Characteristics of Good Bread

Bread Faults, their causes

and remedy
 Bread
A bread formulation contains many ingredients to suit the specific requirements of the variety of bread and the
bread making method used. These ingredients which are included in the bread formulation are generally classified
into essential and optional ingredients. The essential ingredients are flour, water, salt and yeast. The optional
ingredients that are often found in the formula are fat, sweetner, malt, surfactants, milk and milk products,
oxidizing agents, enzyme preparations, vital wheat gluten, anti mould agents etc. Each of these compounds
in the bread formula performs a specific function in producing a loaf of bread with desired quality attributes.

ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS
Wheat Flour
Wheat flour is the major component in a bread formulation and is responsible for the structure of bread.
Flour when mixed with water allows the formation of a viscoelastic dough that retains gas during
fermentation and proofing stages. This property of flour is mainly due to the presence of endosperm
proteins, namely, the gliadin and the glutenin. These proteins are unique, in that, when flour is wetted
and mixed into a dough, the gliadin and glutenin proteins interact with each other to from the gluten
proteins. And the gluten proteins impart the visco-elastic properties, to wheat flour dough. The
viscoelastic property of the wheat flour dough helps it to retain the carbon dioxide gas produced
during the bread-making process and develop a honey comb structure inside the baked loaf.

On the basis of their suitability for the manufacture of yeast-leavened bread, common wheats and flours
milled from them are classified broadly into two groups: strong and weak. Strong and weak denotes the
strength of wheat relating to its baking quality.
Some of the differences seen between strong and weak flours are:
1. Strong flour contains relatively high percentage of gluten forming proteins. On the other hand, weak
flour has relatively low protein content.
2. Proteins form strong flour form tenacious, elastic gluten of good gas retaining property. Proteins from
weak flour forms a weak, relatively, more extensible gluten of poor gas retaining capacity.
3. Strong flours require more water to make a dough of proper consistency. Weak flours has relatively
low water absorption.
4. Because of high water absorption strong flour can give a high yield of bread. A weak flour gives lower
bread yield.
5. The dough made from strong flour has excellent handling qualities and offmore flexibility in mixing
and fermentation requirements. For this reason, with hard wheat flour, we can produce bread over a wide
range of baking conditions. Contrarily, dough from weak flours have poor fermentation tolerance, so
they are more likely to fail in baking. It also has critical mixing and fermentation requirements. Weak
flours require less mixing and fermentation than strong flours to yield optimum results.
6. Bread baked from strong flours have a well-risen loaf, good crumb grain and softer texture. Weaker
flours give bread with poor loaf volume, crumb grain and poor texture.

Water
 Water is needed in the formation of dough having viscoelastic properties. The consistency of the
dough is related to its water content. Water is needed to form the gluten proteins and also for the
necessary swelling of starch. It has been estimated that about 45.5% of the total water absorbed
is associated with the starch, 31.2% with proteins, and 23.4% with the pentosans.
 Water also acts as solvent in the dough and many of the reactions that take place during
fermentation, cannot occur if there is no solvent. For example; water acts as a solvent for some
of the released carbon dioxide gas to form carbonic acid; Carbonic acid contributes to the acid
pH of the dough during fermentation, providing a feasible atmosphere for the action of enzymes
and yeast in the dough system.
 Water also facilitates the dissolution and uniform distribution of sugar, malt, milk etc. throughout
the dough mass.
Quality of water namely, hardness and pH of water, plays an important role in breadmaking.
Hardness in water is due to the presence of calcium and magnesium ions. Calcium and magnesium can
be present in the form of their bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, phosphates etc. Hardness is expressed
in ppm of Calcium carbonate equivalent to all the calcium, magnesium and other constituents that
contribute to hardness.
Hardness of water is classified into 5 groups. 0-5 very soft water; 15-50 soft water; 50-100 medium
hard water; 100-200 hard water; 200 and above, very hard water.
A water of hardness not exceeding (100 ppm) is most suitable for use in baking. Some of the mineral
salts found in hard water has strengthening effect on gluten.
 Excessively hard water is undesirable because it retards fermentation by tightening the gluten
structure too much.
 Soft water, on the other hand, lacks the gluten strengthening minerals and hence yield soft and
sticky doughs.
Apart from the hardness of water, pH of the water also plays an important role in bread-making.
Excessive amounts of calcium and magnesium in the form of their bicarbonates are also responsible for
the high alkalinity. Alkaline waters are undesirable because they tend to increase the dough pH. Doughs
made with alkaline waters tend to show abnormal fermentation behaviour because the pH level remains
above the optimum range for yeast and enzyme activity.

Salt (Sodium chloride)

Salt performs three principal functions in bread dough.
1. Most important of these is the improvement of flavour in bread. Bread from which salt has been
omitted is insipid and flat in taste and flavour and is normally unsaleable except to consumers on
a salt-free diet.
2. Second function of salt is its inhibiting effect on fermentation which is reflected in reduced yeast
activity and hence, in a lower gassing power. This action of salt may prove desirable in instances
of inadequate temperature control, where fermentation would otherwise proceed at an erratic rate
leading to non-uniform results.
3. A third function of salt is its strengthening and tightening effect on the gluten of dough, which
may be due in part to its inhibitory effect on proteolytic enzymes. This strengthening effect may
prove especially desirable in instances where very soft water is encountered of where
inadequately matured flours must be processed.
Under these conditions, use of maximum amounts of salt will help overcome possible difficulties with
soft and sticky doughs.
While salt is an essential bread ingredient, not all its effects during the production process are considered
desirable. For example, salt has a definite inhibiting effect on yeast activity which is reflected in a
reduction of the amount of carbon dioxide generated by the yeast within a given time. This be
advantageous under circumstances where high dough temperatures prevail, but undesirable where
a rapid fermentation. under proper temperature control is aimed at.
The fact that the presence of salt in dough markedly extends the time required to attain optimum mixing
has led to the general practice of delayed salt addition. The extension of mixing time may be attributed
partly to a salt-included reduction in water-holding capacity of the flour proteins, thereby increasing the
doughs "free water" content, and partly to the inhibiting effect of salt on proteolytic enzyme action.
These two effects combine to produce a slacker dough at normal absorption levels that requires a more
extended mixing time.
Attempts to overcome these undesirable salt effects have resulted in the development of a special coated
salt in which the individual salt particles are enclosed in a continuous film of special fat. The fat
employed for this purpose has a relatively high melting point so that the coating will remain intact at the
temperatures encountered during mixing and fermentation, but will release the salt at the higher proofing
and baking temperatures. Such coated salt-yields doughs with characteristics that resemble those of salt-
free doughs, yet provides the desired flavour enhancement in the finished baked product.

Baker's yeast
Baker's yeast is a unicellular micro-organism belonging to the fungi group. It generally belongs to the
species. Saccharomyces cerevisiae but some other species are also known to be capable to leavening
bread.
Baker's yeast, can be grouped into two main types: I. Compressed yeast, also called "fresh yeast" and
2. Dried yeast.
Compressed yeast
Is the traditional formulation of baker's yeast. It is sold as blocks of yeast cake wrapped in wax paper or
cellophone. Compressed yeast has a dry matter content of about 27-34% (w/w) and a protein content of
about 42-56% (Dry weight basis). It is ready to be used immediately and, if it has been handled properly,
it should give good results in all types of dough systems.
This type of yeast is perishable and should be stored at low temperatures, preferably between 0 and 4°C.
At these temperatures a shelflife of 3-4 weeks is possible with only a slight decrease in leavening
capacity. At higher temperatures keeping quality is progressively lower. For frozen dough applications
it is often recommended to use a compressed yeast as fresh as possible.
Dried yeast
Is available in two main forms: Active Dry Yeast (ADY) and instant dry yeast (IDY).
ADY is normally sold in airtight packages, vacuum-sealed or filled with an inert gas such as nitrogen.
The leavening activity of ADY is substantially less than that of freshly used compressed.
ADY is sold as irregular, more or less spherical particles having a moisture content of about 6-8% (w/w)
and a protein content of about 40-43% (dry weight basis). For best results, ADY should be rehydrated
with water at 35-45 oC before use. A problem almost inherent to ADY is the leakage of yeast solids
from the cells upon rehydration; among these is glutathione, a reducing component causing dough
slackening.
When the temperature of rehydration is low this problem can grow to unacceptable levels.

Instant dry yeast (IDY) is the latest type of baker's yeast, It is prepared from compressed yeast of
relatively high protein content by a quick-drying process. The leavening activity of lDY under optimal
conditions of application is very close to that of compressed yeast; the shelflife in vacuum-sealed
package is comparable to that of ADY.
IDY is presented, typically in the form of very small rods that are highly porous and easy to rehydrate.
On the one hand this allows immediate use, without prior rehydration. On the other hand, the high
porosity gives and easy access of water and oxygen (from air) that results in a rather rapid loss of activity
on exposure to atmospheric conditions. Once the package is opened, IDY should be used within 3-5 days
if satisfactory results are to be expected. Moreover, the high porosity of IDY makes it sensitive to
extreme rehydration conditions; direct contact with cold water will result in a sub optional performance.

IDY usually has moisture content of 4-6% (w/w) and a protein content of between 45% and 55% on a
dry matter basis.

The three major functions of yeast in dough fermentation are leavening, dough maturation, and flavour
development.

OPTIONAL INGREDIENTS
Sweeteners
Sucrose is the most commonly used sweetner in bread production. Sucrose, when added to a dough, is
hydrolyzed, or inverted, almost instantly into glucose and fructose by the yeast enzyme invertase
(sucrase) so that, normally, all sucrose is hydrolyzed into its constituent components by the end of the
mixing process.
It also help in the development of volatile acids and aldehydes, thereby enhancing bread flavour and
aroma. Sugars improve the texture, grain and crumb colour which become softer, smoother, and whiter
respectively. Sugars provide sweet taste to bread if used above 6% in the formulation. Shelflife of the
bread is also extended due to increased moisture retention if sweetners such as honey, high fructose corn
syrup, invert sugars etc. are used in the formulation.

Fat (shortening)

Fats are used in baking mainly for the tenderness and shortness they in part of bakery products.
Bread formulation often contains 2 to 5% added shortening.
Shortening is added: (1) to facilitate dough handling and processing, (2) to improve slicing properties,
(3) to prolong shelflife and enhance keeping qualities, (4) to increase loaf volume and (5) to improve
crumb grain uniformity and tenderness.
It is thought that fat lubricants the gluten fibrils and make the dough more extensible thereby improving
the gas retention capacity of the dough during mixing.
It has been experimentally shown that plastic fats perform more satisfactorily than oils in bread making.
Latest technology has been able to develop fluid shortenings for use in bread production. These contain
suspended fat solids, dough conditioners and emulsifiers at appropriate levels to obtain a desirable end
product. The commonly used dough conditioners are ethoxylated mono glyceride and sodium stearoyI2-
lactylate. The dough conditioners improve gas retention, impart greater dough strength and mixing
tolerance enhancing the bread loaf volume, symmetry, grain and crumb colour.

Malt
Malt products are available in a variety of forms, including malt flour, malt extract or syrup, dehydrated
or dried malt syrup. Malt and malt syrup can be made from a variety of cereals, although selected barley
varieties are normally used. In malt production, the grain is first steeped in water to a predetermined
moisture content and then permitted to germinate. During this process, the grain liberates amylolytic and
proteolytic enzymes that attack its starch and protein components to bring about their partial
modification. When germination has reached the desired degree, the green malt is transferred onto drying
kilns where its moisture content is reduced from about 50% to less than 5% at controlled temperature
conditions. The dried malt is milled at this stage and is then ready for use. Malt is a rich source of
maltose, minerals, soluble proteins, amylolytic and proteolytic enzymes, and flavour substances.
Flour from wheat contains very low levels of alpha amylase and it is a common practice to add malted
barley flour to bread flour as a source of alpha amylase.
Principle functional benefits, obtained from malt supplementation include increased gas production in
the dough, improved crust colour formation, better crumb moisture retention, and enhanced flavour
development.
Principle reasons for supplementing wheat flour with alpha amylase are (1) wheat flour contains only
about 0.5% of fermentable sugar which is insufficient for optimal yeast growth and gas production. (2)
crust colour is improved by the extra Maillard browning that results from the higher level of reducing
sugars; (3) bread flavour is enhanced by the higher level of simple sugars and by the melanoidins that
are formed by the Maillard reaction; (4) Moisture retention properties of the dough are improved through
starch modification; and (5) staling, which in addition to many complex changes in the bread constituents
also involves retrogradation of the amylopectin moiety of the starch, can be retarded by limited
hydrolysis of the starch by thermostable bacterial alpha amylase.

Enzyme supplements
The supplementation of wheat flour with enzyme preparations containing proteinases, Lipoxygenase,
and especially amylases has been widely adopted in bakeries. While the three enzymes are present in
wheat, they normally occur at insufficient levels to produce optimal effects.
a) Alpha amylase
Since wheat flour generally contains an adequate amount of native beta amylase, the amylase
supplementation of flour in the bakery, aims’ chiefly at an increase in alpha amylase activity. In many
bakeries, more recently, fungal alpha amylase has replaced the cereal malt. Certain strains of the mould
Aspergillus oryzae are generally used as a source of fungal alpha amylase.

b) Protease
Even though not commonly used, fungal protease acts on dough breaking down flour proteins resulting
in mellowing effect on the dough. Excessively strong flours can be mellowed by increased levels of
fungal proteinases. Doughs containing fungal proteinases can be slightly undermixed as the enzyme will
continue to be active beyond the mixing stage to produce in the dough the desired degree of extensibility.
The normal source of fungal proteinase used for baking is Aspergillus oryzae.

c) Lipoxygenase
Enzyme active soya flour is used in the preparation of bread as a source of lipoxygenase at a level of 0.5
to 1.0% based on flour. Principal effect of lipoxygenase is a brightening of the bread's crumb colour that
results from the bleaching of the flour's carotene pigments.

Milk and Milk Products

Skim Milk Powder (SMP) is the most commonly used dairy product in a bread formulation. SMP
represent a valuable baking ingredient that improves both the nutritional value and general physical
quality of bread if it is used in functionally significant amounts. Milk bread should contain a minimum
of 6% SMP in its formulation. Some of the changes in the dough that are brought forth as a result of the
presence of milk powder are (1) increase in bread water absorption, (2) improves dough's tolerance
towards oxidants, (3) improvement in bread crust colour, (4) improvement in bread flavour and (4)
improvement in loaf volume and crumb characteristics.
The preheating of milk prior to drying is essential for obtaining good baking quality in the dried product.
When the preheating treatment is omitted, the resultant dry milk is of poor baking quality. Unheated
milk causes slack doughs and a decrease in loaf volume, effects that are similar to those produced by
reducing agents. Apparently, the quality depressing factor is found in the serum protein fraction of the
milk.

Oxidizing Agents
Some of the oxidizing agents that are used in bread formulations are potassium iodate, potassium
bromates, dehydro ascorbic acid added in the form of ascorbic acid. Potassium iodate is a fast-acting
oxidizing agent which functions from the mixing stage towards. Potassium bromate is a slow acting
oxidant which acts during the baking stage. Ascorbic acid, a reducing agent, is converted to its oxidized
form, the dehydro ascorbic acid by the enzyme ascorbic acid oxidase.
When a dough is treated with appropriate levels of oxidants, it becomes more elastic. Such doughs
usually exhibit superior oven spring. The resultant bread possess a good loaf volume, a crust with smooth
break, cell structure with uniformly small, thin-walled cells, and a soft and velvety texture. Oxidizing
agents are thought to oxidize the thiol (-SH) groups present in the gluten proteins and increase the elastic
property of the dough. Oxidants hence affect the gas retention capacity of the dough.
When too much oxidant is added, doughs become excessively bucky and tight. Bread made from such
doughs has a small loaf volume with a rough uneven crust. Crumb of such bread exhibits many ruptured
cells and may have large holes.

Surfactants
Some of the surfactants used in yeast-raised products are mono and diglycerides, diacetyl tartaric acid
esters of mono glycerides, propylene glycol, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate etc.
A distinguishing feature of all surfactants is their amphiphilic nature that results from the presence within
their molecule of two distinct groups with different solubility properties, namely a hydrophilic and a
hydrophobic (lipophilic) group. Hydrophilic group is soluble in water while lipophilic group is soluble
in fat. Usually, the hydrophilic group comprises of propylene glycol, glycerol, sorbitan, with a strong
affinity for polar substances such as water. Lipophilic group usually consists of a fatty acid chain that is
readily soluble in fats and oils.
In bread, addition of surfactants results in an increase in loaf volume, a more tender crumb, a finer and
more uniform cell structure with thin cell walls which cause a brighter crumb colour, and a slowing in
the rate of crumb firming.
The crumb softening effect of surfactants is attributed to the formation of surfactant starch complex,
which has a positive effect on crumb softening and staling rate of bread. The linear amylose molecule
of starch forms a stable helical conformation around the fatty acid chain of the surfactant and then
becomes largely insoluble in water. During baking, as the starch granules begin to swell, the
monoglycerides become active in amylose complex formation.

Vital wheat gluten

Vital wheat gluten is the dried insoluble gluten protein of wheat flour from which are starch and soluble
components have been removed to the fullest practical extent by a washing process and which, upon
drying, has been reduced to a free-flowing, cream coloured powder. The commercial product will
typically contain, on a dry basis, 75 to 80% proteins. In order to be effective for bread making purposes,
it is essential that the dry gluten retains the viscoelastic properties required for optimum gas retention.
When used in a bread formulation at levels varying from 2 to 4% based on flour, it increases water
absorption of the dough, imparts greater stability to the dough during fermentation. These functional
properties of vital gluten are eventually reflected in increased loaf volume, improved grain, texture and
softness of crumb and a prolonged shelflife of the baked bread.

Microbial inhibitors
The form of microbial spoilage which is most commonly found in bread is the mould growth. The mould
species frequently seen are Aspergillus and Penicillium. The mould inhibitors which are being
extensively used are sodium propionate, calcium propionate, and sodium diacetate. These are-used at a
level of 0.3% on flour weight basis. They extend a mould free shelflife of bread for about 4 days.
It is observed that even the freshly milled flours made under best conditions will contain an appreciable
number of mould spores. As along as the flour moisture is normal, they do not cause any trouble. These
moulds do not survive the baking temperature and are killed well before bread is removed from the over.
However, development of mould growth usually commences on the outside of the loaf during the cooling
process. If given sufficient time, they may penetrate in the inside through minute cracks in the crust or
through the spaces between the slices of a sliced loaf. Hence it is important that bread cooling rooms are
kept clean and slicer blades etc. are frequently sanitized.
 UNIT OPERATIONS IN BREAD MAKING

General process of bread making

 Sieving of Flour
 Weighing of Ingredients
 Mixing
 Fermentation
 Remixing/Knock Back
 Dough Make Up
 Panning
 Proofing
 Baking
 Cooling and Packing
 COOKIES

The name biscuit comes from the French word bis, which means twice and cuit which
means baked. It is a sweet or savory dry flat cake with a high calorie content (420-510 /
100 gm) The raw materials used for biscuit manufacture is flour, sweeteners, shortening,
milk, leavening agents and other miscellaneous products.

The word cookie derives from a Dutch word that means ―small cake, or sweet biscuits.
The Dutch have provided bakers and confectioners with the word koekje which means
small cake. Using this as the contemporary definition, the term cookie can include
anything small, flat pastries usually eaten alone (although not singularly) as a snack or
with coffee at the end of a meal. The Americans began to use the word cookie, whereas
the English continue to use the word biscuit for the same product. There are more varieties
of cookies than any other baked product because there are so many different shapes, sizes,
textures and flavors that are possible.

Difference between cookies and biscuits: Both, cookies and biscuits mean the same,
while the difference lies in the places where they are known differently, i.e. the word
‗cookies‘ is often referred to biscuits and cookies in the American countries, whereas the
term, ‗biscuits‘ is generally used is in the British countries.
Cookies are soft sweet biscuits, which are made with lavishing nuts, oats, resins and
chocolate chips. These ingredients add a fabulous flavor in the taste of cookies. There are
varieties of cookies, available in various parts of the world. The whopping amounts of
sugar in American cookies are responsible both for the crispiness and the chewiness.
Biscuits are hard sweet baked bread, which are especially full of sugar and butter. Biscuits
are also prepared same as that of the cookies, only differs in their content, i.e. biscuits are
full of the basic ingredients, which are butter and sugar. There is not much stuffing
obtained in biscuits as observed in the cookies. They are available in flavors and types.
CLASIFICATION OF COOKIES

The mixing methods in the preparation of cookie and biscuits simple, it is better to classify
cookies and biscuits according to their makeup. Cookies are broadly classified according
to how they are formed, including at least these categories:
INGREDIENTS
Cookies contain many of the same ingredients as cakes except that they have a lower
proportion of liquid with a higher proportion of sugar and fat to flour.
The three main ingredients present in nearly every type of cookie are wheat flour, sugar,
and fat, but you'll see other ingredients such as leaveners, eggs, liquids, such as milk,
perhaps some chocolate, coconut, spices or nuts.

1. Flour: The type of flour determines the structure of the cookie, and is the main binding
agent. Each type of flour has an individual protein profile suitable almost exclusively for
specific uses. All-purpose flour is generally used in most cookie recipes, but other flour
types are found, as well. The addition or substitutions of other flours, such as bread or
cake flour are sometimes added to get different results in a recipe. For example, bread
flour can be used instead of all-purpose flour; it can absorb much more liquid because of
its higher protein content, more moisture will stay in the cookie and it will be chewier.
Replacing a few tablespoons of all-purpose flour with cake flour will give you a tenderer
cookie. However, each cookie recipe is different and a successful outcome cannot be
determined.
Cake flour is made with soft wheat, less protein (7.5%) in soft flour, less gluten in the
mixture, and a very tender, potentially puffy, cookie. With bread flour, made from hard
wheat increase in protein (12%), an increase in gluten and, therefore, a chewy cookie. To
lesser the strength, corn starch can be added.
2. Sweeteners: These are some form of sugar is used in all cookie recipes. It is a
tenderizing agent, adds sweetness and affects the spread of the cookie. Apart from this it
also imparts volume to the product. It gives a typical sweet taste when caramelizes and
so increases the colour and flavour.
a. Granulated sugar or brown sugar is used frequently in cookie making, but honey,
molasses, corn syrup and other sugars can be used, sometimes in combinations.
b. Honey and corn syrup provides moisture and chewing quality, apart from softness
and crispiness.
c. Molasses if added should be mixed and adjusted with baking soda to neutralize the
effect of acidity.
d. Brown sugar if added gives good colour and taste to cookies and biscuits.

3. Eggs: They are used as both tenderizing, toughening and flavouring agents for cookies.
Egg yolk contains large amount of fat, known Lecithin, which tenderize the cookies. The
liquid from the egg forms steam and gets trapped in the cookie, puffing it up, giving the
cookie structure. In addition, they emulsify the dough, bringing the water and fat phases
together in a recipe for a creamier, smoother texture. On the other hand, egg whites have
a drying effect and but also contribute to the structure or shape of a cookie. Whole egg
powder can also be used.

4. Liquids: Liquids are essential to cookie recipes, but they typically have very little.
When flour is moistened and stirred, gluten is formed from the proteins present. Gluten
strands form the structure of the cookie, but they also have a toughening effect. Fats, such
as stick butter and shortening, give you a tenderer cookie. If you add too much liquid, like
milk or water, cookie dough is going to be like a very thin pancake batter which won't
bake like cookie dough.

a. Dairy : Unless you are making low-fat or fat-reduced recipes, choose full-fat dairy
products. Always use solid cream cheese and not the whipped variety.

b. Cream- Whipping cream (30% to 36% butterfat) and heavy cream (36% to 40%
butterfat) are the skimmed creams that rise to the top of milk. Both can be whipped and
mixed into batters.

c. Half-and-Half- As the name suggests, this is half cream and half milk. It is used to add
richness to batters. In a pinch, it can be made by mixing equal parts milk and cream.

d. Milk- Fresh whole or reduced-fat (2%) cow‘s milk works best for cookies. Originally,
buttermilk was the liquid drained from churned butter. Evaporated milk is canned,
concentrated milk from which 60% of the water has been removed through heating and
evaporation. It can be used as is in recipes or reconstituted with water as a substitute for
fresh milk. Sweetened condensed milk is a shelf-stable canned cow‘s milk-and-sugar
blend that has been reduced to a thick, syrupy-sweet mixture and is often used in desserts.

e. Water- It is used in small quantities, only needed to moisturize the dough to attain
desired structure. Water helps in attaining the right consistency of the dough and control
the temperature. Cold water should always be used so that the fat do not melt during
mixing and processing. Water dissolves baking soda so that carbon dioxide can be
formed. It also dissolves other ingredients also.

5. Shortenings: When they are beaten, air cells are incorporated and helps in giving
tenderness and softness to cookies.

a. Oils- like vegetable, canola, and corn oil are good bets for baking and have a high
smoke point and neutral flavor. Avocado and coconut oils also have high smoke points,
but they impart a distinctive flavor. Other options to try include peanut oil, sunflower oil,
and safflower oil.
b. Butter- Butter contains 80% milk-fat and comes unsalted, salted, and whipped. Avoid
whipped butter which has too much air incorporated to get an unaccurate measure for
baking.

c. Vegetable Fat- Solid shortening is 100% vegetable fat with no water content. It gives
tenderness to baked goods but lacks butter-rich flavor.

d. Margarine and Lard- They are also used and provide definite flavour, texture and
taste to cookies.

6. Leavening Agents: Baking soda, baking powder and Ammonium bicarbonate are the
classic leaveners in cookie recipes and they are mixed with dry ingredients. Used together
and separately, these components affect the puffiness to some degree (baking powder),
but they also affect the color of the cookie (baking soda). Mostly baking powder is used
as it is a blend of baking soda and tartaric acid. It is a double-acting leavening agent that
first reacts when combined with wet ingredients and then a second time with the heat of
the oven. Ammonium bicarbonate decomposes completely when heated, producing
carbon dioxide, ammonia and water. The reaction is rapid at around 60°C and therefore
the expansion of the dough takes place during the initial stages of baking. Other leaveners
that are widely used include: Yeast (cream crackers), Acid calcium phosphate, Sodium
Acid Pyrophosphate.

7. Salt: Sodium chloride, used as a taste and flavour enhancer and also to control the rate
and extent of fermentation. Only very small amount to be used and it becomes much
lesser if salted butter is used.

8. Flavorings: Cocoa, nuts, extracts, and other flavorings, all contribute to the character,
colour and taste of a cookie. It is recommended using only pure vanilla extract, never
imitation, as the taste of imitation vanilla is immediately detected, and is exaggerated if
the dough or cookies are frozen. A touch of almond extract in a plain sugar-cookie recipe
(add about 1/2 teaspoon at the same time you add the eggs to the dough), or a good dash
of cardamom in spicy applesauce bars (add 1/2 teaspoon cardamom along with the other
spices) makes a subtle but significant difference. Spice powders ( Jeera, Methi, ajwain,
pepper) can also be used. Cocoa powder or artificial butter flavour is also be used, but in
small quantity.

9. Colours: Only permitted colours can be used for making cookies. Golden brown colour
is mostly favoured.

10. Others: It includes:

a. Cornstarch- This fine powdery starch is made from finely ground corn kernels and is
used primarily as a thickening agent. It is often added to flour to lighten its texture and it
lasts indefinitely sealed in a cool, dry place.

b. Oatmeal- means uncooked rolled oats, either old-fashioned or quick, but not instant.
Instant will get too mushy in the recipe.

c. Coconut- means the shredded or flaked and sweetened kind. If you have fresh coconut,
grate it and soak it in milk, refrigerated, for about 6 hours, then drain. This will give it
about the same moisture content as the packaged kind.

d. Fruits- Dried fruits are more concentrated than fresh ones, and has very less moisture.
Hence does not affect the moisture content in the cookies. Raisins, currents, pears, figs,
apples, apricot are widely favoured. Candies and crystallized fruits can also be used as
they also do not have much moisture. Prior to using them, they have to soaked in hot
water for 15 or 20 minutes, and then drained.

e. Nuts and seeds can mean walnuts, pecans, and almonds, water melon seed plus others.
They can become rancid quickly (in just a week or two, depending on conditions) at room
temperature, and should be stored in the refrigerator or freezer. When a recipe calls for
chopped nuts, it usually means walnuts or pecans. Almonds, with their delicate flavor,
and peanuts, which are more assertive, should be used only when specified.

f. Grated orange and lemon rind (known as "zest") - refers to the outer colored portion
of the rind.
g. Chocolate- may be specified as unsweetened, sweetened or bittersweet chocolate,
semi-sweet (such as the chocolate chips commonly used in Toll House cookies), or sweet.
Cocoa (the unsweetened powder, not a mix) is also called for in some recipes. Be sure to
use the type of chocolate specified, as substitutions may not be successful. Chocolate
burns easily, so the best way to melt it is in a double boiler over hot water, in a microwave
oven or in an oven as it preheats for the recipe. Experienced cooks sometimes place
chocolate
in a heavy saucepan over direct low heat, but that method carries the risk of scorching.

h. Cream of Tartar- This refined byproduct of wine making is used to stabilize whipped
egg whites and also acts as a leavening agent. It lasts indefinitely.

i. Spices- Whole spices last twice as long as ground, so buy spices whole and grind them
as needed. Sealed in a cool, dark place, whole spices last 2 to 3 years, while ground spices
begin to lose their potency within a year or two.

j. Syrups- Corn syrup, maple syrup, honey, molasses, or sorghum all impart sweetness to
recipes. Store at room temperature, and they will last forever.

k. Sodium Metabisulphite - A reducing agent for the modification of the strength of the
gluten in doughs. It causes the gluten to become more extensible and less elastic and so
reduces shrinkage of the dough pieces during baking.

l. Proteolytic Enzyme- Proteinases break down and modify the gluten in doughs, giving
softer, less elastic dough.

m. Lecithin- Lecithin is an emulsifier produced from soya beans and available in liquid
or powder form. It may be added to the fat or directly into the dough mix.

How ingredients impact a cookie recipe:

1. High-protein flour: All-purpose flour. Makes cookies darker in color and flatter.
2. Low-protein flour: Cake flour. Making cookies pale, soft and puffy.
3. Fat with sharp melting point, like butter: Makes cookies spread.
4. Fat that maintains same consistency over a wide temperature range, such as solid
vegetable shortening: Makes cookies that do not spread as much.
5. Corn syrup (or molasses): Makes cookies browner.
6. Brown sugar and honey: Makes cookies that soften the longer you keep them.
7. Cookies to spread more: use all butter or add 1 to 2 tablespoons liquid (water, milk
or cream -- not egg) or use bleached all-purpose (but not one that is chlorinated) or add 1
to 2 tablespoons sugar.
8. Cookies to spread less: use solid vegetable shortening or substitute some solid
vegetable shortening for an equal amount of butter or use cake flour or cut the sugar by a
few tablespoons or switch from baking soda to baking powder or chill the dough before
baking it.
9. Cookies to have a chewy quality: melt the butter instead of simply using it at room
temperature.
10. Cookies to have a cakey quality: use the butter at room temperature or use equal
parts butter and solid vegetable shortening.
11. Cookies to be tenderer: use cake flour or add a few tablespoons of sugar or add a
few tablespoons of fat.
12. Cookies are too tender and you want them to be more substantial: substitute a
few tablespoons of bread flour for an equal amount of all-purpose flour or cut the sugar
by a few tablespoons or cut the fat by a few tablespoons
13. Cookies to brown better: substitute 1 to 2 tablespoons of light corn syrup for an
equal amount of sugar or substitute a few tablespoons of unbleached or bread flour for
equal amounts of the all-purpose flour.
14. Cookies are browning too much, despite the correct oven temperature: substitute
water for an equal amount of liquid ingredients or use cake flour or bleached all-purpose
flour.
 General process of cookies making

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED FOR MAKING

COOKIES AND BISCUITS

The Chief equipment and tools that are required for making cookies and
biscuits are given below.
Oven
Baking pan
Spatula
Cookie scoops
Rolling pins
Cookie cutter
Cooling rack
Gloves
 Dough kneader or Planetary mixture
Mixing bowl
Measuring tools
Pastry brush
Kitchen towel or plastic wrap

MIXING METHODS
Cookie mixing methods are much like cake mixing methods. The major difference
is that less liquid is usually incorporated, so mixing is somewhat easier. Less liquid
means that gluten is less developed by the mixing. Also, it is a little easier to get a
smooth, uniform mix. There are four basic cookie mixing methods:
1. One-stage
2. Creaming
3. Sanding
4. Sponge

1. The one-stage method- Just place all ingredients in a bowl, then mix. May
result in dense and chewy cookies with less spreading. Possibly less
uniform in texture and structure.
Cookie doughs contain less liquid than cake batters, so blending the
ingredients into uniform dough is easier. Because all the ingredients are
mixed at once, the baker has less control over mixing with this method than
with other methods. Therefore, the one-stage method is not frequently
used. When over-mixing is not a great problem, as with some chewy
cookies, it can be used.

2. Creaming Method- Cream the butter and sugar until light, add the eggs,
then the liquids. Finally, add the dry ingredients last.
May results in a crumbly texture. It might spread better, leading to a crisp
exterior and soft interior.
With good technique, it can also produce chewy cookies.

3. Sanding Method- There are two basic steps in this method: (1) mixing the dry
ingredients with fat until the mixture resembles sand or cornmeal, and (2) mixing
in the moist ingredients. In the case of cookies, the sanding method is used
primarily with formulas that contain only egg and no other moist ingredient.

3. Sponge Method- The sponge method for cookies is similar to the egg-
foam methods for cakes. Whip the egg until light and fluffy, usually done
with sugar (for at least 3-5 minutes). Then fold in dry ingredients and
flavourings.
May produce a cake-like texture and an even crumb structure. Most likely
softer and lighter cookies.

TYPES AND PROCESS

 Collection of raw ingredients- the raw materials are collected and weighed
according to the formula or recipe.
 Trays to be greased, fruits to be cut, flour sieved twice, oven to be heated etc.
 The ingredients are mixed to a homogeneous mixture to for dough.
 Planetary mixture or dough kneader can be used.
 Over mixing to be avoided at this might ruin the dough and avoid gluten
formation. Under mixing will result in improper blending of ingredients and the
dough will break while rolling.
 Temperature during mixing should be cool to prevent fat being getting melted and
oozing out of the dough.
 Sieve flour with the leavening twice, then cream the sugar, shortening, salt and
flavour, and then add egg, moisture.

Make-up methods/Shaping techniques:

Because their mixing is simple, it is better to classify cookies and biscuits according to
their makeup.
1. Bagged: Also, called pressed cookies are made from soft dough. The dough must be
soft enough to be forced through a pastry (piping) bag, but stiff enough to hold its shape.
Fill the bag with the cookie dough. Press out cookies of the desired shape and size directly
onto prepared cookie sheets. Example: Butter Buttons.

2. Dropped: These cookies are made from soft dough. In this method, the batter is
deposited on a sheet for baking with a spoon or a scoop. Usually, using a pastry bag is
faster, and gives better control over the shape and size of the cookies. When the dough
contains pieces of nuts, dried fruits or chocolate bits or chips, this method is used.
Example: peanut macaroons.

3. Rolled: Cookies are rolled and then cut with cutters. Bakeshops and 5 star operations
do not make these types of cookies because of the labour involved. Also, after cutting the
scraps, these are re rolled, making tough and inferior cookies. The only advantage is that
you can make different shapes and sizes and according to the occasion. Example: Tricolor
biscuits.

4. Moulded: In this method, each piece of dough is moulded into the desired shape. This
is the accurate of dividing cookie dough into equal portions. For some traditional cookies,
special molds are used to flatten the dough and, at the same time, stamp a design onto the
cookie. Example: Shrewsbury Biscuits (from Kayani, Pune).

5. Icebox: Also called refrigerated cookies. This method is ideal for operations that wish
to have freshly baked cookies on hand at all times. Rolls of dough are made in advance
and kept in the fridge. They are then cut and baked as needed. This method is also used
to make multi colored cookies in various designs. Example: chequered and pinwheel.

6. Bar: Here the dough is baked in long narrow strips which are then cut cross wise into
bars. Example: Chocolate Chip Cookie Bars, Glazed Cappuccino Bars, Peanut Butter
Bars

7. Sheet: Sheet cookies vary so much that it is nearly impossible to give a single procedure
for all of them. Some are almost like sheet cakes, only denser and richer; they may even
be iced like sheet cakes. Others consist of two or three layers that are added and baked in
separate stages. Example: Almond Tuiles, Chocolate Chip Sheet, Raisin Sheet Cookies.

8. Foam cookies or macaroons: These are special cookies made with whipped egg to
soft peak stage. While whipping cream of tartar or lemon juice is added, followed by
sugar. The mixture is whipped enough to stand upright without spreading. It is then very
gently folded with chopped nuts and fruits. Then the desired quantity is poured on dusted
baking sheet and then baked.

9. Meringue: are light, airy and sweet confections. In this egg whites and sugar are beaten
to stiff peak stage, then while whipping cream of tartar or lemon juice is added. The
binding agents may be corn starch, or gelatin.

No matter what method is used, one important rule to follow is – the cookie should have
a uniform size and thickness. This is essential for even baking. If the cookies are to be
garnished, they must be done immediately on panning. Press them gently when still fresh.
If you wait, the surface dries up.

PANNING, BAKING, COOLING AND PACKAGING

Preparing the Pans

Use clean, unwrapped pans.
Lining the sheets with parchment or silicone paper is fast, and it eliminates the need to
grease the pans.
A heavily greased pan increases the spread of the cookie. A greased and floured pan
decreases spread.
Some high-fat cookies can be baked on ungreased pans.

Baking
Most cookies are baked at a relatively high temperature for a short time.
Too low a temperature increases spreading and may produce hard, dry, pale cookies.
Too high a temperature decreases spreading and may burn the edges or bottoms.
Even a single minute of over baking can burn cookies, so watch them closely. Also,
the heat of the pan will continue to bake the cookies if they are left on it after being
removed from the oven.
Doneness is indicated by color. The edges and bottom should just be turning a light
golden color.
Excessive browning is especially undesirable if the dough has been colored. The
browning of the surface hides the color.
Cooling
Most cookies baked without parchment paper must be removed from the pans while
they are still warm, or they may stick.
If the cookies are very soft, do not remove them from the pans until they are cool
enough and firm enough to handle. Some cookies are soft when hot but become crisp
when cool.
Do not cool cookies too rapidly or in cold drafts, or they may crack.
Cool completely before storing.
After the cookies have been baked, check them for defects.

Packaging: It plays an important role in improving the self life of the product. Sealed
moisture-proof package will keep the cookies crisp and more over it will prevent the
cookies and biscuits from getting rancid. Therefore cookies are to packed in air-tight
containers or foil, so that they are protected from outside moisture and pressure. In
modern packaging technique the containers are made air-free or filled with nitrogen gas.
This improves the keeping quality for many days.

PRECAUTIONS TO TAKE WHILE MAKING COOKIES/BISCUITS

1. A major precaution to be observed while making cookie mixture is that they should be
quickly mixed and never over processed.
2. For hard to handle soft doughs, roll the dough directly on to the baking sheet. Cut into
the desired shapes and remove the scraps from around.
3. If cookies should stick to the pan, put the pan back into the oven for a few seconds.
This usually loosens the cookies easily.

An important factor in the production is the use of high grade ingredients. Butter
is the preferred shortening. It has a better flavor and a melt in the mouth quality.
Careful selection of the purest spices, extracts and flavorings will assure delicious
cookies. The type of flour used for cookies can vary from flours of medium
strength to soft texture. Strong flours are not recommended for making cookies.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COOKIE OR BISCUIT

 The following characteristics are important:
Shape- shape to be uniform with tidy and well finished edges.
Colour – suitable and uniform colour.
Texture – open, flaky, short, and crisp -depending on the product. Some cookies are
chewy in nature due to high flour content.
Density/volume – low density gives more volume and a lighter bite
Bite/Mouth Feel – crispiness, softness, smoothness, crunchiness...
Flavour – many flavours and fillings are heat susceptible and the protection of the
flavours and texture of the fillings needs consideration for the baking process. For example,
for a variety of soft doughs and cookies, a preference will be given for radiant heat, a longer
baking time at a lower temperature.
Fillings- uniformly distributed and un-burnt.

COOKIES AND BISCUIT FAULTS

1 Lack of spread Too fine granulation of sugar
Adding sugar at one time
Excessive mixing
Too hot oven temperature
Too much of acidity in the dough
Too much flour or flour too strong
Not enough sugar
Not enough leavening
Not enough liquid
Insufficient pan grease

2 Excess of spread Excessive sugar

Too soft a batter consistency
Excessive pan grease
Too low an oven temperature
Excessive or improper type of shortening
Not enough flour
Too much leavening (chemical leaveners or creaming)
Too much liquid

3 Tough cookies Insufficient shortening

Flour too strong
Over handling

4 Too dry Not enough liquid

Not enough shortening
Baked too long or baking temperature too low
Too much flour
 5 Too crumbly Improper mixing
Too much sugar
Too much shortening
Too much leavening
Not enough eggs

6 Did not rise Not enough baking power

Over-mixing of dough
Oven too hot

7 Not light and fluffy Dough was not wet and sticky enough
Over-mixing of dough
Used blunt biscuit cutter

8 Not Flaky/crumbly Not enough fat in dough

Too much butter and not enough shortening or lard
Over-mixing of dough

Biscuit making: It remains a useful rule of thumb that the properties of good biscuit flour and good bread
flour are opposite. Bread flours are made from hard wheat with high protein content, where as Biscuit flours
are made from low protein content. The most important dough property in biscuit dough‘s is extensibility.
Resistance is undesirable. The only type of flour that cannot be used to make sweet biscuits is the sort of
high protein hard wheat bread flour that is preferred for bread. Biscuits made from this sort of flour have a
bread-like texture.
Most types of biscuits contain a considerable amount of fat. The traditional fat for biscuits was butter and
some all-butter biscuits are made. As biscuits are a long- life product any fat used in them has to be stable
under the conditions of storage. Most biscuits contain vegetable fats. It is common to use hydrogenated fat
in biscuits because vegetable oils were too soft physically and too unsaturated to be stable against oxidation,
and thus reduces rancidity.
Apart from the obvious function of adding sweetness, sugars affect the structure of biscuits. Biscuits made
from short doughs contain the most sugar while semi-sweet biscuits contain less and crackers least. All
reducing sugars present can undergo the Maillard reaction and produce attractive colour and flavours.
While liquid milk is little used in biscuit manufacture for practical reasons to do with lack of stability,
skimmed milk solids are used. The preferred ingredient is skimmed milk powder.
A few other cereal-based ingredients go into some biscuits. The most important is oats in the form
of oatmeal or oat bran.
MIXING BISCUITS DOUGH
While all biscuit doughs need to be mixed the other requirements of the mixer depend on the type of
dough involved. Biscuit doughs are normally classified as hard developed doughs, semi-sweet doughs,
short doughs and batters. The needs of each type are considered separately below.
1. Hard Developed Doughs. These doughs are used to make crackers. The mixing action has to develop
the dough as in bread. Indeed some crackers are fermented with yeast like bread. Crackers are made
from dough that is low in fat and sugar but relatively high in water. Cracker doughs are mixed in an all
in one process that involves kneading the dough to develop the gluten and then the dough is left for
subsequent fermentation. The dough would be mixed to a final temperature of 26–30 oC, which is
obtained by controlling the energy input and the temperature of the ingredients. After fermentation some
cracker doughs are remixed with more flour and water.

2. Semi-sweet Doughs. These contain more sugar and fat than crackers. Mixing should be to 41 oC if
sodium metabisulfite is used and to 45 oC if it is not used. Mixing time is not critical. Semi-sweet
doughs are normally mixed on an all-in-one basis.

3. Short Doughs- Gluten development is not desirable in these doughs. The level of sugar is so high in
these products that it cannot all dissolve in the water. These doughs are mixed in a two-stage process
by forming an emulsion of the fat in the water and then adding the flour. Energy input can be high in
the first stage as this helps the dispersion and there is no gluten present to develop. The second stage
mixing, where the flour is added, is very short to avoid developing the gluten. In some cases some of
the sugar is added with the flour.

4. Batters- A few biscuits are made from dough so soft that it is really a batter. These products
sometimes contain eggs. As these products are nearly cakes they are made in a cake-type mixer with a
high sheer rate to incorporate air.

Shaping of Biscuits: If biscuits are made by hand the shaping process would be to roll out the
dough and use a cutter to cut the biscuits to shape. The scrap dough is then re-rolled and more pieces
are cut with the excess being re-rolled and the process repeated until there is insufficient dough to make
any more biscuits. It is also possible to shape biscuits by a mechanized system that does the same
process. The different mechanized systems may be sheeting gauging and cutting, extruding wire cutting
and depositing or rotary moulding.

Baking Biscuits: While biscuits can be and are baked in almost any type of oven, including deck
ovens, rack ovens and travelling ovens, most biscuits are baked in travelling ovens. These ovens suit
large plant bakeries. The throughput of these systems is measured in terms of kilos per hour. One of
their advantages is that it is possible to arrange the oven in a series of zones so that the product passes
first into the hottest part of the oven and is moved to cooler regions as cooking proceeds.
 EQUIPMENT REQUIRED IN A BAKERY
Various types of equipment are needed and used to facilitate the process of baking. Depending upon
the use, equipment may be as light equipment and heavy equipment.

1. OVENS (Fig Below)

Convection oven
Convection ovens contain fans that circulate the air and distribute the heat rapidly throughout
the interior. The forced air makes foods cook more quickly at lower temperatures. Because the
strong forced air can distort the shape of items made with batters and soft doughs, and because
the air may be strong enough to blow baking parchment off sheet pans, convection ovens are
not as versatile for the baker as the other kinds of ovens.
Rack oven- A rack oven is a large oven into which entire racks full of sheet pans can be
wheeled for baking. Normal baker‘s racks may hold from 8 to 24 full size sheet pans, but racks
made specifically to go into rack ovens usually hold about 15 to 20 pans. Rack ovens hold one
to four of these racks at once. These ovens are also equipped with steam injectors. Although
this usage is not strictly correct, sometimes you may hear the term rack oven used for
conventional ovens such as those found in restaurant ranges because the pans are placed on
racks rather than directly on the bottom as for deck ovens.

Rotary/revolving/mechanical oven - In a mechanical oven, the food is in motion while it

bakes. The most common type is a revolving oven, in which the mechanism is like that of a
Ferris wheel. This mechanical action eliminates the problem of hot spots or uneven baking
because the mechanism rotates the foods throughout the oven. Because of their size, they are
especially useful in high volume operations. Revolving ovens can also be equipped with steam
injectors.

Deck or cabinet- Deck ovens are so called because the items to be baked—either on sheet
pans or, in the case of some breads, freestanding—are placed directly on the bottom, or deck,
of the Breads baked directly on the floor of the ovens and not in pans are often called hearth
breads, so another name for these ovens is hearth ovens. Deck ovens for baking bread are
equipped with steam injectors. Wood-fired brick ovens are similar in function to deck ovens
in that items are baked directly on the oven floor. These ovens are used in some operations
that produce artisan breads, as well as in some restaurants that serves pizzas and similar items.
The heat is generated by a wood fire built inside the oven. This fire heats the thick brick floor
and walls, which retain the heat enough to bake foods. Gas-fired brick ovens are similar, but
the heat is more easily controlled oven. There are no racks for holding pans in deck ovens.
Deck ovens are also called stack ovens because several may be stacked on top of one another.
Microwave ovens- It is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to
microwave radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum. The radiation generated by the oven
penetrates partway into the food, where it agitates the molecules of water. The friction this
agitation causes creates heat, which cooks the food.

Dutch oven- Dutch oven is a thick-walled (usually cast iron) cooking pot with a light –fitting
lid.

2. OTHER HEATING EQUIPMENTS (Fig below)

Bread toaster- electrical equipment to toast bread slices. It may be manually, popover or
roller.
Double boilers- A double boiler is a kitchen tool used for applying gentle heat on the stovetop,
for delicate tasks like making melting chocolate, or preparing custards.
Gas range- a single burner domestic gas range fitted with mushroom type burner is ideal for
bakery.
Blow torch/gun- or blow lamp is a fuel-burning tool used for applying flame and heat to
various applications, usually metalworking mostly gas-fuelled and is used for gratinating
custards and pies.
Heat gun- is an electrically operated device used to emit a stream of hot air, especially used
in icing and decoration.
Induction heaters- used for melting and cooking.
3. MEASURING TOOLS (Fig 1 D)
Measuring cups- Dry measuring cups are used to measure all dry ingredients such as flour,
sugar, and oats, also for semisolid ingredients such as jam, shortening, sour cream, and peanut
butter. All liquid ingredients, such as water, milk, or juice are measured in a liquid measuring
cup. Liquid measuring cups should be made of clear glass or plastic, have a pouring spout,
and have clear measurement markings on the side.
Measuring spoons - Are available in sets; usually include measurements of 1/4, 1/2, 1
teaspoon, and 1 tablespoon; stainless steel is recommended. Utensils for measuring small
amounts of both dry and liquid ingredients accurately.
Weighing scale- These are used to measure dry ingredients, along with nuts, dried and fresh
fruits, and chocolate, and to measure out portions of dough. The scale is also helpful to
determine if multiple cake pans have the same amount of batter.
Timer- is used to in timing baked products, the rising of yeast and to check the doneness of
cakes.
Thermometers- are used to measure the temperature of sugar and frozen desserts.
4. PREPARATORY TOOLS (Fig.1 E)
Flour shifter- small device used to move dry ingredients across a screen area to remove any
lumps and mix and aerate them.
Whiskers- Two types: balloon, rigid balloon - beating egg whites or light batters rigid - mix
thick sauces and batters.
Cooling racks- used for placing cooked foods onto a surface that will enable the food to be
cooled on all sides after being baked, either food still in a hot pan or food removed from a
baking sheet or pan and placed directly onto the rack. They are made of stainless steel wires
that are formed into a mesh squares of small crisscrossed bars or a number of straight, closely
aligned parallel bars so that food to be cooled can easily be supported without falling through,
yet allowing enough air to reach the bottom of the food so it does not retain too much moisture
and become soggy.
Cake board- is a flat support placed under a cake, to make it easy to lift and transport. A cake
is placed on a Cake Board and then spends the rest of its "life span" on the board: it is decorated
on the board, transported on the board, and served from the board. It may be of any shape as
desired.
Colander- is a bowl-shaped kitchen utensil with holes in it used for draining food such as
pasta or rice. The perforated nature of the colander allows liquid to drain through while
retaining the solids inside. It is sometimes also called a pasta strainer or kitchen sieve.
Can opener- A can opener or tin opener is a device used to open metal cans. It may be lever
type or rotating wheel type.
Pastry brush- Pastry brushes are used to brush liquid type ingredients onto pastries or breads.
Spatula/Turners - Small utensil like a knife but used often to spread frosting, level dry
ingredients when measuring or slice butter. It comes in different sizes; small spatula are used
to remove muffins and molded cookies from pans which is 5 to 6 inches; large spatula for
icing and frosting cakes; flexible blade is used for various purposes.
Juicer- appliance for extracting juices from fruits and vegetables.
Ladles- A ladle (dipper) is a type of spoon used for soup, stew, or other foods. Although
designs vary, a typical ladle has a long handle terminating in a deep bowl, frequently with the
bowl oriented at an angle to the handle to facilitate lifting liquid out of a pot or other vessel
and conveying it to a bowl.
Rolling pins- Tool used to flatten dough for rolls, pizza, cookies or crusts.
Pastry bags - Cloth or plastic container for whipped cream, meringue, frosting or other soft
ingredients that enables the cook to gently squeeze the ingredients through a tip and control
the rate of flow plus the position of the food when garnishing, decorating cakes and pastries
and filling containers.
Nozzles/pastry tips - are funnel shaped pastry tips used to pipe decorative borders of icing or
chocolate onto cakes and cookies, or for pressing out small cookies or chocolate shapes.
Pastry cloth- Cotton woven cloth used when rolling out pastry as it is used under the dough
and rubbed with flour to prevent sticking. It can be used to help move or roll dough.
Utility tray- is used to hold ingredients in large quantities.
Microplaners- Microplane graters / zester are used for the grating of various food items, such
as nutmeg and cheese, and also as zesters for citrus fruit.
Cake comb- a square flat stainless steel or plastic tool with three sets of serrated edges, used
for making decorations in cake and pastry frosting. It is also called icing comb. Scrappers-
Used to scrape surfaces and cut dough into equal pieces. Also known as a pastry scraper, a
dough scraper is a small, flexible plastic scraper that is rounded on one edge and flat on the
other. The rounded edge is used to get every last bit of batter, dough, or frosting out of a mixing
bowl, or flour and dough bits off your rolling pin.
Strainers- a device having holes punched in it or made of crossed wires for separating solid
matter from a liquid.
Parchment papers- Parchment paper is used to line baking sheets before baking cookies,
ensuring cookies that won‘t stick to the pan, lining cake pans to allow cakes to slide right out
of the pan, and for folding into cones for piping icing or chocolate.
Rotary cake stand- stainless steel or cast-iron stand attached with rotating broad top base. It
is used in cake decoration and icing.
5. MIXING TOOLS (Fig. 1 F)
Mixing bowls- These basic kitchen utensils have varying sizes and can be in metal, plastic or
glass/ceramic. They used for mixing, whipping creams or egg whites, preparing ingredients,
raising breads, or just storing food in the refrigerator Wooden spoons- is also called mixing
spoon which comes in various sizes suitable for different types of mixing.
Rubber spatula- is used to remove bits of food inside of the bowl.
Planetary mixers- The planetary mixer is electrical equipment conceived/made to prepare
bread dough or other type of product, replacing manual labour through a mechanical system
that allows to produce, continuously, large quantities of dough. It consists of a bowl and an
agitator. The bowl remains static, whilst the agitator is rapidly moved around the bowl to mix
its contents. Planetary mixers can be used to whip and blend ingredients.
Electrical and handy mixers- Electric device that can vary the speed at which ingredients
are mixed, also used in beating eggs or whipping cream.
Blender- A blender is a great tool for pureeing fruits and vegetables, mixing bar drinks and
smoothies, chopping ice, making dips, and chopping small amounts of nuts. Blenders will
chop, mix, whip, and blend almost anything Food processor machine for chopping, dicing,
mixing pastry dough, mixing some cookie dough‘s, and pureeing fruit.
CUTTING TOOLS (Fig.1 G)
Pastry blender: Hand held utensil used to "cut" firm shortening or butter into small pieces
while mixing with flour mixtures which is the first step in making most pastry. Pastry wheel-
Utensil has a blade knife used to both cut and or seal edges of pastry foods. They are also used
to cut strips of pastry, such as for making a lattice top pie crust, or pieces of dough for turnovers
or ravioli. Pastry wheels may have a smooth blade or have a jagged or fluted edged blade.
Biscuit and dough cutter- Metal or plastic tool created to cut all sorts of shapes of dough for
interesting presentations. A Biscuit cutter, either plain or fluted, will help produce high-rising
biscuits as the biscuit cutter has a sharp edge to produce a clean cut; cutters that have a dull
edge will compact the dough and the biscuits will not rise as well when baking
Chopping boards- generally white coloured chopping boards used in bakery.
Knives- of various shapes used in bakery. Vegetable knives and paring knives are used to peel,
cut and chop vegetables and fruits. Bread knife is used to slice loafs.
Scoopers- is a handy tool cleverly designed only suited for scooping many types of vegetables
and fruits such as tomatoes, cucumbers, avocados, melons etc. different sized scoop is used
for making drop cookies, mini muffins or cupcakes.
Graters- is used to grate cheese, chocolate, and other fresh fruits. Scissors- This utensil is
made with a plastic or rubber coated handle which are often textured allowing for ease of
cutting and gripping.
Corer- A bladed speciality knife for removing the cores and seeds of eggplant, melons,
potatoes, or zucchini. Also referred to as a "cutter" the Fruit or Vegetable Corer may be v-
shaped or formed into a half circle that has scooped sides.
Peeler- is a kitchen tool consisting of a slotted metal blade attached to a handle that is used to
remove the outer skin or peel of certain vegetables, often potatoes and carrots, and fruits such
as apples, pears, etc.
 Masher-is toll used to mash vegetables, chocolates, biscuits, cookies etc. It has a firm handle
with a perforated round base. Its available in stainless steel or in wood. Pizza cutter-Cutting
tool useful for cutting noodles, doughs, cooked pizza, etc.

2. BAKING PANS AND TOOLS (Fig. 1 H)

Tube center pan- It is deeper than a round pan and with hollow center, it is removable which
is used to bake chiffon type cakes.
Sauce pans- are available in various sizes and make. Some are of stainless steel, whereas some
are of aluminium.
Cake pans (round, square, rectangle, or heart shaped)- Pan with taller sides which can be
round, square, rectangular or have special shapes primarily used for preparing cakes and other
desserts.
Jelly roll pan- is shallow rectangular pan used for baking rolls.
Bundt pan- is a round pan with scalloped sides used for baking elegant and special cakes.
Custard cup- is made of porcelain or glass used for baking individual custard.
Griddle pans- are used to bake griddles.
Pop-over pans- Larger than traditional muffin tins, the popover pan will typically be made
with individual cups joined by wire racks that are constructed to hold the batter and keep the
baked contents away from touching the adjacent popovers as they enlarge when baked.
Popover pans generally are available in several sizes, both giant and small. The number of
cups included in each pan may be 4 or 6.
Macaroon molders Macaroon molders are a pan or sheet, similar to a cupcake pan. They have
shapes to mold the macaroon during baking.
Baking sheets- Thin, flat metal pan with no or only shallow sides used to bake a variety of
foods. They are rimless, flat metal sheets, perfectly designed for placing rows of cookies. They
normally have a small rim on the short sides for easy gripping. The long flat edges allow you
to slide cookies off the sheet after baking.
Cookie sheets- are rimless, flat metal sheets, perfectly designed for placing rows of cookies.
They normally have a small rim on the short sides for easy gripping. The long flat edges allow
you to slide cookies off the sheet after baking.
Tart Pans- Used to bake items with delicate crusts (ex. tarts, quiches); range from 4.5-12.5
inches in diameter; fluted or smooth sides.
Cup cake or muffin pans- Pan that is divided into many smaller sized compartments to hold
foods so that they bake evenly and quickly; often lined with paper liners. Soufflé dishes- a
special kind of cup shaped dish in which soufflé is prepared.
Loaf pan - Baking pan traditionally used for bread baking, but also useful for meatloaf, loaf
cakes and banana bread. It may be metal, glass or ceramic. It can be covered or uncovered.
Cookie press- A cookie press is used to extrude cookies into various shapes.
 BASIC INGREDIENTS Used in Bakery:
Food Ingredients– The different ingredients used in baking are flour, refined flour or maida,
sugar, shortenings, leavening agents, eggs, water, salt, milk and milk derivatives. The bakery
ingredients can be classified depending upon their functions in bakery. Structure builders:
Provide the structure and texture to the bakery products e.g. flour, eggs and milk.
Tenderizers: Provide softness and shortness in the product e.g. fat, sugar and baking powder.
Moisteners: Provide moisture and keeping quality e.g. milk, water, egg, syrup. Driers: Absorb
and retain moisture and provide the body of the product e.g. milk solids and starches.
Flavors: Provide natural flavour e.g. cocoa, chocolate, butter, egg, vanilla and other natural
flavouring ingredients.
(1) FLOUR
Flour is the most important ingredient without which production in a bakery or confectionery
unit would be impossible. It is obtained by milling wheat. A wide variety of flour is available
in the shops.
Choosing the right one for the type of baking you are doing will ensure the best possible
results. Here is a guide to help you choose. To understand flour properly you must know
something about wheat grain and its intemal structure.
During milling both bran and germ are removed. Bran has sharp edges which tend to cut the
cell structure of loaf during proving, thereby affecting the volume of bread. Germ has more
oil which affects the keeping quality of flour.

(2 ) YEAST
Yeast is a unicellular micro-organism of plant origin. The biological name is saccharomyces
cervisiae. Under right conditions the yeast increases by division and it is this process which
makes yeast useful for baking. It needs air, moisture, warmth and nourishment (in the form of
sugar) to multiply and produce carbondioxide to raise the dough. Yeast is available both in
the fresh as well as the dried form.
 (3) CHEMICAL RAISING AGENTS

a) Baking Powder - is a mixture of sodium bi-carbonate, cream of tatar (tartric acid) and a
separator, usually rice or potato or com starch. Under the combined effect of air, moisture and
warmth, carbon dioxide is produced from sodium bicarbonate which again causes fermentation.
The separator prevents the two other ingredients from working prematurely by working as an
insulator. The acid present neutralizes the left-over soda so that no after taste is left in the
product.

b) Ammonium bicarbonate - This also gives off carbon dioxide on receiving moisture, air and
warmth but along with that ammonia gas is also produced which is pungent in flavour and if
left in the product, gives a off taste.

c) Baking Soda-This is used frequently in commercial baking as it costs less. It contains

sodium-bicarbonate which breaks into sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide and water. However,
residue of sodium carbonate leaves a bad taste and a dark colour which makes it not very
suitable for most products except darker coloured chocolate cakes.
(4) SALT
Chemical name of salt is sodium chloride. It contains 40% sodium and 60% chlorine. It is
readily available in almost all parts of the world and is indispensable to cooking. Used by the
bakers, it confers flavour and also accentuates other flavours. It has a stabilizing effect on gluten
and controls the speed of fermentation in yeast aerated goods. It also helps on retaining
moisture.
 (5) CORNFLOUR
Chiefly produced from maize. It is white in colour and mainly contains starch which
gelatinizes by mixing with water at a temperature above 170°F. Thus it is used as a thickening
agent in custards and other confectionery items. It can also be used to dilute the strength of
flour by mixing in suitable proportions.

(6) MILK
It is a moistening agent and contains about 87% water. It is also an enriching agent depending
on the amount used or whether it full fat, low fat or skimmed. Dried milk powder is very
popular in baking because it occupies less space, keeps well if correctly stored, can be easily
reconstituted or.' can be sieved with flour and used in dry form. Condensed milk is produced
by evaporation of water under vacuum. It is generally sweetened.

(7) CREAM
It is used in cakes, desserts and for decoration and makes the dish special. It is the skimmed
milk fat and has a pleasant flavour. The creams vary in thickness and richness. The higher the
butter-fat content the less likely cream is to fall after whipping. Fresh milk and cream both need
to be stored in the refrigerator and cannot be stored for more than a few days.

(8) Different types of shortening agents

 (9) EGGS

After flour, eggs are the second structure forming materials used by the baker. Both, egg white and
yellow are of great importance. Egg white whisks easily and makes cakes and pudding lighter. During
baking it solidifies to lock in the air. Egg yolk emulsifies well and is used as a glaze and also in ice-
creams and cream desserts. An average egg weighs around 45-50 g. A fresh egg sinks in water
whereas a stale one floats. The yolk of the egg should be firm. Egg can be stored in the refrigerator
for a week or two.
(10) SUGAR

a) Grain Sugar : This is the sugar we use normally at home. It contains 99% water soluble
carbohydrates and 1% water.
b) Castor Sugar : is a finer form of granulated sugar and is suitable for creaming in baking.
c) Icing Sugar: It is a very finely powdered white sugar which is used for icing, glazes, dusting cakes
after baking and for almond paste.
d) Brown Sugar : These are the un-refined raw sugars, some having names that refer to country of
origin, e.g. Barbados, Demerara, etc. All brown sugars confer colour and some flavour. These sugars
are ideal for rich cakes.
e) Golden Syrup: This amber coloured syrup is a by-product of sugar refining. It is used by the baker
for ginger cakes and biscuits.
f) Honey: It is a thick natura: syrup obtained by bees from the nectar of flowers. It is used in fresh
ginger breads, nuggets etc.
g) Treacle: It is a syrup much darker in colour and with a more pronounced flavour than golden syrup.
It is made by diluting and filtering molasses and then concentrating. Treacle can be used for ginger
goods, dark heavily fruited cakes and Christmas pudding. The treacle replaces some of the sugar in
the mixture.
h) Liquid Glucose/Corn syrup: It is made by boiling starch in water so that it is gelatinized. A weak
acid is added to the gel to get sugar. It is used in cakes and biscuits and in sugar boiling.
i) Milk Sugar: Milk sugar or lactose is obtained from fresh and skimmed milk. It is used to impart
additional flavour and sweetness.
j) Malt Sugar: Malt sugar or maltose is obtained from milk syrup and adds sweetness.

(11) COCA AND CHOCOLATE

Both are obtained from cocoa beans. Cocoa powder is low fat and has no sugar whereas chocolate
has some sugar, cocoa, butter and milk added in varying quantities. Both cocoa powder and chocolate
are used considerably in confectionery products. Cocoa powder can be stored in air tight containers
in well ventilated places for months. Chocolate should be wrapped in polythene paper or aluminium
foil and then refrigerated.
 (12) COFFEE

Coffee is an excellent flavouring for creams, fillings and icings.

(13) NUTS AND DRIED FRUITS

These are of great importance in cakes, pastries and puddings. Walnut, pistachio nut, groundnut or
peanut, cashewnuts, coconut and almonds, raisins, sultanas and currants are more frequently used.
(14) MEAT AND POULTRY PRODUCTS

These are used as fillings for savoury items like patties, vol-au-vent, pizza, barquettes etc. They should
always be fresh and of good quality. These need to be refrigerated, if stored for a couple of days.
(15) FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLE

Fresh fruits and vegetables form an integral part of any bakery. They should be fresh when used.
(16) CANDIED FRUIT

Orange and Lemon peel and tutty-frutty are used both in cakes and breads. They should always be
washed, dried and chopped before using.
 Wheat
Wheat is a cereal grain belongs to the genus triticum. The kernel is 1/8 –1/4 inch long, ovoid
in shape, rounded in both ends. Along one side of the grain there is a crease, a folding of the
aleurone and all covering layers.
Wheat is consumed mostly in form of flour and small quantities used in breakfast foods such
as wheat flakes and puffed wheat.
Wheat is more popular than any other cereal grain for use in baked goods. Its popularity stems
from the gluten that forms when flour is mixed with water.
Without gluten, raised bread is hard to imagine.
Wheat is also preferred because of its mild, nutty flavor.
Composition:
 Carbohydrate 95 %
 Proteins 5 %
 Minerals 3%
 Vitamins 1 %
 Water 1 %

Classification of wheat: Flour plays a major role in bakery industry. The flour is obtained from wheat.
Wheat is the most important cereal among all grains. The quality of wheat depends upon the following
1. Soil 2. Quality of seeds 3. Climate 4. Manure 5. Farming techniques

Wheat is classified into its (i) type, (ii) colour, and (iii) hardness

According to type, there are:-

 Triticum sativum (also called hard wheat)

 Triticum compectum (also called soft, wheat)

 Triticum durum (also called durum wheat)

The Tritium sativum wheat flour contains more proteins. This flour is used for the production of bread.
The Tritium compectum wheat flour contains low protein. So it is used for the production of biscuits,
cakes and pastries. The Tritium durum wheat is mainly used to prepare semolina and macroni.

According to colour-

Which is due to environmental factors: 1. Red wheat 2. White wheat 3. Yellow.

According to hardness, wheat is classified into:  Hard wheat  Soft wheat

Hard wheat: Bakery products are made from the hard type of wheat flour because it has the following
characteristics:

1. High in protein

2. More water absorption power (WAP)

3. Good mixing capacity, that is, it is easy to mix

4. Fermentation tolerance 5. Good gas retention power

6. Falls into separate particles if shaken by hand

7. Feels slightly coarse and granular

Hence it is mainly used for yeast products (e.g. bread). Examples of hard wheat: (i) hard red winter,
(ii) hard red spring and (iii) durum

Soft wheat: Soft wheat flour contains the following characteristics:

1. Less protein

2. Less WAP

3. Poor mixing capacity

4. Poor fermentation tolerance

5. Tends to clump and hold together if pressed

6. Feels soft and smooth Hence, it is mainly used to make biscuits, cakes and pastries. Examples of
soft wheat: (i) soft red winter and (ii) soft red spring.
STRUCTURE OF WHEAT

Wheat kernel: Wheat kernels are the seeds of the wheat plant, and they are the part of the plant that
is milled into flour. Since cereal grains are in the grass family, wheat kernels can be thought of as a
type of grass seed.

Wheat kernels have three main parts: The endosperm: While whole wheat flour contains all three
parts of the kernel, white flour is milled from the endosperm. Whole wheat flour is considered a whole
grain product because it contains the entire wheat kernel. The endosperm makes up the bulk of the
kernel. It is the whitest part, partly because it contains mostly starch—typically 70–75 percent starch.
The starch is embedded in chunks of protein. Two important proteins in the endosperm of wheat
kernels are the gluten-forming proteins, glutenin and gliadin. When flour is mixed with water, glutenin
and gliadin form strands of gluten, important in the structure of baked goods. In fact, wheat is the
only common cereal grain that contains sufficient glutenin and gliadin for the formation of good-
quality gluten for bread making.

The germ: is the embryo of the wheat plant. Given the right conditions, the germ sprouts—
germinates—and grows into a new plant. Wheat germ is high in protein, fat, B vitamins, vitamin E,
and minerals. These nutrients are important to the germ as it sprouts. While germ protein does not
form gluten, from a nutritional standpoint it is of a high quality.

The bran: is the protective outer covering of the wheat kernel. It is usually darker in color than the
endosperm, although white wheat, which has a light bran.

Wheat structure
TYPES OF FLOUR

Bakers use two primary types of white wheat flours:

Hard flour or strong flour and weak flour or soft flour.

Hard flour gets from hard wheat. It contains 11.2-11.8% protein, 0.45-0.50% ash, 1.2% fat and 74-
75% starch. The higher protein found in strong flour indicates a higher level of gluten. This type of
flour is mainly used for high-structured products like yeast products like yeast products, choux pastry
and puff pastries.

Soft flour gets from soft wheat. This type of flour contains 8.4-8.8% protein, 0.44-0.48% of ash, 1%
fat and 76-77% starch. Due to the less protein content, this flour is mainly used for low-structured
products like biscuits, cakes, sponges, short and sweet paste.

Apart from the above flours, there are other types of flour and they are classified according to their
extraction rate. Some of them are given below.

Characteristics of Good Quality Flour:

Bakers need good quality flour for production. Good quality flour should have the following
characteristics:

Colour: The flour should be creamish white in colour. Good quality flour will reflect the light when
it is shown to the light. Bleaching the flour helps to get the colour.

Strength: There are two types of flour: (i) strong and (ii) weak. The strength depends upon the gluten
quantity present in the flour. Strong flour is preferred for making bread and weak flour is preferred
for making cakes and confectionery products.

Tolerance: Tolerance is the ability of the flour to withstand the fermentation and/or the mixing
process in excess of what is normally required to mature its gluten properly.

High absorption power: High absorption power means the ability of the flour to hold maximum
amount of water. If the flour has less WAP the bread will not be of good quality and will have fewer
yields.

Uniformity: If the flour is used un-uniformly, the quality of the product will differ. So constant
monitoring and adjustment are required to get a satisfactory result.
Type of Flours Obtained from Wheat

The whole wheat grain consists of various components. Each of the components is milled in various
proportions to yield different type of flours from the same plant and each one has a particular usage
in the bakery kitchen. Discuss some of these flours.

Whole meal flour: Also called atta in India, it is the whole milled wheat kernel. The flour is cream
to brown in colour as it has the bran grounded with it. It is not advisable to sift the whole wheat flour
as most of the bran, an important dietary component, will be lost.

Graham flour: It is usually found in the USA. The wheat kernel is separated into its various
components such as endosperm, germ, and bran. The endosperm is ground finely to produce white
flour with gluten, whereas germ and bran are ground till coarse. The milled flour is then mixed back
to yield graham flour. In case of non-availability of this flour one can mix refined flour, bran, and
germ in the ratios that they naturally exist in the grain.

Brown flour: It is almost 85 percent of the grain millet, where some amount of bran has been
extracted. It is nutritious as it has high percentage of germ.

Strong flour: It is milled from hard flour, in other words from high protein flour. The strong flours
absorb more water than weak flours, as gluten can absorb twice their own weight or water. This flour
is used form products which will have a high rise in the oven such as yeast breads, choux pastry, and
puff pastry. Strong flour is also known as baker‘s flour.

Weak flour: Weak flour is also known as soft flour or cake flour. As the name suggests, this flour has
less gluten and hence, it is used for products that need a softer texture such as cookies and cakes and
sponges.

All-purpose flour: The all-purpose flour is a blend of flours and has medium strength. In India, all
the refined flour that we get is all purpose flour.

Cake flour: Refer to weak flour.

Pastry flour: It is a very finely ground polished flour of soft wheat kernels, usually enriched and
bleached.
Other type of flours: Flours are not only derived from wheat but also from other grains and seeds. It
is very important to have knowledge of such flours as they can make different products with the range
of the flours which will be healthier. Also, since many people are suffering from gluten allergies, it is
important to use products which are gluten free. Many types of grains are available in the market but
few of the popular flours.

Rye flour: Rye flour does not have as much gluten as in popular flour and hence, it is sometimes
mixed in proportions with flour for the production of breads. Breads which use only rye flour are
denser and chewier. This flour is majorly used in the Russian breads. Rye flour dough is quite heavy
and sticky.

Spelt flour: It is quite popular in European countries such as Germany, France, and Switzerland. It is
made from spelt which is a species of wheat. It is good source of vitamin B.

Rice flour: It is the finely ground polished rice with a similar texture of corn starch, usually used as
thickening agent. Rice flour is free of gluten and if the dough has to be made one would have to make
it with hot water.

Maize flour: Popular in Mexico, this flour is made from cooked maize corn and then grounded. This
flour has also been used in India since time immemorial and a very popular north Indian dish called
makki ki roti is made from it. This flour is also free from gluten.

Corn flour It is made by grounding the white heart or the germ of the corn kernel, one of the widely
used thickening agents in Chinese cooking. This is also free of gluten and usage of this flour in
products gives crispness to the product. Commercial custard powder is also made with corn flour with
colour and flavor added. Corn flour is not flour, but it is actually a starch.

Arrowroot: This flour is finely milled from the arrowroot plant. It has the same properties as corn
flour and the uses are very similar. It is widely used for making glazes.

Barley flour: Made from the pearl barley, it has low gluten content with mild flavor.

Buckwheat flour: It has distinctive greyish brown colour with earthy bitter taste. It is used to make
classical preparations such as Russian blinis, pancakes, and French galettes. In India it is widely eaten
during fasts and is commonly known as kuttu ka atta.
Gluten-free flour: Apart from the flours discussed above, it is also very important to know about
gluten-free flours, as the demand for the same are increasing constantly. Some of the gluten-free.

Amaranth It is a green leafy vegetable related to spinach and beets. Tiny seeds of this plant are often
ground into nutritious flour. It is light brown in colour and has a nutty aroma.

Rice flour Refer to table

Pulse flour These are the seeds of many edible legumes and can be ground into flours for use in
gluten free breads.

Chickpea flour is very commonly used in India.

Chestnut flour It is a smooth shelled nut it is usually roasted and ground into flour. In India it is
commonly eaten during fasting.

Barley flour Made from the pearl barley, it has low gluten content with mild flavor.

Cottonseed flour The seeds are commonly used for making margarines or cooking oils, but these
seeds can be ground into flour which is quite nutritious.

Flaxseed flour It is an ancient seed which has been used in medicines from time immemorial. It is
used whole toasted or ground into flour. It is believed to be a good cure for diabetic patients and is
believed to lower cholesterol levels. Millet It can also grow in areas which do not get much rainwater.
In India millets are commonly known as bajra.

Quinoa flour This is one of the grains which have the highest amount of protein. It is mainly fond in
china; but its popularity is catching up with the western world as well.

Soybean flour It is high fat and high protein flour which has a strong distinctive nutty flavor.

COMPOSITION OF FLOUR

Constituents or composition of flour

Flour contains the following ingredients: Starch 70%, Moisture 14%, Protein 11.5%, Ash 0.4%, Sugar
1%, Fat or lipid 1%, Others (enzymes-alpha and beta amylases) 2.1%.

Starch: Starch is not soluble in water until it is heated to about 140 F with water of six times of its
weight. Then the starch cells will swell and the cell wall will burst. Now the starch becomes soluble
in water. This process is called gelatinization.

Starch acts as filler as it gives rigidity to bread dough. It combines with lipids and gluten to retain the
gas during fermentation. During milling 6% of starch cells are crushed and damaged due to the roller,
type of wheat, moisture, etc. The water absorption power (WAP) of the flour mainly depends upon
the damaged starch. Enzymes (alpha and beta amylases) act only on damaged starch to produce sugar
for the yeast during fermentation. The damaged starch should not be more than 7-9% for bread
making. The damaged starch is not essential for cake or biscuit making. Hot bread directly from the
over cannot be sliced immediately because the starch is not sufficiently stable and must be allowed to
retrograde (slightly harden). When the bread cools down, starch cells shrink and become rigid so that
the bread can be sliced easily.

Moisture: An ideal moisture content of flour is 14% the source of moisture may be tempering or the
package materials or the humidity. If more moisture is in the flour, it will reduce the storage life,
induce insect infestation, may get fungus and bacteria and also will reduce the WAP of the flour. This
will result in fewer yields during production.

Protein: Flour contains soluble and insoluble proteins, namely,  Albumin  Globulin  Gliadin 
Glutenin.

The soluble proteins (albumin and globulin) are useful in providing nourishment to yeast during the
fermentation process for its growth and reproduction. The insoluble proteins, gliadin and glutenin
form a rubbery material when water is added with flour. So, when it is kneaded well, the rubbery
material (texture) developed is called gluten. It gives structure to the baked products. While gliadin
gives extensibility, glutenin gives strength and holds gas during baking. The quality of flour is decided
by the gluten content. If the gluten content is more, then the flour will be suitable for high structured
products like bread. This bread-making flour should have the gluten from 10% to 11.5%. If the flour
contains less gluten, then the flour will be suitable for lower structured products like cakes and
biscuits/cookies. This flour requires a low, that is, 7-10% gluten content. Ash: The source of ash
content in flour is bran. If the flour contains more ash, it means it has more bran. Too much ash gives
dark colour to the flour and also cuts the gluten. Flour with higher ash content will not retain as much
gas during different stages of processing and this affects the volume and gives poor texture to the

products. Sugar: Naturally, flour contains a small quantity of sugar, namely, sucrose and maltose. It
is used as yeast food to produce CO2 (carbon dioxide gas). Fat or Lipids: Fat or Lipids should not be
more than 1% in flour. They contain the pigment carotene which gives colour to the flour. There is a
higher quantity of oil/fat in the low-grade flour than in the high-grade ones. The fat or oil when
separated from the flour is a pale yellowish liquid without taste or smell.

Enzymes: Flour contains diastatic enzymes. They are alpha (A) amylase and beta (B) amylase. These
enzymes hydrolyze starch and convert it into simple sugar. During fermentation, the simple sugar is
used by the yeast to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide. The gas production depends upon the amount
of enzymes found in the flour. Indian flours have less alpha amylase. These enzymes are necessary
for producing good quality bread. In rain-damaged wheat, these enzymes will be available in excess.
The bread made out of this flour will have dark crust colour and sticky crumbs. If these enzymes are
less, the bread will have poor volume and dull crust colour.

MILLING OF WHEAT

Preparation of raw wheat

Storing: As wheat arrives in the mill it is passed through a cleaning process to remove coarse
impurities and is then stored according to its quality. This is mainly determined by the hardness,
protein content and gluten quality of the wheat.

Cleaning: Cleaning begins with screening to remove coarse and fine materials and the grain is
separated by size, shape and weight. The finished product, whole pure wheat, is then passed into
conditioning bins.

Conditioning: Conditioning takes place before milling to produce a uniform moisture content
throughout the grain. Moistening helps to prevent break- up of the bran (hard outer layer) during
milling and improves separation from the floury endosperm (the mass that forms the white flour of
the grain).

Gristing: After conditioning, different batches of wheat are blended together (gristed) to make a mix
capable of producing the required flour quality.

Milling: In India milling is done through stone grinding, but modern flourmills are with more
mechanized to give pure wheat flour. The process involves the following:

1. Vibrator screen- (Thresher) – this removes bits of straw and other coarse materials and the second
screen sieves foreign materials like unwanted seeds.

2. Aspirator – Here the wheat is cleaned by suction. The stream of air sucks lighter impurities like
dust and stones.

3. Disc separator – catches individual grains of wheat but rejects larger or smaller materials.

4. Scourer – In this the beaters attached to the central shaft throws the wheat violently against the
surrounding drum, resulting breaking of kernel hairs.

5. Magnetic separator – pulls out any metal particles present.

6. Washer stone – Here the wheat is washed, resulting precipitation of stones, clay and lighter
materials float leaving only clean wheat.

7. Tempering – In this the wheat is exposed to moisture and then dried.

8. Entoleter – In this the degraded quality kernel is removed.

9. Grinding bin – Here the first break of wheat takes place.

10. Shifter – Here the flour is shifted through cloth or fine sieve, giving wheat flour.

11. Purifier – in this the coarse grains are subjected to controlled flow of air, which lifts the bran
leaving behind refined flour, which are separated, again by their size and quality.

12. The down purifier – Here the final shifting is done and the flour are separates. The process is
repeated over and over again. Shifters, purifiers reducing the rolls until the maximum amount of flour
is separated consisting of at least 72 % of wheat.

The process is repeated over and over again. Shifters, purifiers reducing the rolls until the maximum
amount of flour is separated consisting of at least 72 % of wheat.

Uses of wheat:
Wheat flour – to prepare breads.
Refined flour (maida) – loaf, breads and nuns, sweets.
Semolina – Halwa. Pasta.
Cracked wheat- porridge.

The milling process: Milling means the conversion of wheat into flour. There are two methods of
milling:
1. Stone or home milling
2. Roller flour milling
3. Turbo milling

1. Stone milling: Stone milling is an ordinary method of milling. Here two circular thick stones with
rough surfaces are used, one lying on top of the other. This rough surface helps crush the wheat. Thus the
wheat is converted into flour. This is known as whole meal flour. It contains bran, germ and endosperm.
The following are the qualities of the whole meal flour:
It has more nutritive value.
The colour of flour is dark.
It has less shelf life.
Small stone particles may be present in the flour.
The bread made from this flour gives delicious flavour.

2. Roller milling: Roller milling is a commercial milling of wheat. Before milling the wheat, the
following steps have to be followed:
Cleaning: The object of cleaning the wheat is to
1. Obtain pure flour and
2. Avoid damaging the milling machineries
If the foreign particles like stone, barley, oats and iron are not removed, the quality of flour will be
affected and iron rods may damage the machines causing heavy loss.
 Cleaning stages:
Sieving: This process will remove the larger and smaller particles like damaged wheat, stone and
husk.

Magnetic separator: It removes the iron and steel particles.

Aspirator: The lighter impurities are removed using air currents.

Disc separator: This is used to separate barley, oats and other foreign material.

Scrubbing: Beard on the wheat is removed by brushes.

Tempering: After cleaning, the wheat is sprayed with water and left to be soaked for sometime, a
process called tempering. The time of tempering varies according to the hardness of wheat.

The following are the merits of tempering

1. The moisture content of wheat is increased.
2. The burn become elastic and the endosperm become soft, so it makes barn removal easier.
3. The endosperm is made more friable which reduces soft, so it makes barn removal easier.
4. Germ also is rendered tough and flaky for easy removal.

The milling process has two stages:

1. Break milling
2. Reduction milling

3. Turbo milling: Developed in 1950 is probably the greatest milling advances of the end
century, because it gives us the opportunity to separate starch particles into different fractions and
then blend the fractions into the desired ratio. This type of milling enable us to make custom blend
flours for bread making, cake making, cookie making and other works.

Bleaching of flour: The flour obtained after the milling process is called green flour. It contains high
moisture and slightly yellowish colour due to xanthophylls. The fresh flour is not suitable for making
bakery products. It has to be bleached by oxidation. Bleaching agents like chlorine, chlorine dioxide
and benzyl peroxide are used to bleach the flour. The bleached flour is creamish white in colour.

Maturing of flour: The fresh flour has poor water absorption power, poor strength and poor baking
quality. It is improved by the oxidation process known as maturing. Chemicals like potassium
bromated and ascorbic acid are used for maturing and to improve the above qualities.
Byproducts of wheat: There are many by product of wheat used in the kitchen in one form or the
other. They may be:

Product Description
Whole wheat Unrefined or minimally processed whole-wheat kernels
Cracked wheat Coarsely crushed, minimally processed wheat kernels
Bulgur Hulled, cracked hard or soft wheat, parboiled and dried kernels
Semolina Grounded polished wheat kernels with bran and germ removed
Couscous Semolina pellets, often par cooked
Farina Polished medium ground wheat cereals
Bran Separated outer covering of wheat kernels and flaked or
powdered
Germ Separated embryo of wheat kernels, flakes

Gluten: There are two types of non-soluble proteins in the flour―glutenin and ―gliadin. When the
dough is kneaded these two proteins combine to produce gluten in the dough. Without gluten there
will be no such thing as raised bread.

Gluten provides elasticity to the dough, which in turn traps the air and gas released by yeast and forms
a sponge-like texture in the baked breads. The gluten in the flour can be altered by various methods.
Manipulating the dough for longer duration of time or adding some acid, such as lemon juice, will
strengthen the gluten strands and time or adding some acid, such as lemon juice, will strengthen the
gluten strands and addition of oils and fats will soften the gluten. Gluten can also be procured from
the market as a commercial product and added to weak flours to increase their strength. It is almost
impossible to knead corn flour and rice flour into dough as they have no gluten at all.

Differences between Semolina, Whole Wheat Flour and Refined Flour

Semolina- This is the coarsely ground endosperm (no bran, no germ) of durum wheat. Its high protein
content makes it ideal for making commercial pasta, and it can also be used to make bread. Semolina
flour is made with grooved steel rollers. Semolina has very high gluten content and the flour has a
substantial amount of protein.
Whole wheat flour- Since roller milling separates the bran and the germ from the endosperm; the
three components actually have to be reconstituted to produce whole-wheat flour. Because of the
presence of bran, which reduces gluten development, baked goods made from whole-wheat flour are
naturally heavier and denser than those made with white flour. Many bakers combine whole-wheat
and white flour in order to gain the attributes of both.
Refined flour- Maida is a type of wheat flour from India. Finely milled without any bran, refined and
bleached, it closely resembles Cake flour. Owing to this wide variety of uses, it is sometimes labelled
and marketed as "all-purpose flour", though it is different from all-purpose flour as commonly
understood in the US, where it is made from the endosperm (the starchy white part) of the grain. The
bran is separated from the germ and endosperm which is then refined by passing through a sieve of
80 meshes per inch (31 meshes per centimeter). Although naturally yellowish due to pigments present
in wheat, maida is typically bleached, either naturally due to atmospheric oxygen, or with any of a
number of flour bleaching agents.

FLOUR TESTING

These are the several methods for testing the flour.

Chemical analysis
Moisture test Flour should have 14% of moisture and more than this will affect
the storing quality of the flour.
Ash test It helps find the quantity of minerals found in the flour.
Protein test Quantity and the quality of the protein can be analyzed.
Falling number It indicates the activity of enzymes.

Physical analysis
Amylograph For enzymic activity.
Farinograph or alveograph Tests the strength of the flour and water absorption.
Extensographs Tests the dough handling properties.
MacMicheal Viscosimeter Tests the viscosity of a flour solution.

Physical examination
Colour test Checks if the particles of endosperm are separated
Baking test Tests the overall evaluation on the flour quality
Test for water absorption power (WAP): Take 100 gms of flour and mix 50 ml of water.
Mix it well. If the dough is stiff, add 1 ml of water at a time and mix until it becomes a pliable
dough. After obtaining this quality, note the quantity of water added. This quantity will be the
WAP of the particular flour. More protein flour has more WAP. It will increase the number of
portion (yield).

Test for the quality of gluten in flour: Take some quantity of flour and mix it with enough
water. Knead it well to get smooth dough. Then put this dough in water for 30 minutes at room
temperature. Then take it out and wash it in the running water till the starch is completely
removed. Squeeze the dough until it gives no white streaks, and what remains is called gluten.
Squeeze out to remove the excess water and this is known as wet gluten. It can be expressed as
a per cent of the flour sample.
Then keep the wet gluten in a cool oven (140 oC) till all the moisture is evaporated. Now it is
called dry gluten. The dry gluten weight should be 1/3 of the wet gluten. For example: If the
wet gluten is 30 gms, the weight of dry gluten should be 10 gms. If the dough in the oven rises,
the flour will be considered to have a good quality of gluten.

pH value: pH value indicates the acidity or alkalinity. It is measured from 0 to 14.7 is neutral.
When the ph is above 7, it is called alkaline. When it is below 7, it is acid. The pH value should
be 5.5-6.5 for bread making and 4.5-5 for high-ratio cakes. However, some cakes are in the
alkaline side.
Storage of flour: If moisture is allowed to get into the flour, it may cause it to become clumpy.
In some cases, flour can attract psocids (tiny brown or black insects which live in dry foods)
and cankers. The flour will itself sweat (absorb moisture), resulting in the formation of inferior
products. For proper storage of the flour, the following things should be kept in mind:
1. The storage area should be well ventilated.

2. Hessian cloth or jute cloth is always preferred so that it can allow air to go in.

3. Flour bags should be piled off the floor on wooden boards to enable free circulation of air
all around the piles.
4. Should be kept away from direct sunlight.

5. Should be stored away from foreign odours because it picks up these odours easily.

6. Avoid insect infestation.

7. Should be stored in dry clean bins with fitting lids.

8. Temperature of the storage area should be 19-24 0C

9. The relative humidity should be 55-65%. Too low or too high relative humidity is detrimental
to flour quality.

10. The containers should be clearly labeled with their content so as to avoid mistakes when
selecting the correct flour for use.

Note:

Gelatinization- Starch gelatinization is the process where starch and water are subjected to
heat causing the starch granules to swell. As a result, the water is gradually absorbed in an
irreversible manner. This gives the system a viscous and transparent texture. The result of the
reaction is a gel, which is used in sauces, puddings, creams and other food products, providing
a pleasing texture.

Glutenin- Glutenin (a type of glutelin) is the major protein within wheat flour, making up 47%
of the total protein content. Wheat gluten proteins consist of two major fractions: the gliadins
and the glutenins.

Enriched flour- Enriched flour is flour with specific nutrients returned to it that have been lost
while being prepared. These restored nutrients include iron and B vitamins (folic acid,
riboflavin, niacin, and thiamine). Calcium may also be supplemented. The purpose of enriching
flour is to replenish the nutrients in the flour to match the nutritional status of the unrefined
product. This differentiates enrichment from fortification, which is the process of introducing
new nutrients to a food.

Role of Marie-Antoine Carême in bakery

The most famous chef of the early nineteenth century was Marie-Antoine Carême, also known
as Antonin Carême, who lived from 1784 to 1833. His spectacular constructions of sugar and
pastry earned him great fame, and he elevated the jobs of cook and pastry chef to respected
professions. Careme‘s book, Le Pâtissier Royal, was one of the first systematic explanations
of the pastry chef‘s art.
 COOKIES

The name biscuit comes from the French word bis, which means twice and cuit which means
baked. It is a sweet or savory dry flat cake with a high calorie content (420-510 / 100 gm) The
raw materials used for biscuit manufacture is flour, sweeteners, shortening, milk, leavening
agents and other miscellaneous products.

The word cookie derives from a Dutch word that means ―small cake, or sweet biscuits. The
Dutch have provided bakers and confectioners with the word koekje which means small cake.
Using this as the contemporary definition, the term cookie can include anything small, flat
pastries usually eaten alone (although not singularly) as a snack or with coffee at the end of a
meal. The Americans began to use the word cookie, whereas the English continue to use the
word biscuit for the same product. There are more varieties of cookies than any other baked
product because there are so many different shapes, sizes, textures and flavors that are possible.

Difference between cookies and biscuits: Both, cookies and biscuits mean the same, while
the difference lies in the places where they are known differently, i.e. the word ‗cookies‘ is
often referred to biscuits and cookies in the American countries, whereas the term, ‗biscuits‘
is generally used is in the British countries.
Cookies are soft sweet biscuits, which are made with lavishing nuts, oats, resins and chocolate
chips. These ingredients add a fabulous flavor in the taste of cookies. There are varieties of
cookies, available in various parts of the world. The whopping amounts of sugar in American
cookies are responsible both for the crispiness and the chewiness.
Biscuits are hard sweet baked bread, which are especially full of sugar and butter. Biscuits are
also prepared same as that of the cookies, only differs in their content, i.e. biscuits are full of
the basic ingredients, which are butter and sugar. There is not much stuffing obtained in biscuits
as observed in the cookies. They are available in flavors and types.
CLASIFICATION OF COOKIES

The mixing methods in the preparation of cookie and biscuits simple, it is better to classify
cookies and biscuits according to their makeup. Cookies are broadly classified according to
how they are formed, including at least these categories:
INGREDIENTS
Cookies contain many of the same ingredients as cakes except that they have a lower proportion
of liquid with a higher proportion of sugar and fat to flour.
The three main ingredients present in nearly every type of cookie are wheat flour, sugar, and
fat, but you'll see other ingredients such as leaveners, eggs, liquids, such as milk, perhaps some
chocolate, coconut, spices or nuts.

1. Flour: The type of flour determines the structure of the cookie, and is the main binding
agent. Each type of flour has an individual protein profile suitable almost exclusively for
specific uses. All-purpose flour is generally used in most cookie recipes, but other flour types
are found, as well. The addition or substitutions of other flours, such as bread or cake flour are
sometimes added to get different results in a recipe. For example, bread flour can be used
instead of all-purpose flour; it can absorb much more liquid because of its higher protein
content, more moisture will stay in the cookie and it will be chewier. Replacing a few
tablespoons of all-purpose flour with cake flour will give you a tenderer cookie. However, each
cookie recipe is different and a successful outcome cannot be determined.
Cake flour is made with soft wheat, less protein (7.5%) in soft flour, less gluten in the mixture,
and a very tender, potentially puffy, cookie. With bread flour, made from hard wheat increase
in protein (12%), an increase in gluten and, therefore, a chewy cookie. To lesser the strength,
corn starch can be added.
2. Sweeteners: These are some form of sugar is used in all cookie recipes. It is a tenderizing
agent, adds sweetness and affects the spread of the cookie. Apart from this it also imparts
volume to the product. It gives a typical sweet taste when caramelizes and so increases the
colour and flavour.
a. Granulated sugar or brown sugar is used frequently in cookie making, but honey,
molasses, corn syrup and other sugars can be used, sometimes in combinations.
b. Honey and corn syrup provides moisture and chewing quality, apart from softness and
crispiness.
c. Molasses if added should be mixed and adjusted with baking soda to neutralize the effect of
acidity.
d. Brown sugar if added gives good colour and taste to cookies and biscuits.

3. Eggs: They are used as both tenderizing, toughening and flavouring agents for cookies. Egg
yolk contains large amount of fat, known Lecithin, which tenderize the cookies. The liquid
from the egg forms steam and gets trapped in the cookie, puffing it up, giving the cookie
structure. In addition, they emulsify the dough, bringing the water and fat phases together in a
recipe for a creamier, smoother texture. On the other hand, egg whites have a drying effect and
but also contribute to the structure or shape of a cookie. Whole egg powder can also be used.

4. Liquids: Liquids are essential to cookie recipes, but they typically have very little. When
flour is moistened and stirred, gluten is formed from the proteins present. Gluten strands form
the structure of the cookie, but they also have a toughening effect. Fats, such as stick butter and
shortening, give you a tenderer cookie. If you add too much liquid, like milk or water, cookie
dough is going to be like a very thin pancake batter which won't bake like cookie dough.

a. Dairy : Unless you are making low-fat or fat-reduced recipes, choose full-fat dairy products.
Always use solid cream cheese and not the whipped variety.

b. Cream- Whipping cream (30% to 36% butterfat) and heavy cream (36% to 40% butterfat)
are the skimmed creams that rise to the top of milk. Both can be whipped and mixed into
batters.

c. Half-and-Half- As the name suggests, this is half cream and half milk. It is used to add
richness to batters. In a pinch, it can be made by mixing equal parts milk and cream.

d. Milk- Fresh whole or reduced-fat (2%) cow‘s milk works best for cookies. Originally,
buttermilk was the liquid drained from churned butter. Evaporated milk is canned, concentrated
milk from which 60% of the water has been removed through heating and evaporation. It can
be used as is in recipes or reconstituted with water as a substitute for fresh milk. Sweetened
condensed milk is a shelf-stable canned cow‘s milk-and-sugar blend that has been reduced to
a thick, syrupy-sweet mixture and is often used in desserts.

e. Water- It is used in small quantities, only needed to moisturize the dough to attain desired
structure. Water helps in attaining the right consistency of the dough and control the
temperature. Cold water should always be used so that the fat do not melt during mixing and
processing. Water dissolves baking soda so that carbon dioxide can be formed. It also dissolves
other ingredients also.

5. Shortenings: When they are beaten, air cells are incorporated and helps in giving tenderness
and softness to cookies.

a. Oils- like vegetable, canola, and corn oil are good bets for baking and have a high smoke
point and neutral flavor. Avocado and coconut oils also have high smoke points, but they impart
a distinctive flavor. Other options to try include peanut oil, sunflower oil, and safflower oil.
b. Butter- Butter contains 80% milk-fat and comes unsalted, salted, and whipped. Avoid
whipped butter which has too much air incorporated to get an unaccurate measure for baking.

c. Vegetable Fat- Solid shortening is 100% vegetable fat with no water content. It gives
tenderness to baked goods but lacks butter-rich flavor.

d. Margarine and Lard- They are also used and provide definite flavour, texture and taste to
cookies.

6. Leavening Agents: Baking soda, baking powder and Ammonium bicarbonate are the classic
leaveners in cookie recipes and they are mixed with dry ingredients. Used together and
separately, these components affect the puffiness to some degree (baking powder), but they
also affect the color of the cookie (baking soda). Mostly baking powder is used as it is a blend
of baking soda and tartaric acid. It is a double-acting leavening agent that first reacts when
combined with wet ingredients and then a second time with the heat of the oven. Ammonium
bicarbonate decomposes completely when heated, producing carbon dioxide, ammonia and
water. The reaction is rapid at around 60°C and therefore the expansion of the dough takes
place during the initial stages of baking. Other leaveners that are widely used include: Yeast
(cream crackers), Acid calcium phosphate, Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate.

7. Salt: Sodium chloride, used as a taste and flavour enhancer and also to control the rate and
extent of fermentation. Only very small amount to be used and it becomes much lesser if salted
butter is used.

8. Flavorings: Cocoa, nuts, extracts, and other flavorings, all contribute to the character, colour
and taste of a cookie. It is recommended using only pure vanilla extract, never imitation, as the
taste of imitation vanilla is immediately detected, and is exaggerated if the dough or cookies
are frozen. A touch of almond extract in a plain sugar-cookie recipe (add about 1/2 teaspoon at
the same time you add the eggs to the dough), or a good dash of cardamom in spicy applesauce
bars (add 1/2 teaspoon cardamom along with the other spices) makes a subtle but significant
difference. Spice powders ( Jeera, Methi, ajwain, pepper) can also be used. Cocoa powder or
artificial butter flavour is also be used, but in small quantity.
9. Colours: Only permitted colours can be used for making cookies. Golden brown colour is
mostly favoured.

10. Others: It includes:

a. Cornstarch- This fine powdery starch is made from finely ground corn kernels and is used
primarily as a thickening agent. It is often added to flour to lighten its texture and it lasts
indefinitely sealed in a cool, dry place.

b. Oatmeal- means uncooked rolled oats, either old-fashioned or quick, but not instant. Instant
will get too mushy in the recipe.

c. Coconut- means the shredded or flaked and sweetened kind. If you have fresh coconut, grate
it and soak it in milk, refrigerated, for about 6 hours, then drain. This will give it about the
same moisture content as the packaged kind.

d. Fruits- Dried fruits are more concentrated than fresh ones, and has very less moisture. Hence
does not affect the moisture content in the cookies. Raisins, currents, pears, figs, apples, apricot
are widely favoured. Candies and crystallized fruits can also be used as they also do not have
much moisture. Prior to using them, they have to soaked in hot water for 15 or 20 minutes, and
then drained.

e. Nuts and seeds can mean walnuts, pecans, and almonds, water melon seed plus others. They
can become rancid quickly (in just a week or two, depending on conditions) at room
temperature, and should be stored in the refrigerator or freezer. When a recipe calls for chopped
nuts, it usually means walnuts or pecans. Almonds, with their delicate flavor, and peanuts,
which are more assertive, should be used only when specified.

f. Grated orange and lemon rind (known as "zest") - refers to the outer colored portion of the
rind.

g. Chocolate- may be specified as unsweetened, sweetened or bittersweet chocolate, semi-

sweet (such as the chocolate chips commonly used in Toll House cookies), or sweet. Cocoa
(the unsweetened powder, not a mix) is also called for in some recipes. Be sure to use the type
of chocolate specified, as substitutions may not be successful. Chocolate burns easily, so the
best way to melt it is in a double boiler over hot water, in a microwave oven or in an oven as it
preheats for the recipe. Experienced cooks sometimes place chocolate
in a heavy saucepan over direct low heat, but that method carries the risk of scorching.

h. Cream of Tartar- This refined byproduct of wine making is used to stabilize whipped egg
whites and also acts as a leavening agent. It lasts indefinitely.

i. Spices- Whole spices last twice as long as ground, so buy spices whole and grind them as
needed. Sealed in a cool, dark place, whole spices last 2 to 3 years, while ground spices begin
to lose their potency within a year or two.

j. Syrups- Corn syrup, maple syrup, honey, molasses, or sorghum all impart sweetness to
recipes. Store at room temperature, and they will last forever.

k. Sodium Metabisulphite - A reducing agent for the modification of the strength of the gluten
in doughs. It causes the gluten to become more extensible and less elastic and so reduces
shrinkage of the dough pieces during baking.

l. Proteolytic Enzyme- Proteinases break down and modify the gluten in doughs, giving softer,
less elastic dough.

m. Lecithin- Lecithin is an emulsifier produced from soya beans and available in liquid or
powder form. It may be added to the fat or directly into the dough mix.

How ingredients impact a cookie recipe:

1. High-protein flour: All-purpose flour. Makes cookies darker in color and flatter.
2. Low-protein flour: Cake flour. Making cookies pale, soft and puffy.
3. Fat with sharp melting point, like butter: Makes cookies spread.
4. Fat that maintains same consistency over a wide temperature range, such as solid
vegetable shortening: Makes cookies that do not spread as much.
5. Corn syrup (or molasses): Makes cookies browner.
6. Brown sugar and honey: Makes cookies that soften the longer you keep them.
7. Cookies to spread more: use all butter or add 1 to 2 tablespoons liquid (water, milk or
cream -- not egg) or use bleached all-purpose (but not one that is chlorinated) or add 1 to 2
tablespoons sugar.
8. Cookies to spread less: use solid vegetable shortening or substitute some solid vegetable
shortening for an equal amount of butter or use cake flour or cut the sugar by a few tablespoons
or switch from baking soda to baking powder or chill the dough before baking it.
9. Cookies to have a chewy quality: melt the butter instead of simply using it at room
temperature.
10. Cookies to have a cakey quality: use the butter at room temperature or use equal parts
butter and solid vegetable shortening.
11. Cookies to be tenderer: use cake flour or add a few tablespoons of sugar or add a few
tablespoons of fat.
12. Cookies are too tender and you want them to be more substantial: substitute a few
tablespoons of bread flour for an equal amount of all-purpose flour or cut the sugar by a few
tablespoons or cut the fat by a few tablespoons
13. Cookies to brown better: substitute 1 to 2 tablespoons of light corn syrup for an equal
amount of sugar or substitute a few tablespoons of unbleached or bread flour for equal amounts
of the all-purpose flour.
14. Cookies are browning too much, despite the correct oven temperature: substitute water
for an equal amount of liquid ingredients or use cake flour or bleached all-purpose flour.