CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (BMS)

The term Battery Management System (BMS) encompasses a variety of definitions

depending on its specific application context. Generally, a BMS refers to a comprehensive

management scheme designed to monitor, control, and optimize the performance of

individual battery cells or multiple battery modules within an energy storage system. One of

the critical functions of a BMS is its ability to detect abnormal operating conditions and

subsequently disconnect the battery module(s) from the system to prevent damage or hazards.

In power system applications, the BMS plays a vital role by ensuring that the battery operates

at peak efficiency while also prolonging its overall lifespan. It actively manages how power

is distributed and utilized, adapting to the requirements of the system to maximize

performance. In the automotive industry, the BMS is essential for effective energy

management across different interfaces within the vehicle, safeguarding against a range of

potential risks, including overheating, overcharging, and short-circuiting.

A typical BMS is composed of several distinct functional blocks. These blocks are

systematically connected to the batteries and other integral components of the structured

system, such as controllers, the grid, and various distributed resources as seen in figure 3

below. Properly designed architecture, along with refined functional blocks and advanced

circuitry, is crucial for extending the operational life of the battery and enhancing the overall

efficiency of the energy storage system [12].

3.1.1 Components and Topology

A BMS cannot be used as a standalone within a system infrastructure. It is integrated with

other system modules to accomplish the system objectives. For example, an intelligent energy

automation system includes a battery management module (BMM), battery interface module

(BIM), battery units, and battery supervisory control. The system protects the battery pack,

extends the battery lifetime, manages the power demand, and interfaces with the different

network [13].

There are three implementation topologies—centralized, distributed, and modular —available

in the BMS market. In a centralized topology, a single control unit and battery cells are put

together through multiple wires. For distributed topology, each control unit is dedicated to

each battery cell by a single communication cable. Lastly, in modular topology, multiple

numbers of control units deal with a particular battery cell, but the control units are
interconnected [14]. The centralized BMS is the most economical and least expandable. The

distributed BMS is the costliest, but it is the easiest among the three to install and offers the

cleanest assembly. The modular BMS includes more hardware and programming effort and

makes a confrontation between the features and problems of the other two topologies.

3.1.2 Software Architecture

The software architecture of Battery Management Systems (BMS) has evolved to incorporate

advanced multi-tasking capabilities, enabling the simultaneous execution of various tasks that

were previously constrained by a sequential processing model. In earlier iterations of BMS

software, only one task could be completed at a time, which often resulted in delays that

could compromise performance and safety.

In the latest BMS software architecture, however, multiple tasks can now run concurrently

without interruptions, significantly enhancing efficiency and responsiveness. This

advancement ensures that critical functions such as voltage and current measurement,

overcurrent and overvoltage protection, temperature monitoring, and the actuation of

protective relays are executed in a timely manner, which is vital for maintaining the safety

and reliability of the BMS.

A key feature of this revamped architecture is the incorporation of a real-time operating

system (RTOS). The RTOS is designed to handle real-time functionalities, allowing for the

immediate processing of safety-critical tasks and decision-making processes. This ensures

that the system remains responsive under all operating conditions. Figure 3 shows the

architecture of BMS software.

3.1.3. Functionalities

The Battery Management System (BMS) is a critical system for managing battery packs,

either internally or externally connected. It monitors essential parameters, including cell

voltages, pack current, pack voltage, and pack temperature, allowing it to estimate key

indicators such as state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), and depth of discharge

(DOD). These measurements are vital for optimizing battery performance and ensuring they

meet the demands of the power network.

BMS design involves constructing functional unit blocks, tailored to specific battery

application requirements. This approach enhances battery life through several key features:

1. Energy Management System: A user interface for real-time control and performance

monitoring of battery systems.

2. Safety and Performance Features: Advanced monitoring to ensure operational

efficiency and prevent issues like overcharging and overheating.

and failures.

4. Integration with Energy Sources: The BMS facilitates seamless integration of

batteries with both conventional and renewable energy sources.

5. IoT Connectivity: Enables remote monitoring and control, allowing for data collection

and performance optimization.

BMS will investigate the following significant capabilities and functions: automatic

charging/discharging, protection, monitoring, and stability and resiliency.

Furthermore, BMS has efficient impacts related to accuracy and battery life. It leads to

increased battery life with accurate operation measurements and control. BMS applies

different methods for accurate modeling, which can provide a significant improvement in

terms of the accuracy of the SOC estimation. Additionally, the accuracy of cell balancing is

another benefit of BMS functions in the service of energy performance optimization. It is

used to improve battery performance with proper measures within a system. BMS is able to

control the power of the battery at its maximum efficiency with extended battery life. The

system will protect the battery pack, extends the battery lifetime, manages the power demand,

and interfaces with the different network.

On the scale of the accuracy, it calculates the battery quantities, with typical measurements

performed for cell voltages, pack current, pack voltage, and pack temperature. BMS uses

these measurements to estimate state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), depth of

discharge (DOD), and the operational key parameters of the cells/battery packs. The

measurements also help to increase battery life and keep pace with the demand requirements

of the original power network.

to control and examine battery systems’ performance in different system blocks. The

charging and discharging management significantly impact battery life. The economic

advantages of BMS are extensions of battery lifetime, increasing the accuracy, and lowering

the cost. Figure 5 below shows the functions of BMS.

Figure 5: BMS functionalities.

BMS has significant impacts on batteries’ operation and performance, especially on reducing

the environmental impact of battery systems. BMS can protect the battery system from

external events since the battery pack’s external environment causes changes in the cell/pack

parameters. Two types of temperatures—electrochemical reaction temperature and battery

environment temperature—can be controlled in the battery pack for BMS safety. BMS can

ensure control of these two types of battery temperatures within their safety limit. BMS is

capable of handling the potential hazards related to the operation within battery systems. It

allows protection of loss of air conditioning and battery cooling and protects the loss of

battery heating controls (BSS).

Kokkotis et al. discussed the electrochemical means of EES systems such as batteries. The

authors represented the caused damage to humans and the environment from batteries and

other energy storage systems. The paper also covered a short review of the small-scale energy
storage systems based on their environmental impacts. Besides, this paper explained the

causes of soil and water pollution and endangered wildlife. Cadmium can cause damage to

soil micro-organisms and affect the breakdown of organic matter. Other chemicals used in

modern electrochemical batteries and any protective means of safe utilization with minimum

environmental impact are also discussed in the paper [18].

3.1.4 Monitoring

BMS mainly focuses on monitoring the battery pack voltage, current, cell voltage,

temperature, isolation, and interlocks. A faulty battery charging system or voltage regulator

can cause overvoltage in the battery system. An overvoltage or overcurrent may cause

permanent damage to the battery system, while the overcharge causes cell venting. As vented

gases are flammable, it creates a severe safety concern. Similarly, a low voltage or current

significantly affects battery performance. Isolation of the central battery system is an

essential task for BMS, especially for a high voltage system. If a human body comes into

contact with a faulty high voltage battery system, the current will flow through the body and

cause death. Temperature control is another crucial task for BMS. High temperatures create

heat and other abnormal issues that negatively impact the battery system [17].

3.1.5. Protection

A BMS must ensure protection against any battery system hazards. The BMS safeguard

includes (among others) detecting the operating mode, setting fault criteria, authenticating,

and identifying the system, predicting the pack/cell overvoltage and overcurrent, predicting

the isolation fault, and detecting the high/low temperature. A BMS must protect the battery

system from the external event since the external environment of the battery pack causes the

changes in the cell/pack parameter.

The state of charge (SOC) has a significant impact on battery life. Each battery has a specific

number of charging and discharging cycles, and the battery life reduces with the increased

number of charging and discharging phenomena. BMS must confirm the efficient way for

charging and discharging procedures. Additionally, a BMS must maintain the proper SOC so

that the battery lifetime will be maximized. To ensure management in this area, BMS

performs the following tasks: control the charger current, turn on/off active switches between

the pack and load/charger, run the pre-charge sequence, set dynamic power limits, and

conduct active and passive balancing.

3.1.7. Diagnosis

BMS estimates and predicts the depth of discharge (DOD), state of charge (SOC), battery

capacity, cell temperature, state of fitness (SOF), available energy, charging time, remaining

useful life (RUL), remaining runtime, and the inner impedance of cell and current capability

to ensure efficient battery performance. BMS is also responsible for detecting faults, such as

fires, thermal runaways, explosions, and minimizing the consequences of fault effects.

Therefore, fault diagnosis is an important functionality for BMS [11].

The DOD calculation is essential to estimate the effective battery cycle. Sometimes the

higher DOD will reduce the battery lifetime. For example, lead-acid batteries show less

lifetime if the DOD is more than 50%. So, the DOD should be maintained in BMS to avoid

unexpected hazards. The SOC is an alternative form of the same DOD measurement. Battery

capacity indicates the amount of energy that can be extracted from the battery. Typically, the

battery capacity measures the stored charge (in ampere-hours). Battery capacity is related to

cell temperature. Batteries perform best at room temperature. The decreased temperature

raises the internal resistance of the battery, which decreases battery capacity. Whether excess
heat or excess cold, both reduce the C-rate of the battery. Along with other testing, the SOF

determines the capability of the battery to be matched with the system.

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