surface of revolution formed by rotating any lines
and/ or curves around a specific axis.
2. Using the intersection line or surface of two intersecting
surfaces.

25
 Defining the Model

26
 Defining the Model

27
 Defining the Model

28
 Defining the Model

29
 Defining the Model

30
 Defining the Model

31
 Defining the Model

32
 Defining the Model

33
 Defining the Model

34
 Defining the Model

35
 Defining the Model

36
 Defining the Model

37
 Defining the Model

38
Parametric Modeling of Geometry
Parametric Modeling of Geometry
Parametric Modeling of Geometry
Parametric Modeling of Geometry
Parametric Modeling of Geometry
Parametric Modeling of Geometry
Parametric Modeling of Geometry
Parametric Modeling of Geometry
Parametric Modeling of Geometry
 Parametric Modeling of Geometry

Example
 BASICS OF CAD SYSTEMS

The aim of these lectures and notes is to give an

understanding of what is happening within CAD systems.

By understanding how something works allows us to

use it more effectively.

1
 2D GEOMETRY

The simplest CAD Systems are 2D drafting tools. They

allow geometry to be created, stored and manipulated.
A line might be stored as two points:

L  P1P2  ( x1y1 x2y2 )

 x1 y1 
[ L]   
 x2 y2 

L P2

P1
2
 For a triangle we might have

 x1 y1  P2

P Tri   x2 y2 
 x3 y3 
P1 P3

In this format it is not easy to do Matrix Manipulation

in 2D (which is what we want to do). Thus we want
homogenous coordinates.

3
 HOMOGENOUS CO-ORDINATES

Presents a unified approach to describing

geometric transformations.

Assume a 2D point lies in 3D space.

4
Any 2D point can be represented in such a 3D space
as:

Px, y, z   Phx1 , hy1 , hz 

That is, along a ray from the origin (called
homogenous space).

5
For instance, consider point P(2,4) in ordinary co-
ordinates. This can be considered as

P(4, 8, 2) or P(6, 12, 3) or P(2, 4, 1)

in homogeneous space.
m n 
And P(m, n, h) in homogenous space is P , ,1
h h 
in ordinary co-ordinates.

6
Thus, our triangle is now

 x1 y1 1
PTri    x2 y 2 1
 x3 y 3 1

Why?
To help with transformations.

7
 TRANSFORMATIONS
We can transform in three ways in our CAD system:
• Rigid body transformation
• Object transformation
• Co-ordinate system transformation

- Object transformation changes the points forming the

object.
- Co-ordinate system transformation creates a new co-
ordinate system and then represents all points.
- Rigid body transformation moves the whole object, but
does not deform an object.
8
 SCALING

P(x, y) P*(x*, y*)

S x 0
x   xS x
0
or  
x  , y  ,1  x, y,1 0 Sy 0
y   yS y  0 0 1

This is scaling about the origin

If -Sx = Sy uniform scaling

Magnify command
9
 TRANSLATION
(x* y*)

(x y)
Ty

Tx

1 0
x   x  Tx 0

 or   
x  , y  ,1  x, y,1  0 1 0

y  y  Ty Tx
 Ty 1

You can now see that homogeneous co-ordinates are

needed for rigid body transformation.
This is what the Move command does in CAD System. 10
 ROTATION

Rotation is always about an origin with a specified angle 

y

x  r cos 
P*(x*, y*)
y  r sin 

P(x, y)
x  r cos     r cos cos  r sin sin

y   r sin      r sin cos  r cos sin

r

Substituting
 cos  sin  0
x  x cos  y sin
or x 
y 
1  x, y,1  sin  cos  0
y  x sin  y cos

 0 0 1

Rotate command
11
 REFLECTION

1 0 0
a 0 0
 0  1 0
 0 b 0 or TRLx
TRFL
0 0 1
0 0 1
etc
This is the mirror command.
Joining transformations together.
These transformation matrices can be concatenated

S x 0 0 1 0 0  S x 0 0
0 Sy 0 0  1 0   0  Sy 0

 0 0 1 0 0 1  0 0 1

12
 2D VIEWING

We need to understand that our CAD model is defined

within a world or global co-ordinate system (WCS)
(usually 3D)
but we view it through a flat screen which will have its
own device co-ordinate system (DCS).

13
This is usually done through a neutral stage or a virtual or normalized co-
ordinate system (NCS). Thus we map as follows:

y
Worl
d
50

35

1
15

x World 500
Pixels

500
Pixels
WCS NCS DCS

14
We will not see all the component at one time. Thus we need to
define a window.
Neutral view port
Window on world

NCS

WCS

Viewpoint on device

DCS
15
We can map this to the view port by

xv  xv min xw  xw min yv  yv min yw  yw min

 and 
xv max  xv min xw max  xw min yv max  yv min yw max  yw min

16
When the Aspect Ratio (AR) of both is equal no distortion
(scaling occurs)

xmax  xmin
AR 
ymax  ymin

By mapping a smaller window on the view port, we can get a

“zooming” effect.

17
 3D GEOMETRY
Most of the time we define our components in 3D and then view in 2D.

CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM
In order to define our geometry we need to have a co-ordinate system.
All CAD Systems have a base or default co-ordinate system

Right hand co-ordinate system

z
18
In addition, we can define local co-ordinate systems to help define
features and geometry

y z
y Left hand co-ordinate system LCS
x
z

The geometry may be stored:

• in the WCS co-ordinates with the transformation between the two
• in LCS co-ordinates with a transformation to WCS
depending on the system

19
HOMOGENOUS CO-ORDINATES IN 3D

A point in 3D space can be represented by

P [ x, y, z, h ]
and if h = 1, then we have ordinary co-ordinates.

0 0 0 1
x 0 0 1
 B
0 yc 0 1
 
0 0 zD 1

20
 3D TRANSFORMATIONS
A point in 3D space can be represented by

P [ x, y, z, h ]
and if h = 1, then we have ordinary co-ordinates.

We can do transformations in 3D in a similar fashion to 2D

using a 4 x 4 matrix notation

Sheer, scale,
A B C 0
reflection &
D E F 0 
rotation 
G H I 0
 
J K L S
Global scaling
Translation

21
 SCALING

S x 0 0 0
0 0
 
x  , y  , z  ,1  x, y, z ,1 
0
Sy
0
0
Sz 0
 
0 0 0 1

If Sx  Sy  Sz then distortion occurs

22
Or, we can get global scaling by

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 
  

x , y , z  x, y, z ,1 

0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 S

 x, y, z , S 

 x  x , y   y , z   z , 1  S
S S S S

23
 EXAMPLE

Let a unit cube be represented by:

0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1

2 2 0 1
 
0 2 0 1
P   
0 0 2 1
 
2 0 2 1
2 2 2 1
 
0 2 2 1

24
 Apply scaling

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 2  0
0 1 0 0  1 0 0
Tsc   2  or
1 0 0 1 0
0 0
2 
0
 
0 0 1 0 0 0 2
 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2
2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 
 
2 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 2 0 2
   
2 0 1 0 0 0
 
P  cube  
0
0
0 2 1 0
1 0
0 1

0  0
2 0 2
0 2 2
    
2 0 2 1 0 0 0 2  2 0 2 2
2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2
   
0 2 2 1 0 2 2 2 

25
 Translation

0 0 0 0
0 0 0
 
x  . y  , z  ,1  x, y, z ,1 
0
1
0 1 0
 
J K L 1

Scale factors

26
 Rotation
y

 cos  sin  0 0
 sin  cos  0 0
TR z 
 0 0 1 0
 
x  0 0 0 1

z
cos  0  sin  0
 0 1 0
0
0 0
TR y 
1 0 0 cos  sin  0
 sin  0 cos  0 TR x 
  0  sin  cos  0
 0 0 0 1  
0 0 0 1

The order and direction of rotation is important

27
Computer Numerical Control
Lecture 5
Part Programming with APT

Dr Ibrahim Al-Adwan
Part Programming with APT

APT: Automatically Programmed Tooling.

APT is a three-dimensional NC programming system.
APT is not only a language; it is also the computer
program that processes the APT statements to
calculate the corresponding cutter positions and
generate the machine tool control commands.

1/15/2025 2
Part Programming with APT

1. Geometry statements, also called definition statements,

are used to define the geometry elements that comprise
the part.
2. Motion commands are used to specify the tool path.
3. Postprocessor statements control the machine tool
operation, for example, to specify speeds and feeds, set
tolerance values for circular interpolation, and actuate
other capabilities of the machine tool.
4. Auxiliary statements, a group of miscellaneous statements
used to name the part program, insert comments in the
program and accomplish similar functions.

1/15/2025 3
Part Programming with APT

Geometry Statements
SYMBOL = GEOMETRY TYPE/descriptive data
Points
P1 = POINT/20.0,40.0,60.0
P2 = POINT/INTOF,L1,L2
Commas are used to separate the words and numerical values
in the descriptive data.

1/15/2025 4
Part Programming with APT

Geometry Statements
Lines
A line defined in APT is considered to be infinite length in
both directions. Also, APT treats a line as a vertical plane
that is perpendicular to the x-y plane.
L3 = LINE/P3,P4
L4 = LINE/P5,PARLEL,L3

1/15/2025 5
Part Programming with APT

Geometry Statements
Circles
In APT, a circle is considered to be a cylindrical surface that is
perpendicular to the x-y plane and extends to infinity in
the z-direction.
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER,P1,RADIUS,25.0
C2 = CIRCLE/P4,P5,P6

Planes
In APT, a plane extends indefinitely.
PL1 = PLANE/P1,P2,P3
PL2 = PLANE/P2,PARLEL,PL1

1/15/2025 6
Part Programming with APT

Geometry Statements
Rules for formulating APT geometry statements:
1. Coordinate data must be specified in the order x, then y,
then z.
2. Any symbols used as descriptive data must have been
previously defined.
3. A symbol can be used to define only one geometry
element.

1/15/2025 7
Part Programming with APT

Example Part Geometry Using APT

1/15/2025 8
Part Programming with APT

Example Part Geometry Using APT

1/15/2025 9
Part Programming with APT

Example Part Geometry Using APT

P1 = POINT/0,0,0
P2 = POINT/160.0,0,0
P3 = POINT/160.0,60.0,0
P4 = POINT/35.0,90.0,0
P5 = POINT/70.0,30.0,0
P6 = POINT/120.0,30.0,0
P7 = POINT/70.0,60.0,0
P8 = POINT/130.0,60.0,0
L1 = LINE/P1,P2
L2 = LINE/P2,P3
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER,P8,RADIUS,30.0
L3 = LINE/P4,PARLEL,L1
L4 = LINE/P4,P1

1/15/2025 10
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands
The format of an APT motion command is:
MOTION COMMAND/descriptive data
Example: GOTO/P1
The statement consists of two sections separated by a slash.
The first section is the basic command that indicates
what move the tool should make. The descriptive data
following the slash tell the tool where to go.

1/15/2025 11
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands
At the beginning of the sequence of motion statements, the tool must be
given a starting point. This is likely to be the target point, the location
where the operator has positioned the tool at the start of the job.
The part programmer keys into this starting position with the
following statement:
FROM/PTARG
where FROM is an APT vocabulary word indicating that this is the initial
point from which all others will be referenced; and PTARG is the
symbol assigned to the starting point. Another way to make this
statement is the following:
FROM/-20.0,-20.0,0
The FROM statement occurs only at the start of the motion sequence.

1/15/2025 12
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands
Point-to-point motions (Positioning or straight-line cutting)
There are only two commands: GOTO and GODLTA.
The GOTO statement instructs the tool to go to a particular point location specified
in the descriptive data.
Examples:
GOTO/P2
GOTO/25.0,40.0,0
In the first command, P2 is the destination of the tool point. In the second
command, the tool has been instructed to go to the location whose
coordinates are x=25.0, y=40.0, and z=0.

The GODLTA command specifies an incremental move for the tool. To illustrate, the
following statement instructs the tool to move from its present position by a
distance of 50.0mm in the x-direction, 120.0mm in the y-direction, and
40.0mm in the z-direction:
GODLTA/50.0,120.0,40.0

1/15/2025 13
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands
Point-to-point motions
The GODLTA statement is useful in drilling and related
machining operations. The tool can be directed to go to a
given hole location; then the GODLTA command can be
used to drill the hole, as in the following sequence:
GOTO/P2
GODLTA/0,0,-50.0
GODLTA/0,0,50.0

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Part Programming with APT
Motion Commands
Contouring Motion Commands
The tool's position must be continuously controlled throughout the move.
The tool is directed along two intersecting surfaces until it reaches a
third surface, as shown in the following Figure.
These three surfaces have specific names in APT; they are:
1. Drive surface.This surface guides the side of the cutter.
2. Part surface. This is the surface on which the bottom or nose of the
tool is guided.
3. Check surface. This is the surface that stops the forward motion of
the tool in the execution of the current command. One might say
that this surface "checks" the advance of the tool.

1/15/2025 15
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands
There are several ways in which the check surface can be
used. This is determined by using any of four APT
modifier words in the descriptive data of the motion
statement. The four modifier words are TO, ON, PAST,
and TANTO.

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Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands

Use of APT modifier words in motion statements: (a) TO moves the tool into initial
contact with the check surface; (b) ON positions the tool center on the
check surface; (c) PAST moves the tool just beyond the check surface.

1/15/2025 17
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands
The modifier word TANTO is used when the drive surface is tangent to a
circular check surface.

Use of the APT modifier word TANTO. TANTO moves the tool to the point of
tangency between two surfaces, at least one of which is a circular surface.

1/15/2025 18
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands
In writing a motion statement, the part programmer must
keep in mind the direction from which the tool is coming
in the preceding motion. The programmer must pretend
to be riding on the top of the tool, as if driving a car. After
the tool reaches the check surface in the preceding move,
does the next move involve a right turn or left turn or
what? The answer to this question is determined by one
of the following six motion words, whose interpretations
are illustrated in the following figure:

1/15/2025 19
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands

Use of the APT motion words. The tool has moved from a previous position to its
present position. The direction of the next move is determined by one of the
APT motion words GOLFT, GORGT, GOFWD, GOBACK, GOUP, or
GODOWN.

1/15/2025 20
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands
To begin the sequence of motion commands, the FROM statement is used.
The statement following the FROM command defines the initial drive
surface, part surface, and check surface. With reference to the
following figure, the sequence takes the following form:
FROM/PTARG
GO/TO,PL1,TO,PL2,TO,PL3
The symbol PTARG represents the target point where the operator has
set up the tool. The GO command instructs the tool to move to the
intersection of the drive surface (PL1), the part surface (PL2), and the
check surface (PL3). Because the modifier word TO has been used
for each of the three surfaces, the circumference of the cutter is
tangent to PL1 and PL3, and the bottom of the cutter is on PL2. The
three surfaces included in the GO statement must be specified in the
order: (1) drive surface, (2) part surface, and (3) check surface.

1/15/2025 21
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands

Initialization of APT contouring motion sequence.

1/15/2025 22
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands
Note that GO/TO is not the same as the GOTO command.
GOTO is used only for PTP motions. The GO/ command
is used to initialize a sequence of contouring motions and
may take alternatives forms such as GO/ON,GO/TO, or
GO/PAST.

1/15/2025 23
Part Programming with APT
Motion Commands
After initialization, the tool is directed along its path by one of the six
motion command words. It is not necessary to redefine the part
surface in every motion command after it has been initially defined as
long as it remains the same in subsequent commands. In the
preceding motion command:

GO/TO,PL1,TO,PL2,TO,PL3

the cutter has been directed from PTARG to the intersection of surfaces
PL1, PL2, and PL3. Suppose it is now desired to move the tool along
plane PL3, with PL2 remaining as the part surface. The following
command would accomplish this motion:

GORGT/PL3,PAST,PL4

1/15/2025 24
Part Programming with APT

Motion Commands
The planes around the part outline can be replaced by lines,
and the APT commands can be replaced by the following:
FROM/PTARG
GO/TO,L1,TO,PL2,TO,L3
GORGT/L3,PAST,L4

1/15/2025 25
Part Programming with APT

Example APT Contouring Motion Commands

1/15/2025 26
Part Programming with APT

Example APT Contouring Motion Commands

1/15/2025 27
Part Programming with APT

Example APT Contouring Motion Commands

Let us write the APT motion commands to profile mill the
outside edges of our sample workpart. The tool begins its
motion sequence from a target point PTARG located at
x=0, y=-50mm and z=10mm. We also assume that "part
surface" PL2 has been defined as a plane parallel to the x-
y plane and located 25mm below the top surface of the
part. The reason for defining in this way is to ensure that
the cutter will machine the entire thickness of the part.

1/15/2025 28
Part Programming with APT

Example APT Contouring Motion Commands

FROM/PTARG
GO/TO,L1,TO,PL2,ON,L4
GORGT/L1,PAST,L2
GOLFT/L2,TANTO,C1
GOFWD/C1,PAST,L3
GOFWD/L3,PAST,L4
GOLEFT/L4,PAST,L1
GOTO/P0

1/15/2025 29
Part Programming with APT

Postprocessor and Auxiliary Statements

POSTPROCCER COMMAND/descriptive data
where the POSTPROCESSOR COMMAND is an APT major word
including the type of function or action to be accomplished, and the
descriptive data consists of APT minor words and numerical values.
In some commands, the descriptive data is omitted.
Examples:
• UNITS/MM indicates that the specified units in the program are
INCHES or MM.
• INTOL/0.02 specifies inward tolerance for circular interpolation.
• SPINDL/1000,CLW specifies spindle rotation speed in revolutions
per minute. Either CLW (clockwise) or CCLW (counterclockwise)
can be specified.
• DELAY/30 temporarily stops the machine tool for a period specified
in seconds.

1/15/2025 30
Part Programming with APT

Postprocessor and Auxiliary Statements

Auxiliary statements are used to identify the part program, specify which
postprocessor to use, insert remarks into the program, and so on.
Auxiliary statements have no effect on the generation of tool path.

Examples:
• PARTNO is the first statement in an APT program, used to identify
the program; for example,
PARTNO SAMPLE PART NUMBER ONE
• MACHIN/ permits the part programmer to specify the
postprocessor, which in effect specifies the machine tool.
• REMARK is used to insert explanatory comments into the program
that are not interpreted or processed by the APT processor.
• FINI indicates the end of an APT program.

1/15/2025 31
Part Programming with APT

Example: Drilling Sequence in APT

Let us write the APT program to perform the drilling sequence for the
sample part in the following figure.

1/15/2025 32
Example:
Drilling Sequence
in APT

1/15/2025 33
Part Programming with APT

Example Two-Axis Profile Milling in APT

The three holes drilled in the previous example will be used for locating and
holding the workpart for milling the outside edges. Axis coordinates are
given in the following figure.

1/15/2025 34
Part Programming with APT

Example Two-Axis Profile Milling in APT

The top surface of the part is 40 mm above the surface of the machine
table. A 20-mm diameter end mill with four teeth and a side tooth
engagement of 40 mm will be used. The bottom tip of the cutter will
be positioned 25 mm below the top surface during machining, thus
ensuring that the side cutting edges of the cutter will cut the full
thickness of the part. Spindle speed = 1000 rev/min and feed rate =
50 mm/min.The tool path is given in the second figure.

1/15/2025 35
Part Programming with APT

Example Two-Axis Profile Milling in APT

1/15/2025 36
 Part Programming with APT
Example Two-Axis Profile Milling in APT

1/15/2025 37
Part Programming with APT

Example Two-Axis Profile Milling in APT

1/15/2025 38
Computer Numerical Control
Lecture 6
Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning
Systems

Dr Ibrahim Al-Adwan
Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems

The NC positioning system converts the coordinate axis values in the NC part
program into relative positions of the tool and workpart during processing.
Consider the simple positioning system shown in the following figure.

Motor and leadscrew arrangement in an NC positioning system.

1/15/2025 2
The system consists of a cutting tool and a worktable on which
a workpart is fixtured. The table is designed to move the part
relative to the tool. The worktable moves linearly by means of a
rotating leadscrew, which is driven by a stepping motor or
servomotor. The leadscrew has a certain pitch p (in/thread,
mm/thread). Thus, the table moves a distance equal to the pitch
for each revolution. The velocity of the worktable, which
corresponds to the feed rate in a machining operation, is
determined by the rotational speed of the leadscrew.

1/15/2025 3
Types of NC Positioning Systems

1/15/2025 4
Open-Loop Positioning Systems
An open-loop positioning system typically uses a stepping motor to rotate the
leadscrew. A stepping motor is driven by a series of electrical pulses, which are
generated by the MCU in an NC system. Each pulse causes the motor to rotate a
fraction of one revolution, called the step angle. The possible step angles must be
consistent with the following relationship:

360

ns
where   step angle (degree/pulse), and n  the number of step angles for the
s

motor (pulses), which must be an integer. The angle through which the motor
shaft rotates is given by
Am  n p

1/15/2025 5
Open-Loop Positioning Systems

where A  angle of motor shaft rotation (degrees),n  number of pulses received by

m p

the motor, and  step angle (degrees/pulse). The motor shaft is generally connected
to the leadscrew through a gear box, which reduces the angular rotation of the
leadscrew. The angle of the leadscrew rotation must take the gear ratio into account
as follows:
n p
A
rg
where A  angle of leadscrew rotation (degrees), and r =gear ratio, defined as the
g

number of turns of the motor for each single turn of the leadscrew. That is,

1/15/2025 6
Open-Loop Positioning Systems

Am N m
rg  
A N
Where N m  rotational speed of the motor (rev/min), and N  rotational speed of
the leadscrew (rev/min).

The linear movement of the worktable is given by the number of full and partial
rotations of the leadscrew multiplied by its pitch:

pA
x
360

1/15/2025 7
Open-Loop Positioning Systems
where x  x  axis position relative to the starting position (mm, inch),
p.  pitch of the leadscrew (mm/rev, in/rev), and A / 360  number of
leadscrew revolutions. The number of pulses required to achieve a specified
position increment in a point-to-point system can be found by combining the two
preceding equations as follows:
360 xrg ns xrg
np  or
p p
where the second expression on the right-hand side is obtained by substituting ns
for 360 / .
Control pulses are transmitted from the pulse generator at a certain frequency,
which drives the worktable at a corresponding velocity or feed rate in the
direction of the leadscrew axis. The rotational speed of the leadscrew depends on
the frequency of the pulse train as follows:

1/15/2025 8
Open-Loop Positioning Systems
Control pulses are transmitted from the pulse generator at a certain frequency, which
drives the worktable at a corresponding velocity or feed rate in the direction of the
leadscrew axis. The rotational speed of the leadscrew depends on the frequency of
the pulse train as follows:

60 f p
N
n s rg
where N  leadscrew rotational speed (rev/min), f  pulse train frequency (Hz,
p

pulses/sec), and n = steps per revolution or pulses per revolution.

s

The table travel speed in the direction of leadscrew axis is determined by the
rotational speed as follows:

1/15/2025 9
Open-Loop Positioning Systems

vt  f r  Np
where vt  table travel speed (mm/min, in/min), f r  table feed rate (mm/min,
in/min), N  leadscrew rotational speed (rev/min), and p  leadscrew pitch
(mm/rev, in/rev).

The required pulse train frequency to drive the table at a specified linear travel rate
can be obtained by combining the last two equations and rearranging to solve for f p :

vt ns rg f r ns rg
fp  or
60 p 60 p

1/15/2025 10
Example NC Open-Loop Positioning
The worktable of a positioning system is driven by a leadscrew whose pitch = 6.0mm.
The leadscrew is connected to the output shaft of a stepping motor through a
gearbox whose ration is 5:1 (5 turns of the motor to one turn of the leadscrew). The
stepping motor has 48 step angles. The table must move a distance of 250mm from its
present position at a linear velocity=500 mm/min. Determine (a) how many pulses
are required to move the table the specified distance and (b) the required motor
speed and pulse rate to achieve the desired table velocity.

1/15/2025 11
Example NC Open-Loop Positioning
Solution:
The leadscrew rotation angle corresponding to a distance x  250mm,

360 x 360(250)
A   15,000 o
p 6.0
With 50 step angles, each step angle is:
360
  7.5 o
48

Thus, the number of pulses to move the table 250mm is

360 xrg Arg
15000(5)
np     10,000
p  7.5
1/15/2025 12
Example NC Open-Loop Positioning
Solution:
(b) The rotational speed of the leadscrew corresponding to a table speed
of 500 mm/min can be determined as:

vt 500
N   83.333 rev/min
The motor speed: p 6
N m  rg N  5( 83.333 )  416.667 rev/min

The applied pulse rate to drive the table is given by:

vt ns rg 500( 48 )( 5 )
fp    333.333 Hz
60 p 60( 6 )

1/15/2025 13
Closed-Loop Positioning Systems
A closed-loop NC system uses servomotors and feedback measurements to ensure
that the worktable is moved to the desired position. A common feedback sensor used
for NC is the optical encoder, shown in the following figure.

1/15/2025 14
In the basic optical encoder, the angle between slots in the disk must satisfy the
following requirement:
360

ns
Where   angle between slots (degrees/slot), and ns  the number of slots in
the disk (slots/rev). For a certain angular rotation of the encoder shaft, the number of
pulses sensed by the encoder is given by:
Ae
np 

Where n p  pulse count emitted by the encoder, Ae  angle of rotation of the
encoder shaft (degrees), and  angle between slots, which converts to degrees
per pulse.

1/15/2025 15
Closed-Loop Positioning Systems
The pulse count can be used to determine the linear x-axis position of the worktable
by factoring in the leadscrew pitch and the gear reduction between the encoder shaft
and the leadscrew. Thus:
pn p
x
n s rge
Where n p and n s are defined above, p  leadscrew pitch (mm/rev, in/rev), and
.rge  gear reduction between the encoder and the leadscrew, defined as the
number of turns of the encoder shaft for each single turn of the leadscrew.
That is,
Ae N e
rge  
A N

1/15/2025 16
Closed-Loop Positioning Systems
where Ae  encoder shaft angle (degrees), A  leadscrew angle (degrees), N 
e
rotational speed of encoder shaft (rev/min), and N  rotational speed of leadscrew
(rev/min).
The velocity of the worktable, which is normally the feed rate in machining operation,
is obtained from the frequency of the pulse train as follows:
60 pf p
vt  f r 
n s rge

where v t  worktable velocity (mm/min, in/min), f r  feed rate (mm/min,

in/min), f p  frequency of the pulse train emitted by the optical encoder (Hz,
pulse/sec), and the constant 60 converts worktable velocity and feed rate from
mm/sec (in/sec) to mm/min (in/min).

1/15/2025 17
Example NC Closed-Loop Positioning
An NC worktable operates by closed-loop positioning. The s
consists of a servomotor, leadscrew, and optical encoder. The lead
has a pitch=6.0mm and is coupled to the motor shaft with a gea
of 5:1 (5 turns of the drive motor for each turn of the leadscrew
optical encoder generates 48 pulses/rev of its output sha
encoder output shaft is coupled to the leadscrew with a 4:1 red
(4 turns of the encoder shaft for each turn of the leadscrew). The
has been programmed to move a distance of 250mm at a fee
=500 mm/min. Determine (a) how many pulses should be recei
the control system to verify that the table has moved exactly 25
(b) the pulse rate of the encoder, and (c) the drive motor spee
correspond to the specified 18fee
1/15/2025
Example NC Closed-Loop Positioning
Solution:
xns rge 250(48)( 4)
np    8000 pulses
(a) p 6.0

(b) The pulse rate corresponding to 500 mm/min:

fr ns rge 500(48)( 4)
fp    2666.667 Hz
60 p 60(6.0)

(c) Motor speed = table velocity (feed rate) divided by leadscrew pitch, corrected for
gear ratio:
rg f r 5(500)
Nm    416.667 rev/min
p 6.0

1/15/2025 19
Precision in NC Positioning
For accurate machining or other processing performed by an NC system, the
positioning system must possess a high degree of precision. Three measures
of precision can be defined for an NC positioning system: (1) control
resolution, (2) accuracy, and (3) repeatability.
These terms are most readily explained by considering a single axis of the
positioning system, as shown in the following figure.

1/15/2025 20
Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems

A portion of a linear positioning system axis, with definition of control resolution, accuracy,
and repeatability.

1/15/2025 21
Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems
A number of electromechanical factors affect control resolution, including
leadscrew pitch, gear ratio in the drive system, and the step angle in a
stepping motor for an open-loop system or the angle between slots in an
encoder disk for a closed-loop system. For an open-loop positioning
system driven by a stepper motor, these factors can be combined into an
expression that defines the control resolution as follows:
p
CR1 
ns rg
where CR1  control resolution of the electromechanical components
(mm, in), p  leadscrew pitch (mm/rev, in/rev), number of steps per
revolution, and rg  gear ratio between the motor shaft and the ns 
leadscrew.

1/15/2025 22
Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems
A similar expression can be developed for a closed-loop positioning
system, except that the gear reduction between the leadscrew and the
encoder shaft must be included:
p
CR1 
ns rg rge
The second factor that limits control resolution is the number of bits used
by the MCU to specify the axis coordinate value. For example, this
limitation may be imposed by the bit storage capacity of the controller. If
B= the number of bits in the storage register for the axis, then the number
of control points into which the axis range can be divided = 2B. Assuming
that the control points are separated equally within the range, then

1/15/2025 23
Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems

L
CR2  B
2 1
where CR2  control resolution of the computer control system (mm, in),
and L  axis range (mm, in). The control resolution of the positioning
system is the maximum of the two values; that is,

CR  MaxCR1 ,CR2 
A desirable criterion is for CR2  CR1 , meaning that the electromechanical
system is the limiting factor that determines control resolution. The bit
storage capacity of a modern computer controller is sufficient to satisfy
this criterion except in unusual situations. Resolutions of 0.0025 mm
(0.0001 in) are within the current state of NC technology.

1/15/2025 24
Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems
The capability of a positioning system to move the worktable to the exact
location defined by a given addressable point is limited by mechanical
errors that are due to various imperfections in the mechanical system.
These imperfections include play between the leadscrew and the
worktable, backlash in the gears, and deflection of machine components.
We assume that the mechanical errors form an unbiased normal statistical
distribution about the control point whose mean . We further assume that
the standard deviation of the distribution is constant over the range of the
axis under consideration. Given these assumptions, then nearly all of the
mechanical errors (99.74%) are contained within   of the control point,
as shown in the previous figure for a portion of the axis range that
includes two control points.

1/15/2025 25
Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems
The accuracy of any given axis of a positioning system is the maximum
possible error that can occur between the desired target point and the
actual position taken by the system; in equation form,

CR
Accuracy   3
2
Where CR  control resolution (mm, in), and   standard deviation of
the error distribution. Accuracies in machine tools are generally expressed
for a certain range of table travel, for example, .0.0004 mm for
250 mm (  0.01 in for 10 in) of table travel.

1/15/2025 26
Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems
Repeatability refers to the capability of the positioning system to return
to a given addressable point that has been previously programmed. This
capability can be measured in terms of the location errors encountered
when the system attempts to position itself at the addressable point.
Location errors are a manifestation of the mechanical errors of the
positioning system, which follow a normal distribution, as assumed
previously. Thus, the repeatability of any given axis of a positioning system
is standard deviations of the mechanical error distribution associated with
the axis. This can be written:

Repeatabil ity  3

The repeatability of a modern NC machine tool is around  0.0025 mm
(  0.0001 in).

1/15/2025 27
Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems
Example Control Resolution, Accuracy, and Repeatability in NC
Suppose the mechanical inaccuracies in the open-loop positioning system
discussed above are described by a normal distribution with standard
deviation   0.005 mm. The range of the worktable axis is 1000 mm,
and there are 16 bits in the binary register used by the digital controller to
store the programmed position. Other parameters are: p  pitch 6.0mm,
rg  gear ratio between motor shaft and leadscrew 5.0, and number of
step angles in the stepping motor ns  48. Determine (a) the control
resolution, (b) the accuracy, and (c) the repeatability for the positioning
system.

1/15/2025 28
 Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems
Solution:
(a) Control resolution is the greater of CR1 and CR2:

p 6.0
CR1    0.025mm
ns rg 48(5.0)

1000 1000
CR2  16   0.01526mm
2  1 65,535
CR  Max0.025,0.01526  0.025mm

1/15/2025 29
Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems
Solution:
(b) Accuracy

Accuracy  0.5(0.025)  3(0.005)  0.0275mm

(c) Repeatability

Repeatabil ity  3( 0.005 )  0.015 mm

1/15/2025 30
Computer Numerical Control
Lecture 8a
CAD/CAM

Dr .Ibrahim Al-Adwan
Design Process
The design process
The main tasks of computer application in manufacturing
systems are:
1. How computers are used in the generation and management
of design information describing products?
2. How computers are used in the management of information
about the manufacturing system, which makes the
products?

2
Design Process

3
4
Design Process
Fundamental Benefits for implementing CAD system:
1. To increase the productivity of the designer.
2. To improve the quality of design.
3. To improve communication
4. To create a data base for manufacturing

5
Design Process
CAD systems can be classified in several ways:
1. By the system hardware: Mainframe, Minicomputer,
Engineering workstation, Microcomputer
2. By the application area: Mechanical engineering, Circuit
design and board layout, Architectural design and
construction engineering, Cartography
3. By the modeling method: 2-D drafting, 3-D drafting,
Sculptured surface, 3-D solid modeling

6
Design Process
Modeling
Many properties of products have to be modeled, including
form, dimension, tolerance and structure. In all of these
areas geometry, images and spatial manipulation are very
important. For this reason, CAD is founded on
computational geometry and computer graphics.

7
Manufacturing Process
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)
CAM can be defined as the use of computer systems to plan,
manage, and control the operations of a manufacturing
plant through either direct or indirect computer interface
with the plant's production resources.

8
Manufacturing Process
The applications of CAM fall into two broad categories:
1- Computer monitoring and control. These are the direct
applications in which the computer is connected directly
to the manufacturing process for the purpose of
monitoring or controlling the process.
2- Manufacturing support applications. These are the indirect
applications in which the computer is used in support of
the production operations in the plant, but there is no
direct interface between the computer and the
manufacturing process.

9
Manufacturing Process
The distinction between monitoring and control

10
Manufacturing Process
Some examples of CAM for manufacturing support
Numerical control part programming: control programs are prepared for
automated machine tools.
Computer-automated process planning: the computer prepares a listing of
the operation sequence required to process a particular product or
component.
Computer-generated work standards: the computer determines the time
standard for a particular production operation.
Production scheduling: the computer determines an appropriate schedule
for meeting production requirements.

11
Manufacturing Process
Some examples of CAM for manufacturing support
Material requirements planning: the computer is used to determine when
to order raw materials and purchased components and how many
should be ordered to achieve the production schedule.
Shop floor control: in this CAM application, data are collected from the
factory to determine progress of the various production shop
orders.

12
Computer Numerical Control
Lecture 9
Applications of CAD Models

Dr .Ibrahim Al-Adwan
The actions that are taken with the design information are
divided into two main categories:
Evaluating actions, taken to assess the properties or merit of
the design.
Generative actions that generate information from the model
for use downstream of the design process, usually in order to
progress its manufacture.
In each case the actions involve the extraction of
information from the design representation, and the
combination of this with further information to form a new
model.

2
Model Transformations in Design

3
Example :
The evaluation of the connecting rods, which connect the crankshaft of an
automotive engine to its pistons.

4
The use of models in design

5
Defining the Model
Representation of Models
There are two types of models:
Models of form typically represented by drawings of
components and their arrangement in assemblies.
Models of structure normally represented by diagrams
that show the components of a system and how
they are connected.

6
Defining the Model
Examples of Electrical and Fluid Power Symbols

7
Defining the Model
Block Diagrams
At an early stage in the design process it may only be possible
to define overall relationships between parts of a system,
and a block diagram may be most appropriate. As a design
is prepared for construction and manufacture, detailed
wiring or piping diagrams are required.

8
Defining the Model
Block diagram of injection system

9
Defining the Model
Top-Down Design
By exploiting representations such as block diagrams, the
designer is able to subdivide a design problem into
smaller elements. These in turn may be subdivided, such
that a hierarchical decomposition of the problem is
obtained. This technique is known as "top-down" design.

10
Defining the Model
Example: Top-Down Design

11
Strengths and Weaknesses of
Conventional Representations
Strengthens: serve engineers, communication.

Weaknesses: skill is required, it is possible to have conflicting

models (errors), and complexity in the product may
stretch the techniques to their limits, there is a risk of
error misinterpretation when extraction of information
from drawings and diagrams.

12
computer representation of drawings and
diagrams
Defining the graphic elements
The user has a variety of different ways to call a particular graphic
element and position it on the geometric model. There are several
ways of defining points, lines, arcs, and other components of
geometry through interaction with the ICG (interactive computer
graphics) system. These components are maintained in the
database in mathematical form and referenced to a 3D coordinate
system.

13
Basic geometry
A component must be modeled before it can be drawn.

14
 Methods of defining elements in interactive
computer graphics
Methods of defining points in computer graphics include:
1. Pointing to the location on the screen by means of cursor
control.
2. Entering the coordinates via the alphanumeric keyboard.
3. Entering the offset (distance in x, y, and z) from a previously
defined point.
4. The intersection of two points.
5. Locating points at fixed intervals along an element.

15
Defining the Model

16
Defining the Model
Lines
Methods of defining lines include:
1. Using two previously defined points.
2. Using one point and specifying the angle of the line with
the horizontal.
3. Using a point and making the line either normal or
tangent to a curve.
4. Using a point and making the line either parallel or
perpendicular to another line.
5. Making the line tangent to two curves.
6. Making the line tangent to a curve and parallel or
perpendicular to a line.

17
Defining the Model

18
Arcs and circles
Methods of defining arcs and circles include:
1. Specifying the center and the radius.
2. Specifying the center and a point on the circle.
3. Making the curve pass through three previously defined
points.
4. Making the curve tangent to three lines.
5. Specifying the radius and making the curve tangent to two
lines or curves.

19
Defining the Model

20
Surfaces
Some of the methods for generating surfaces include:
1. Using a surface of revolution formed by rotating any lines
and/ or curves around a specific axis.
2. Using the intersection line or surface of two intersecting
surfaces.

21
Defining the Model

22
Defining the Model

23
Defining the Model

24
Defining the Model

25
Defining the Model

26
Defining the Model

27
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Computer Numerical Control
Lecture 9a
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling

Dr .Ibrahim Al-Adwan
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Boundary Representations
Objects are rep. by a collection of bounding faces
plus topological information, which defines
relationship:
Between faces, edges and vertices
Hierarchy:
Faces are composed of edges
Edges are composed of vertices
BReps are difficult to create but provide easy
graphics interaction and display.
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Boundary Representation
A solid composed of faces, edges and vertices

F5

F4
E8
E5 E7
E6 F2
E3
V4
E4 V3

V1 E2
E1
F3 V2
F1
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
B.Rep. Models
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
B.Rep. Model of Tetrahedron
 Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Validity of an Engineering Part or Object
Polyhedron: a part which has flat or planar polygonal surfaces
only.

For the validity test of solids, Euler’s formula can be used.

For Polyhedrons without holes:

(Number of faces) + (Number of vertices) = Number of edges +2

F+V = E+2,

where F, E and V are number of faces, edges and vertices.

 Fundamentals of Solid Modeling

Validity of an Engineering Part or Object

For Polyhedrons with through – holes:

F+V = E+2+R-2H,

where R is the number of disconnected interior edge rings in

faces,
H is the number of holes in the body
 Fundamentals of Solid Modeling

Validity of an Engineering Part or Object

Example: Euler’s formula
F+V = E+2,

F = 6, V = 8, E = 12
6 + 8 = 12 + 2
14 = 14 (valid object)
 Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Validity of an Engineering Part or Object
Example: Object with through-hole

F+V = E+2+R-2H,

F = 10(6 plus additional 4)

V = 16, E = 24
R = 2 (as its through hole)
H=1
10 + 16 = 24 +2 +2 –2(1)
26 = 26
 Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Validity of an Engineering Part or Object
Example: Part with blind hole
Formula check: F+V = E+2+R

F = 6+5 = 11
V = 16, E = 24
R = 1(as its blind hole)
H=0
11 +16 + 24 +2 +1 – 2(0)
27 = 27
 Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Validity of an Engineering Part or Object
Example: Part with Projection
F + V = E +2 +R-2H
F =11(6 + 4 +1)
V = 16, E = 24, H = 0
R = 1 (at base of projection)
F + V = E + 2 +R – 2H
11 +16 = 24 +2 +1-2(0)
27 = 27

For 2 projections on a part,

F=16, V=24, E=36, R=2, H=0
16+24 = 36 +2+2
40 = 40
 Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Validity of an Engineering Part or Object
Example: Projection and Blind Hole
F + V = E + 2 +R –2H

F=5+11 (from previous slide) =16

V=8+16=24
E=12+24=36
R=1+1 (at base of projection and top
of hole)
F+V = E+2+R-2H
16+24 = 36+2+2-2(0)
40 = 40
 Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Validity of an Engineering Part or Object
Example: Projection and Through Hole
F + V = E + 2 +R –2H

F=4+11 (from previous slide) =15

V=8+16=24
E=12+24=36
R=1+2 (at base of projection and top
of hole)
F+V = E+2+R-2H
15+24 = 36+2+3-2(1)
39 = 39
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Fundamentals of Solid Modeling
Computer Numerical Control
Lecture 9b
Techniques for Geometric
Modeling
Constructive Solid Geometry
(Examples)
Dr .Ibrahim Al-Adwan
Constructive Solid Geometry
Constructive Solid Geometry
Constructive Solid Geometry
Constructive Solid Geometry
Constructive Solid Geometry
Constructive Solid Geometry
Computer-Aided Design

Dr .Ibrahim Al-Adwan
Implementation of a typical CAD process on a CAD/CAM system

Definition of geometric model

Definition translation

Design
Geometric modeling
changes

Interface algorithm

Design and analysis algorithm

Drafting and detailing

Documentation

To CAM process
Benefits of Implementing CAD Systems

 Improved engineering productivity

 Shorter lead times

 Reduced engineering personal requirements

 Customer modifications are easier to make

 Faster response to requests

 Improved accuracy of design

 Assistance in preparation of documentations

 Better design provided

 Better knowledge of costs provided

 Geometric Modeling
The basic geometric modeling approaches available to designers on
CAD systems are:

 Wireframe modeling.
 Surface modeling.
 Solid modeling.

1- Wireframe modeling entities

• Analytic curves (lines, circles, ellipses, …….)
• Synthesis curves (parametric cubic curves, Bezier curves, B-
spline curves, …….)
Geometric Modeling
Geometric Modeling
2- Surface modeling entities
• Analytic surfaces (plane surfaces, ruled surfaces, surface of
revolution, tabulated surfaces)
• Synthesis surfaces (parametric cubic surfaces, Bezier
surfaces, B-spline surfaces, ….)

3- Solid modeling entities

• Construction Solid Geometry (CSG)
 Solid primitives (cubes, spheres, cylinders, ………)
 Boolean operations (Union, Subtraction, intersection)
• Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
 Geometric entities (points, lines, surfaces, …….)
 Topological entities (vertices, edges, faces, ……..)

• Sweep Representation
 Transitional sweep (Extrusion)
 Rotational sweep (Revolution)
Wireframe Modeling

A wireframe representation is a 3-D line drawing of an object showing only the

edges without any side surface in between.

The image of the object, as the name applies has the appearance of a frame
constructed from thin wires representing the edges and projected lines and
curves.
Wireframe Modeling
A computer representation of a wire-frame structure consists
essentially of two types of information:

• The first is termed metric or geometric data which relate to

the 3D coordinate positions of the wire-frame node’ points in
space.
• The second is concerned with the connectivity or topological
data, which relate pairs of points together as edges.

 Basic wire-frame entities can be divided into analytic and synthetic

entities.

Analytic entities :
Points Lines Arc Circles

Synthetic entities:
Cubic curves Bezier curves B-spline curves
Wireframe Modeling
Limitations

• From the point of view of engineering Applications, it is not

possible to calculate volume and mass properties of a design

• In the wireframe representation, the virtual edges (profile)

are not usually provided.

 (for example, a cylinder is represented by three edges, that is,

two circles and one straight line)

• The creation of wireframe models usually involves more user

effort to input necessary information than that of solid
models, especially for large and complex parts.
Surface Modeling

• Surface modeling is a widely used modeling technique in which

objects are defined by their bounding faces.
• Surface modeling systems contain definitions of surfaces, edges,
and vertices

• Complex objects such as car or airplane body can not be

achieved utilizing wireframe modeling.

• Surface modeling are used in

 calculating mass properties
 checking for interference
 between mating parts
 generating cross-section views
 generating finite elements meshes
 generating NC tool paths for
 continuous path machining
Surface Modeling
Surfaces Entities

1- Analytical surface entities

Plane surface

Ruled (lofted) surface

Tabulated cylinder

Surface of revolution
2- Synthesis surface entities
- Bezier surface - B-spline surface
Solid Modeling

Solid modeling techniques provide the user with the

means to create, store, and manipulate complete
representations of solid objects with the potential for
integration and improved automation.

Solid Representation
Several representation schemes are available for the
creation of solid models. Some of the most popular are
given:

• Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG).

• Boundary Representation (B-Rep).
• Sweeping.
1- Constructive Solid Geometry

A CSG model is based on the topological notation that a

physical object can be divided into a set of primitives (basic
elements or shapes) that can be combined in a certain order
following a set of rules (Boolean operations) to form the
object.
1- Constructive Solid Geometry
1.1 CSG Primitives
Primitives are usually translated and/or rotated to position and orient
them properly applying Boolean operations.
Following are the most commonly used primitives:
1- Constructive Solid Geometry
1.2 Boolean Operations
Boolean operations are used to combine solid primitives to
form the desired solid. The available operators are Union ( U
or +), intersection (∏ or I) and difference ( - ).

• The Union operator (U or +): is used to combine

or add together two objects or primitives
• The Intersection operator (∏ or I): intersecting
two primitives gives a shape equal to their
common volume.
• The Difference operator (-): is used to subtract
one object from the other and results in a shape
equal to the difference in their volumes.
1- Constructive Solid Geometry
1.2 Boolean Operations
Figure below shows Boolean operations of a clock A and
Cylinder B
1- Constructive Solid Geometry
1.2 Boolean Operations
Figure below shows Boolean operations of a clock P and Solid Q
1- Constructive Solid Geometry
1.3 CSG Data Structure
Data structures for the CSG representation are based on the
binary tree structure. The CSG tree is a binary tree with leaf
nodes as primitives and interior nodes as Boolean operations
1- Constructive Solid Geometry
1.4 CSG Creation Process
The creation of a model in CSG can be simplified by the use
of a table summarizing the operations to be performed. The
following example illustrates the process of model creation
used in the CSG representation.
1- Constructive Solid Geometry

Limitations

• Inconvenient for the designer to determine simultaneously

a sequence of feature creation for all design iterations

• The use of machining volume may be too restrictive

• Problem of non-unique trees. A feature can be constructed

in multiple ways

• Tree complexity

• Surface finish and tolerance may be a problem

2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)

• A B-Rep model or boundary model is based on the

topological notation that a physical object is bounded by
a set of Faces.
• These faces are regions or subsets of closed and
orientable surfaces.
 A closed surface is one that is continuous without breaks.
 An orientable surface is one in which is possible to
distinguish two sides by using the direction of the surface
normal to a point inside or outside of the solid model.
• Each face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded
by vertices.
 2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
2.1 B-Rep Data Structure
A general data structure for a
Topology Geometry
boundary model should have
both topological and
Object
geometrical information

Body
• Geometry relates to the
information containing
Genus
shape defining parameters,
such as the coordinates of
the vertices Face Surface

• Topology describes the Loop

connectivity among the
various geometric
components, that is, the Edge Curve
relational information
between the different parts Vertex Point
of an object
2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
Same geometry but different topology

Same topology but different geometry

2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)

Two important questions in B-Rep

1. What is a face, edge or a vertex?

2. How can we know that when we combine these

entities we would create valid objects?
2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
B-Rep Entities Definition

• Vertex is a unique point in space

• An Edge is a finite, non-self-intersecting, directed space

curve bounded by two vertices

• A Face is defined as a finite connected, non-self-intersecting,

region of a closed oriented surface bounded by one or more
loops
2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
B-Rep Entities Definition

• A Loop is an ordered alternating sequence of vertices and edges. A

loop defines a non-self-intersecting, piecewise, closed space curve
which, in turn, may be a boundary of a face.

• A Handle (Genus or Through hole) is

defined as a passageway that passes
through the object completely.

• A Body (Shell) is a set of faces

that bound a single connected
closed volume. Thus a body is
an entity that has faces, edges,
and vertices
2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
Validity of B-Rep

• To ensure topological validation of the boundary model,

special operators are used to create and manipulate the
topological entities. These are called Euler Operators
• The Euler’s Law gives a quantitative relationship among
faces, edges, vertices, loops, bodies or genus in solids

Euler Law F  E  V  L  2( B  G )

Where F = number of faces

E = number of edges
V = number of vertices
L = Faces inner loops
B = number of bodies
G = number of genus (handles)
2- Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
3- Sweep Representation
Solids that have a uniform thickness in a particular direction
and axisymmetric solids can be created by what is called
Transitional (Extrusion) and Rotational (Revolution)
Sweeping
• Sweeping requires two elements – a surface to be moved
and a trajectory, analytically defined, along which the
movement should occur.

Extrusion Revolution
3- Sweep Representation
Extrusion (Transitional Sweeping)

Revolution (Rotational Sweeping)

Computer Numerical Control
Lecture 10a
Surface Modeling and Representation

Dr .Ibrahim Al-Adwan
Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

Techniques for surface modeling/ Summary

The surface patch
The patch is the fundamental building block for surfaces.
Fixing the value of one of the parametric variables
results in a curve on the patch in terms of the other
variable. The result of doing this for a variety of values
of u and v is an intersecting mesh of curves on the
patch.

46
Surface Modeling and Representation

47
Surface Modeling and Representation

The Coons patch

The more general surface forms often involve
interpolation across an intersecting mesh of curves that
in effect comprise rectangular grid of patches, each
bounded by four boundary curves. The simplest
technique is the linearly blended Coons patch.

48
Surface Modeling and Representation

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Surface Modeling and Representation

Sweeping

50
Surface Modeling and Representation

The surface representation scheme

The most elementary of the surface types is the flat plane, which may be
defined between two parallel straight lines, through three points or
through a line and a point.

A tabulated cylinder, which is defined by projecting a generating curve along a

line or vector.

A ruled surface, which is produced by linear interpolation between two

different generating or edge curves. The effect is of a surface generated by
moving a straight line with its end points resting on the edge curves.

51
Surface Modeling and Representation

The surface representation scheme

A surface of revolution, which has been generated by
revolving a generating curve about a center-line or
vector.

A swept surface- in a sense an extension of the surface

of revolution- where the defining curve is swept along
an arbitrary curve instead of a circular arc.

52
Surface Modeling and Representation

The surface representation scheme

A sculptured or curve-mesh surface, which is defined using a family
of generating curves, or two families intersecting in a crisscross
fashion so creating a network of interconnected surface patches.

A fillet surface, which is defined as a surface connecting two other

surfaces in a smooth transition.

The core surface types are the ruled surface, surface of revolution
and sculptured surface, as the others may be defined using these.

53
Computer Numerical Control
Lecture 11
Standards for CAD

Dr .Ibrahim Al-Adwan
 Standards for dimensioning
v
According to the American National Standards Institute ANSI standards, the
following are the basic rules that should be observed in dimensioning
any drawing:
1. Show enough dimensions so that the intended sizes and shapes can be
determined without calculating or assuming any distances.
2. State each dimension clearly, so that it can be interpreted in only one
way.
3. Show the dimensions between points, lines, or surfaces that have a
necessary and specific relation to each other or that control the
location of other components or mating parts.
4. Select and arrange dimensions to avoid accumulations of tolerances
that may permit various interpretations and cause unsatisfactory
mating of parts and failure in use.

1/15/2025 2
Standards for dimensioning

5. Show each dimension only once.

6. Where possible, dimension each feature in the view where
it appears in profile, and where its true shape appears.
7. Wherever possible, specify dimensions to make use of
readily available materials, parts, tools, and gauges. Savings
are often possible when drawings specify (a) commonly
used materials in stock sizes, (b) parts generally recognized
as commercially standard, (c) sizes that can be produced
with standard tools and inspected with standard gauges,
and (d) tolerances from accepted published standards.

1/15/2025 3
Conventional tolerancing
Since it is impossible to produce the exact dimension specified, a
tolerance is also used to show the acceptable variation in a dimension.
The higher the quality a product has, the smaller the tolerance value
specified. Tighter tolerances are translated into more careful
production procedures and more rigorous inspection. There are two
types of tolerances: bilateral tolerance and unilateral tolerance (as
shown in the following Figure). Unilateral tolerances, such as ,
specify dimensional variation from the basic size (i.e., decrease) in one
direction in relation to the basic size; for example,
1.00 00..00
05

The basic location where most dimension lines originate is the

reference location (datum). For machining, the reference location
provides the base from which all other measurements are taken. By
stating tolerance from a reference location, cumulative errors can be
eliminated.

1.00 00..00
05  0.95  1.00

1/15/2025 4
Conventional tolerancing

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Conventional tolerancing
Surface control symbols

1/15/2025 6
Conventional tolerancing
Lay symbols

1/15/2025 7
Dimensioning

1/15/2025 8
TOLERANCE

Dimensional tolerance - conventional

Geometric tolerance – modern

REASON OF HAVING TOLERANCE

• No manufacturing process is perfect.
• Nominal dimension (the "d" value) can not be achieved exactly.
• Without tolerance we lose the control and as a consequence cause
functional or assembly failure.

1/15/2025 9
TOLERANCE

1/15/2025 10
TOLERANCE STACKING
1. Check that the tolerance & dimension specifications are reasonable for
assembly.
2. Check there is no over or under specification.

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TOLERANCE STACKING

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TOLERANCE STACKING

1/15/2025 13
TOLERANCE GRAPH

1/15/2025 14
Computer Numerical Control
Lecture 12
Transformations

Dr .Ibrahim Al-Adwan
CAD and Geometry
The simplest CAD systems are 2D or 3D drafting tools. They allow
geometry to be created, stored and manipulated.
Example: A line might be stored as two points:
L→P1P2→(x1,y1; x2y2)
Or in matrix notation:

Where:  P1   x1 y1 
L     
 P2   x2 y 2 
The graphical representation:
P1  x1 y1 , P2  x2 y2 

1/15/2025 2
 CAD and Geometry
Example: Representation of a Triangle: (in 2D ordinary coordinates)
 P1   x1 y1 
P   P2   x 2 y 2 
 P3   x3 y3 

Graphical representation:

1/15/2025 3
CAD and Geometry
In this format it is not easy to do matrix manipulation in 2D or 3D
(which is what we want to do). Thus we want homogeneous
coordinates.

Homogeneous Coordinates:
Presents a unified approach to describing geometric transformations.

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Homogeneous Coordinates
Assume a 2D point lies in 3D space.

Any 2D point can be represented in such a 3D space as:

P(x, y, z) = P(hx1, hy1, hz)

That is, along a ray from the origin (called homogeneous space).

1/15/2025 5
Homogeneous Coordinates
For instance, consider point P(2, 4) in ordinary coordinates. This can be
considered as:
P(4, 8, 2), where h=2; or P(6, 12, 3), where h=3; or P(2, 4, 1), where h=1 in
homogeneous space.
In general, P(m, n, h) in homogeneous space is P(m/h, n/h, 1) in ordinary
coordinates.
Thus, the triangle in 2d space can be represented in homogeneous
coordinates as:
 x1 y1 1
P   x 2 y2 1
 x3 y3 1
Why? To help with transformations.

1/15/2025 6
Transformations
Transformation is the backbone of computer graphics, enabling us to
manipulate the shape, size, and location of the object.
It can be used to effect the following changes in a geometric object:
1. Change the location
2. Change the shape
3. Change the size
4. Rotate
5. Copy
6. Generate a surface from a line
7. Generate a solid from a surface
8. Animate the object

1/15/2025 7
Types of transformations
1. Modeling Transformation/ Object Transformation
This transformation alters the coordinate values of the object. Basic operations
are scaling, translation, rotation and combination of one or more of
these basic transformations.
Object transformation = Move (transform) an object in the 3D space.
2. Visual/ Viewing Transformation (Coordinate System Transformation)
In this transformation there is no change in either the geometry or the
coordinates of the object. A copy of the object is placed at the desired
sight, without changing the coordinate values of the object.
Coordinate system transformation = Move (transform) the coordinate system.
View the objects from the new coordinate system.
3. Rigid body transformation:
Moves the whole object, but does not deform an object.

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Examples

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Examples

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Examples
Coordinate System Transformation

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Basic Modeling/Object Transformations
Scaling, translation, and Rotation.
Other transformations, which are modification or
combination of any of the basic transformations, are
Shearing, Mirroring, Copy, etc.

Transformation can be expressed as:

[ P*]  [ P][T ]

where, [P*] is the new coordinates matrix

[P] is the original coordinates matrix, or points matrix

[T ] is the transformation matrix

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Scaling

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Scaling

P( x, y )  P * ( x*, y*)
x*  xsx , y*  ys y

Or in matrix form:

s x 0 0
P*  x * y * 1  x y 1 0 sy 
0  xsx 
ys y 1
 0 0 1

This is object scaling about the origin.

If sx = sy → → uniform scaling → → Magnify command

1/15/2025 14
Scaling
1. Uniform Scaling
For uniform scaling, the scaling transformation matrix is given as:
• In ordinary 3D coordinate system:

 s 0 0
[Ts ]  0 s 0
0 0 s 

Here, s is the scale factor

s 0 0 0
• In homogeneous 3D coordinates: 0 s 0 0
[Ts ]  
0 0 s 0
 
0 0 0 1

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Scaling
2. Non-Uniform Scaling
• Scaling transformation matrix in 3d ordinary coordinates:

 sx 0 0
[Ts ]   0 sy 0 
 0 0 sz 
• In 3d Homogeneous Coordinates:

 s x 0 0 0
0 s 0 0 
[Ts ]   y 
 0 0 s z 0
 
 0 0 0 1 
where, s x , s y , s z , are the scale factors for the x, y, and z coordinates of the
object.

1/15/2025 16
Example:
If the triangle A(1, 1), B(2, 1), C(1, 3) is scaled by a factor 2,
find the new coordinates of the triangle.

Solution:
Writing the points (original) matrix in homogeneous 3D
coordinates, we have

1 1 0 1
[P]  2 1 0 1
1 3 0 1

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Transformations
The scaling matrix is:
2 0 0 0
0 2 0 0
[Ts ]  
0 0 2 0
 
0 0 0 1

The new points matrix can be evaluated by the equation:

2 2 0 1
[ P*]  [ P ][T ] [P*]  4 2 0 1
2 6 0 1

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Translation Transformation

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Translation Transformation
x*  x  x
y*  y  y
Or in matrix form (homogeneous coordinates):

1 0 0
P*  x * y * 1  x y 1 0 1 0
x y 1

You can now see that homogeneous coordinates are needed

for translation transformation.
This is what the Move command does in CAD systems.

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Translation Transformation
In translation, every point on an object translates exactly the same
distance. The effect of translation transformation is that the
original coordinate values increase or decrease by the amount of
the translation along the x, y, and z-axes.
The translation transformation matrix has the form:
In 3D Homogeneous Coordinates: 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
[Tt ]  
0 0 1 0
 
x y z 1
where x, y, z are the values of translation in the x, y, and z direction, respectively.
For translation transformation, the matrix equation is:

[ P*]  [ P][Tt ]

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Translation Transformation
Example: Translate the rectangle (2, 2), (2, 8), (10, 8), (10, 2) 2 units along x-axis
and 3 units along y-axis.
Solution: Using the matrix equation for translation, we have:

[ P*]  [ P][Tt ]
Substituting the numbers, we get

2 2 0 1 1 0 0 0  4 5 0 1
2 8 0 1 0 1 0 0  4 11 0 1
[P*]   
10 8 0 1 0 0 1 0 12 11 0 1
    
10 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 12 5 0 1

Note that the resultant coordinates are equal to the original x and y values
plus the 2 and 3 units added to these values, respectively.

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Rotation
We will first consider rotation about the z-axis, which passes
through the origin (0, 0, 0), since it is the simplest transformation
for understanding the rotation transformation. Rotation about an
arbitrary axis, other than an axis passing through the origin,
requires a combination of three or more transformations.
When an object is rotated about the z-axis, all the points on the
object rotate in circular arc, and the center of the arc lies at the
origin. Similarly, rotation of an object about an arbitrary axis has
the same relationship with the axis, i.e., all the points on the
object rotate in circular arc, and the center of rotation lies at the
given point through which the axis is passing.

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Rotation
Derivation of the Rotation Transformation Matrix

Original coordinates of point P:

x  r cos  , y  r sin 

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Rotation
Derivation of the Rotation Transformation Matrix
The new coordinates:

x*  r cos(   ), y*  r sin(    )
Using the trigonometric relations, we get:

cos(   )  cos  cos   sin  sin 

sin(    )  sin  cos   cos  sin 

We get:

x*  r (cos  cos   sin  sin  )  x cos   y sin 

y*  r (cos  sin   sin  cos  )  x sin   y cos 

In matrix form:  cos  sin  

x * y *  x y 
 sin  cos  
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Transformations
Rotation
Derivation of the Rotation Transformation Matrix
In general, the points matrix and the transformation matrix are re-written as
(For 2D objects): [In Homogeneous Coordinates]

 cos  sin  0 0
 sin  cos  0 0
x * y * 0 1  x y 0 1
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1
OR:

 cos  sin  0
x * y * 1  x y 1 sin  cos  0
 0 0 1

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Transformations
Rotation
Derivation of the Rotation Transformation Matrix

• For 3D geometry: Rotation about z-axis

 cos  sin  0 0
 sin  cos  0 0
x * y* z * 1  x y z 1
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1

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Transformations
Rotation
Derivation of the Rotation Transformation Matrix

• Transformation matrix for rotation about y-axis:

cos  0  sin  0
 0 1 0 0
TR y 
 sin  0 cos  0
 
 0 0 0 1

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 Transformations
Rotation
Derivation of the Rotation Transformation Matrix
• Translation matrix for rotation about x-axis:

1 0 0 0
0 cos  sin  0
TR x 
0  sin  cos  0
 
0 0 0 1

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Transformations
Rotation
Derivation of the Rotation Transformation Matrix

• For use with 2D geometry:

[ P]  x y 0 1,  [ P*]  x * y * 0 1

• For use with 3D geometry:

[ P]  x y z 1,  [ P*]  x * y * z * 1

This is what the Rotate command does in CAD system.

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Transformations
Rotation of an Object about an Arbitrary Axis
Rotation of a geometric model about an arbitrary axis, other than any
of the coordinate axes, involves several rotational and
translational transformations. When we rotate an object about
the origin (in 2D), we in fact rotate it about z-axis. Every point on
the object rotates along a circular path, with the center of
rotation at the origin. If we wish to rotate an object about an
arbitrary axis, which is perpendicular to the xy-plane, we will have
to first translate the axis to the origin and then rotate the model,
and finally, translate so that the axis of rotation is restored to its
initial position.

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Transformations
Rotation of an Object about an Arbitrary Axis
Thus, the rotation of an object about an arbitrary axis, involves three
steps:
Step 1:Translate the fixed axis so that it coincides with the z-axis
Step 2: Rotate the object about the axis
Step 3:Translate the fixed axis back to the original position (reverse
translation)

Note: When the fixed axis is translated, the object is also translated.
The axis and the object go through all the transformations
simultaneously.

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Transformations
Rotation of an Object about an Arbitrary Axis
Example:
Rotate the rectangle (0, 0), (2, 0), (2, 2), (0, 2) shown below,
30o ccw about its centroid and find the new
coordinates of the rectangle.

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Transformations
Rotation of an Object about an Arbitrary Axis

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Transformations
Rotation of an Object about an Arbitrary Axis

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Transformations
Rotation of an Object about an Arbitrary Axis

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Transformations
Rotation about an Arbitrary Point (in xy-plane)
In order to rotate an object about a fixed point, the point is first moved
(translated) to the origin. Then, the object is rotated around the origin.
Finally, it is translated back so that the fixed point is restored to its
original position. For rotation of an object about an arbitrary point, the
sequence of the required transformation matrices and the condensed
matrix is given as:

[Tcond ]  [Tt ][Tr ][Tt ]

OR:

1 0 0 0  cos  sin  0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0   sin  cos  0 0 0 1 0 0
[Tcond ]     
0 0 1 0  0 0 1 0  0 0 1 0
   
  x  y 0 1  0 0 0 1  x y 0 1 
where is the angle of rotation and the point (x, y) lies in the xy-plane.


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Transformations
Rotation about an Arbitrary Point (in xy-plane)
Solution: We first translate the point (3, 2) to the origin, then rotate the rectangle about
the origin, and finally, translate back so that the original point is restores to its
original position (3, 2).The new coordinates of the rectangle are found as follows:

[ P*]  [ P][Tt ][Tr ][Tt ] 

1 1 0 1  1 0 0 0 0.866 0.5 0 0 1 0 0 0
2 1 0 1  0 1 0 0   0.5 0.866 0 0 0 1 0 0
 
2 3 0 1  0 0 1 0  0 0 1 0  0 0 1 0
    
1 3 0 1  3  2 0 1  0 0 0 1  3 2 0 1
1.77 0.13 0 1
0.77 1.87 0 1

1.63 2.37 0 1
 
 2.63 0.63 0 1

These are the new coordinates of the rectangle after the rotation.

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Transformations
Mirroring (Reflection)
In modeling operations, one frequently used operation is mirroring an object.
Mirroring is a convenient method used for copying an object while
preserving its features. The mirror transformation is a special case of a
negative scaling, as will be explained below.
Let us say, we want to mirror the point A(2, 2) about the x-axis (i.e., xz-plane).The point
matrix [P*]=[2 -2] can be obtained with the matrix transformation given below:

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Transformations
Mirroring (Reflection)

1 0 0 0
0  1 0 0
[ P*]  2 2 0 1  2  2 0 1
0 0 1 0 
 
0 0 0 1

The transformation matrix above is a special case of non-uniform scaling with

sx=1 and sy=-1.

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Transformations
Mirroring (Reflection)
Transformation Matrix for Mirroring about x-axis:

1 0 0 0
0  1 0 0
Tm  x 
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
Transformation Matrix for Mirroring about y-axis:

 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
Tm  y 
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1

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Transformations
Mirroring about an Arbitrary Plane
If mirroring is required about an arbitrary plane, other than one defined by the
coordinate axes, translation and/or rotation can be used to align the
given plane with one of the coordinate planes. After mirroring,
translation or rotation must be done in reverse order to restore the
original geometry of the axis.
We will use the figure shown below, to illustrate the procedure for mirroring
an object about an arbitrary plane. We will mirror the given rectangle
about a plane passing through the line AB and perpendicular to xy-plane.

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Transformations
Mirroring about an Arbitrary Plane

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Transformations
Mirroring about an Arbitrary Plane
It should be noted that in each of the
transformations, the plane and the rectangle
have a fixed relationship, i.e., when we move
the plane (or line AB), the rectangle also
moves with it.
Note:We are using line AB to represent the plane,
which passes through it. Mirroring can be done
only about a plane, and not about a line.

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Transformations
Mirroring about an Arbitrary Plane
Procedure for mirroring the rectangle about the plane:
Step 1: Translate the line AB (i.e., the plane) such that it passes through the origin, as
shown by the dashed line.
Step 2: Next, rotate the line about the origin (or the z-axis) such that it coincides with
x or y axes (we will use the x-axis).
Step 3: Mirror the rectangle about the x-axis.
Step 4: Rotate the line back to its original orientation.
Step 5: Translate the line back to its original position
The new points matrix, in terms of the original points matrix and the five
transformation matrices is given as:
[P*] = [P][Tt][Tr][Tm][T-r][T-t]
Where, the subscripts t, r, and m represent the translation, rotation, and mirror
operations, respectively.
Note: A negative sign is used in the subscripts to indicate a reverse transformation.

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Transformations
Coordinate System Transformation
Coordinate frame moves to a new location.

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Coordinate System Transformation

P  x y z
The origin has been translated (moved) from (0, 0, 0) to (a, b, c)
Or:
For coordinate system:
x  a, y  b, z  c
For the object:
x  a, y  b, z  c
[ P*]  [ P][T ]

1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0
Tt  
 0 0 1 0
 
 a  b  c 1

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Transformations
Coordinate System Transformation

 [ P*]  x  a y  b z  c 1

Note: The sign in the T matrix need to be changed

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Transformations
Example: Coordinate Transformation
If the coordinate system has been rotated about z-axis by -30o, then
translated to [a b c], what is the coordinates of the point
[x y z] in the new coordinate system?

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Transformations
Example: Coordinate Transformation

Solution:

 cos 30 o sin 30 o 0 0  1 0 0 0
 
 o
cos 30 o 0  0 1 0 0
[ P*]  x z 1
sin 30 0
y 
 0 0 1 0  0 0 1 0 
  
 0 0 0 1  a  b  c 1
 x * y * z * 1

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Transformations
Coordinate system transformation-Viewing

We need to understand that our CAD model is defined

within a world or global coordinate system (WCS),
usually 3D, but we view it through a flat screen
which will have its own device coordinate system
(DCS).

This is usually done through a neutral stage or a virtual

or normalized coordinate system (NCS). Thus we
map as follows:

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Transformations
Coordinate system transformation-Viewing

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Transformations
Coordinate system transformation-Viewing
We will not see all the component at one time.Thus we
need to define a window.

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Transformations
Coordinate system transformation-Viewing

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Transformations
Coordinate system transformation-Viewing
We can map this to the viewport by:

xv  xv min x w  x w min

xv max  xv min x w max  x w min
And
yv  yv min y w  y w min

yv max  yv min y w max  y w min

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Transformations
Coordinate system transformation-Viewing
When the Aspect Ratio (AR) of both is equal no
distortion (scaling occurs).

x max  x min
AR 
y max  y min

By mapping a smaller window on the viewport, we can

get a “zooming effect”.

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