Ad:Hürü
Soyad:Məmmədova
Fakültə:İngilis-Alman
İxtisas:İngilis dili müəllimliyi
Qrup:303B
Fənn:Leksikologiya
Müəllim: Cəfərov Amil
Mövzu;Lexicography
**Lexicography: The Art and Science of Dictionary-Making**
**Lexicography** is both a craft and an academic discipline focused on the
compilation, organization, and study of dictionaries. As a branch of applied
linguistics, it is closely tied to **lexicology**, which examines the nature and
structure of words. Lexicography applies these insights to create comprehensive
language resources.
There are two main branches of lexicography:
1. **Theoretical Lexicography:** Concerned with the principles and frameworks
behind dictionary-making, such as selecting entries, defining terms, and
categorizing words.
2. **Practical Lexicography:** Involves the actual creation and production of
dictionaries.
Dictionaries serve as repositories of language, reflecting its dynamic nature and
evolution. Their types, structures, and purposes vary widely to accommodate
different users and needs.
### **Types of Dictionaries**
The variety of dictionaries mirrors the diverse ways language is used. Below is a
detailed categorization of dictionary types based on their purpose, scope, and target
audience.
1. **General-Purpose Dictionaries**
General-purpose dictionaries are the most widely used and cater to a broad
audience. They focus on providing standard definitions, spellings, pronunciations,
and sometimes examples of usage.
- **Monolingual Dictionaries:**
These focus on a single language, defining words and explaining their meanings
within that language. They are often used by native speakers for reference or by
advanced learners of the language.
*Examples:*
- *Oxford English Dictionary (OED):* Known for its historical breadth and
detailed definitions.
- *Merriam-Webster Dictionary:* A staple for American English users.
- **Bilingual Dictionaries:**
These offer translations between two languages, aiding language learners and
translators. They include equivalent words or phrases, often with explanations of
context.
*Examples:*
- *Collins Spanish-English Dictionary*
- *Larousse French-English Dictionary*
- Multilingual Dictionaries:
These expand bilingual dictionaries to include three or more languages, making
them useful in international or multicultural contexts.
*Examples:
- *UN Multilingual Terminology Database
2. Specialized Dictionaries
Specialized dictionaries target specific fields or audiences. They delve deeply into
subject-specific terminology and concepts, often providing detailed explanations.
- **Technical and Scientific Dictionaries:**
These cover terms and concepts within disciplines like medicine, law,
engineering, or computing.
*Examples:*
- *Dorland’s Medical Dictionary*
- *Black's Law Dictionary*
- Subject-Specific Dictionaries:
Focused on areas like literature, philosophy, or religion, these dictionaries serve
scholars and enthusiasts alike.
*Examples;
- *The Dictionary of Literary Terms
- *The Dictionary of Theology
3. Etymological Dictionaries
Etymological dictionaries trace the origins, history, and evolution of words. They
explore how words have changed in form and meaning over centuries, often
including cross-linguistic influences.
*Examples:
- *Chambers Dictionary of Etymology:* A comprehensive resource tracing word
origins.
- *Skeat’s Etymological Dictionary of the English Language:* A classic reference
work.
4. Pronunciation Dictionaries
Pronunciation dictionaries focus on helping users pronounce words correctly. They
typically include phonetic transcriptions and often variations based on regional
dialects.
*Examples:
- *Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary
- *Longman Pronunciation Dictionary
5. Historical Dictionaries
Historical dictionaries document language over time, capturing how words’
meanings, forms, and usages have evolved. These dictionaries are often
monumental in size and scope.
*Examples:
- *Oxford English Dictionary (OED):* Tracks the history of every word in the
English language.
- *Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue:* Covers the Scots language from its
earliest records to 1700.
Learner’s Dictionaries
These dictionaries are tailored to non-native speakers, focusing on clear, simple
definitions and extensive usage examples. They often include additional features
like grammar notes, collocations, and tips for usage.
*Examples:
- *Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
- *Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary
7. Visual Dictionaries
Visual dictionaries rely on illustrations or diagrams to explain terms, making them
particularly useful for technical or abstract concepts.
*Examples:
- *The Visual Dictionary by DK*
- *Merriam-Webster’s Visual Dictionary*
8. Idiomatic and Phraseological Dictionaries
Idioms and phrases often resist literal translation. Dictionaries in this category
explain their meanings, origins, and usage contexts.
*Examples:
- *The American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms*
- *The Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms
9. Slang and Colloquial Dictionaries
Slang and colloquial dictionaries capture informal, regional, or non-standard
language. They often highlight the creativity and diversity of spoken language.
*Examples:
- *Green’s Dictionary of Slang*
- *Urban Dictionary:* A crowd-sourced online slang resource.
10. Corpora-Based Dictionaries
Corpora-based dictionaries draw on large, digitized collections of real-world texts
(corpora) to provide definitions and examples rooted in actual usage. They reflect
contemporary language trends and variations.
Examples:
Collins COBUILD English Dictionary
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
The Lexicographic Process
The creation of a dictionary is a meticulous process involving the following stages:
1. Word Selection:
Determining which words to include based on relevance, frequency, and
audience needs. Corpora analysis is often used to identify commonly used words
and phrases.
2. Definition Writing:
Definitions must be precise, clear, and concise, suitable for the intended
audience.
3. Etymological Research:
Investigating the history and origin of words, tracing their evolution across
languages.
4. Phonetic Transcription:
Representing pronunciation accurately, often using systems like the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
5. Example Compilation:
Providing real-world examples of word usage, often sourced from literature or
corpora.
6. Editing and Proofreading:
Ensuring consistency, accuracy, and clarity in every aspect of the dictionary.
7. Digital Adaptation:
In the modern era, dictionaries are increasingly adapted for online and mobile
platforms, often incorporating multimedia elements like audio pronunciations,
videos, and hyperlinks.
Role of Technology in Modern Lexicography
Technology has revolutionized lexicography. Digitized corpora allow for detailed
linguistic analysis, identifying patterns in usage, collocations, and semantic shifts.
Computational tools streamline dictionary creation, while digital platforms expand
accessibility. Mobile apps and online dictionaries integrate features like voice
search, pronunciation playback, and real-time updates, making them indispensable
in the digital age.
Conclusion
Lexicography, as a field, embodies the intersection of linguistic research and
practical utility. The diversity of dictionaries reflects the richness and complexity
of language itself. From preserving linguistic heritage to aiding communication in
globalized contexts, dictionaries remain essential tools for education, research, and
daily life. As language evolves, so too will the art and science of dictionary-
making, continually adapting to meet the needs of its users.
