452 2010 IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition: Latin America

Introduction of the Mechanically Switched

Capacitors (MSCs) application on
Power Transmission Systems
A. L. P. de Oliveira and A. L. M. Pereira

necessary capacitive reactive compensation and power factor

Abstract—Power Transmission Systems have predominantly correction. The utilization of MSCs has increased because
inductive loads, so that the systems themselves must supply the they are relatively inexpensive in comparison with other
reactive power consumed. The most practical and efficient way equipments and techniques, easy and quick to install, and can
for the utility to supply the reactive power demanded is through
be deployed virtually anywhere in the power transmission and
the installation of Mechanically Switched Capacitors (MSCs),
more common know as shunt capacitor banks. The installation of distribution systems [1].
MSCs brings benefits concerning the reduction of system The MSCs are used to stabilize system voltage keeping
charging and electrical losses, system capacity release and also voltage fluctuations caused by load variations and change
improvements in the power factor. The main purpose of this network conditions within acceptable limits. In effect, it
work is to present the introduction of the MSCs application on provides direct compensation of changes in the reactive power
Power Transmission Systems. This introduction will be realized requirement of connected loads and keeps the transmission
simulating power system conditions using the ATP (Alternative lines free from additional reactive power flow, thus reducing
Transient Program) tool, analyzing the MSC energization,
transmission losses.
dimensioning and capacitors units’ lifetime, aiming to be a
knowledge support paper for future applications. The final
Suitable designed MSCs also improve system voltage
conclusion of the work presents the importance of the stability under fault conditions. Large voltage dips caused by
Mechanically Switched Capacitors (MSCs) to a transmission system disturbances (short circuit followed by changed
system and a complete introduction of the main aspects for the network conditions) can be reduced this way. However, the
equipments dimensioning and energization, contributing for the effectiveness of voltage stabilization depends on the distance
quality of the power transmission system. from fault location.
The MSCs incorporate only static components like
Index Terms—Equipment, Capacitors, Mechanically Switched capacitors, reactors and surge arresters, and can be connected
Capacitors (MSCs), Simulation, Alternative Transient Program directly to the high voltage busbar system or via a transformer.
(ATP), Power Transmission Systems.
The MSCs offer many advantages and benefits for
transmission systems. These advantages include:
I. INTRODUCTION
• Improvement of the performance, quality and efficiency

T he voltage conditions and thus the quality of the power

supply depend largely upon the reactive power conditions
in the system. In normal operation, the voltage system should
of electrical systems;
• Minimization of the power losses;
• Help the connection of renewable energy sources into the
remain within specified limits and the short-time voltage rise
network;
in the event of a fault should not exceed the rating limits of the
system equipment. Changes in the load conditions and system • Reduction of the environmental load (CO2 emission);
configuration caused by faults or switching operations affect • Make systems more cost effective.
the system voltage.
The voltage control facilities of power stations can only II. CAPACITORS – DEFINITIONS AND TECHNOLOGY
balance out these fluctuations to a limited degree, particularly
in extensive systems. Hence, additional compensation Most power system loads and delivery apparatus (e.g.,
transmission and distribution lines and transformers) are
facilities and devices are necessary to provide the conditions
inductive in nature and therefore operate at a lagging power
that the power transmission systems require.
factor. When operating at a lagging power factor, a power
The Mechanically Switched Capacitors (MSCs) are high
system requires additional var flow, which results in reduced
and medium voltage equipments installed to provide the system capacity, increased system losses, and reduced system
voltage [2]. Fig. 1 illustrates how the application of shunt
André Luiz Pereira de Oliveira and André Luiz Maduro Pereira are with
Siemens Ltda. – Energy Sector – Power Transmission - Power Transmission
capacitors increases system capacity and reduces system
Solutions (E T PS), Avenida Mutinga, 3.800, 2 o Floor – Pirituba – São losses by reducing var flow.
Paulo/SP – ZIP 05110-902 Brazil (e-mails: [email protected]
and [email protected]).
978-1-4577-0487-1/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE
OLIVEIRA AND PEREIRA : EVALUATION OF MECHANICALLY SWITCHED 453

discharge device is a resistor that reduces the unit residual

voltage allowing switching the banks back after removing it
from service. Capacitor units are available in a variety of
voltage ratings (240 V to 25 kV) and sizes (2.5 kVAr to about
1000 kVAr) [4].

Fig. 1. Effect of adding shunt capacitors

The system load is reduced from kVA1 to kVA2 by the

addition of the capacitive kilovar, shown in Fig. 1 as Ckvar.
Var support and voltage control are the primary benefits for a
transmission system while the distribution system benefits
may be more varied depending upon whether the system Fig. 3. Constructive detail of a capacitor unit
belongs to a generating utility, a non-generating utility, or an
industrial power user. The capacitor unit protection is based on the capacitor
A capacitor element is defined by the basic component of a element failing in a shorted mode. A failure in the capacitor
capacitor unit consisting of two electrodes (conductive plates) element dielectric causes the foils to weld together and short
separated by a dielectric (non-conductive region) [3]. The circuits the other capacitor elements connected in parallel in
non-conductive substance is called the dielectric medium and the same group. The remaining series capacitor elements in
is placed between the two conducting plates, each of area (A) the unit remain in service with a higher voltage across each of
and with a separation of a distance (d). The capacitance (C) them and an increased capacitor can current. If a second
increases with area (A) and decreases with separation of this element fails the process repeats itself resulting in an even
distance (d) according to (1). higher voltage for the remaining elements.
Usually there are four types of capacitor units, and they are
C=€ ×
A
(1) described in this work [5].
d A. Externally fused capacitors
where € is the permittivity of the dielectric (2.20 for In this capacitor unit type an individual fuse, externally
polypropylene and 1.00 for air). A higher permittivity € assembled between the capacitor unit and the capacitor bank
allows the same charge to be stored with a smaller electric fuse bus, protects each capacitor unit. The capacitor unit can
field leading to an increased capacitance. Another way to be designed for a relatively high voltage because the external
increase the capacitance is to increase the area (A) by winding fuse is capable of interrupting faults. However, the kilovar
the capacitor together. rating of the individual capacitor unit is usually smaller
One capacitor element is the smallest part of the capacitor. because a minimum number of parallel units are required to
The element is a winding of aluminum foil and polypropylene allow the bank to remain in service with a capacitor can out of
film. A unit contains several elements connected in series and service. A bank using fused capacitors is configured using one
in parallel. The units are connected again in series and parallel or more series groups of parallel-connected capacitor units per
to build a Bank, as presented in Fig. 2. phase, as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 2. Capacitor element, Unit and Bank

In order to detail the construction of a capacitor unit, we

can present in Fig.3 that the capacitor unit is made up of
individual capacitor elements, arranged in parallel/series Fig. 4. Externally fused shunt capacitor bank and capacitor unit
connected groups, within a steel enclosure. The internal
454 2010 IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition: Latin America

or about 2% higher. The capacitor bank remains in service;

B. Internally fused capacitors however, successive failures of elements would aggravate the
In this capacitor unit type each capacitor element is fused problem and eventually lead to the removal of the bank.
inside the capacitor unit. A “simplified” fuse is a piece of wire The fuseless design is usually applied for applications at or
sized to melt under the fault current, and encapsulated in a above 34.5 kV where each string has more than 10 elements in
wrapper able to withstand the heat produced by the arc during series to ensure the remaining elements do not exceed 110%
the current interruption. Upon the capacitor failure, the fuse rating if an element in the string shorts.
removes the affected element only. The other elements,
connected in parallel in the same group, remain in service but D. Unfused capacitors
with a slightly higher voltage across them. Contrary to the fuseless configuration, where the units are
Fig. 5 illustrates a typical capacitor bank utilizing internally connected in series, the unfused shunt capacitor bank uses a
fused capacitor units. In general, banks employing internally series/parallel connection of the capacitor units.
fused capacitor units are configured with fewer capacitor units The unfused approach would normally be used on banks
in parallel and more series groups of units than are used in below 34.5 kV, where series strings of capacitor units are not
banks employing externally fused capacitor units. The practical, or on higher voltage banks with modest parallel
capacitor units are built larger because the entire unit is not energy. This design does not require as many capacitor units
expected to fail. in parallel as an externally fused bank.

III. CONFIGURATIONS OF THE MECHANICALLY

SWITCHED CAPACITORS (MSCS)
The optimum connection for a Mechanically Switched
Capacitors (MSCs) depends on the best utilization of the
available voltage ratings of capacitor units, fusing, and
protective relaying [4]-[6]-[7]. As a general rule, the minimum
number of units connected in parallel is such that isolation of
one capacitor unit in a group should not cause a voltage
unbalance sufficient to place more than 110% of rated voltage
on the remaining capacitors of the group. Equally, the
minimum number of series connected groups is that in which
Fig. 5. Internally fused shunt capacitor bank and capacitor unit the complete bypass of the group does not subject the other
C. Fuseless capacitors capacitors remaining in service to a permanent overvoltage of
more than 110%. The value of 110% is the maximum
Fuseless Capacitor Bank designs are typically the most continuous overvoltage capability of capacitor units as per
prevalent designs in modern day. The capacitor units for
IEEE Std. 18-1992 [3].
fuseless capacitor banks are connected in series strings
The maximum number of capacitor units that may be
between phase and neutral, as shown in Fig. 6. The higher the
voltage for the bank, the more capacitor elements in series. placed in parallel per group is governed by a different
consideration. When a capacitor bank unit fails, other
capacitors in the same parallel group contain some amount of
charge. This charge will drain off as a high frequency
transient current that flows through the failed capacitor unit.
The capacitor can fuse holder, when used, and the failed
capacitor unit must withstand this discharge transient [4].
The discharge transient from a large number of paralleled
capacitors can be severe enough to rupture the failed capacitor
unit or explode a fuse holder, which may damage adjacent
units and even cause a major bus fault within the bank. To
minimize the probability of failure of the explosion of the fuse
holder, or rupture of the capacitor case, or both, the standards
Fig. 6. Fuseless shunt capacitor bank and series string impose a limit to the total maximum energy stored in a
parallel-connected group to 4650 kVAr. In order not to violate
The expected failure of the capacitor unit element is a short this limit, more capacitor groups of a lower voltage rating
circuit, where the remaining capacitor elements will absorb connected in series (with fewer units in parallel per group)
the additional voltage. For example, if there are 6 capacitor may be a suitable solution. However, this may reduce
units in series and each unit has 8 element groups in series
sensitivity of applied unbalance detection schemes. Splitting
there is a total of 48 element groups in the string. If one
the bank into two sections as a double wye may be the
capacitor element fails, this element is shorted and the voltage
preferred solution, and may allow for better unbalance
across the remaining elements is 48/47 of the previous value,
detection scheme.
OLIVEIRA AND PEREIRA : EVALUATION OF MECHANICALLY SWITCHED 455

The 02 (two) most prevalent designs of MSCs are the switched or when one capacitor unit fails in a bank configured
externally fused bank and the fuseless bank. There are with a single group of units.
advantages to each design. Externally fused banks typically C. Delta-connected banks
have a higher unbalance current when a unit fails which is
Delta-connected MSCs are generally used only at
used to operate a fused disconnect device. This design
distribution voltages and are configured with a single series
typically results in a simpler bank configuration and provides
group of capacitors rated at line-to-line voltage. With only one
an easy method for field identification of a failed unit. A fused
series group of units no overvoltage occurs across the
design also requires less sensitive unbalance protection since remaining capacitor units from the isolation of a faulted
the fuse is the principal method used for isolating a can capacitor unit.
failure. However, this style of bank has a higher initial cost
and usually higher maintenance costs. Since the fused element D. H-configuration
is exposed to the environment, the fuses become less reliable Some larger banks use an H configuration in each phase
and require more maintenance to ensure correct operation. As with a current transformer connected between the two legs to
a result, fuseless capacitor banks have become increasingly compare the current down each leg. As long as all capacitors
popular. Elimination of the fused connection results in a lower are balanced, no current will flow through the current
initial cost, reduced maintenance costs, smaller bank footprint, transformer. If a capacitor fuse operates, some current will
and fewer losses. Also, this bank design typically makes flow through the current transformer. This bridge connection
catastrophic can rupture less likely since the discharge energy facilitates very sensitive protection. The H arrangement is
of a failed element will be small. However, the fuseless bank used on large MSCs with many capacitor units in parallel.
design has 02 (two) main disadvantages that increase the
IV. STUDIES FOR THE APPLICATION OF MSCS
emphasis on requiring sensitive relaying protection. One, the
ON POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
elimination of the external fuse means that visual indication of
the failed capacitor has been lost. In addition, an element The application of Mechanically Switched Capacitors
failure results in an overvoltage condition of the remaining (MSCs) brings a lot of benefits, but some basic evaluations are
elements, stressing them. Without a fuse as a means of necessary based on some studies.
isolating the failed can, the protective relay must now be Several simulation tools can be used to realize the studies
sensitive enough to detect a failed element and alarm before for the MSC application, as for this example, the simulation
additional elements fail causing a higher overvoltage tool used was the Alternative Transient Program (ATP) [8].
condition on the remaining units. ATP is a universal program system for digital simulation of
transient phenomena of electromagnetic as well as
A. Grounded wye-connected banks electromechanical nature. With this digital program, complex
Grounded wye MSCs are composed of series and parallel- networks and control systems of arbitrary structure can be
connected capacitor units per phase and provide a low simulated. ATP has extensive modeling capabilities and
impedance path to ground. This offers some protection from additional important features besides the computation of
surge overvoltages and transient overcurrents. When a MSC transients. It has been continuously developed through
becomes too large, making the parallel energy of a series international contributions over the past 20 years.
group too high for the capacitor units or fuses (above Table I presents the main parameters of the example of
4650kVAr), the bank may be split into two wye sections. The MSC (230 kV / 18.54 MVAr) application studied for this
characteristics of the grounded double wye are similar to a paper.
grounded single wye bank. The two neutrals should be TABLE I
CIRCUIT MAIN PARAMETERS
directly connected with a single path to ground.
The double wye design facilitates better protection Description Value
methods. Even with inherent unbalances the two banks will
respond similarly to system events, and therefore, methods Nominal Voltage 230 kV
based on comparing one split-phase versus the other are more Nominal Power 18.54 MVAr
sensitive and less prone to system events.
Nominal Frequency 60 Hz
B. Ungrounded wye-connected banks
Ungrounded wye banks do not permit zero sequence Nominal Capacitor Unit Voltage 11.64 kV
currents, third harmonic currents, or large capacitor discharge Nominal Capacitor Unit Power 570 KVAr
currents during system ground faults (phase-to-phase faults
may still occur and will result in large discharge currents). Reactor Inductance 2 mH
Another advantage is that overvoltages appearing at the CT
secondaries are not as high as in the case of grounded banks.
However, the neutral should be insulated for full line voltage The modeling of the MSC application of Table I consists
because it is momentarily at phase potential when the bank is (per phase), of voltage source, a block that represents the short
circuit impedance, a inrush current limitation reactor, the
456 2010 IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition: Latin America

capacitor units and a voltage transformer in the last capacitor TABLE II

unit to be used for the protection of the capacitor bank. Fig. 7 POWER FREQUENCY OVERVOLTAGES (300 OPERATIONS)
presents this circuit modeling.
Duration [s] Maximum Permissible Voltage
(pu of rated voltage)
0.0083 3.00
0.0167 2.70
0.1000 2.20
0.2500 2.00
1.0000 1.70
15.0000 1.40
60.0000 1.30
1800.0000 1.25

To evaluate voltage and current stresses in the MSC

components, a specific criterion has to be developed, since the
IEEE Std 18 [3] shows values only for 300 operations of the
MSC. This means that, the correction of Table II for a life
cycle of 30 years, considering 02 (two) operations per day
(one energization and one disconnection) was necessary and
done as described below (3), dismissing circuit breaker
restrikes, considered as a low probability nowadays:

Fig. 7. Circuit modeling for the MSC application study

Number ⋅ of ⋅ Switches
year
= 2 × 365 = 730 ⋅ switches (3)
Using the circuit of Fig. 7 with the main parameters of
Table I, some basic studies were realized. Considering a life cycle of 30 (thirty) years, this result (4):
A. MSC energization Total ⋅ Switches = 30 × 730 = 21900 ⋅ switches (4 )
The energization study presented that the maximum
overvoltages in the MSC, obtained considering the circuit Bringing this to the IEEE Std 18 [3] values per number of
breakers with synchronous closing device (normally used in switches, results in acceptable overvoltage in the capacitor
units as presented in Table III.
real applications) were 236.41 kV which corresponds to 1.26
p.u. (per unit), considering the base value as the following (2): TABLE III
POWER FREQUENCY OVERVOLTAGES (21900 OPERATIONS)
Max. ⋅ Overvoltages[ kV ]= 230 ×
2
(2) Duration [s] Maximum Permissible Voltage
3
(pu of rated voltage)
The criterion normally used by the Brazilian National Grid
Operator (ONS), in case of load rejection transient 0.0168 3.00
overvoltages, is that 1.4 p.u. rated voltage should be 0.0169 2.70
maintained only by 20 cycles of fundamental frequency. As
the maximum peak value does not exceed this value, the 0,0180 2.20
requirements of ONS are met [9].
0.0201 2.00
B. Capacitor Units lifetime analysis
0.0304 1.70
To evaluate the capacitor units lifetime analysis we take a
look at transient stresses at it, comparing to the recommended 0.2055 1.40
values in the IEEE Std [3], that considerer a combined total of
0.8219 1.30
300 applications of power frequency terminal to terminal
overvoltages without superimposed transients or harmonic 24.6575 1.25
content of the magnitudes and durations, as showed in the
Table II.
OLIVEIRA AND PEREIRA : EVALUATION OF MECHANICALLY SWITCHED 457

The results of the calculation of Table III were compared to overall substation equipments as well. The capacitors units
the same graphic of the transient energization overvoltages, lifetime analyses was also present in this paper according to
and the results are presented in Fig. 8. the simulations and IEEE Standards recommendations.
The utilization of MSCs increased recently in the light of
blackout prevention activities, and increasing penetration of
distributed generation, wind farms in particular, which add
generation without addressing the problem of reactive power
support. Moreover, MSCs are valuable assets that must be
available for the daily demands of system operation and must
provide reliable operation through abnormal power
transmission system scenarios.

VI. REFERENCES
[1] A. L. P. de Oliveira, "The Definitions and Benefits of the Mechanically
Fig. 8. Transient overvoltages at the capacitor units for lifetime analysis Switched Capacitors (MSC) for Power Transmission and Distribution
Systems– (in Portuguese)", in XVII SNPTEE - Electrical Energy
Fig. 8 presents that the use of the inrush current limitation Production and Transmission National Seminar (Cigré), Curitiba-PR,
reactor and circuit breaker with synchronous closing device on Brazil, 2005.
[2] IEEE Guide for Application of Shunt Power Capacitors, IEEE Standard
the MSC configuration results in values within the 1036-1992, Sep. 1992.
internationally acceptable standards concerning overvoltage [3] IEEE Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors, IEEE Standard 18™ -
levels during the capacitor units lifetime. 2002, Oct. 2002.
[4] B. Kasztenny, J. Schaefer, E. Clark, "Fundamentals of Adaptive
Protection of Large Capacitor Banks", in Clemson University Power
V. CONCLUSIONS
Systems Conference, USA, 2007.
[5] F. R. Garcia, F. E. L. Linhares, “A Technical and Economical
The Mechanically Switched Capacitors (MSCs) are the Comparison about the Shunt Capacitor Banks with External Fuses,
most economical reactive power compensation devices. They Internal Fuses and Fuseless (in Portuguese)”, XVII SNPTEE – Seminário
are a simple and low-cost, besides being low-speed solution Nacional de Produção e Transmissão de Energia Elétrica, Uberlândia-
MG-Brasil, 2003.
for voltage control and network stabilization under heavy load [6] IEEE Guide for Protection of Shunt Capacitors Banks, IEEE Standard
conditions. Their utilization has almost no effect on the short- C37.99-2000, Jun. 2000.
circuit power but it supports the voltage at the point of [7] B. Kasztenny, G. Brunello, C. Wester, "Capacitor Bank Fundamentals
and Protection", in Proceedings of the 56ht Annual Conference for
connection. The power transmission utilities are often Protective Relay Engineers, USA, 2003.
motivated to install MSCs in order to obtain the corresponding [8] Alternative Transient Program (ATP) - http://www.ece.mtu.edu/atp/
benefits and avoid penalties applied by the regulation entities. [9] National Operator of the Electrical System – ONS,
The MSCs installations have other beneficial effects on the http://www.ons.gov.br

system such as improvement of the voltage profile, better

voltage regulation (if they were adequately designed),
reduction of losses and reduction or postponement of
investments in the transmission and generation capacity. Fig. 9 André Luiz Pereira de Oliveira was born in São José
do Rio Preto/SP, Brazil in 1978. He received his BSEE
presents a photo of the capacitor bank of a MSC installation. degree in electrical engineering from the Federal
Engineering School of Itajubá (EFEI), Brazil, in 2001.
Obtained Specialist's title in Power Systems Protection
and MSc in Electrical Engineering in 2003 and 2007
respectively, from Federal University of Itajubá
(UNIFEI), Brazil. Project Management Professional
(PMP®) certified by the Project Management
Institute® - PMI® of the United States of America
(USA) since 2004. He works at SIEMENS Ltda. as a Project Manager since
2001 at the Energy Sector – Power Transmission - Power Transmission
Solutions (E T PS), responsible for the supplying of "turn-key" High Voltage
Direct Current Systems (HVDC), High Voltage Substations, Protection,
Control and Supervision Systems, and Power Compensation Systems
(FACTS).

André Luiz Maduro Pereira was born in Carmo de

Fig. 9. Photo of the capacitor bank of a MSC installation Minas/MG, Brazil in 1988. He received his BSEE
degree in electrical engineering from Federal
This paper presented the evaluation of MSCs application on University of Itajubá in 2010, where he was monitor
Power Transmission Systems, bringing the equipments current and participated in research projects financed
supported by CNPq. Currently he is working at
technologies and the possible configurations. Besides this, the Siemens Ltda. at Energy Sector – Power Transmission
paper presented some basic studies to evaluate transient and – Power Transmission Solutions (E T PS).
temporary overvoltage conditions on capacitors units, and
these are useful in the evaluation of the voltage stresses in the