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TOPICS TO BE TREATED IN DEPTH

FUNCTION OF REAL
VARIABLES

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

DIFFERENTIATION

INTEGRATION

APPLICATIONS
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CALCULUS IS DEAD GUYS, LET’S GO!

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Function of a Real Variable

Polynomial

Algebraic Rational
Trig function

Function
Irrational Exponential
Transcendental
Log

Inverse trig
Function

Hyperbolic

Polynomials
A function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + …. … … . +𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ; is called a polynomial
function.

Some polynomial functions

1. Constant function 𝑦 = 𝐶; where C is any real number Eg. 𝑓(𝑥) = 50, 𝑦 = 30

2. Identify function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥.
Example 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥, etc.
3. Square function or binomial or quadratic function, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

Irrational function

The algebraic function containing terms having non-integral rational powers of 𝑥 are called
irrational functions. 𝑦 = √𝑥
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Mapping and Function

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two non empty sets then a function 𝑓 from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵 is a rule which associates
each element of 𝐴 to a unique element of 𝐵. 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵

Function is also called the mapping

Domain, Codomain, and Range of a function

If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵, then;

I. The set 𝐴 is called the domain of 𝑓(𝑥). All the element in 𝐴 are called domain.
II. The set 𝐵 is called the codomain of 𝑓(𝑥).
III. The subset of 𝐵 containing only the images of elements of 𝐴 is called the range of 𝑓(𝑥).

𝐴
𝐵 Range
𝑓:
a d

b e

c f

Domain Codomain

N.B:

✓ For every element in 𝐴, there is a UNIQUE element in 𝐵.

✓ The element in 𝐵 are called the image of 𝑥 under the function.
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✓ 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is never called a function when we have a simple element in 𝐴 given two different
output. Something like;

𝑓:

1 4

2 5

3 6

✓ This is just a relation and nevr a function, no such function exist.

✓ 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is not a function, if an element is 𝐴 does not have an image in 𝐵.

Function of a real variable or real valued functions

A function 𝑓: 𝐴— 𝐵 is called a real valued function, if 𝐵(The output) is a real number and the
input is a real number too.

Domain of a Function
The domain of a real function 𝑓(𝑥) is the set of all those real numbers for which the expression
for 𝑓(𝑥) assumes real values only.

Do you get?

Codomain/range of a Function

The range of the real function 𝑓(𝑥) of a real variable is the set of all real values taken by 𝑓(𝑥) at
points of its domain.

Working rule for finding Domain of a real function

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Polynomials

Rational functions

Square root functions

Working rule for finding range of real functions

Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and follow the steps below:

I. Find the domain of the function #

II. Transform the equation in terms of 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦). In other words, make 𝑥 subject of formula
III. Now find the values of 𝑦 from 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) such that the values of 𝑥 are real and lying in
the domain of 𝑓.

The set of values of 𝑦 obtained above are the range.

Composition of Function

Given two functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), their composition ∘ is given as

𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)), putting 𝑓(𝑥) in place of 𝑥

𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), putting 𝑔(𝑥) in place of 𝑥

Note: 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ≠ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓

Given a funtion 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦, the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) is given as 𝑓 −1 (𝑥). If the inverse of a function
exist, then the function is said to be invertible

Working rule
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N.B; 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 = 𝑥

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Let’s take a function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 with some numerical values.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
1.9 3.61
1.99 3.9601
1.999 3.996001
1.9999 3.99960001
1.99999 3.9999600001
What do you notice?

As 𝑥 → 2 The function approaches 4 but never 4 right?

Limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥), as 𝑥 → 𝑎 is given as.

lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥−−𝑎

Laws of Limits

If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are two functions of 𝑥 such that lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥) both exist then,
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1. lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

2. lim [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥) , where 𝑐 is a fixed real number.

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

3. lim [𝑓(𝑥) . 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎
4. lim 𝑔(𝑥) = , where lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

lim 𝑓(𝑥)
5. lim 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
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6. lim log 𝑓(𝑥) = log [lim 𝑓(𝑥)]

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
1
7. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Important Results on Limits

𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛
I. lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
sin(𝑥−𝑎)
II. lim =1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

Limits at zero 𝒙 → 𝟎
(1+𝑥)𝑛 −1
III. lim =𝑛
𝑥→0 𝑥
sin 𝑥 𝑥
IV. lim = 1 = lim sin 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→𝑎
tan 𝑥
V. lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

VI. lim cos 𝑥 = 1

𝑥→0
1−cos 𝑥
VII. lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 −1
VIII. lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
log(1+𝑥)
IX. lim =1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥

Methods of Evaluating Limits

1. Direct Substitution: This method is the first they, you should do in evaluating a limit.
To find lim 𝑓(𝑥), we substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎 in the funtion. If the value comes out to be be a
𝑥→𝑎

definite value, then it is the limit. Such limit are called determinate forms.
Poly are typical example, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
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Indeterminate form
Lets quickly talk about indetaminate forms before we move to ther metheds of evaluating
limits
Say you want to evaluate a limit using direct substitution and you are getting something of
the forms.
0
I. 0

II. ∞−∞
III. 0. ∞
IV. 1∞
V. 00
VI. ∞0

Then it means the limit can’t be evaluate by direct substitution. They are the
INDETERMINATE FORMS.

What do you do?

That’s where other methods come in.

2. Evaluation by factorisation

𝑓(𝑥) 0
If lim 𝑔(𝑥) attains 0 form (𝑥 − 𝑎) must be factor of numerator and denominator which will
𝑥→𝑎

definitely cancel out.

Something of this form;

𝑥2 − 4
lim
𝑥−−2 𝑥 − 2

By direct substitution,

0
We have the form 0 right? (check it!)

But you can factorise 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑎𝑠 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)

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(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
lim
𝑥−−2 (𝑥 − 2)

lim (𝑥 + 2)
𝑥−−2

Substituting 𝑥 as 2

We have,

2 + 2 = 4.

It doesn’t have to stress you! Think! Think! Think! Learn to think fast when you see questions.

3. Evaluation by L’Hopital’s rule

Given two functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be two functions of 𝑥 such that

• lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

• 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) can be differentiable and continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎

Then l’Hopital’s rule is
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
lim = lim
𝑥−−𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥−−𝑎 𝑔′(𝑥)

N.B:

✓ The rule is simple, you differentiate numerator on it own, same with denominator. Not
and never quotient rule in differentiation.
✓ If you apply l’Hopital’s rule once, and you are still getting any of the indeterminate
forms, you can apply rule again on new result till you get your desired result.

Limits at Zero (𝒙 → 𝟎)

These approximations will help you in solving any limits at zero.

Master them, they will help greatly!

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 (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 (From Binomial expansion)

 log(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥
 sin 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑥2
 cos 𝑥 = 1 − 2
𝑥
 𝑒 =1+𝑥
 tan 𝑥 = 𝑥

To evaluate limits at zero very fast infact questions of any kind, you just have to learn the above
approximations. If you do, you can literally solve any questions on limits at zero.

Let me teach you how to use them potently! Pay attention!

Lets take some important results listed previously as examples.

Example 1:

(1+𝑥)𝑛 −1
Evaluate lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Study the question very well, from the approximations I gave you above,
You see that,
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥….. right?
Putting that in the question…
We obtain

1 + 𝑛𝑥 − 1 𝑛𝑥
lim = lim =𝑛
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

Example 2:

sin 𝑥
Evaluate lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Using the approximation,

sin 𝑥 = 𝑥

Inserting it in the question,

𝑥
lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
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Example 3:

𝑒 𝑥 −1
Evaluatelim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Using 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥

The function reduces to,

1+𝑥−1 𝑥
lim = lim = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

Example 4:
√(𝑥+1)−√(1−𝑥)
Evaluate lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
We can solve this problem using l’Hopital’s rule
But let’s stick to the approximations for now…
So now,
1 1
√(1 + 𝑥) = (1 + 𝑥)2 = 1 + 𝑥
2
Similarly,
1 1
√(1 − 𝑥) = (1 − 𝑥)2 = 1 − 𝑥
2
We thus have,
𝑥 𝑥
1 + 2 − (1 − 2)
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
+ 𝑥
2 2
= = 𝑥 = 1.
𝑥

No matter how complex the question will look like, it’s easy with this trick.

Limits At Infinity (𝑥 → ∞)

Here, limits here 𝑥 approaching a very large number both negative side or the positive side.

𝑓(𝑥) ∞
If lim given the inderminate from ∞ and both 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are polynomial. Then to evaluate
𝑥→∞ 𝑔(𝑥)

them;
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 we divide the numerator and demonirator by the highest power of 𝑥.

1 1 1
 Replace , , , as 0 since inverse of a very large number is approaching zero e.g
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
1
= 0.0000001
1,000,000

Can you see?

Tricks to evaluate any limits at infinity

−1 −2
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑎1 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑎2 𝑥 𝑚 +⋯
If lim =
𝑥→∞ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛 +𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛 −1 +𝑏2 𝑥 𝑛 −2 +⋯

a.
And that 𝑚 = 𝑛 (the two polynomials have the same highest power)
𝑥𝑚 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎0
Then, the limit in the ratio of the coefficients of = 𝑏0 that is ( lim = )
𝑥𝑛 0 𝑥→∞ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑏0

Let me quickly give you an example

3𝑥 2 +5𝑥+3 3 1
lim =6=2
𝑥→∞ 6𝑥 2 +7𝑥+5

Since they have the same highest power, just take the ratio of their coefficiants.
b. Again let’s consider the same function but this time,
If 𝑚 < 𝑛 (that means the leading power of the numerator is less than that of the
denominator).
Then the limit is 0.
Example
𝑥2 + 5
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1

Don’t stress too much, a much as the numerator has a power lesser than the denumerator.
c. If 𝑚 > 𝑛 (leading powerof numerator is greater than that of the denomerator)
This time, we have the answer as ±∞
I. +∞ if 𝑎0 , 𝑏0 > 0 (they are both positive numbers)
II. −∞ if 𝑎0 , 𝑏0 < 0 (they are both negative numbers)

Example
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𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 3
lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥+5

The coefficiants of the leading powers are positive, than the limit is +∞.

−3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 7
lim
𝑥→∞ −2𝑥 + 5

The leading powers have negative coefficiants then, the limit is −∞.

Continuity

Have you ever noticed when you want to draw a curve without lifting your pen?

That’s a simple way to explain “continuity”. In drawing a curve of a function and there is
no break at all or gap something like

From the graph above, you notice a break (the bracketed region) that region is called the point of
discontinuity.

Lets consider a function 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑎 be a point in the domain of 𝑓. We say 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎, if

 𝑓(𝑥) is defined at 𝑥 = 𝑎
 If the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) exists at 𝑥 = 𝑎. i.e. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎
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N.B.

✓ All polynomials are continuous everywhere on the real axis

✓ For rational functions, check the denominator, equate it to zero and solve for 𝑥. The values
of 𝑥 are the point of discontinuity, the function is continuous at all other points except
that/those point(s).

Discontinuous function

Any function that fails to satisfy the properties of continuity then it is DISCONTINUOUS.

Removable Continuity

In limit, we solved some questions that will involve factorisation or using l’Hopital.

Here, if lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists and either it is not equal to 𝑓(𝑎) or 𝑓(𝑎) is not defined, then the function
𝑥→𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) is said to have a removable discontinuity of 𝑥 = 𝑎.

This discontinuity can be removed by suitably defining the function at 𝑥 = 𝑎

Let’s quickly have these.

Example 1

𝑥 2 −4
Find the point of discontinuity of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2

Solution.

This function has a point of disccontinuity at 𝑥 = 2. (How?)

Equate the denominator to zero,

𝑥 − 2 = 0;

𝑥 = 2,
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But then, 𝑥 − 2 can be cancelled since it’s a common factor,

(𝑥+2)(𝑥−2)
(𝑥−2)

So we can say 𝑥 = 2 is a removable discontinuity. (why?)

We are now left with

𝑥+2

And the

lim(𝑥 + 2)=4 it shows the limit exists hence

𝑥→2

𝑥 = 2 is removable singularity.

Example 2:

sin 𝑥
Find the point of discontinuity of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

Solution.

The point of discontinuity of the function is

𝑥=0

But

sin 𝑥
lim = 1 (the limit exists)
𝑥→0 𝑥

Then we can say, 𝑥 = 0 is a removable discontinuity

Do you get? It is not a rocket science!

Derivatives and differentiation.

The rate of change of a quantity 𝑦 with respect to another quantity 𝑥 is called the derivative or
differential coefficient.
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Finding a derivative of a function is what we know as DIFFERENTIATION.

These are some terms that means “differentiate”

 Find the rate of change

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
 Find 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

 Find 𝑦′
 Find d.c (differential coefficient) of
 Find the derivative of

Differentiation Using first principle

Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a function, differentiable at every point on the real number line, then its derivative
is given from

𝑦 + δ𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)

𝛿𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑦

Where 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝛿𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

Dividing through by 𝛿𝑥

𝛿𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

=
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥

Taking the limit of both sides as 𝛿𝑥 → 0

𝛿𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

lim = lim
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

= lim
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

NB:
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𝛿𝑥 means a small change in 𝑥

𝛿𝑦 means a small change in 𝑦.

Let’s play with some examples here;

𝑑𝑦
Using first principle, find 𝑑𝑥 of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛

𝑦 + Δ𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 + Δ𝑥)𝑛

Δ𝑦 = 𝑎[(𝑥 + Δ𝑥)𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑛 ]

Δ𝑦 = (𝑥 + Δ𝑥)𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑛

Δ𝑥 𝑛
Δ𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 [(1 + ) − 1] (Using the approximation given in previous topic)
𝑥

𝑛Δ𝑥
Δ𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 [1 + − 1]
𝑥

𝑛 𝑛Δ𝑥
Δ𝑦 𝑎𝑥 [ 𝑥 ]
=
Δ𝑦 Δ𝑥

Δ𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛
=
Δ𝑥 𝑥

Δ𝑦
lim = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑛→∞ Δ𝑥

𝑑𝑦 [Differentiation of power functions 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 ]

= 𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

Basic rules of differentiation

I. The zero/constant rule: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐; where c is any real number.
𝑑
[𝑐] = 0
𝑑𝑥
If 𝑦 = 700,
𝑑𝑦
Then 𝑑𝑥 = 0
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II. The multiplier rule. Given a function 𝑓(𝑥) multiplied by a constant C such that we have
𝐶𝑓(𝑥), the derivative of 𝐶𝑓(𝑥) is
𝑑 𝐶𝑑[𝑓(𝑥)]
[𝐶𝑓(𝑥)] =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
If 𝑦 = 3𝑥 5
Then
𝑑 𝑑
[3𝑥 5 ] = 3 [𝑥 5 ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3[5𝑥 4 ] = 15𝑥 4
III. Sum/Difference: Given two functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥):
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑢 ± 𝑣] = 𝑢± 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example
𝑢 = 2𝑥, and 𝑣 = 3𝑥 2
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
𝑑
[𝑢 + 𝑣] = 6𝑥 + 2
𝑑𝑥
IV. Product rule: Give two functions 𝑢 and 𝑣. The derivative of their product 𝑢. 𝑣 is given as
𝑑
[𝑢. 𝑣] = 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢 {d means differentiate}
𝑑𝑥

It reads as (diffrerentiate one, keep others + the reverse)

Example
𝑦 = 3𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑢 = 3𝑥, 𝑣 = 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 3, 𝑑𝑣 = 2𝑒 2𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥

Fast trick: Differetiate (3𝑥) keep 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑑(𝑒 2𝑥 ) keep (3𝑥)

If 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣𝑤
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑢𝑤 + 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣𝑤
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Differentiation of some functions

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1. Algebraic functions
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
Example;
𝑦 = 3𝑥 5
𝑑𝑦
= 15𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥
2. Transcendental functions
i. Logarithem
𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

{differentiate the function on the exponent, multiply it by the given 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)}

Example;
𝑦 = log(2𝑥 + 5)
𝑑𝑦 2
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 + 5
Note: 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑓(𝑥)
ii. Exponential function
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑒 𝑓𝑥
𝑑𝑥
{different the function on the exponent, multiply it by the given 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)}
Example;
𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑒 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥
iii. Trigonometric function
𝑦 = sin 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) cos 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
{sin changes to cos}
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Example;
𝑦 = sin 3𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 3 cos 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = cos 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑𝑦
= −𝑓 ′ (𝑥) sin 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Example:

𝑦 = cos 7𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= −7 sin 7𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = tan 𝑓(𝑥)

sin
Recall that 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = cos

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) sec 2 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Note that: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) means we differentiate the function once

Let’s have one example here too..

𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 of 𝑦 = tan(3𝑥 − 5)

𝑑𝑦
= 3 sec 2 (3𝑥 − 5)
𝑑𝑥

Let’s talk about

The Other trig functions later in the chapter but let’s recall that:

1
sec 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥

1
cosec 𝑥 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
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1 cos 𝑥
cot 𝑥 = =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑥

iv. Hyperbolic functions

𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒇(𝒙) pronounced (sign-ssssshhh)

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) cosh 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Example;

𝑦 = sinh(7𝑥 − 1)

𝑑𝑦
= 7 cosh(7𝑥 − 1)
𝑑𝑥

Similarly,

𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒇(𝒙) (pronouced kosshhh)

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) sinh 𝑓(𝑥) (Note: No negative at the front of the answer)
𝑑𝑥

𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒;

𝑦 = cosh(3 − 7𝑥)

𝑑𝑦
= −7 sin(3 − 7𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒇(𝒙)

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) sech2 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

QUOTIENT RULE
(Quotient means fraction..)
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How do we differentiate functions expressed as a fraction?

𝑢
Let 𝑦 = 𝑣

𝑑𝑦 𝑣𝑑𝑢−𝑢𝑑𝑣
= (bottom d(top) minus top d(bottom) over bottom squared)
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2

(note that: d means differentiate)

𝑐
If 𝑦 = where 𝑐 is any real number (constant)
𝑣

Then the above will reduce to

𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
=− (Since d(c) is 0, when you differentiate a constant, you get 0)
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2

Example 1:

𝑑𝑦 1
Find 𝑑𝑥 of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +4

Using

𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑐
= − 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2

Since the numerator is a constant (1)

Hence,

𝑑𝑣
𝑐 = 1, 𝑣 = 𝑥 2 + 4, = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2𝑥
= −1 2
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 4)2

Example 2:

𝑑𝑦 𝑥+1
Find 𝑑𝑥 if 𝑦 = 𝑥−1
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Here, 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑣 = 𝑥 − 1

𝑑𝑢 = 1 𝑑𝑣 = 1

Using quotient rule,

𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 − 1)(1) − (𝑥 + 1)(1)
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)2

𝑥−1−𝑥−1 2𝑥
= 2
=−
(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1)2

But you can always beat the time with this fast trick:

Provided that

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑦=
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑

Note: (1)the numerator and denominator are both linear function

𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑏+𝑎𝑥
(2) they must be arranged in order that is. Either 𝑐𝑥+𝑑 or 𝑑+𝑐𝑥

To differentiate functions like this:

Here is the shortcut:

𝑎 𝑏
𝑑𝑦 | | 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
= 𝑐 𝑑 2=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)2

So let’s apply it to the previous example.

𝑥+1
𝑦=
𝑥−1

Here, 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑐 = 1, 𝑑 = −1

𝑑𝑦 (1)(−1) − (1)(1) 2𝑥
= = −
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 1)2
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Another example, hold me tight ooo

𝑑𝑦 𝑥
Find 𝑑𝑥 if 𝑦 = 𝑥+1

Here again, 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = 1, 𝑑 = 1

Thus,

𝑑𝑦 (1)(1) − (1)(0) 1
= 2
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 1)2

You don’t have to struggle my dear.

Differentiation of Composite Functions (Chain rule)

In composition of function,

say 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑔(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 3)

𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(2𝑥 + 3)

𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 = (2𝑥 + 3)2

𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is a typical example of a composite function you have a function inside another function. We
call it function of a function.

How do we differentiate these function?

We use CHAIN RULE

More generally, if you have a function inside another function. We call them composite function.

Example, 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 , 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏

𝑦 = sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), 𝑦 = log(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) etc.

So, this is what chain rule says:

Given 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛

𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏; =𝑎
𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑢𝑛

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
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𝑑𝑦
= 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1
𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 where 𝑢 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

Fast Trick: let 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛

Differentiate the inner function, multiply by the power of the function then multiplied by
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−1

Or

Simply

𝑑𝑦
Differentiate the inner function, multiplied by the 𝑑𝑥 of the function

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

For 𝑦 = 𝑒 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎 𝑒 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑑𝑥

For 𝑦 = sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎 cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑑𝑥

Differetiation of Trig Funtions

(More explained)
𝒅 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
(𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) = ( )
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

Using quotient rule

𝑢 = sin 𝑥, 𝑣 = cos 𝑥
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𝑑𝑦 cos 𝑥 (cos 𝑥) − sin 𝑥(− sin 𝑥)

=
𝑑𝑥 (cos 𝑥)2

cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥
=
(cos 𝑥)2

Recall that cos 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1

𝑑𝑦 1
= = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 cos2 𝑥

𝒅 𝒅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
(𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙) = ( )
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

− sin2 𝑥 − cos2 𝑥
=
sin2 𝑥

(sin2 𝑥 + cos2 𝑥)
=−
sin2 𝑥

1
=− 2
= −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
sin 𝑥

𝒅 𝒅 𝟏
(𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙) = ( )
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

𝑑
(cos 𝑥) (− sin 𝑥)
=− 𝑑𝑥 =−
2
cos 𝑥 cos2 𝑥

sin 𝑥 ̇ 1
=
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥

= tan 𝑥 . sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥

𝒅
(𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙) (Try this!)
𝒅𝒙
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Note: All basic Trig functions starting with “co” , when you differentiate them, they always
have a minus (-)

IMPORTANT TRIG FUNCTIONS YOU MUST KNOW

cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1

cos2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 = cos 2𝑥

2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = sin 2𝑥

1 + cos 2𝑥
cos2 𝑥 =
2

1 − cos 2𝑥
sin2 𝑥 =
2

MORE ON DIFFERENTIATION OF LOGARITHMS AND EXPONENTS

Previously, we talked about log and ln without a base (I mean the natural logs).

But what if we have log 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 𝑒(𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡)

HOW DO YOU THEN DIFFERENTIATE IT?

Firstly,

Note that:

ln 𝑓(𝑥)
log 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) =
ln 𝑎

Where ln 𝑎 is a constant.

So let’s have some examples:

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𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = log 𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 5) find 𝑑𝑥

Now, let me clear your confusion,

If you are to differentiate

𝑦 = log(𝑥 2 + 5)

you can see there is no base right? It is a natural base, e

To differentiate it, (differentiate the inner function, all over the inner function) you see?

Something like,

𝑑𝑦 2𝑥
= 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 5

Let’s go back to the main question,

𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = log 𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 5) find 𝑑𝑥

Here, there is a base.

2
ln(𝑥 2 + 5)
log 𝑎 (𝑥 + 5) =
ln 𝑎

You may decide to use “Quotient rule”,

1 1 𝑥
But simply ln 𝑎 is a multiplier to ln(𝑥 2 + 5) just as 3 is a multiplier to 𝑥 in 3.

Do you get?

So

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑
= (ln(𝑥 2 + 5))
𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥

1 2𝑥 2𝑥
= 2
= 2
ln 𝑎 (𝑥 + 5) (𝑥 + 5) ln 𝑎
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EXPONENTS

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 {Constant raised to the power of a variable} Note: [𝑎 𝑥 ≠ 𝑥 𝑎 ]

Taking the ln of both sides of the above

We have

ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑎

Differentiating both sides,

1 𝑑𝑦
= ln 𝑎
𝑦 𝑑𝑥

{you saw what I did? Anytime you differentiate function of y, you have to fix dy/dx at the back.
We will talk more about that when we get to implicit differentiation }

From

1 𝑑𝑦
= ln 𝑎
𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥

Where 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥

Thus,

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥

Fast Trick:

 Differentiate the power

 Take the ln of base number
 Multiply the above result with the given question

Let’s have one more example,

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𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 2sin 𝑥 find 𝑑𝑥

Following the above trick,

 Differentiate sin 𝑥 which gives cos 𝑥

 Take the ln of the base number ln 2
 Multiply the above result with the given question

𝑑𝑦
Thus, 𝑑𝑥 = ln 2 cos 𝑥 (2sin 𝑥 )

Quickly do these!

𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 of

𝑥2
𝑦 = 5𝑒 𝑦 = 2cos 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 7ln 𝑥

IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

We have been differentiating function 𝑓(𝑥), but here we are going to consider the functions
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐, they are functions written in such a way that they can’t be expressed in the form
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

Example of such functions, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 3 = 5, 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 7

HOW DO WE DIFFERENTIATE SUCH FUNCTIONS?

𝑑𝑦
To find 𝑑𝑥 of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐,

We differentiate both sides of the given relation with respect to 𝑥 and collect the terms
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
containing 𝑑𝑥 at one side and find 𝑑𝑥 .
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Understand that, anytime you differentiate function of 𝑦, attach 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 at the back.

One costly mistake you must avoid at all cost.

Let’s have some examples,

𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 if 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4

Differentiating both sides,

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0, [don’t forget to attach 𝑑𝑥 when you differentiate function of y]

𝑑𝑦
Making 𝑑𝑥 subject,

We have

𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 = −2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑥
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑦

Fast trick:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦

=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦

Let’s apply the shortcut to a question,

𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 of 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 5

Differentiating function of 𝑥,

𝑑 3𝑥
(𝑒 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 5 = 0)
𝑑𝑥

We have,
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3𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 0 [look at it again, we differentiated function of 𝑥 but sin 𝑦 is attached to it. It is

like a multiplier, you can’t take it away. And again differentiating 𝑦 2 gives zero why? Bcos no
function of x attached to it. It is like a constant.]

Simliarly,

Differentiating function of 𝑦,

𝑑 3𝑥
(𝑒 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 5 = 0)
𝑑𝑦

We have,

𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 2𝑦 − 0

Do you get?

Thus

𝑑𝑦 3𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑦
= − 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 cos 𝑦 + 2𝑦

We are not done guys, let’s go.

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INTEGRATION AS AN INVERSE OF DIFFERENTIATION

…welcome to a new world.

Previously, we considered how we differentiate functions. How we split or break down

functions.

Here, we want to see how they are builtt up to their initial state.

Integration is considered as the inverse of differentiation.

Let’s say we are given a derivative like this.

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 − 3
𝑑𝑥

And we are to get the function from which we got it from…

What do you do?

We integrate, that’s why, they call it… ANTIDERIVATIVE OR ANTIDIFFERENTIATION.

That will lead us to INDEFINITE INTEGRALS.

INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function. Then, the collection of all its primitive is called the indefinite integral or
(anti-derivative) of 𝑓(𝑥) and is denoted by
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∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, Integration as an inverse process of differentiation.

Let me be more clear,

𝑑𝑦
Let’s assume 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) then

𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Integrating both sides

We have

𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶 where 𝐶 is called the constant of integration or arbitrary constant.

The process of finding functions whose derivative is given, is called anti-differentiation or

integration.

Given a function

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛

𝑛
𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 +𝐶
𝑛+1

Except for 𝑛 = −1

If 𝑛 = −1

The integral reduces to

1
∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = a ln 𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝑎 log 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 (remember in differentiation, when you differentiate
1
ln 𝑥 you will get 𝑥 right?)
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Note: The derivative of a function is unique but integral of a function is not unique.

Why?

Let us say, you have

𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 5

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 right?
𝑑𝑥

Now what if we are to get the original function from which that is gotten from.

You will have to integrate both sides of

𝑑𝑦
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

The 𝑑𝑥 there is telling us we are integrating with respect to (wrt) 𝑥.

6𝑥 2
𝑦= +𝐶
2

𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 𝐶 (you can see we added a constant which can be any value 𝐶 could be
1, 2, −3, ….) do you get? To get the actual function, we will be given some predefined values.

For example,

𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑦 if = 6𝑥 − 5 and 𝑦 = 2 when 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥

Integrating both sides of the derivative

𝑦 = ∫(6𝑥 − 5)𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 𝐶 (Note: if you integrate a constant, it attracts 𝑥)

When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 2
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2 = 3(0)2 − 5(0) + 𝐶

𝐶=2

Putting 𝐶 = 2 into 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 𝐶

We have,

𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2

SOME STANDARD INTEGRAL FORMULAE

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USEFUL PROPERTIES OF INTEGRATION

𝑑
 [∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)] {since integration is the inverse of differentiation}
𝑑𝑥

 ∫ 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 {scalar multiplication}

 ∫(𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
The first problem you will encounter here is what specific method to use when you

are given a question under integration.

I will hold you by your hand to teach you these snapshot techniques. Let’s go!!!

INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

We are going to consider some forms of integrals here, pay serious attention.

(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛+1
Integral of the form ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑎(𝑛+1)

To solve integral of this form

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Understand that the function (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) must linear, the power of 𝑥 has to be 1. What do I mean?
You can’t have something like (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑘).

So, what is all about?

Differentiate the inner function (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) that gives 𝑎.

Now increase the power of the integrand by 1

Bring the new power down to multiply 𝑎

Something like, 𝑎(𝑛 + 1)

Hence you get,

(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛+1
+𝐶
𝑎(𝑛 + 1)

This method is sometimes called the ANTI-CHAIN RULE.

This is why?

∫ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥

To integrate, we are going to let 𝑢 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)

Just like in chain rule,

Come with me,

𝑑𝑢
=𝑎 right?
𝑑𝑥

But don’t forget you are working on variable 𝑥,

Makng 𝑑𝑥 subject of formula

We have

𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎

We have substitutions for (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) and 𝑑𝑥

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Do you get it?

We now have,

𝑑𝑢
∫ 𝑢𝑛
𝑎

You see?

That will give

1
∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢
𝑎

1 𝑢𝑛+1
𝑎 (𝑛 + 1)

Where 𝑢 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)

1 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛+1
𝑎 (𝑛 + 1)

Can you see?

Let’s have few examples,

Integrate ∫ √2 − 3𝑥 d𝑥

The question is easy enough.

1
√2 − 3𝑥 can be written as (2 − 3𝑥)2

1
Our 𝑛 = 2

Differentiating (2 − 3𝑥)

We get, −3 which means our 𝑎 = −3

Thus,
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3 3 3
(2 − 3𝑥)2 (2 − 3𝑥)2 2(2 − 3𝑥)2
∫ √2 − 3𝑥 d𝑥 = − =− =−− +𝐶
3 9 9
3 (2) (2)

Wait, I skipped something. Not intentional though.

If you are asked to integrate something like this,

𝑥2 + 1
∫ d𝑥
𝑥2

What do you do? Don’t air me… smiles

Well, it is very easy.

This is what you do…

Split them…

𝑎+𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
Since = 𝑐 + 𝑐. You get?
𝑐

So…

𝑥2 + 1 𝑥2 1
∫ d𝑥 = ∫ d𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
1 1
∫ 1𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 [Note: 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 −2 ]

𝑥 −2+1
𝑥+ −2+1

1
𝑥 − 𝑥 −1 + 𝐶 = 𝑥 − +𝐶
𝑥

{𝑓(𝑥)}𝑛+1
Integral of the form ∫{𝑓(𝑥)}𝑛 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑛+1

Allow me to explain,
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This integral is telling you that, when you see a function it doesn’t matter what the power may be.
If it is multiplied by its derivative.

The answer is simple: Just write the function, increase the power by one and divide by the new
power.

You will get it, chill…

Lets have an example

∫ 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 1)4 𝑑𝑥

Our 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4 right?

When you differentiate it, you have

2𝑥 right?

So we perfectly have

∫{𝑓(𝑥)}𝑛 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Thus,

The answer is

(𝑥 2 + 1)5
+𝐶
5

Let me explain more with another question,

I’m not convinced enough…

Integrate ∫ 3𝑥 (5𝑥 2 − 7)−4 𝑑𝑥

Look at this one, you don’t have to panic,

When you differentiate 5𝑥 2 − 7

Verily, you will get 10𝑥 right?

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But that’s not the point, the main point is, the variable 𝑥

You can see both

3𝑥 and 10𝑥 has 𝑥 in common right?

That’s the point.

We just want the variables to cancel out.

That will be

3 (5𝑥 2 − 7)−3 1
=− (5𝑥 2 − 7)−3 + 𝐶
10 −3 10

𝑓′(𝑥)
Integral of the form ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶

This form of integral is easy too.

It reads this way,

If you differentiate the denonimator and it gives you what you have at the numerator,

Your answer is log of the denominator.

Let’s have some thing quickly,

1
Evaluate ∫ (𝑥−5) 𝑑𝑥

Look, at the denominator, if you differentiate it. You get 1 right?

Which is the same as numerator.

By default,

Your answer is

log(𝑥 − 5) + 𝐶
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That’s too simple,

Let’s have more

cos 𝑥
Integrate ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Differentiating the denominator

We have cos 𝑥 which is the same as the numerator.

By default,

The answer is

ln sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

Let’s have more,

3𝑒 3𝑥
Integrate ∫ 5+6𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

This is not hard too,

What do you do?

When you differentiate 5 + 6𝑒 3𝑥

You get, 18𝑒 3𝑥

Don’t be distracted, look here,

The coefficient is not the main issue,

The issue is the variables are the same right?

The numerator has 3𝑒 3𝑥 the differential of the denominator is

18𝑒 3𝑥

The simple trick to integrate the basic Transcendental Functions