Editorial Board

Professor SatishChandra (Chairman)

Professor R. S.Sharma
Professor Barun De
Professor Sumit Sarkar
Professor M. G S Narayanan
Shri S. H, Khan
Shri Arjun Dev (Convener)
 ANCIENT INDIA
A Textbook for Class XI

Ram Shakan Sharma

Rom S

tpuft# am Si
NCS5ERT .

National Council of Hducational Research and Training

Tire first edition book was published
of this m
August 1977 by Eurasia Publishing
Hquse (Pvt.) Ltd., by permission of the National Council of Educational Research and
Training, The subsequent revised edition and the reprints have been published by the

National Council of Educational Research and Training.

First Edition
August 1977
Sravana 1899
Revised Edition
August 1980
Sravana 1902
Reprinted
June 3981
Jyaistha 1903

January 1982
Magha 1903

P D. 22T— D.P.G.

© National Council of Educational "Research and Training, 1977.

Cover : KaRANKUMAR CHADBA

Rs. 6 30

Published at the Publication Department by V. K.. Pandit, Secietary, National Council of

Educational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi, 1 100 6
1 and printed at
Radha Offset Press, Madras 600 013
 Foreword

The present book is meant for use in Class XT, which is the first year after a general
education up to Class X At the Higher Secondary stage (Classes XI and XII), the
student is given advanced knowledge m a few subjects of his choice so as to enable him
to pursue higher education, if he wants it, or to enlei into some occupation.
The NCERT had entrusted the lesponsibility of preparing courses and textbooks in
history to the History Editoual Board consisting of Professor Satish Chandra (Chair-
man), Professor R. S Shaima, Professor Baiun De, Professor Sumit Sarkar, Professor
M G. S. Narayanan, Shu S H. Khan and Shn Arjun Dev (Convener). The Board had
finalized the courses and prepared a series of textbooks The NCERT is grateful to the
members of the Board for sparing their valuable time ungrudgingly m
developing the
new courses and textbooks m history within the short time that was given to them
This textbook dealing with a historical survey of ancient India was prepared by
Professor R S Sharma and was first published in 1977 The present volume is the
first revised edition of the textbook which
had been out of stock since early 978 The 1

NCERT is Sharma for preparing the original as well as the

grateful to Professor R. S
present revised edition The NCERT is also grateful to many other persons, both
belonging to the NCERT and outside, and organizations for their help and coopera-
tion. Our special thanks are due to Dr, G L Adhya of the NCERT and Km Arun-
dhoti Banerji of the Archaeological Survey of India for their help in supervising the
preparation of illustrative materials, to Shn A K
Ghosh for the drawings and the
maps, and to the Archaeological Survey of India for making available to us photo-
graphs which have been included in this book
This volume on Ancient India is the first m
the series of textbooks which have been
brought out by the NCERT for the Higher Secondary stage. This volume covers
the syllabus in ancient Indian history for the Higher Secondary stage Volumes deal-
ing with the syllabus in medieval and modem periods of Indian history have also been
brought out.
The NCERT would be grateful for any comments, suggestions and criticisms on any
aspect of the present volume.

Shib K Mitra
Director
New Delhi National Council of
August 1980 Educational Research and Training
 Preface to the First Edition

History forms a part of an undiversified ournctilum in general education for the

first ten years of schooling. The course m history up to this stage is, therefore, aimed
at acquainting the pupil with important trends and developments in the -history of India

and of the world. The courses at the ‘plus two’ stage have been framed keeping in

view the foundations to be laid during the ten years of general education Their main
purposes are to broaden and deepen the historical knowledge of the pupil, to introduce
him to the rigours of the discipline, and to prepare him for higher academic studies in

the subject.
The courses in history at the ‘plus two’ stage which have been framed by the Editorial
Board are^he results of discussions with teachers, teacher-educators and experts. Pre-
sently the Board is engaged m preparing four textbooks for the four semester courses

in history. The syllabus includes optional courses on the history of regions outside

India, and textbooks on these courses would be prepared when these courses are intro-

duced in schools.
The present volume covering the course for the first semester deals with the history
of ancient India from prehistoric times to about the eighth century. An effort has been
made in this book to highlight the forces and factors behind the rise and spread of
civilization and culture in India rather than present details of dynastic history. The
growth and diffusion of various aspects of civilization such as social classes, state

formation, and political institutions have been treated clearly. The book points out
the significant changes and marks the main stages m the development of Indian society
in ancient times Attention has been paid to the contribution of ancient Indians to
polity, art, literature, philosophy, religion, and science and technology.
The Editorial Board is grateful to Professor R. S. Sharma for undertaking the writing
of this book The Board also sincerely thanks all the other persons for their help in
connection with the publication of this book

Satish Chandra
New Delhi Chairman
July 1977 History Editorial Board
 Author’s Acknowledgements

No single historian can speak with authority on various phases and facets of ancient
Indiap history. I have therefore utilized the works of numerous scholars not all of

whose names appear in the bibliography. I took various kinds of help from Dr. Pratipal
Bhatia, Dr. D. K. Chakra barti, Shn George Jacob, Shri V. K. Jain, Shrimati Vijaya
Nath, Dr. Sitaram Rai, Kumari Snehlata and Dr. P. D. Tnpathi. Shri ArjunDev of the
NCERT helped me in finalizing the preparation and publication of the book with
ability, devotion and keen interest. They all deserve my sincere thanks At one
stage it seemed that the book would not appear again 1 am therefore happy to see its
second edition. I gratefully acknowledge the support and suggestions received from a
wide citcle of renowned historians including Dr. G. L. Adhya, Professor A. L.
Basham, Professor B. D. Chattopadhyay, Professor R. N. Dandekar, Shri R. K.
Choudhary, Professor D. N. Jha, Dr. Suvira Jaiswal, Professor B. N, Mukherjee.
Professor M. G, S, Narayanan, Professor A. M. Shastri, Professor S. Settar,
Professor G. R. Sharma, Dr. K. M. Shrimali, Shri R. P. Smgh, Professor K. K.
Sinha, Professor D. C. Sircar, Professor Upendra Thakur, Professor Romila Thapar
and Professor B, N S. Yadava.
 —

Contents
/

Foreword
Preface to the First Edition
Author’s Acknowledgements . . ,
.

1. The Importance of Ancient Indian History

2. The Construction of Ancient Indian History

Material Remains— Coins —Inscriptions —Literary Souices
Foreign Accounts —Historical Sense
3. The Geographical Setting

4. The Stone Age

The Old Stone Age—Phases m the Palaeolithic Age—The Lqjte
Stone Age —The New Stone Age
5. The Stone-Copper Phase
Chalcolithic Settlements — —
Chalcolithic Cultures Importance of
—
the Chalcolithic Phase Limitations of Chalcolithic Cultures
The Copper Age in India

6. The Harappan Civilization

Geographical Extent —Town
Planning and Structures Agricul- —
ture —
Domestication —
Animals Technology and Crafts
of
Trade—Political Organization—Religious Practices—The Male
Deity in the Indus Valley—Tree and Animal Worship—The
Harap-
pan Script—Weights and Measures—Harappan Pottery— Seals
—Images—Terracotta Figurines— Origin, Maturity and End

7. Advent of the Aryans and the Age of the Rig Veda

Original Home and Identity—Tribal Conflicts—Material
Life-
Tribal Polity—Tribe and Family— Social Divisions—Rig
Vedic
Gods
 —

8. The Later Vcdic Phase Transition

: and Social Formation
to State 51
Expansion Period (c. 1000-600 B.C.) The
in the Later Vedic —
PGW — Iron Phase Culture and Later Vedic Economy Political —
— —
Organization Social Organization Gods, Rituals and Phi-
losophy

9. Jainism and Buddhism . . . . . . 60

—
Causes of Origin Vardhamana Mahavira and Jainism Doctrines —
— —
of Jainism Spread of Jainism Contribution of Jainism Gau- —
—
tama Buddha and Buddhism Doctrines of Buddhism Special —
Features of Buddhism and the Causes of its Spread Causes of —
—
the Decline of Buddism Importance and Influence of Buddhism

10. Territorial States and the First Magadhan Empire 69

—
The Mahajanapadas Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire
— Causes of Magadha's Success

11. Iranian and Macedonian Invasions .. ..75

Iranian Invasion —Results of the Contact—Alexander’s Invasion
—Effects of Alexander’s Invasion
12. State and Varna Society in the Age of the Buddha . . 78
—
Material Life Administrative System Army — and Taxation
The Republican Experiment —Social Orders and Legislation

1 3. The Age of the Mauryas , . . . , 86

Chandragupta Maurya —Imperial Organization—Asoka (273-232
B.C) —Asokan Edicts — Impact of the Kalinga War—Internal
Policy and Buddhism—Asoka’s Place pt History

14. Significance of the Maurya Rule . . . . . . 93

State Control —Economic Regulations— Spread of Material
Culture — Causes of the Fall of the Maurya Empire

15. Central Asian Contacts and Their Results .. 102

The Indo-Greeks —The
Sakas The Parthians — —The Rushans—
Impact of Central Asian Contacts

16. The Age of the Satavahanas ..114

Political History —Aspects of Material Culture —Social Organi-
zation —Pattern of —
Administration Religion — Architecture
Language
 . ——

XI

17. The Dawn of History in the Deep South 120

—
The Megahthic Background Three Early Kingdoms The Purse —
— —
and the Sword Rise of Social Classes Beginnings of Brah-
—
manism Tamil Language and Sangam Literature

18. Crafts, Trade and Towns in the Post-Maurya Age .. 126

Crafts —Foreign Trade —Urban Settlements

19. The Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire 134

Background— Samudragupta (c. A D. 335-380) —Chandragupta II

(c
—
A.D. 380-412) Fall of the Empire

20. Life in the Gupta Age 140

—
System of Administration Decline of Trade and Rise of Landed
Classes — —
Social Developments Buddhism and Brahmanism
— —
Art ‘Literature Science and Technology

21 . Spread of Civilization in Eastern India 148

Signs of Civilization —Orissa and Eastern and Southern Madhya
Pradesh —Bengal—Assam —The Formative Phase
22. Harsha and His Times 153
Harsha’s Kingdom —Administration—Hsuan Tsang’s Account
—Buddhism and Nalanda
23. Formation of New States and Rural Expansion in the Peninsula 156
—
The New Phase States of the Deccan and South India Conflict —
—
between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas 'Temples Demands on —
the Peasantry — —
Rural Expansion Social Structure

24. India’s Cultural Contacts with the Asian Countries 164

25. Transformation of the Ancient Phase 168

Social Crisis and the Origin of Land Grants —Decline of Central
Control — New Agrarian Economy—Decline of Trade and Towns
—Changes m the Varna System—Cultural Developments —Bhakti
and Tantricism

26. Sequence of Social Changes 173

Tribal —
and Pastoral Phase Agriculture and the Origin of Upper
—
Orders Varna System of Production and Government Social —
Crisis and Rise of Landed Classes Summary —
 XII

27 Legacy in Science and Civilization . . . .17S. . . .

Religion and Formation of SociaL Classes—Philosophical Systems

— —
Crafts —
Polity Science and Mathematics Medicine Geo- — —
—
graphy Art and Literature

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..183
Index .. .. *. .. .. .. .. .. .,187
 CHAPTER 1

The Importance of Ancient Indian History

The study of ancient Indian historyis impor- manner that though people speak
tant for several reasons. It tells us how, when and languages, practise different rehgic
where people developed the earliest cultures observe different social customs, thi

in our countiy. It indicates how they started certain common styles of life throuj
agriculture which made life secure and settled. country. Our country shows a deep u
It shows how the ancient Indians discovered and unity m spite of great diversity.
utilized natural resources, and how they created The ancients strove for unity. The
the means for their livelihood We come to know upon this vast subcontinent as one 1

how they took to farming, spinning, weaving, name Bharatavarsha or the land ol
metal-working, and so on; how they cleared was given to the whole country, after
forests,and how they founded villages, cities, of an ancient tribe called the Bharata
and finally large kingdoms. people were called Bhavatasantati or tl

People are not considered civilized unless dants of Bharata Our ancient poets, ph
they know writing The different forms of writing and writers viewed the country as an ml
prevalentin India today are all derived from the They spoke of the land stretching fror
ancient scripts This is also true of the langua- alayas to the sea as the proper domain
ges thatwe speak today The languages we use universal monarch The kings who trie*
have roots in ancient times, and have developed lish their authority from the Himala

through the ages. Cape Comorin and from the vallt

Ancient Indian history is interesting because Brahmaputra in the east to the land t
India proved to be a crucible of numerous races. Indus in the west were Universally pra
The pre-Aryans, the Indo-Aryans, the Greeks, were called chakravartins. This kind <

the Scythians, the Hunas, the Turks, etc., made unity was attained at least twice. In
India their home. Each ethnic group contributed century B C Asoka extended his er
its mite to the making of Indian culture All the whole country, except for the extr
these peoples mixed up so inextricably with one Again, in the fourth century A.D. San
another that at present none 6f them can be carried his victorious arms from th<

,
identified in their original form the borders of the Tamil Land. In t

India has since ancient times been the land of century the Chalukya king, Pulakesi
several religions Ancient India witnessed the Harshavardhana who was called tl

birth of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, but the whole of north India. In spite
all these cultures and religions intermingled and political unity political formations a
acted and reacted upon one another in such a country assumed more or less the s.
2 ANCIENT INDIA

The idea that India constituted one single Sanskrit.

geographical unit persisted in the minds of Another notable fact is that the ancients epics,
the conquerors and cultural leaders. The unity the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were
of India was also recognized by foreigners. studied with the' same zeal and devotion ifi the
They first came into contact with the people land of the Tamils as m
the intellectual circles
living on the Sindhu or the Indus, and so they of Banaras and Taxila. Originally composed
named the whole country after this river. in Sanskrit these epics came to be presented in
The word Hind is derived from the Sanskrit diffeient local languages. But whatever the form
term Sindhu, and m
course of time the country in which Indian cultural values and ideas were
came to be known as ‘India’ in Greek, and expressed, the substance remained the same
‘Hind’ in Persian and Arabic languages. throughout the country
We find continuous efforts for the linguistic
and cultural unity of the country. In the third Indian history deserves our attention because
century B.C. Prakrit served as the lingua franca of a peculiar type of social system which
of the country. Throughout the major por- developed in this country. In north India arose
tion of India, Asoka’s inscriptions were the varna/caste system which came to prevail
written in the Prakrit language Later Sanskrit almost all over the country. The foreigners
acquired the same position and served as the who came to India' iq ancient times were
state language in the remotest parts of the absorbed in one caste or the other The caste
country. The process became prominent in system affected even the Christians and the
the Gupta period in the fourth century A.D. Muslims. The converts belonged to some caste,
Although politically the country was divided and even when they left Hinduism to join the
into numerous small states in the post,-Gupta new religion they continued to maintain some
period, the official documents were written in of their old caste practices.

EXERCISES

1. 'Point out the importance of ancient Indian history.

2. In what ways does ancient Indian history show the basic unity of India ?
 CHAPTER 2

The Construction of Ancient Indian History

Material Remains Similarly they tell us about the material cul-

The ancient Indians left innumerable material ture which was developed in the Gangetic basin.
remains The stone temples in south India and They show the layout of the settlements in
the brick monasteries in eastern India still which people lived, the type of pottery they used,

stand to remind us 'of the great building activi- the form of house in which they dwelt, the kind
ties of the past But the major part of these of cereals they used as food, and the type of
remains lies buried in the mounds scattered all tools and implements they handled. Some
over the country. Only a few have been exposed people in south India buried along with the dead,
to give us some knowledge of the life of the their tools, weapons, pottery and other belong-
ancient people. ings in the graves, which were encircled by big
Since most sites have been dug vertically pieces of stone. These structures are called
they provide a good chronological sequence of megaliths, although all megaliths do not fall

material culture. Horizontal diggings, being very in this category By digging them we have come
expensive, are very few in number, with the to learn of the life which people lived in the
result that excavations do not give us a full and Deccan from the iron age onwards. The science
complete picture of material life in many phases which enables us to dig the old mounds in a
of ancient Indian history systematic manner, in successive layers, and to
Even in those mounds which have been form an idea of the material life of the people i$

excavated the ancient remains have been preser- called archaeology.

ved in varying proportions. In the dry climate of Material remains recovered as a result of
western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and north- excavation and exploration are subjected to
western India antiquities are found in a better various kinds of scientific examination. Their
state of preservation, but in the moist and humid dates are fixed according to the radio-carbon
climate of the middle Gangetic basin and in method, for which facilities exist in'India. The
the deltaic regions even iron implements suffer history of climate and vegetation is known
corrosion and mud structures become difficult through an examination of plant residues, and
to detect. It is only in the phase of burnt brick especially through pollen-analysis. Thus on this
structures or stone structures that impressive basis it is suggested that agriculture was practised
and large-scale, remains are found in moist and in Rajasthan and Kashmir as far back as 6000
alluvial areas Excavations have brought to B.C. The nature and components of metal arti-
light the cities which the people established facts are analysed' scientifically, and as a result
around 2500 B.C. in north-western India. the sources from where metals were obtained are
4 ANCIENT INDIA

located and the stages in the development of the later coins mention the names of kings, gods
metal technology are identified. An examination or dates, The areas where they are found indicate
of animal bones enables us to find out whether the region of their circulation. This has enabled

the animals were domesticated, and also to us to reconstruct the history of several ruling
point out the uses to which they were put. dynasties, of the Indo-Greeks who
especially
came from north Afghanistan and ruled
to India

Coins here in the second and first centuries B.C.

Although a good number of coins and inscrip- Coins also throw significant light on econo-
tions have been found on the surface, many of mic history. Some coins were issued by the guilds
them have been unearthed by digging. The study of merchants and goldsmiths with the permis-
of coins is called numismatics. Ancient Indian sion of the rulers, This shows that crafts and

currency was not issued in the form of paper, as commerce had become important Coins helped
is the practice these days, but as coins because transactions on a large scale and contributed to
paper came to be used in India much later, in trade. We get the largest number of coins in post-
the fourteenth century. Ancient coins weremade Maurya times These were made of lead, potin,
of metal— copper, silver, gold, or lead. Coin copper, bronze, silver and gold. The Guptas
moulds made of burnt clay have been discov- issued the largest number of gold coins. All this
ered in large numbers. Most of them belong to indicates that trade and commerce flourished,
the Kushan period, i.e„ the first three Chris- especially in post-Maurya and Gupta times. But

tian centuries. The use of such moulds in the the fact that only a few coins belonging to the
post-Gupta period almost disappeared, post-Gupta period have been found indicates the
Since there was nothinglike the modern bank- decline of trade and commerce at that time.
ing system in ancient times, people deposited Corns also contain religious symbols and
money ware and also
in earthen m
brass vessels, legends which throw light on the art and religion
and maintained them as precious hoards on of the time,
which they could fall back in time of need. Many
of these hoards, containing not only Indian Inscriptions
coins but also those minted abroad such as in the Far more important than coins are inscrip-
Roman empire, have been discovered m different tions. Their study is called epigraphy, and the
parts of the country.They are preserved mostly study of the old writing used in inscriptions and
in museums at Calcutta, Patna, Lucknow, Delhi, other old records is called palaeography. Inscrip-
Jaipur, Bombay and Madras. Many Indian coins tions were carved on seals, stone pillars, rocks,
are found in the museums of Nepal, Bangladesh, copper plates, temple walls and bricks or images.
Pakistan and Afghanistan. Since Britain ruled In the country as a whole the earliest inscrip-
over India for a long time, British officials tions were recorded on stone. But in the early
succeeded m transferring many of the Indian began
centuries of the Christian era copper plates
coins to private and public collections in that to be used for this purpose. Even then the prac-
country. Coins of the major dynasties have tice of engraving inscriptions on stone continued
been catalogued and published. We have catalo- in south India on a large scale. We have also
gues of coins in the Indian Museum at Calcutta, in that region a large number of inscriptions
of Indian coins in the British Museum in London, recorded on the walls of the temples to serve
and so on. But there is a large number of coins as permanent records.
which have yet to be catalogued and published. Like coins, inscriptions are preserved in the
Our earliest coins contain a few symbols, but various museums of the country, but the largest
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY 5

n umbei may be found in the office of the Chief Meerut. He brought it and asked the
to Delhi
Epigraphist at Mysore. The earliest inscuptions pandits of his empire to decipher it, but they

were written in the Prakrit language in the thud failed to do so. The same difficulty was faced by
century B.C. Sanskrit was adopted as an epi- the British when in the last quarter of the eigh-

graphic medium in the second century A.D and teenth century they discovered Asokan inscnp-
its became widespread in the fourth and fifth
use tions.These epigraphs were first decipheied in
centuries.Even then Prakrit continued to be 1837 by James Prmsep, a civil servant in the em-
employed. Inscriptions began to be composed ploy of the East India Company in Bengal
m regional languages m the ninth and tenth cen- We have various types of inscriptions. Some
turies Most inscriptions bearing on the history convey royal ordeis and decisions regarding
of Maurya, post-Maurya and Gupta times nave social, religious and administrative matters to
been published in a series ol collections called officials and people in general. Asokan inscrip-
Corpus Insci iptionum Inchcannn. But not too tions belong to this category Others are votive
many inscriptions of post-Gupta times have records of the followers of Buddhism, Jainism,
appeared in such systematic compilations. In the Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc., who put up pillais,

case of south India topographical lists of ins- tablets, temples or images as marks of devotion.
criptions have been brought out Still there are Still other types eulogise the attributes and
moie than 50,000 inscuptions, mostly of south achievements of kings and conquerors, and never
India, which await publication. speak of their defeats or weaknesses. To this
The Harappan inscriptions, which await de- categoiy belongs the Allahabad inscription of
cipherment, seem to have been written in a pic- Samudragupta. Finally, we have many donative
tographic script in which ideas and objects were records which refer specially to gifts of money,
expressed in the form of picturesAsokan ins- cattle, land, etc., mainly for religious purposes,
criptions were engraved m Brahmi
the script, made no L only by kings and princes but also by
which was written from left to right. But some artisans and merchants.
were also incised in the Kharosthi script, which Inscriptions recording land grants, made
was written from right to left Howevei, the mainly by chiefs and princes, are very important
Brahmi script prevailed m the whole country, for the study of the land system and adminis-
except for the north-western part Greek and tration in ancient India. These were mostly
Aramaic scripts were employed in writing Aso- engraved on copper plates They record the
kan inscriptions in Afghanistan Brahmi con- grants of lands, revenues and
villages made to

tinued to be the mam script till the end of Gupta monks, priests, temples, monasteries, vassals and
times. An epigraphist can decipher most ins- officials. They were written in all languages, such
criptions of the country up to about the eighth as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu.
century, if he has carefully learnt Brahmi and its /

variations. But afterwards we notice strong Literary Sources

regional variations in this script, which is called Although the ancient Indians knew writing,
by different names. as early as 2500 B.C,, our most ancient manu-
The earliest inscriptions are found on the seals cripts are not older than the fourth century A.D.,
of Harappa belonging to about 2500 B.C. They and have been found in Central Asia. In India
have not been deciphered so far. The oldest ins- they were written on birch bark and palm leaves,
criptions deciphered so far were issued by Asoka but in Central Asia, where the Prakrit language
in the third century B.C. An Asokan pillar '
had spread from India, manuscripts were also
inscription was found by Firoz Shah Tughlaq in written on sheep leather and wooden tablets.
 1

b ANCIENT INDIA

These writings are called inscriptions, but they larly, the Ramayana onginally consisted of
arc as good as manuscripts. When punting was 12000 verses, which weic late: laised Lo 24000.

not known, manuscripts weie valued immensely. This epic lias also its didactic portions which

Although old Sanskrit manuscripts arc found were added later, As, a whole the text seems to
all over the country, they mostly belong to south have been composed than the Mahabhaiata. later

India, Kashmir and Nepal. At present inscrip- In post-Vedic times wc have a large corpus of
tions are mostly preserved m museums, and ritual literature Big public sacrifices meant I'm

manuseupts in libraries, Most ancient books princes and men of substance belonging to the

contain ieligious themes. The ichgious literature three lughet varnas are laid down in the Siau-
of the Hindus includes the Vedas, the epics, tasutras, which provide for several pompous
Rumaycmci and Mahabhaiata, the Puranas, etc. royal coronation ceicmonics. Simtlaily domestic
They throw welcome light on the social and rituals connected wfih birth, naming, sacicd
cultural conditions of ancienL times but it is thread invostituie, maniage, funcials, etc, aic
difficult to make use of tlicm in the context of laid down Both the Siau-
in the Giiliyasutras
time and place The Rig Veda may be assigned tasutras and the Gnhyasutras belong to area
to circa 1500-1000 B.C ,
but the collections of 600-300 B C. Mention may also be made of the
the Athaiva Veda, Yajut Veda, the Biahmanas Sulvasutras, which prescribe vauous kinds of
and the Upamshads belong loughly to 1000- measurements for the constiuction of sacnlicial
500 B.C. Almost cvciy Vedie text contains altars. They maik the beginnings of geometry
mteipolations, which generally appear at its and mathematics
beginning oi end but are not rare in its middle The religious books of the Jalnas and the Bud-
The Rig Veda mainly contains prayets, while the dhists refer to historical peisons and incidcnLs
later Vedlc texts mainly comprise not only The earliest Buddhist texts were wiitton in the
prayeisbut also rituals,magic and mythological Pali language,which was spoken in Magadha or
stories. Howevei, the Upanishads contain south Bihai They were finally compiled m the
philosophical speculations. second century B C. in Sn Lanka, but the cano-
The two epics and the major Puranas seem to nical poitions reflect the state of affiuis m the
have been finally compiled by circa A D. 400. age of the Buddha in India! They tell us not only
Of the epics the Maluibliaraia m age andis oldei about the life of the Buddha but about some of
from the Oth
possibly reflects the state of affairs 1 V* 1
..I vontc who ruled ovei Magu-
1
century B C, to the 4th century A.D. Oiigmallv dln no i ’. Ip 1
,i' . id v.istoin Uttar Pradesh
it consisted of 8800 verses and was called Jaya 'I .ic •
i 0-.1 , 1 v 1

1 1 r.i . .id interesting poition of

Samhita or the collection dealing with victory. the, non-canonical portion is provided by the
These were raised to 24000 and came to be known stories of the previous bulhs of Gautama Buddha
as Bharata ,
named afterone of the earliest Vedic Jtwas believed that befoie he was finally boi n as
tribes The final compilation brought the verses Gautama, the Buddha passed thiough more
to 100,000 which came to be known as the Mahu- than 550 biiths, in many cases in the fonn of
bharata or the Satasahasn Samhita. It contains animals Each birth story is called a Jataha
narialive, descriptive and didactic mateual
. which is a folk tale These Jatakas thiow in-
The mam narrative which relates to the Kaurava- valuable light on social and economic conditions
Pandava conflict may belong to later Vedic ranging from the fifth to the second eentuiy
times, the desciiptivc portion might be used foi B C. They also make incidental icferences to
post-Vedic times, and the didactic poition gene- political events in the age of the Buddha,
rally for post-Maurya and Gupta times, Simi- The Jama texts were wutten in Prakrit and
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY 7

were finally compiled in the sixth centuiy A.D Since such a literary assembly was called sangam,
in Valabhi m Gujarat They however contain the whole literature is known as the Sangam
many passages which help us to lcconstiuct the literature The compilation of the corpus is

political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and attributed to the first fouL Chustian centuries,
Bihar in the age of Mahavira The Jaina texts although final compilations may have been com-
refer repeatedly to tiade and tradeLS. pleted by the sixth centuiy. The Sangam litera-
We have also a large body of secular literatme. ture is a very major source of our information
To this class belong the law-books called the for the social, economic and political life of the

Oharmasutias and Smntis, which together with people living in deltaic Tamil Naduin the early
their commentaries aic called Dhai maxastias Christian centimes What it says about trade
The Dhaimasutias were compiled in 500-200 and commerce is attested by foreign accounts
B,C and the principal Smritis were codified lit
,
and archaeological finds.
the first six centuries of the Christian era They
lay down the duties for dilfeicnt varnas as well Foreign Accounts
as foi kings and Lhen officials. They prescribe Indigenous literature can be supplemented by
the lules accoidmg to which propel ty is to be foreign accounts. To India came the Greek,
held, sold and inherited. They also piescribe Roman and Chinese visitors, either as travellers

punishments lbi persons guilty of theft, assault, or leligious converts, and they left behind ac-
muidci, adulteiy, etc counts of the things that they saw It is remaik-
An impoi tant law-book is the Artlicisustia of able that Alexander’s invasion finds no mention
Kaulilya The text is divided into fifteen books, in Indian souices, and it is entirely on the basis
of which Books and III may be regaidcd as
II of the Greek sources that we have to reconstruct
of an earliei date They seem to have been the the history of his Indian exploits.
work of different hands. This texL was put m The Greek visitors mention Sandiokottas,
its final form in the beginning of the Christian a contemporary of Alexander the Great who
era, but its earliest portions leflect the state of invaded India in 324 B C. Prince Sandrokottas
society and economy m the age of the Mauiyas is identified with Chandragupta Maurya, whose

It provides iich material for the study of ancient date of accession is fixed at 322 B C This iden-
Indian polity economy. and tification has served as the sheet-anchoi in an-
We also possess the works of Bhasa, Kalidasa, cient Indian chronology The Indika of Megas-
and Banabhatta. Apart from then literary value, thenes, who came to the court of
Chandragupta
they mirror the conditions of the times to which Maurya, has been preserved only fragments m
these wiiteis belonged The works of Kalidasa quoted by subsequent classical writeis. These
comprise kavyas and dramas, the most famous of fragments, when read together, furnish valuable
which is the Abhijnanasakunta/am. Besides being information not only about the system of Maur-
great amative compositions, they piovidc us with ya administration but also about social classes
glimpses of the social and cultural life of and economic activities in the Maurya period.
northern and central India in the age of the
, The Indika is not free fiom credulity and
Guptas exaggerations, but this is true of many other
In addition to Sanskrit sources we have some ancient accounts.
of the earliest Tamil texts found in the corpus Greek and Roman accounts of the first and
of the Sangam literature. This was produced second centuries A.D mention many Indian
over a period of three to four centuries by poets ports and enumerate items of trade between
who assembled in colleges patronised by kings. India and the Roman empire. The Penplus of
 )

8 ANCIENT INDIA

the Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography, inscriptions. They specify the years during the

both written in Greek, provide valuable data reign of a king in which important events take
for the study of ancient geography and com- place Several eras, according to which events

merce. The date ascribed to the first ranges were recorded, were started in ancient India.
between A.D. 80 and 115, while the second is The Vikrama Samvat began in 58 B.C., the Saka
attributed to about A.D. 150. Pliny’s Naturalis Samvat in A.D 78; and the Gupta era in AD
Historic, which belongs to the first century A D. 319, Inscriptions record events in the context

was written in Latin, and tells us about trade of time and place, and the Puranas and biogra-
between India and Italy. phical works discuss the causes and efiecl.s of an
Of the Chinese travellers mention may be event. All these are indispensable to historical

made of Fa-hsien and Hsuan Tsang Both of reconstruction, but they are not found in any
them were Buddhists, and came to this country systematic form in the Puranas
to visit the Buddhist shrines and to study Bud-
Indians display considerable lustoucal sense
dhism. The first came in the beginning of the
in biographical writings which started with the
fifth century A.D., and the second in the second
composition of the Harshacharita by Bunabhatta
quarter of the seventh century A.D. Fa-hsien
in the seventh century. It is a semi-biographical
describes the social, religious and economic
work written in ornate style, which became tfic
conditions of India m the age of the Guptas,
despair of latei imitatois It describes the early
and Hsuan Tsang presents a similar account of
career ol Harshavardhana Although full of
India in the age of Harsha.
exaggerations, it gives qn excellent idea of the
Historical Sense courtjifc under Harsha and the social and reli-

Ancient Indians are charged with the lack of, gious life uj his ago. Later several other charitas
historical sense. It is obvious that they did not or biographies were wntlen Sandhyakara Nan-
write history in the manner it is done now, nor di’s Ramachaiita nan ales the story of conflict
did they write history in the way the Greeks did between the Kaivarhi peasants and the Pala
We have a sort of history in the Puranas, which prince Ramapala, resulting in the latter's victory.
though .encyclopaedic in contents, piovide Bilhana’s Vikrapumktulcvaihariia lccounls the
dynastic' history up to the beginningof the Gupta achievements of his patron, Vikramaditya VI
rule. Statements about events are made m future (1076-1127), theChalukya king of Kalyan Lven
tense, although they were written much after the biographies (
chqnta ol some merchants of
the events had happened. The authors of the Gujarat were written in the twelfth-thirteenth
Puranas were not unaware of the idea of change, centuries A.D But the best example of the ear-
which is the essence of history. The Puranas liest historical writing is piovided by the Rajata-
speak of four ages called krita, treta, dvapara and rangini oi ‘The Stream of Kings’ written by
kali. Each 'Succeeding age is depicted as worse Kalhana in the twelfth century It is a string of
than the preceding, and as one age slides into biographies of the kings of Kashmir, and can be
the other moral! values and social institutions considered to be the first woik which possesses
suffer degeneration. The idea of time, which several traits of history as it is understood in
is another vital element in history, is found in our times.
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

EXERCISES

1. Indicate the sources of ancient Indian history

2. What is meant by archaeology 7
3. Why are the foreign accounts of India useful?
4. Mention the languages which were in use in ancient India.
5. “Early Indians lacked historical sense.” Discuss
 CHAPTER 3

The Geographical Setting

The histcny of India cannot be understood southward in Baluchistan by the Kirthar ranges
without some knowledge of its geogiapliy, The which could be crossed through the Boffin pass,

Indian subcontinent is as large in area as Europe Through these passes two-way traffic between
without Russia. Its total area is 4,202,500 square India and Central Asia has been going on fiom
kilometres. The subcontinent is divided into prehistoric times. Various peoples from Iran,
thiee countries—India, Pakistan and Bangla- Afghanistan and Soviet Central Asia came to

desh. India has 650,000,000 people, Pakistan India as invaders and unmigianis and vice

50,000,000 and Bangladesh 75,000,000. India

1

versa Even the Hindukush, the westward ex-

comprises twenty-two States and nine Union tension of the Himalayan system, did not form
Territories. Some of the States are larger than an insuperable barrier between the Indus system
many European countries. For instance, Bihar is and the Oxus system, The passes facilitated trade

as large in area as England, and Madhya Pradesh and cultural contacts between India on the one
is larger than several European countries. hand and Central Asia and West Asia on the
The Indian subcontinent is a well-defined geo- other.
giaphical unit, mostly situated in the tropical Nestled in the Himalayas are the valleys of
zone. It is bounded by the Himalayas on the Kashmir and Nepal. Surrounded on all sides

north and seas on the other three sides. The by high mountains, the valley of Kashmir deve-
Himalayas protect the country against the cold, loped its own way of life. But it could be eached
i

arctic winds blowing from Siberia through Cen- through several passes. Its winter compelled
tral Asia. This keeps the climate of northern India some of its people to go to the plains and Us
fairly warm throughout the year, Since the cold summer attracted the shepheids of the plains.
is not so severe in the plains, people do not need Economic and cultural interaction between the
heavy clothing and can live in the open for plains and the valley was continuous The Pamir
longer periods.
-
Secondly, the Himalayas are plateau did not prevent it fiom becoming a
high enough to shield the country against in- transmitting centre of Buddhism for the ad-
vasions from the north This was specially true jacent areas of Central Asia. The valley of Nepal,
in pre-industrial tunes when communications smaller in size, is accessible to the people of the
were very difficult. However, on the north-west, Gangetic plains through a number of passes.
the Sulaiman mountain ranges which are in Like Kashmir it also became a centre for culti-

southward continuation with the Himalayas, vation of Sanskrit, Both the valleys became the
‘could be crossed through the Khyber and Go- repositories of the largest number of Sanskrit
nial passes. The Sulaiman ranges aie joined manusenpts.
 THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India,

© Government of India copyright, 1982

The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles

measured from the appropriate base line,

Figure 1 India— Physical Features

12 ANCIENT INDIA

The foothills of the Himalayas lent themselves flourished in the Indus valley, the Vcdic culture
to easier clearance than thejungles on the alluvial originated in the Panjab and flourished in the
soil of the plains It was easy to cross rivers m western Gangetic basin; the post-Vedic culture,
these areas because of theii smaller width, and mainly based on the use of iron, thrived the m
hence the earliest routes sknted along the foot- middle Gangetic basin. The lower Gangetic
hills of the Himalayas from the west to the east valley and north Bengal fiist came into limelight
and vice versa Naturally the earliest agricultural in the age of the Guptas, and, finally, the
settlements and states were founded m the foot- Brahmaputra valley covering Assam gained
hills in the sixth centuiy B.C., and trade loutes importance in early medieval times. Important
followed the terai route. powers fought for the possession of these plains
The heart of historical India is foimed by its and valleys. Especially the Ganga-Yamuna doab
important rivers which aie swollen by the tropi- proved to be the most coveted and contested
cal monsoon rams These consist of the plains area.
of the Indus in the north-west, the Ganga- The rivers served as arteries of commerce and
Yamuna doab m the middle, the middle Gangetic communication. In ancient limes u was difficult
basui in the east and the Brahmaputra basin in to make roads, and so men and material were
the extieme east. As we proceed from the plains moved by boat. The river loutes theiefore helped
of the Indus system through the Gangetic basin military and commercial tianspoit Evidently
to theBrahmaputra basin we find the annual the stone pillars made by Asoka were carried
from 25 cm to over
rainfall gradually increasing to different parts of the country by boat The
250 cm The Indus vegetation based on 25 to importance of rivers for communication conti-
37 cm rainfall and possibly the western Gangetic nued till the days of the East India Company.
vegetation based on 37 to 60 cm rainfall could Further, the rivers inundated the neighbouring
be cleared with stone and copper implements areas and made them fertile ;
they 'also supplied
and made fit for cultivation, but this was not water to the canals cut from them. However,
possible in the case of the middle Gangetic vege- they caused heavy floods which periodically
tation based on 60 to 125 cm rainfall, and cer- destroyed towns and villages in the northern
tainlynot m the case of the lower Gangetic plains,and so many ancient buildings have been
and Biahmaputra vegetation based on 125 to washed away beyond recovery. Nevertheless,
250 cm rainfall. The thickly forested areas, important towns and capitals such as Hastina-
which also contained hard soil, could be cleaicd pur, Prayag, Varanasi, Pataliputia, and otheis,
only with the help of the iron implements which weie situated on the banks of the rivers In
appeared at a much later stage. Thcreloic the modem tunes urban sites are selected on the
natural resources of the western aica were uti- lailway and load junctions or in the industrial
lized and large-scale human settlements
fiv st, or mining zones But in pre-industaal times
generally spread from west to east. towns were mostly situated on liver banks.
Once brought under cultivation, the Indus- Above all, the uveis piovided political and
Gangetic plains produced rich crops and suppor- cultural boundaries; these were also formed by
ted successive cultures. The Indus and the mountain banieis. Thus in the eastern part of
western Gangetic plains mainly produced wheat the Indian peninsula the area known as Kalinga,
and barley, while the middle and lower Gangetic coveting the coastal belt of Orissa, was situated
plains mainly which also became
produced rice, between the Mahanadi on the north and the
and the south of the
the staple diet in Gujarat Godavari on the. south. Similarly, Andhra
Yindhyas. The Harappan culture originated and Piadesh mostly lay between the Godavari on
 THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING 13

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor
General of India,
© Government of India copyright, 1982,
The territorial wateis of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve
miles measured from the appropriate base line

Figure 2 India — Annual Rainfall

14 ANCIENT INDIA

the north and the Krishna on the south. The The coastal area in the extreme south-west of

deltaic plains formed by these two rivers at the peninsula was covered by the modern State
their mouths shot into historical importance of Kerala. The sea-coast along the western part
by the beginning of the Christian era when they of the peninsula is called the Malabar coast.
became studded with towns and ports under the Although the coast came to have several ports
Satavahanas and their successor Finally, . and, small kingdoms, communication between

Tamil Nadu was situated between the Kushita this coast and the adjoining areas of Maharashtra,

on the noith and the Kaven on the south. Kan. data and Kerala was rendered difficult
The Kaven delta extended in the south by the high Western Ghats which do not have
roughly to the Vaigai river, and in the north to too many passes
the South Pennarformed a distinctrivei. It In between the Indus and the Gangetic sys-
geographical zone and became the seat of the tems in the north and the Vindhya mountains
Chola power a little before the beginning of the on the south lies a vast stietch of land, which is
Christian era. This area was different from divided into two units by the Aravalli mountains.
north Tamil Nadu, which consisted of uplands The area west of the Aravalli is covered by the

and came into prominence under the Pallavas Thar descit, although a part of Rajasthan also
in the fourth-sixth centuries A D. The eastern lies in this region The vast expanse of the desert
part of the peninsula is bounded by the Coro- made human settlements impossible in ancient
rnandal coast. Although the coastline is flanked times. However, a few fertile oases scattered in
by the Eastern Ghats or the steps, the Ghats are the desert weie settled, and horn early times It
not very high and have several openings caused has been possible to cross the deseit by means
by theeastwaid flow of the rivers into the Bay of of camels. The south-eastern portion of Rajas-
Bengal Thus communication between the east- than has been a, comparatively fertile area since
ern coast on the one hand and the other parts ancient times, and because of the existence of the
of Andhra and Tamil Nadu on the othei was Khctri coppei mints in this region human settle-
not difficult in ancient times. The port cities of ments arose in this area in the chalcohthic
Arikamedu (modern name), Mahabalipuram period.
and Kaveripattanam were situated on the Coro- Rajasthan shades off into the fertile plains of
mandal coast. Gujarat, which are drained by the waters of the
In the western part of the peninsula we do Narmada, the Tapti, the Mahi and the Sabar-
not have such distinct regional units But we mati. Situated at the end of the north-western
can locate Maharashtra between the Tapti (or portion of the Deccan plateau, Gujaiat includes
Damanganga) on the north and the Bhima on the less rainy region of Kathiawar peninsula,
the south. The area covered by Karnataka seems The coastal area of this Stale is fairly indented
to have been situated between the Bhima and allowing the existence of several hai hours.
the upper regions of the Krishna on the north Thciefore fiom ancient times Gujaiat has
and the Tungabhadra on the south. For a long been famous for its coastal and foreign trade,
time the Tungabhadra provided a natural and its people have proved to be enterprising
11 "
f:>'".t';. 'v v , i ; i powers lying to traders.
..s 'i.i i, ,1. i! I, i . , the Chalukyas of South of the Ganga- Yamuna doab, and
‘In 1
. . R.i :.l . found it difficult bounded by the Chambal river on the west,
to extend their sway to the south of the Tunga- the Son rivei on the east, and the Vindhya moun-
bhadra, so also the Pallavas and Cholas found tains and the Naimada river on the south, lies
it difficult to extend their authority to its north the State of Madhya Ptadcsh. Its noithern part
 THF GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING 15

consists of feitile plains. At picsent Madhya Vindhyas do not constitute insurmountable

Pradesh is the laigest State in the country, and bamcis In ancient times in spite of the difficul-
can be bioadly divided inLo two paits, eastern ties of comnr ideation people moved flora north

and western, The eastern pint, mostly coveied to south, and vice versa This led to a give-and-
by the Vindhyas, did not become iiupoilant take mcultuie and language Again and again
historically till Gupta times in the fourth and the noilhem povveis moved down to the south,
fifthcentimes A, 13 BuL western Madhya and the soul hem mlei * moved up to the noith.
Piadesb includes Mnh\a, which has been the So also did the tradei s, missionaries and cultuial
scene of hisLonenl activities from the sixth leadeis, p.u Liculai !y the In aluminas. The two-
ccntuiy B C onwauls Malwa seived as an why untamed constant and helped the
UalTic i

impoitant hinterland for the Gujunit polls, and development ol a composite culliiic
many wais weie fought between the Deccan and Allhough most legions hud well-delined
them powers loi the possession of Malwa
the not natural IVonticis, not every legion possessed the
and Gujaiat The Snkas and the Salavahanas lesomccs necessary to keep life going, Theiefoic
fought for the possession of this key a i c a in the liom piclnstoiie times the common need foi
hrsL and second con Limes A.D and the Mma- , metals and othci resouices had produced a
thas and the Rajputs in the eighteenth cenLuiy. netwoik of in lei connections between the dilf-

Each one of the areas bounded by uveis, and eient legions of the counliy.
in some cases by mountains, and sometimes The utilization of the natural lesources of the
identical with deltas and plateaus, constituted countiy has an impoitant healing on its history.
a political and admimstiative unit in which UnLil human settlements developed on a large
different ailing dynasties rose and fell On scale the Indian abounded in thickly
plains
account of dilhcull communications in a wist foie'O I areas, which piovided game and suppli-
country and the dcfensilnlity of the natuial ed foi, ge, fuel and timber In eiuly times, when
(lontiers, iL was not easy foi the uilmg class of burnt u ks wete not much m use, timber
one legion to establish its mleovci all the other houses and palisades weie constructed, They
legions In com sc of lime every legion giew into have been found m Pataliputia, the first impoi-
its own style of
a distinct cultuial unit having lant capital of India. For construction and tool-
language, Butin noi them and western
life aild making all kinds of stones including sandstone
India most languages were derived from the aio available in the country. The earliest human
same Indo-Aryan stock, and hence held many settlements aie nalut ally found in India in the
elements in common What is fui Liter important, hilly aicas and in those river valleys which are
almost all over the country Sanskiil came to be situated between the hills, In histoiical times

cultivatedand understood there weie more temples and sculptures made

The Vtndhya mountains cut light acioss the of stone in the Deccan and south India than in
country from west to east and form the boundary the plains of northern India,
between north and south India The speakers of The country abounds in copper mines. The
the Dravtdtan languages lived south of the richest copper mines are found tit the Chotanag-
Vindhyas, and of the Aiyan languages north of pur plateau, particularly m the district of Singh-
it In between lived primitive peoples in the bhum, The copper belt is about 130 km long and
Vtndhya regions where they are still found. The shows many signs of ancient workings The
coastal areas along the Eastern and Western earliest people who used copper implements in
Ghats attracted sett lei s and traders, and the Bihar exploited the coppei mines oT Singhbhum
south cained on-a flourishing foreign bade. The and Hazaribagh, and many copper tools have
16 ANCIENT INDIA

H,arHsx

Figure 3 India— Copper, Iron-ore and Gold Deposits

 THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING 17

been discovered in south Bihar and parts of the first empire in Magadha in the sixth to fourth
Madhya Pradesh. Rich copper deposits are also centuries B C owed much to the availability qf

found in the Khetri mines in Rajasthan. These iron just south of tins region. The large-scale

were tapped by both pre-Vedic and Vedic people, use of iron made Avanti, with its capital at
who lived in Pakistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Ujjain, an important kingdom in the sixth and
the Ganga-Yamuna doab Numerous copper fifth centuries B.C. The Satavahanas and the
celts have been found in the Khetri zone, and other powers which arose south of the Vindhyas
they seem to belong to a period anterior to may have utilized the iron ores of Andhra and
circa 1000 B C. Since copper was the first metal Karnataka.
to be used, it is invested with great purity by the Andhra possesses resources in lead, which
Hindus, and copper utensils are used in religious explains the large numbers of lead coins in the
rituals. kingdom of the Satavahanas, who ruled over
The country today produces no tin ,
this was Andhra and Maharashtra in the first two cen-
scarce even in ancient times. There is reason to turies of the Christian era
believe that was found in Rajasthan and Bihar,
it
The earliest coins, called the punch-marked
but its deposits have been used up. Since bronze
coins, were made largely of silver, although this
can be made only by mixing tin with copper, we
metal is rarely found However,
in the country
do not find many bronze objects in prehistoric
silver mines existed in early times in the Kharag-
times. The Harappans possibly procured some
pur hills in the district of Monghyr, and they
tin from Rajasthan, but their main supply
are mentioned as late as the time of Akbar. This
came from Afghanistan, and even this was limi-
accounts for the use of the white metal in the
ted. Hence although the Harappa people used
earliest punch-marked coins found in Bihar.
bronze tools, their nihnber compared with those
found m Western Asia, Egypt and Crete is very Gold is found in the Kolar goldfields of

small, and their tools carry a smaller percentage Karnataka. A very early trace of gold has been

of tin Therefore India had no proper Bronze found at a New Stone Age site of around 1800

Age, that is, an age m which tools and implements B.C in Karnataka. We
have no indication of
its exploitation till the beginning of the second
were mostly made of bronze. From the early
centuries of the Christian era India developed century A.D Kolar is considered to be the earli-

intimate connections with Burma and the Malaya est capital of the Gangas of south Karnataka.
Peninsula which possessed plenty of -tin. This Much of the gold used in early times was obtained
made possible the use of bronze on a large scale,
from Central Asia and the R oman empire Gold
especially for the statues of the gods in south coins therefore came into regular use in the first

India. Tin for the Bihar bronzes of Pala times five centuries of the Christian era. As the local

was possibly obtained from Gayal, Hazaribagh resources were not sufficient to maintain the gold

and Ranchi, for m

Hazaribagh tin ores were currency over a long spell of time, once the supply
smelted till the middle of the last' century, from outside stopped, gold coins became rare.

India has been rich in iron ores, which are In ancient times India also produced a variety
found particularly m
south Bihar, eastern of precious stones, including pearls, especially
Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka Once the art of in central India, Orissa and south India. Precious
smelting, using bellows making steel)
(and stones formed an important item of trade in the
was learnt, iron could be used for war, and more articles which were eagerly sought for by the
usefully, for the clearance of jungles and for Romans m the early centuries of the Christian
deep and regular cultivation. The formation of era.
18 ANCIENT INDIA

EXERCISES

1. Describe the principal geographical regions of India.

2. Give an account of the main river systems of India
3. Mention the important metals found in India. To what use were they put in ancient
times?
 4

CHAPTER,

The Stone Age

The Old Stone Age

Man has been living in India roughly from
500.000 B.C He used tools of impohshod,
undressed, rough stones, which have been found
in south India and in the Soan or Sohan river

valley in PakisLan. Palaeolithic sites have also

been discovered in Kashmir The chips of stone

were pebbles used for hunting, cutting and other

purposes In this period man barely managed
to gather lus food and Jivod on hunting. He
had no knowledge of cultivation and house
building This phase gencially continued till

8000 B C.
Palaeolithic tools, which could be as old as
100.000 B C., have been found in the Chotanag-
pur plateau Such tools belonging to 25,000
B C — 10,000 B.C have been found m Kurnool
drsti let in Andhra Pradesh about 55 km from
Kurnool. In association with them bone imple-
ments and animal remains have also been
discovered Animal remains found in the JBelan
valley m Mil /apur district in Uttar Piadesh show
that goats, sheep and cattle were domestica-
ted around 25,000 B.C. However in the earliest

Palaeolithic phase man lived on hunting and

food gathering ThcPuranas speak of people who
lived on roots and fruits; some of these people

have been living in the old way m the hills and

caves till modern times.

The Old Stone Age or the Palaeolithic culture

of India developed in the Pleistocene period or
the Ice Age, which is a geological period. The 4.1 Palaeolithic Tools. Hand-axes, Choppers and Cleavers
20 ANCIENT INDIA

Pleistocene period comes immediately before are found in

flakes different parts of India
the geological period called Holocene or recant and show regional variations. The principal
period, in which we live and which began about tools are varieties of scrapers made of flakes.
10.000 years ago. We do not know when the We also find a large number of borers and
Pleistocene period exactly began, but human re- blade-like tools The Middle Old Stone Age
mains associated with stone tools have been sites in India are found in the Soan Valley

dated m east Africa as early as 3,5 million years Here we notice a crude pebble industry in strata
ago In India the first human occupation, as contemporary with the third Himalayan glacia-
suggested by stone tools, is not earlier than the tion. The artifacts of this age are also found at

Middle Pleistocene, which perhaps began about several places on the river Narmada, and also
500.000 years ago In the Pleistocene period ice at several places south of the Tungabhadra river.

sheets covered a great portion of the earth’s The Upper Palaeolithic phase was less humid.
surface, particularly in the higher altitudes and It coincided with the last phase of the Ice Age
their peripheries, But the tropical regions, when climate became comparatively warm In the
excepting the mountains, were free from ice. world context it is known for the appearance

On the other hand they underwent a period of of new flint industries and of men of the modem
great rainfall. type. In India we notice the use of blades and
burins which have been found in Andhra,
Phases in the Palaeolithic Age Karnataka, Maharashtra, Bhopal and Chota-
The Old Stone or the Palaeolithic Age in nagpur plateau. Caves and rockshelters for use
India is divided into three phases according to by human beings in the Upper Palaeolithic
the nature of the stone tools used by the people phase have been discovered at Bhimbetka, 40
and also according to the nature of change in kms south of Bhopal Hand-axes and cleavers,
the climate. The first phase is called Early or blades, scrapers and a few burins have been
Lower Palaeolithic, the second, Middle Palaeoli- found there. An Upper Palaeolithic 'assemblage,
thic, and the third, Upper Palaeolithic. The characterisedby massive flakes, blades, burins
Lower Palaeolithic or the Early Old Stone Age and scrapers has also been found in the upper
covers the greater part of the Ice Age. Its charac- levels of the Gujarat dunes.
teristic feature is the use of hand-axes and clea- It is difficult to estimate the beginnings of the
vers. The more or less
axes found in India are Palaeolithic Age, It is said that in the world
similar to those of Western Asia, Europe and context human remains associated with stone
Africa. Stone tools were ue6d mainly for chop- tools are as old as 3 5 million years. But it seems
ping. The Early Old Stone Age sites are found in that through several stages the modern human
the valley of river Soan in Panjab, now in Pakis- being {Homo sapiens) first appeared in the
tan. Lovlrer Palaeolithic tools have also been found Upper Palaeolithic Age.
in the Belan valley in Mirzapur district m Uttar It would thus appear that the palaeolithic

Pradesh. The Belan sites contain caves and sites are found in practically all parts of the
would have served as seasonal
rockshelters which country except the alluvial plains of the Indus
camps for human beings. Hand-axes have been and the Ganga.
found in a deposit of the time of the second
Himalayan glaciation. In this period climate The Late Stone Age
became less humid. The Upper Palaeolithic Age came to an end
The Middle Old Stone Age or Middle Palaeo- with the end of the Ice Age around 8000 B C ,

lithic industries are all based upon flakes. These and the climate became warm and dry. Cli-
 THE STONE AGE

have been dated scientifically, but there is no

doubt that these finds preceded the Neoli-
'thic Age.

It is interesting to note that on the northern

spurs of the Vindhyas in the Bdan Valley all
the three phases of the Palaeolithic followed by
the Mesolithic and then by the Neolithic have
been found in sequence.

The New Stone Age

Although in the world context the New Stone

4,2 Mesolithic Tool', Jrom Bu'bhanpur (West Bengal )

and Tmnevelly ( Tamil Nadu )

matic changes brought about changes in fauna

and flora and made it possible for human beings
to move to now areas Since then there have not
been any major changes in climatic conditions.
From 8000 B.C. began an intermediate stage in
stone age culture, which is called the Mesolithic
Age. It intervened as a transitional phase bet-
ween the Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic or
New Stone Age, and is also called the Late
Stone Age. In the case of India it started about
8000 B C, and continued u.p to about 4000 B C.
The characteristic tools of the Late Stone Age
are microliths. The Late Stone Age sites are
found in good numbers in Chotanagpur, central
India, and also south of the river Krishna.
So far only a few finds of the Late Stone Age 4.3 Neolithic Tools
 ,

22 ANCIENT INDIA

Age began much earlier, in 7000 B.C., neolithic earlier than 1600 B.C. and they possibly belong
settlements in the Indian sub-continent are not to a stone-copper phase.
older than 6000 B.C. Some settlements found The second gioup of neolithic people lived in
in south India and eastern India are as late as south India south of the Godavari river. They
1000 B.C. usually settled on the tops of granite lulls or on
The people of this age used tools and im-
plements of polished stone. They particularly
used stone axes, which have been found
in laige numbers throughout the greater part
of the country, This cutting tool was put to
,

various uses by the people, and in ancient

legends Parasurama became an important axe-
wielding hero
Based on the types of axes used by neolithic
settlers, we notice three important areas of neo-
lithic settlements. One area is to be found in

the north in the valley of Kashmir at a place

called Burzahom at a distance of about 20 km
from Srinagar. The neolithic people lived there
on a plateau in pits, and probably had a 'hunt*
ing and fishing economy. They did not seem to 4.4 Bunalwm Pit Dwelling

have been acquainted with agriculture or domes-

tication of animals. They used not only polished
tools- of stone, but what is more interesting, they
used numerous tools and weapons made of
bone. The only other place which has yielded
considerable bone implements in India is
Chirahd, which is 40 km west of Patna On the
northern side of the Ganga. These bone imple-
ments have been 'found in a late neolithic set-
up in an area with about 100 cm rainfall. The
settlement became possible because of the open
land available on account of the joining together
of four rivers, Ganga, Son, Gandak aDd Gha-
1

ghra at this place

The people of Burzahom used coarse grey
pottery. It is interesting that the Burzahom
1

domestic dogs were buried with their masters

in their gravest Pit dwelling and the placing of
domestic dogs in the graves of the masters do
not seem to be the practice with neolithic people
in any other part of India. The earliest date for
Burzahom isabout 2400 B.C., but the bones
recovered from Chirand cannot be dated 4.S Neolithic Bone Tools from Burzahom
THE STONE AGE 2i
 . a

24 ANCIENT INDIA

plateaus near the river banks, They used stone who lived in circular or rectangular houses
axes and also some kind of stone blades Fire- made of mud and reed. It is held that the pri-
baked earthen figurines suggest that they kept' mitive people living in circular houses owned
largenumber of cattle. They possessed cattle, property in common. In any case these neolithic
sheep and goats. They used rubbing stone people led a settled life. They produced ragi
querns, which shows that they were acquainted and horsegram ( kulathi ). Their polished tools
with the art of producing grains also included miorolith blades.
The third area from which neolithic tools
Since in the neolithic phase several settle-
have been recovered is in the hills of Assam.
ments came to be acquainted with the culti-
Neolithic tools are also found in the Garo hills
vation of cereals and the domestication of
in Meghalaya on the north-eastern frontier of
animals, they needed pots in which they could
India, We have no means of dating them. In
store their foodgrain and milk. They further
addition to this we also find a number of neo-
needed pots for cooking and eating. Hence
lithic settlements on the northern spurs of the
hand-made pottery is found in the early stage.
Vindhyas in Mirzapur and Allahabad districts
Latex they used footwheels to turn up pots.
of Uttar Pradesh. Neolithic sites in Allahabad
Neolithic celts have also been found in the
district are noted for the cultivation of rice in
Orissa hill areas, and it is likely that rice culti-
the sixth millennium B.C. Those found in Balu-
vation and small-scale settlements began in
chistan also seem to be fairly old.
this part of the country quite early,
Some of the important neolithic sites or those
with neolithic layers that have been excavated The period between 9000 B.C, and 3000 B.C.
include Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodekal, saw a remarkable progress of technology in
Sanganakallu, T. Narsipur and Takkalakota in
Western Asia, because the people developed
the arts of cultivation, weaving, building houses,
Karnataka, and Paiyampalh in Tamil Nadu.
Piklihal and Utnur are important neolithic domestication of animals, etc. But the Neoli-
sites in Andhra Pradesh. The neolithic phase thic Age in Indian subcontinent began around
seems to have covered the period from about
the sixth millennium B.C. Some of the impor-

2500 B.C. to 1000 B.C. although the earliest tant crops, including rice, wheat and barley,
canie to be cultivated in the subcontinent in this
scientifically determined date for Utnur is
period and a few villages appeared in this part
2300 B.C.
The of the world. It appears that the people were
neolithic settlers/ in Piklihal were cattle-

herders. They domesticated cattle, sheep, goats, now on the threshold of civilization.

etc, They set up seasonal camps surrounded by The pebple of the Stone Age suffered from
cowpens made with posts and stakes. In these one great limitation. Since they had to depend
enclosures they accumulated cOw dung. Then entirely on and weapons made of stone,
tools
the entirecamping ground was put to fire and they could not found settlements far away from
cleared for camping in the next season. Both the hilly areas They could settle down only in
ash mounds and habitation sites have been the hilly river valleys. Further, even with great
discovered in Piklihal. effort they could not produce more than what
The later neolithic settlers were agriculturists. they needed for their bare subsistence.
 25

EXERCISES
1. How old is man in India? How did he live in the Old Slone Age?
2. Trace the various phases in the Palaeolithic Age of India.
3. What is meant by ‘neoliths’ 0 Give an account ot the material life of, the neoli-
thic people in India.
4. How did the neolithic culture differ from the palaeolithic culture?
 CHAPTER 5

The Stone-Copper Phase

ChalcoIIthic Settlements district and Mahishdal in Midnapore district in

Towards the end of the neolithic period began West Bengal.

the use of metals. The metal to be used first was
copper, and several cultures were based
on the
use of stone aud copper implements. Such a
culture is called chalcolitlnc. The earliest settle-

ments belonging to this phase are found in

south-eastern Rajasthan, the western part of

Madhya Pradesh, western Maharashtra and

also in eastern India. In south-eastern Rajas-
than two sites, one at Ahar and the other at
Gilund, have been excavated. They lie in the
dry zones of the Banas valley. In western Madhya
Pradesh, in Malwa, Kayatha and Eran have 5.1 White-pamted black'tind-red Wan from Ahar, circa

been exposed. But the most extensive excava- 1500 B.C.

tions have taken place in western Maharashtra.

Several chalcolithic sites, such as Jorwe, Nevasa, Chalcolithic Cultures

Daimabad in Ahmadnagar district, Chandoli, The people belonging to this culture used
Songaon' and Inatngaon in Pune district, and small tools and weapons made of stone in which
Nasik have been excavated. All these Maharash- the stone blade occupied an important position.
tra sites were located in semi-arid areas mpstly In many places the stone blade industry flou-
on brown-black soil which had ber and babul rished although stone axes continued to be used.
vegetation but fell in the riverine tracts. In It is obvious that such areas were not situated
addition to these we have Navdatoli situated on far from the hills, but at the same time many
the Narmada. Some chalcolithic ingredients are found in riverine tracts. In certain settle-
intruded into the neolithic sites in Andhra ments copper implements are found in good
Pradesh, but copper objects are not fpund there. numbers. This seems to be the case with Ahar
Several chalcolithic sites have been fpund in and Gilund, which lay mode or less in the dry
the Allahabad region presumably on account zones of the Banas river valley in Rajasthan.
of their proximity to the Yindhyas, In eastern At Ahar stone axes or blades are completely
India, besides Chirand on the Ganga, mention absent. On the other hand axes and other objects
may be made of Pandu Rajar Dhibi in Burdwan made of copper are numerous because raw cop-
 :

region-wise

shown

are

sites

Chalcohlhic

following

The

Cultures

Chakolithic

5
Figure
28 ANCIENT INDIA

per is locally available. But in Gilund we find a

stone-blade industry. Flat, rectangular copper
axes are found in Jorwe and Chandoli in

Maharashtra, and copper chisels at Chandoli.

The people of the stone-copper phase used
one of which is called
different types of pottery,
black-and-red and seems to have been widely
prevalent. It was thrown on wheel and occasion-
ally painted with white linear designs, This is true
not only of settlements in Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Mahaiashtra but also of habita-
tions found in Bihar and West Bengal. People
living in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra
produced channel-spouted pots, dishes-on-stand
and bowls-on-stand. It would be wrong to think
that all the people who used black-and-red
pottery possessed the same culture. We can
notice differences in their forms of pottery and
implements.
The people living in the stone-copper age in
south-eastern Rajasthan, western Madhya Pradesh
and western Maharashtra domesticated animals
and cultivated foodgrains, They kept cows,
sheep, goats, pigs and buffaloes, and hunted
deer. Remains of the carnal have also been found. 5.2 Pottery front Navdotoh , circa loOt) B C.
It is not clear whether they were acquainted with
the horse. Some animal s c rams are identified
as belonging either to the horse or donkey or In eastern India fish hooks have been found in
wild ass, People certainly ate beef, but they did Bihar and West Bengal, where we also find rice.
not take pork on any considerable scale. What This suggests that the people belonging to the
is remarkable is that these people produced stone-coppei phase in the eastern regions lived
wheat and rice. In addition to these staple crops on fish and rice, which is still a popular diet in
they also cultivated bajra. They produced several that part of the country.
pulses such as the lentil ( masur ), black gram, The chalcolithic people were generally not
green gram, and glass pea, Almost all these acquainted with burnt bricks, which were sel-
foodgrains have been found at Navdatoli situa- dom used. Occasionally their houses were made
ted on the bank of the Narmada in Maharash- of mud bricks, but mostly these were construc-
tra. Perhaps at no other place in India so many ted with wattle and daub, and seem to have been
coreals have ,
been discovered as a result of thatched houses. At Inamgaon, in the earlier
digging.The people of Navdatoli also produced chalcolithic phase in western Maharashtra,
ber and linseed. Cotton was produced in the large mud houses with ovens, and circular pit
black cotton soil of the Deccan, and ragi, bajra houses, have been discovered. In the later phase
and several millets were cultivated in the lower (1300-1000 B.C ) we have a house with five rooms,
Deccan. four rectangular and one circular. This would
 THE STONE-COPPER PHASE 29

suggest that families were large. Settlements be-

came stable and widespread in this phases, which
i s called the Jorwe culture. The culture is so called,
because its type-site is provided by Jorwe, a
village situated on the Pravaia river. A good
number of sites possess the ti aits of the Jorwe
culture Every Jorwe village was a nucleated
settlement with more than 35 houses of different
sizes, circular oi The
rectangular in shape
chalcolithic economy was a village
therefore

5.3 Painted Potleiv black -nil-reel, Jorwe, cucci economy, Some settlements, such as Inamgaon
1200 n r .
and those at Eran and ICayatha m central and

5.4 Inamgaon Isometric Reconstruction of Houses

30 ANCIENT INDIA

western Madhya Pradesh, were fortified and dren had grave goods consisting only of pots.
surrounded by a moat, but it is obvious that At Inamgaon an adult was buried with pottery
these people had no urban civilization. and some copper. In one house in Kayatha
We do not know much about their arts and were found 29 copper bangles and two unique
crafts. They were clearly expert copper smiths axes. At the same place were found in earthen
and also good workers in stone. To this culture pots necklaces of semi-precious stones such
belong a large number of very small sized as steatite and carnelian beads. It is evident
stone tools which are called microliths. People that those who possessed these objects were
knew the art of spinning and weaving because affluent

spindle whorls have been discovered in Malwa. The which have been scientifically
dates,
Cotton, flax and silk threads have been found m established,show that this phase of culture
Maharashtra. This shows that these people were was not older than 1800 B.C and it seems to,

well acquainted with the manufacture of cloth have continued in some areas till 1000 B.C.
Regional differences in regard, to cereals, and in other aieas till 800 B.C or even later.
structures, pottery, etc., appear in the stone- The old, tools continued till they were ulti-
copper phase Eastern India produced rice; mately replaced by iron tools. But in many
western India cultivated barley and wheat. parts of the country the black-and-red pottery
Chronologically certain settlements in Malwa continued till the second century B.C.
and central India, such as those in Kayatha
and Eran, were the earliest; those of western Importance of the Chalcolithic Phase
Maharashtra and eastern India were of a much .Except for the alluvial plains and the thickly
later date. forested areas,traces of chalcolithic cultures
We can form some ideas about the burial have been discovered almost all over the coun-
practices and religious cults of these people try. In this phase people mostly founded rural
In Maharashtra people buried their dead in settlements on river banks not far removed
urns under the floor of their house in the nojth- from the hills As stated earlier, they used
to-south position. They did not use separate microliths and other stone tools supplemented
was the case
cemeteries for this purpose, as by a little use of copper tools. It seems that
with the Harappans. Pots and some copper most of them knew th6 art of copper smelting.
objects wore deposited in the graves obvi- Almost all chalcolithic communities used black-
ously for the use of the dead in the next world. and-red wheel-turned pots. They were the first
Terracotta figures of women suggest that the to use painted pottery. Their pots were meant
chalcolithic people venerated the mother god- for cooking, eating and storing. They used the
dess. Some unbaked nude clay figurines were lota, but there is no trace of the thali In south

also used for worship. A figure of the mother India the neolithic phase imperceptibly faded
goddess similar to that found in Western Asia into the stone-copper phase, and so these
has been found in Inamgaon. In Malwa and cultures are called neohthic-chalcohthlc. In
Rajasthan stylized bull terracottas show that other parts, especially ip western Maha-
the bull served as a religious cult. rashtra and Rajasthan the chalcolithic people
In the stone-copper phase we find tl>e begin- seem to have been colonisers. Their earliest
nings of social inequalities. In the graves at settlements appear m Malwa and central India,
Chandoli and Nevasa in western Maharashtra such as those in Kayatha and Eran; those in
some children were buried along with copper- western Maharashtra appeared later; and those
bead necklaces around their necks; other chil- in West Bengal were perhaps the last to emerge.
 THE STONE-COPPER PHASE 31

The chalcolithic communities founded the bronze. Bronze tools facilitated' the rise of the
first villages in India and cultivated far more earliest civilizations in Crete, Egypt and Meso-
cereals than is known m the case of the neo- potamia, but they were practically absent in the
lithic communities. In particular they culti- chalcolithic phase in the major part of India.

vated barley, wheat and lentil in western India, The people of the Stone-Copper Age did
and rice in southern and eastern India. Their not know the art of writing; nor did they live
cereal food was supplemented by non-vege- in cities as the people of the Bronze Age did.

tarianfood In western India we have more of We notice all these elements of civilization for
animal food, but fish and rice formed impor- the first time in the Indus region of the Indian
tant elements in the diet of eastern India. subcontinent Although most Stone-Copper Age
Moie remains of structures have been found cultures existing in the major part of the country
in western Maharashtra, western Madhya were younger than the Indus valley civiliza-
Pradesh and south-eastern Rajasthan. The tion, they did not derive any substantial benefit

settlements at Kayatha and Eran in Madhya from the advanced technological knowledge
Piadesh and at Inamgaon in western Maha- of the Indus people.
rashtra were foi tilled On the other hand, the
remains of stiuctures in Chirand and Pandu The Copper Age in India

Rajar Dhibi in eastern India were poor, giving More than forty hoards consisting of copper
indications of postholes and round houses. objects have been found in a wide area ranging
The burial practices were different In Maha- from the Chotanagpur plateau to the upper
rashtra the dead body was placed in the north- Gangetic basin But nearly half of them are
south position, but in south India in the east- concentrated in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, in
west position Almost complete or extended other areas we encounter stray finds of such
burial obtained in Maharashtra, but post- hoards. The coppei hoards comprise celts,

extraction or fractional burial prevailed in harpoons, antennae swords and anthropomor-

West Bengal phic figures.These artifacts served several
purposes They were meant not only for fishing,
Limitations of Chalcolithic Cultures hunting and fighting but also for artisanal and
The general weakness of chalcolithic cultures agricultural use They presuppose good tech-
is evident from the burial of a large number nological skill and knowledge on. the part of
of children in western Mahaiashtra In spite the coppersmith, and cannot be the handiwork
of a food-producing economy the rate of infant of nomadic people 01 hunters. At several
mortality was very high. We cannot identify its places in the upper Gangetic basin these objects
causes which might include lack of nutrition, have been discovered in association with ochre-
absence of medical knowledge or outbreak of coloured pots and some mud structures. This
epidemics. At any rate the chalcolithic social and shows that the people who used the copper
economic pattern did not promote longevity. hoards led a settled life, and were one of the
The stone-copper culture had an essentially earliest primitive agriculturists and artisans
rural background. During its phase the supply to settle in a good portion of the doab. Most
of copper was limited, and as a metal copper ochre-coloured pottery sites are found in the
had its limitations. By itself a tool made of upper portion of the doab, but copper
copper was pliant. People did not know the hoards are found not only in this area but
art of mixing tin with copper and thus forging also m
the plateau areas of Bihar and the
the much stronger and useful metal called neighbouring regions. Many copper celts have
32 ANCIENT INDIA

the doab does not show much habitation till

about 1000 B.C. We learn of some habitation

by people using black-and-red ware, but their

habitation deposits are so thin and antiquities

so poor that we cannot form a clear and dis-

tinct idea of their cultural equipment. In any

case in the upper portion of the doab, in the
upper Gangetic basin, the Metal Age really
begins with the settlements of the copper-
using oclue-coloured pottery people How-
ever, at no place did these settlements last

for mote than a century or so; nor were they

considerable in size and spread over a very

wide territory, Why and how these settle-

ments came to an end is not clear, but the

sanctity and religious purity attached to copper
vessels, utensils, etc., in Hindu religion may
have started in the Copper Age.
The copper-hoard people were contempora-
5,5 Copper Tooh frahi Gffliga-Yaimma doab
ries of the Harappans, and the ochre-coloured

been found in the Khetri zone of Rajasthan. pottery area in which they lived was not far

The period covered by the ochre-coloured

1
removed from that of the Harappans. We may,
pottery culture is roughly placed between 2000 therefore, expect some give-and-take between
B.C. and 1800 B C, When the ochre-coloured these copper-using people and the bronze-
settlements using copper objects disappeared, using Harappans.

EXERCISES

1, Which metal did the Indians use 'first? How did it affect their life?

2. Give an account of the Indian culture in the Stone-Copper phase,

 CHAPTER 6

The Harappan Civilization

Geographical Extent treated earlier, but it is far more developed

The Indus or the Harappan culture is older than these cultures. It arose in the north-west-

than the chalcolithic cultures which have been ern part of the Indian subcontinent. It is
34 ANCIENT INDIA

called Harappan because was

this civilization
discovered first in modern site of
1921 at the
Harappa situated in the province of West Panjab
in Pakistan. The Harappan culture covered
parts of Panjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat,
Rajasthan and the fringes of western Uttai
Pradesh. It extended from Jammu in the north
to the Narmada estuary in the south, and from
the Makran coast of Baluchistan in the west
to Meerut in the north-east. The area formed
a triangle and accounted for about 1,299,600
square kilometres, which is laiger than, Paki-
stan and certainly bigger than ancient Egypt
and Mesopotamia. No other cultural zone in
the third and second millennium B.C. in the
world was as large as the Harappan zone.
Although over 250 Harappan sites are known,
only six can be regarded as cities. Of these the
two most important cities were Harappa in
Panjab and Mohepjo-daro in Sindh, both form-
ing parts of Pakistan. Situated at a distance of
483 kilometres they were linked together by
the Indus. A third city lay at Chanhu-daro
about 130 km
south of Mohenjo-daro in Sindh,
and a fourth at Lothal in Gujarat at the head
of the Gulf of Cambay. A fifth city lay at
Kalibangan in northern Rajasthan. A sixth
called Banwali is situated in Hissar district
in Haryana It saw two cultural phases, pre-
Harappan and Harappan, similar to that
of Kalibangan. To the Harappan period be-
lopg the remains ot mud-brick platforms, and
of streets and drains. The Harappan culture is
noticeable in its nature and flourishing stage
at all these six places. It is also found in its
mature phase in the coastal cities of Sutka-
gendor and Surkotada, each one of which is
marked by a citadel. The later Harappan phase
is found in Rangpur and Rojdi in the Kathia-

war peninsula in Gujarat.

Town Planning and Structures

The Harappan culture was distinguished by Mohenjo-daro each had its own citadel or
its system of town-planning. Harappa and acropolis, which was possibly occupied by
 '

36 ANCIENT INDIA

members of the ruling class. Below the citadel metres wide. But in the citadel of Harappa we
in each city lay a lower town containing brick find as many as six granaries. We come across
houses, which were inhabited by the common a series of brick platforms which formed the
people. The remarkable thing about the ar- basis for two rows of six granaries. Each gra-
rangement of the houses in the cities is that nary measured 15,23 metres x 6.09 metres and
they followed the grid system. This is true of lay within a few metres of the river’s bank The
almost all Indus settlements regardless of size. combined floor space of the twelve units would
Roads cut across one another almost at right be about 838 1025 square metres. Approxima-
angles; and the city was divided into so many tely it had the same area as the Great Granary
blocks. at Mohenjo-daio To the south of the granaries
The most important public place of Mohenjo- at Harappa lay working floors consisting of
daro seems to be the Great Bath, comprising the rows of circular brick platforms These
the tank which is situated in the citadel mound. were evidently meant for threshing grain be-
It is an example of beautiful brickwork. It mea- cause wheat and barley have been found in the
sures 11,88x7.01 metres and 2 43 metres deep. crevices of the floors. At Harappa were also
Flights of steps at either end lead to the sur- built two-roomed barracks, which possibly
face. There are side rooms for changing clothes. accommodated labourers
The floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks. At Kalibangan also we notice in the south-
Water was drawn from a large well in an ad- ern part brick platforms, which may have been
jacent room, and an outlet from one corner used for- granaries. Thus it would appear that
of the Bath led to a drain It is suggested that granaries constituted an important part of the
the Great Bath served ritual bathing, which was Harappan cities.
so vital to any religious ceremony in India. The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan
In Mohenjo-daro the largest building is a cities is lemarkable, because in the contempo-
granary, which is 45,71 metres long and 15.23 rary buildings of Egypt dried bricks were mainly

6.3 Great Bath ,

Mohenjo-daro
 THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 37

6.4 Isometric Projection of the Ginnary at Harappa

used. We baked bricks in con-

find the use of Agriculture
temporary Mesopotamia, but they were used Comparatively rainless, the Indus region is
to a much larger extent in the Harappan cities. not so fertile these days. Its prosperous villages
The drainage system of Mohenjo-daro was and towns show that it was fertile in ancient
very impressive. In almost all cities every big times At present it has only a rainfall of about
or small house had its own courtyard and 15 cm. In the fourth century B.C. one of the
bathroom. In Kahbangan many houses had historians of Alexander informs us that Sindh
their wells. Water flowed from the house to was a fertile part of the country. In earlier times
the streets which had drains Sometimes these the Indus possessed more natural vegetation
drains were covered with bricks and some- which attracted more rainfall It supplied tim-
times with stone slabs. The street drains were ber fuel for baking bricks on a large scale, and
equipped with manholes. The remains of streets also for construction. In course of time,
and drains have also been found at Banwali. natural vegetation was destroyed by the exten-
Altogether the drainage system and the quality sion of agriculture, large-scale grazing, and
of the domestic bath-rooms and drains are supply of fuel A
far more important reason for
remarkable, and the drainage system of Hara- the fertility of the area seems to have been the
ppa is almost unique Perhaps no other civiliza- annual inundation in the Indus river. Walls
tion gave so much attention to health and made of burnt bricks raised for protection
cleanliness as the Harappan. show that floods took place annually The Indus
 ANCIENT INDIA

The Harappan villages, mostly situated near

the flood plains, produced sufficient foodgrains
not only to feed themselves but also the town

people. They must have worked very hard to

meet their own requirements as well as those
of the artisans, merchants and others, who
lived in the city and who were not directly
concerned with food-producing activities.

The Indus people produced wheat, barley,

tai, peas, etc. They produced two types of wheat

and barley. A good quantity of barley has been

discovered at Banwali. In addition to this,

they produced sesamum and mustard. But the

position seems to have been diiferent with the
Harappans at Lothal. It seems that as early as
1800 B C., the people of Lothal used rice whose
remains have been found Foodgrains were
stored in huge granaries m both Mohenjo-
daro and Harappa and possibly in Kalibangan.
Probably, cereals were received as taxes from
peasants and stored in granary for the pay-
ment of wages. This can be said on the analogy
6.5 Coveted Dtaui , Moheujo-daro of Mesopotamian cities where wages were
paid in barley. The Indus people were the earliest
carded far more alluvial soil than the Nile in people to produce cotton Because cotton was
Egypt and deposited it on the flood plains fust produced m this area the Greeks called if
Just as the Nile' created Egypt and, supported smdon, which is derived from Sindh.
its people, so also the Indus created Sindh and
fed its people The Indus people sowed seeds in Domestication of Animals
the flood plains in
November, when the flood Although the Harappans practised agricul-
water receded, and reaped their harvests of ture, animals were kept on a large scale Oxen,
wheat and barley in April before the advent of buffaloes, goats, sheep and pigs were domestica-
the next flood. No hoe or ploughshare has been ted The humped bulls were favoured by the
discovered, but the furrows discovered in the Harappans From the very beginning dogs were
pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan show that regarded as pets Cats were also domesticated,
the fields were ploughed in Rajasthan in the and signs of the feet of both dogs and cats
Uarappan peiiod The Harappans probably have been noticed They also kept asses and
used the wooden ploughshare. We do not know
1

camels, which were possibly used as beasts of

whether the plough was drawn by men or oxen burden. Evidence of the horse comes from a
Stone sickles may have been used for harves- superficial level of Mohenjo-daro and from a
ting the crops Gubar bands or nalas enclosed doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal. The
by dams for storing water were a feature in parts remains of the horse have been reported from
of Baluchistan and Afghanistan, but channel Suikotada, situated on the west of Gujarat,
or canal irrigation seems to have bean absent. and belong to around 2000 B C„ but it is clear
 THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 39

that this animal was not in regular use in of masons The Harappans also practised

Harappan times. Elephants were well known to boat-making. As will be shown later, seal-making
the Harappans, who weTe also acquainted with and teriacotta manufacture were also impor-
the rhinoceros The contemporary Sumerian tant crafts The goldsmiths made jewellery of

cities in Mesopotamia practically produced the silver, gold and precious stones; the first two

same foodgiains and domesticated the same may have been obtained from Afghanistan and
animals as the Harappans did But the Harappan the last from south India. The Harappans were

people in Gujarat produced rice and domestica- also experts in beadmaking

ted elephants, which was not the case with the The potter’s wheel was in full use, and the
people of Mesopotamian cities. Harappans produced their own characteristic
pottery, which was made glossy and shining.

Technology and Crafts

Trade
The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze
Age The people of Harappa used many tools The Haiappan cities did not possess the
and implements of stone, but they were .very necessary raw material for the commodities
well acquainted with the manufacture and use they produced, They did not use metallic money.
of bronze. Bronze was made by the smiths by We have no idea about their currency. Most
mixing tin with copper. Since none of the two probably they carried on all exchanges through
metals was easily available to the Harappans, barter In return for finished goods and possi-
bronze tools are not prolific in Harappa The im- bly foodgrains, they procured metals from the
purities of the ores show that copper was obtain- neighbouring areas by boats and bullock-carts.
ed from the Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan,
1

They practised navigation on the coast of the

although it could also be brought from Baluchi- Arabian Sea They knew the use of wheel, and
stan Tin was possibly brought with difficulty carts with solid wheels were in use in Harappa.

from Afghanistan although its old workings It also appears that the Harappans used some

are stated to have been found in Iiazanbagh kind of modern ekka.

in Bihar. The bronze tools and weapons recover- The Harappans had commercial links with
ed from the Harappan sites contain a smaller Rajasthan, Afghanistan and Iran. Their cities

percentage of tin However, the kit of bronze also carried on commerce with those in the
goods left by the Harappans is considerable, land of the Tigris and Euphrates. Many Harap-
which suggests that the bronzesmiths constitu- pan seals have been discovered in Mesopota-
ted an important group of artisans in the Harap- mia, and seems that the Harappans imita-
it

pan society. They produced not only images ted some cosmetics used by the urban people
and utensils but also various tools and weapons of Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamian records
such as axes, saws, knives and spears. Several from about 2350 B.C refer to trade relations
other important crafts flourished in the Harap- with Meluha, which was the ancient name given
pan towns. A piece of woven cotton has been to the Indds region. The Mesopotamian texts
recovered from Mohenjo-daro, and textile im- speak of two intermediate trading stations
pressions found on several objects. Spindle called Dilmun and Makan, which lay between
whorls were used for spinning Weavers wove Mesopotamia and Meluha; Dilmun can probab-
'cloth of wool and cotton. Huge brick structures ly be identified with Bahrain on the Persian
suggest that brick-laying was an important Gulf. Thousands of graves await excavation in
craft. They also attest the existence of a class that poit city
 ANCIENT INDIA

Political Organization have been found at any Harappan site %

We have no clear idea about the political have no religious structures of any kind except
organization of the Harappans. In sharp con- the Great Bath, which may have been used foi

trast to Egypt and Mesopotamia no temples ablutions. would be wrong

Therefore it tij

think that priests ruled in Harappa, as they did

in the cities of Lower Mesopotamia. There art
some indications of the practice of fire cult at
Lothal m Gujarat in the later phase, but m
temples were used for the purpose. Perhaps the

I
Harapppn rulers were more concerned with
commerce than with conquests, and Harappa,
was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.

Religious Practices
In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of

women have been found. In one figurine a plant

j

is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman.

Probably the image represents the goddess of

earth, and it was intimately connected with the

origin and growth of plants The Harappans
therefore looked upon the earth as a fertility
goddess and worshipped her in the same manner
as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess
Isis. But we do not know whether the Harappans
,
were a matriarchal people like the Egyptians.
- In Egypt the daughter inherited the throne or
property, but we do not know about the nature
of inheutance in the Harappan society.
Some Vedic texts show reverence to the earth
goddess, although she is not given any pro-
'

minence. took a long time for the worship of

It

I
the supreme goddess to develop m Hinduism.
Only from the sixth century A D. various
mother-goddesses such as Durga, Amba, Kali,
1

Chandi, etc came to be regarded as goddesses

,

in the Puranas and m the Tantra literature.

| In course of time every village came to have
its own separate goddess. 1

The Male Deity in the Indus Valley

The male deity is represented on a seal.
This god has three heads and has horns. He is
! represented in the sitting posture of a yogi,
6,6 Mother -goddess, Mohenjo-daro placing one foot on the other. This god is sur-
 THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 41

rounded by an elephant, a tiger, a lhinoceros, I

and has a buffalo below his throne. At his IS

feet appear two deer The seal immediately ||
recalls to our mind the tiaditional image of jjfi
Pasupati Mahadeva. The four animals surioun- [ vi
ding the god look towards the four directions 7J,j
of the earth. They may have served as vehicles [Ijfi
for gods, because in later Hinduism every god |.|jt
is supposed to have his own conveyance foi, his Mil

movements In addition to the use of the image i||l|\j

of Siva, we also come across the pievalence of .'jjijjY

the phallus worship, which became so intimate- ,j| f

rV

ly connected with Siva in later times. Numer- ft Y,

ous symbols of the phallus and female sex |sli

organsmade of stone have been found in Harap- t|l| ,4 1

s

pa. They were possibly meant foi woislup. jfe.i

1
The Rig Veda speaks of the non-Aiyan people, -

who were phallus worshippeLs. The phallus 6.7 Seal of Pasupati, Mohenjo-daro

worship which started in the days of Harappa

came to be recognized as a lespectable form ghosts and evil forces were capable of harming
of worship in Hindu society. them and theiefore used amulets against them.
The Atharva Veda, which is considered to be a
Tree and Animal Worship
non-Aryan work, contains many charms and
The people of the Indus region also worshipp- spells, and recommends amulets for
warding
ed trees The picture of a god is repi esented on off diseases and evil forces.
a seal in the midst of the branches of the pipal
This tree continues to be worshipped to this The Harappan Script
day.
The Harappans invented the art of writing
Animals were also worshipped in Harappan like the people of ancient
Mesopotamia.
times, and' many of them are represented on Although the eailiest specimen of Harappan
seals. The most important of them is the hump- script was noticed in 1853 and the
complete
ed bull. Even today, when such a bull passes
-
.script discovered by 1923, it has not
been deci-
in the market streets the pious Indians give
way phered so far. Some try to connect it with the
to it, Similarly the animals surrounding Pasupati
Dravidian or the proto-Dravidian language,
Mahadeva indicate that these were worshipped. others with the Sanskrit language,
and still
Obviously the inhabitants of the Indus region
others with the Sumerian language, but
Worshipped gods in the form of trees, animals
none of
these readings is satisfactory. As the script
and human beings, But the gods were not placed has
not been deciphered, we cannot judge the Harap-
m temples, a practice which was common in pan contribution to literature, nor can we
ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Nor
can say anything about their ideas and beliefs.
we say anything about the religious beliefs of
Unlike the Egyptians and Mesopotamians,
the Harappans without being able to read
their the Harappans did not write long inscriptions.
script. Amulets have been found
in large num- Most inscriptions were recorded on seals, and
bers. Probably the Harappans
believed that contain only a few> words. These seals may have

l
42 ANCIENT INDIA

(been used by propertied people to mark and

Altogether we
(identify their private property.
(have about 250 to 400 pictographs, and in the
(form of a picture rach letter stands for some
i
sound, Idea or object. The Harappan script

is not alphabetical but mainly pictographic,

Attempts have been made to compare it with
the contemporary scripts of Mesopotamia and
Egypt. But it is the indigenous product of tha

Indus region, and does not show any connection

with the scripts of Western Asia.

Weights and Measures

The knowledge of script must have helped the

recording of private property and the keeping

of accounts. The urban people of the Indus
I
region also needed and used weights and mea-
;
sures for trade and other transactions. Numer-
ous articles used for weights have been found.
|

They show that in weighing mostly 16 or its

(multiples were used; for instance, 16, 64, 160,
. 1
320 and 640. Interestingly the tradition of 16
has continued in India till modern times and
till recentlyannas made one rupee. The
16

6.8 Pottery, Lothak

- Harappans also knew the art of measurement.
_
We have come across sticks inscribed with
measure marks; one of these is made of bronze.

Harappan Pottery
The Harappans were great experts in the
use of the potter’s wheel. We come across
numerous pots painted m various colours, .

Harappan pots were generally decorated with ;

the designs of trees and circles. The images of ,

men are also found on some pottery fragments. [

Seals

The! greatest artistic creations of the Harap- ,

pan culture are the seals. About 2000 seals

’

have been found, and of these a great majority :

'

carry short inscriptions with pictures of the

one-horned bull, the buffalo, the tiger, the c

6,J> £uu beat, Monenjo-tiaro * rhinoceros, the goat and the elephant.
 THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 43

2200 B C. and 2000 B C. but throughout the

period of its existence it seems to have retained
the same kind of tools, weapons and houses.
The whole style of life appears to be uniform.
|We notice the same town-planning, the same
[seals, same terracotta works, and the same
the
long blades
chert But the view stressing
changelessness cannot be pushed too far. We
do notice changes in the pottery of Mohanjo-
daro over a period of time. Around 1750 B. C.
6.10 Seals from Kahbangan the two important cities of the Harappan cul-

Images
ture,Harappa and Mofienjo-daro, disappeared,
but the Harappan culture at other sites faded
The Harappan artisans made beautiful images
out gradually and continued in its degenerate
of metal. A woman dancer made of bronze is
phase in the outlying fringes in Gujarat, Rajas-
the best speamen. Except for a necklace she is
than and western Uttar Pradesh.
naked We few pieces of Harappan stone
get a
It is as difficult to explain the origin of the
sculptures One wears an orna-
steatite statue
Harappan culture as its end. Several pre-Harap-
mented robe over the left shoulder and under
pan settlements have been found in Baluchis-
the right arm, and its short locks at the back
tan and in Kalibangan in Rajasthan, but the,
of the head are kept tidy by a woven fillet.
connection between them and the mature
Harappan culture is not clear, though the
Terracotta Figurines
Harappan culture may have evolved out of
We get many figurines made of fire-baked these indigenous settlements. Nor do we have
earthen clay, commonly called terracotta. These clear proof of outside influence on the Harap-
were either used as toys or objects of worship. pan cities. Contact with the Mesopotamian
They represent birds, dogs, sheep, cattle and cities may have provided soma stimulus to the
monkeys. Men and women also find place, and development of the Harappan culture. But
the second outnumber the first. The seals and there can be no doubt about the Indianness
images were manufactured with great skill, but .

of the Harappan culture. Certain elements

the terracotta pieces represent unsophisticated distinguish it from the' contemporary cultures
artistic works. The contrast between the two in Western Asia. It planned its towns with
sets indicates the gap between the classes which their chess-board system, streets, drainage
used them. The first were used by members of pipes and cess pits. Onhand the.
the other
the upper classes, and the second by the common Mesopotamian cities show a haphazard growth.
people. The Harappan culture is poor in artis- Rectangular houses with brick-lined bathrooms
tic works made of stone. We do not come and wells together with their stairways are
across any massive work of art in stone as we found in all Harappan cities, Such town-plan-
find in the case of sculptures of ancient Egypt ning is not to be found in the cities of Western
and Mesopotamia. Asia. No other people in antiquity had built
such an excellent drainage system except perhaps
Origin, Maturity and End those of Crete in Knossos, nor did the people
The Harappan culture existed between 2500 of Western Asia show such skill in the use of
B. C. and 1750 B.C. Its mature phase lay between burnt bricks as the Harappans did. The Harap-
44 ANCIENT INDIA

pans produced their own characteristic pottery percolation of new peoples m the Indus basin.
and seals, the latter represented the local animal A few signs of insecurity and violence appear
world.. Above all, they invented their own in the last phase of Mohenjo-daro, Hoards of
typical script, which bears no resemblance jewellery were buried at places, and skulls were
to the Egyptian and Mesopotamian scripts. huddled together at one place We also notice
Although the Harappan culture was a Bronze new types of axes, daggers, knives with mid-
Age culture, they used bionze on a very limited ribs and flat tangs appear in the upper levels
scale, and largely continued to use stone im- of Mohenjo-daro Although basically they
plements. Finally, no contemporary culture seem to be Indian, they may betray some foieign
spread over such a wide aiea as the Harappan influence. Traces of new peoples appear in a
culture did. The structures of Harappa cover cemetery belonging to the late phase of Harappa,
5 km in circuit, and m that way are the largest where new kinds of pottery occui in the latest
of their type m the Bronze Age No urban
1

levels. New types of pottery also occur in some

complex of the Haiappan magnitude has been Haiappan sites m Baluchistan At several sites
discovered so far. in Panjab and Haryana Painted Grey Waie,
While the ancient cultuies of Mesopotamia generally associated with Vodic people, has been
continued to exist even after 1750 B C ,
the found in conjunction with some late Harappan
Harappan culture disappeared at about that pottery. All this can be attributed to the bar-
time. Various causes have been suggested. barian horse-riding people who may have come
Some ascribe it to the decreasing fertility on from Iran through the hills But the new peoples
account of the increasing salinity of the soil did not come in such numbei s as to completely
caused by the expansion of the neighbouring overwhelm the Harappan cities in Panjab
desert Others attribute it to a sudden subsi- and Sindh Although the Rig Vedic Aryans
dence or uplift of the land which caused floods. settled down mostly in the land of the Seven
And still others point out that the Harappan Rivers, m which the Harappan culture once
culture was destroyed by the Aryans. flourished, we have no evidence of any mass-
In the later phases of the Harappan culture, scale confrontation between the Harappans
some exotic tools and pottery indicate the slow and the Aryans,

EXERCISES

1. How were the Harappan cities planned?

2 Describe the sources of the livelihood of the Harappan people.
3. Give an account of the crafts and technology of the Harappans. Why is their
culture called the Bronze Age culture 9

4. Write a note on the religious practices of the Harappans.

5. Give an account of the Harappan pottery and terracottas.
6. Account for the end of the Harappan civilization.
 CHAPTER 7

Advent of the Aryans and the Age of the Rig Veda

Original Home and Identity Rig Veda is a collection of piayers offered to

The Aryans spoke the Indo-European langua- Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna and other gods
ges, which ate current in changed forms all by various families of poets or sages. It consists

ovel Europe, Iian and the gieater part of of ten mandahs or books, of which Books II
the Indian subcontinent, Originally the Aiyans to VII form its earliest portions Books I and
seem to have lived somewhere in the area east X seem to have been the latest additions The
of the Alps, in the region known as Eurasia Rig Veda has many things in common with
Certain names of animals such as goats, dogs, the Avesta, which is the oldest text in the Iianian

horses, etc., and names of certain plants such language The two texts use the same names
as pine, maple, etc , are similar to one another for several gods and even for social classes

in all the Indo-European languages These Some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite
common words indicate the fauna and flora inscriptions of 1600 B C. and the Mitanm
of Eurasia They show that the Aryans were inscriptions of the fourteenth century B.C.
acquainted with rivers and forests Curiously found in Iraq suggest that from Iran a branch
enough, common words for mountains exist of the Aryans moved towards the west.
only in a few Aryan languages although the A little earlier than 1500 B.C the Aryans
Aryans crossed many hills. Their earliest appeared in India We do not find clear and
life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agri- definite archaeological traces of their advent.
culture being a secondary occupation. The Possibly, they used socketed axes, bronze dirks
Aryans did not lead a settled life, with the and swords, which have been discovered in
result that they could not leave behind any north-western India. The earliest Aryans lived
solid material remains. Although the Aryans in the geographical area covered by eastern
used several animals, the horse played the Afghanistan, Panjab and fringes of western
most significant role in their life. Its swiftness Uttar Pradesh. Some rivers of Afghanistan such
enabled them and some allied peoples to tnake as the river Kubha, and the river Indus and its

successful inroads into Western Asia from five branches, aie mentioned in the Rig Veda,
about 2000 B C. onwards, The Sindhu, identical with the Indus, is

On their way to India the Aryans first appear- the river par excellence of the Aryans, and it is

ed in Iran, where the Indo-Iranians lived for a repeatedly mentioned. Another river mentioned
long time.We know about the Aryans in India is the Sarasvati, now lost m the sands of Rajas-
from the Rig Veda which is the earliest speci-
, than; the area represented by it is covered by
men of the Indo-European language. The the Ghaggar river. Possibly the Aryans obtained
 46 ANCIENT INDIA

copper from the Khotri mines of Rajasthan. Intra-tribal conflicts rocked the Aryan communi-
The whole region in. which Ihe Aryans fiist ties fob a long time. Divided into five tribes

settled in. India is called the Land of the Seven called panchajana, theAryans fought amongst
Riveis. themselves and sometimes enlisted the support
The Aryans came to India in several waves. of the non-Aryan peoples for the purpose,
The earliest wave is lepiescmted by the Rig The Rharalas and the Tritsu were the ruling* 1

Vedic people, who appeared in the subcontinent Aryan clans, and they were supported by priest'
in about 1500 B.C They came into conflict Vasishtha The country Bharatavarsha was 1

eventually named after the term Bharata, which

1

with the indigenous inhabitants called the ;

dasas, dasyus, etc Since tho dasas are also appears first m the Rig Veda. The Bharata ruling
mentioned m
the ancient Iranian literature, clan was opposed by a host of ten kings, five

they seem to have been a branch of the early of whom were heads of, Aryan tribes and the
Aryans. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of remaining five of non-Aryan peoples. The
Sambaia by' Divodasaj who belonged to the battle that was fought between the Bharatas
Bhaiata clan. In this case the term dasa appears on the one hand and the host of ten kings on
in the name Divodasa. Possibly the dasyus in the other is known as tho Battle of Ten Kings,
the Rig Veda represent tho original inhabi- This battle was fought on, the river Parushni,
tants of tho country, and an Aryan chief who and it gave victory
identical with the river Ravi,
overpowered them was called Trasadasyu, Tile to Sudas and established the supremacy of the
Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but B batatas Of the defeated tribes the most im-
strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyu- portant was that of the Purus. Subsequently
hatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is’ repeatedly the Bharatas joined hands with the Purus and
mentioned in tho Rig Veda , The dasyus possi- formed a new ruling tribe called the Kurus. The
.bly worshipped the phallus and did not keep Kurus combined with the Panchalas, and
cattle for dairy products, they together established their rule in, the upper
Gangetic basiti where they played an impor-
Tribal Conflicts tant part in later Vedic times,
We know about the weapons of the
little
* i \

'

adversaries of the Aryan peoples, although we Material Life

'

hear of many defeats inflicted by Indra on the We can form some idea of the material life

enemies of the Aryans In the .Rig Veda Indra of the Rig Vedic Aryans. They owed their
is callod Purandara, which 'means that he was success in India to their possession of horses,
the breaker of forts. But wo cannot identify chariots and also possibly some better arms
thb forts held by the pre-Aryans ;
some of them made of bronze of which we have no archaeologi-
may have been Harappan settlements. However, cal evidence When they settled in the western
there is no' doubt about the Aryan successes, part of the subcontinent, they possibly used
and these came because the Aryans possessed copper supplied by the Khotri mines in Rajas-
chariots driven by horses, and introduced them than. The Rig Vedic people possessed better
'for the first time into West Asia and India, The knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is men-
Aryan soldiers ware probably equipped also tioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though
With coats of mail (varmari) and better arms. some consider it an interpolation. Possibly
1

The Aryans were engaged in two types of ploughshare was made of wopd, They were
this’

bonflicts : first, they fought with the pre-Aryans, acquainted with sowing, harvesting and thre-
and secondly, they fought amongst themselves. shing, and knew about the different seasons.
 :

ADVENT OF THE ARYANS AND THE AGE OF THE RIG VEDA 47

In spite of all this, there are so many references either a house for a large extended family or
'

to the cow Rig Veda that the Rig' Vcdic

in the for a tribal chief. Cattle bones- have been found
Aryans seem to have been a pastoral people. in good quantity in all these sites.
’

Most of their wars were fought for the sake of

cows. The term for war in the Rig Veda Vis Tribal Polity -

gavisthi or search for cows. The cow seems to The administrative machinery of the Aryans
have been the most important form of wealth, in the Rig Vedic peiiod worked with the tribal

and whenever we hear of gifts made lo priests chief in the centre, because of his successful
it is stated m terms of cows and woman slaves leadership in war. He was called rajan. It seems
and never in terms of the measurement of land. that in the Rig Vedic period the king’s post Was
The Rig Vedic people may have occasionally heieditavy. 1 1 owes er, the king did not exercise
occupied pieces of land, but land did not foi m unlimited power, for he, had to reckon with the
a well-established type of piivate propeity tribal organizations. Although his post was
The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as the liei editary, we have some traces of election
also
carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the by the tribal assombly called the samiti The
leather worker, the pottei, etc This indicates king was called the protector of his trib'e. He
that they practised all* these crafts: The term protected its cattle, fought its wars and offered
ayax' used, for copper or bronze shows that prayers to gods on its behalf.
metal-working was known. But we have no Several tribal assemblies such asHhe sabha,
clear evidence of the existence of trade. It is samiti, vtdatha, gana are mentioned in the Rig
doubtful whether the Aryans were acquainted Veda. These assemblies exercised delibetative,
with sea 01 ocean, because the word samudra military and religious functions. Even woman
mentioned in the Rig Veda mainly denotes a attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic
collection of water At any rate the Aryans did times. But the two most important assemblies
not live in cities ,
possibly they lived in some kind from view seem to have
the, political point of
of fortified mud settlements which still await to been the sabha and the samiti. These two
be identified satisfactorily by the archaeologists. were so important that the kings showed’ eager-
Recently a site called Bhagwanpura has been ness to win their support.
excavated in Haryana and three sites in Panjab, In the day-to-day administration, the king
and in all .these cases Painted Grey Ware has was assisted by a few functionaries. The most
been found along with ‘late Harappan’ pottery. important functionary seems to have' been the
The date assigned to the Bhagwanpura finds pwohita The' two priests who played a major '

ranges from 1600 B.C. to 1000 B.C which , part in the time of Rig Veda are Vasishtha
is also roughly the period' of the Rig Veda. and Visvamitra, They inspired the tribal chiefs
The geographical area of these four, sites also to action and lauded their exploits in return for
coincides with that of a good portion of the handsome rewards in cows and women slaves.
area represented by
Rig Veda. Although
the The next* important functionary seems tb be
.Painted Gray Ware has been found at all these the senani, who used spears, axes, swords, etc.
sites, neither iron objects nor cereals have been
1

‘
We do not come across any officer concerned
encountered. We may therefore think of a pre- with the’ collection of taxes. Probably the
iron phase of the PGW which coincided with princes received from the people voluntary
the Rig Vedic phase. It
1

is interesting to note offerings called bain Presents' and spoils

that at Bhagwanpura a thirteen-roomed mud of 'war 'were perhaps distributed in some
house has been discovered. This might indicate -Vedic assemblies. The Rig Veda docs not
48 ANCIENT INDIA

mention any officer for administering justice. into grama or smaller tribal units meant for
But itwas not an ideal society There were fighting. When the gramas clashed with one

cases of theft and burglary, and especially we another it caused samgrama or war. The most
"hear of the theft of cows. Spies were employed numerous varna of vaisya arose out of the vis
to keep an eye on such unsocial activities. or the mass of the tribal people
The titles of the officials do not indicate The term for family ( kula) is mentioned
their administration of territory. However, rarely in the Rig Veda. It comprised not only
some officers seem to have been attached to mother, father, sons, slaves, e*c., but many
territories. They enjoyed positions of authority more people also It seems that family in early

.in the pasture grounds and settled villages, The Vedic phase was indicated by the term griha,
officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture which frequently occurs in this text, In the
ground is called vrajapati. He led the heads of earliest Indo-European languages the same
the families called kuJapas, or the heads of the term is used for nephew, grandson, cousin,
fighting hordes called gramanis, to battle. Tn the etc This would mean that differentiation in
beginning the gramani was just the head of a family relationships leading to the setting up
small tribal fighting unit. But when the unit of separate households had not proceeded
settled the gramani became the head of the far,and the family was a very large joint unit.
village, and in course of time he became identi- Ttwas obviously a patriarchal family headed
cal with the vrajapati by the father, as was the case in the Roman
The king did noi maintain any regular or society Tt seems that several generations of the
standing army, but in times of war he mustered family lived under the same roof Because it
a militia whose military functions were per- was a patriarchal society, the birth of a son
formed by different tribal groups called mala, was desired again and again, and especially
gana, grama, sarclha. By and large it was a people piayed to the gods for brave sons to
tribal system of government in which the mili- fight the wars In the Rig Veda no desire is
tary element was strong. There was no civil expiessed for daughters, though the desire for
system or territorial administration because child.! en and cattle is a recurrent theme in the

people were in a stage of perpetual expansion, hymns.

migrating from one area to another. Women could attend assemblies, They could
offer sacrifices along with their husbands We
Tribe and Family have an instance of five women who composed
Kinship was the basis of social structure, and hymns although the later texts mention 20
a man was identified by the clan to which he such women. Obviously the hymns were com-
belonged, as can be seen in the names of several posed orally, and nothing written belongs to
Rig Vedic kings. People gave their primary that period.
loyalty to which was called jam.
the tribe, The institution of marriage was established,
The term, jana occurs at about 275 places in the although symbols of primitive practices survived.
Rig Veda, and the term janapada or territory We hear of a proposal made by Yanu, the
is not used even once. The people were attached twin-sister of Yama, for establishing love
to the tribe, since the territory or the kingdom relations, but the offer is resisted by Yama.
was not yet established We have some indications oF polyandry. For
Another important term which stands for the instance, the Maruts are stated to have enjoyed
tribe in the Rig Veda is vis It is mentioned 170 Rodasi, and the two Asvin brothers arc represen-
times in that text. Probably the vis was divided ted as living with Surya, the daughtei of the
 ADVENT OF THE ARYANS AND THE AGE OF THE RIG VEDA 49

sim god. But such instances are not too many. occupations had started But this division was
Possibly they indicate matnlineal traces, and not very sharp We hear of a family in which a
we have a few instances of sons being named member says “I am a poet, my father is a
after their mother, as in the case of Mamateya. physician, and my mother is a grinder Earning
We also notice the practice of levirate and livelihood through different means we live

widow remarriage in the There are

Rig Veda together .
” We hear of gifts of cattle, chariots,

no examples of child-marriage, and the mar- horses, slaves, etc Unequal distribution of
riageable age in the Rig Veda seems to the spoils of war created social inequalities,

have been 16 to 17 and this helped the rise of princes and priests
at the cost of the common tribal people.
Social Divisions But since economy was mainly pastoral and
The Rig Veda shows some consciousness of not food-producing, the scope for collecting
Ihe physical appearance of people in north- regular tributes from the people was very
western India in about 1500-1000 B C, Varna limited, We do not find gifts of land and even
was the term used for colour, and it those of cereals are rare We find domestic
>eems that the Aryans were fair and the in- slaves, but not the wage-earners Tribal elements

digenous inhabitants dark in complexion The in society were stronger and social divisions
colour distinction may have partially given based on collection of taxes or accumulation of
rise to social orders, but its importance has landed property were absent, The society was
been exaggerated by those western writers who still tribal and largely egalitarian

believe in racial distinctions, The factor w’hich

contributed most to the creation of social Rig Vedic Gods
divisions was the conquest of the indigenous Every people discovers its religion in its

inhabitants by the Aryans. The dasas and the surroundings, The Aryans found it difficult to

dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, explain the advent of rains, the appearance of
were treated as slaves and sudras. The tribal the sun and the moon, and the existence of the
chiefs and the priests acquired a larger share of rivers, mountains,
etc. So they personified
the booty, and they naturally grew at the cost these natural forces and looked upon them as
of the common people, which created social living beings to whom they gave human or
inequalities in Gradually the tribal
the tribe animal attributes We have a large number of
society was divided into three groups warriors, — such divinities in the Rig Veda, which is full of
oriests and the people —
on the same pattern hymns composed in theirhonour by the poets
as in Iran The fourth division called the sudras of various families The most important divinity
appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic m the Rig Veda is Indra, who is called Purandara
period, because it is mentioned for the first or breaker of forts. Indra played the role of a
time in the tenth Book of the Rig Veda, which warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory
is the latest addition. against the demons Two hundred and fifty

We repeatedly hear of slaves who were given hymns are devoted to him. He is considered to
as gifts to the priests They were mainly women be the rain god and thought to be responsible
slaves employed for domestic purposes It is for causing rainfall. The second position is
clear that in Rig Vedic times slaves were not occupied by Agni (fire god) to whom 200 hymns
used directly in agriculture or other producing are devoted. Fire played a significant part in
activities, the life of the primitive peoples because of its

In the age of the Rig Veda divisions based on use in burning forests, cooking, etc. The cult
 ,

50 ANCIENT INDIA

of fire commanded an important place not set-up of the period the male gods were far
only' in' India but also in Iran. In Vedic times mote important than the female.
Agni acted as a kind of intermediary between
the'gods, on the one hand and the .people on The dominant mode of worshipping the
the other. The oblations offered to Agni were gods was through the recitation of prayeis and
supposed' to be carried in the form of smoke to offering of sacrifices. Prayers played an im-
the sky, and thus transmitted The
to the gods. portant part in Rig Vedic tunes Both collective
third important position is occupied by Varuna and individual prayers were made Originally
who personified water. Varuna was supposed to every tiibe or clan was the votary of a special
uphold the natural order, and whatever happen- god. It seems that prayers were offered to
ed in the world was thought to be the reflection gods in chorus by the members of a whole
of his desires Soma was considered to be the tribe, This also happened in the case of saci j-

god of plants, and an intoxicating drink is fices Agni and Indra were invited to partake of
named after him. The Rig Veda has a large' sacuftces made by the whole tribe (/ana)
number of hymns, which explain the prepara- Offei mgs of vegetables, barley, etc ,
were" made
tion of this drink from plants that have not to gods But in Rig Vedic times the process was
been, satisfactorily identified so far. The Maruts not accompanied by any ritual or sacrificial
personify the storm Thus we have a large num- formulae, At this stage the magical power of
ber of gods, who represent the different forces the word was not considered so important as
of nature in one form or another! but are also
1

it came to be in later Vedic times' Why did

assigned human activities people worship gods in the time of the Rig
We also find some female divinities such as Veda ? They did not worship gods for then-
Aditi, and Ushas who represented the appear- spiritual uplift or foi ending the miseries of
ance of the dawn But’ they were not prominent existence, They asked mainly for praja (child-
in the time of the Rig Veda; in the patriarchal ren), pasu (cattle), food, wealth, health, etc.

EXERCISES
1

1. What is meant by -the Aryans 7 Where did they live originally and how did they
come to India?
2. Give an account of the material life of the Rig Vedic people Is it correct to call
them an agricultural community?
3 Describe the political organization in the age of the Rig Veda To what extent
was it tribal in character? '
.

4 Why is the Rig Vedic society called tribal and patriarchal 7 .

5. What gods did the Rig Vedic people worship and why?
 '

CHAPTER 8

The Later Vedic Phase : Transition to State and

Social Formation

Expansion in the Later Vedic Period

(c. 1000-600 b.c:)

The histoiy of the later Vedic period is based
mainly -on the Vedic texts which wcie compiled
after the age of the Rig Veda, The collections
of the Vedic hymns or mantias were known as
the Samhitas The Rig Veda Samluta is the
oldest Vedic text, on the basis of which we
have described the early Vedic age. For purposes
of singing, the prayers of the Rig Veda weie
and modified collection was
1

sat to tune, this

known as the Sama Veda Samhita, In addition

to the Sama Veda, in post-Rig Vedic times two
other collections were composed These were
the Yajur Veda Samhita and the Atharva Veda
Samhita The Yajur Veda contains not only
hymns but also rituals which have to accom-
pany their recitation, The rituals reflect the
8,1 Painted Giey Wate
social and political milieu m which they arose.

The Athaiva Veda contains chaims and spells

to ward off evils and diseases Its contents throw

light on the beliefs and practices of the non- Ware (PGW) sites because they were inhabited
Aryans. The Vedic Samhitas were followed by by people who used earthen bowls and dishes
the composition of a series of texts known as made of painted grey pottery They also used
the Br'ahmanas. TheSe are full of ntuahstic iron weapons. With the' combined evidence
formulae and' explain the social and religious ’

from the later Vedic texts and PGW iron-phase

aspects of rituals ' All these later Vedic texts archaeology We can form an idea of the life of
were compiled in the upper Gangetic basin in the people in the first half of the first millennium
circa 1000-600 B C In the Same period and in B C. in western Uttar Pradesh and adjoining
the' same area, digging and exploration have areas of Panjab, Haryana and Rajasthan,
brought to light nearly 500 sites inhabited for The texts show that the Aryans expanded
the first time, These are called Painted Grey
'
1

'from
1

Paujab over the whole of

1

western
 , ;,

"5
l*

52 -.'J “VV ANCIENT INDIA,

Uttar Pradesh covered by the Ganga- Yajnu na Pra<Jj$h and Videha in north Bihar. Although
doab The Bharatas and Purus, the two major--- ’Kg&alasMs associated with the story of Rama,
tribes, combined and thus formed the«>Kttru he not mentioned in Vedic literature, la
is

people In the beginning- they fived between eastern Uttar Pradesh and north Bihar the
the Sarasvati and the Drishadvati just On the Vedic people had to contend against a people;
fringe of the doab. Soon the Kurus occupied who used copper implements and the black-and-i
Delhi and the upper portion of the doab, the red earthen pots. In western Uttar Pradesh they
area called Kurukshetra or the land of the possibly came up against the people who used-

Kurus Gradually they coalesced with a people pots of ochre or red colour and copper imple-
called the Panchalas, who occupied the middle ments; they had been living there from about'
portion of the doab The authority of the Kuru- 1800 B C They possibly also encountered thm,
Panehala people spread over Delhi and the habitations of some people using black- and-red.
upper and middle parts of the doab. They ware. It is suggested that at a few places they
set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in came against the users of the late Harappan
the district of Meerut. The history of the Kuru culture, but these people seem to represent a

tribe isimportant for the battle of the Bharata, conglomerate culture which cannot be charac-,
which is the main theme of the great epic called terised as purely Harappan Whoever be the!
the Mahabharata. Thiswar is supposed to have opponents of the later Vedic peoples evidently,
been fought around 950 B.C. between the they did not occupy any large and compact!
Kauravas and the Pandavas, although both of area and their number in the upper Gangetic
.

them belonged to the Kuru

As a result
clan basin does not seem to have been large. The
practically the whole of the Kuru clan was Vedic people succeeded in the second phase of
wiped out. their expansion because they used iron weapons
Excavations at Hastinapur, datable to the and horse-drawn chariots.
period 900 B.C. to 500 B.C., have revealed
settlements and faint beginnings of town life The PGW—-Iron Phase Culture and
But they do not answer the description of
at all Later Vedic Economy
Hastinapur in the Mahabharata because the From around 1000 B.C iron was used in
,

epic was finally compiled much later in about the Gandhara area in Pakistan Iron implements
A.D, when material life had
the fourth century buried with dead bodies have been discovered
advanced much. In later Vedic times people in good numbers. They have also been found m
hardly knew the use of burnt bricks The mud Baluchistan At about the same time the use of
structures that have
been discovered at Hastina- iron appeared in eastern Panjab, western Uttar
pur could not be imposing and lasting. From Pradesh and Rajasthan. Excavations show
traditionswe learn that Hastinapur was flooded, that iron weapons such as arrow-heads and
and the remnants of the Kuru clan moved to spear-heads came to be commonly used m
Kausambi near Allahabad. western Uttar Pradesh from about 800 B.C,
The Panchala kingdom, which covered the With iron weapons the Vedic people may have
modern districts of Bareilley, Badaun and Faru- defeated the few adversaries, that may have
khabad, is famous for its philosopher kings and faced them in the upper portion of the doab
brahmana theologians. The iron axe may have been used to clear the
Towards the end of the later Vedic period, forests in the upper Gangetic basin, although
around 600 B. C. the Vedic people spread from because of rainfall ranging between 35 cm
the doab furtlier east to Kosala in eastern Uttar to 65 cm these forests may not have been so
 THE LATER VBDIC PHASE 53

The territorial wuters of India extend into the sea to a distance of

twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line

Figure 7 PGW Cultures

 ' I
, , ,

54 V 1
ANCIENT INDIA
;

!
flees. Therefore agriculture was primitive, but
jtheie is no doubt about its wide prevalence.
|
The Satapatha Brahmanct speaks at length about
;the ploughing According 'to ancient
rituals
legends Janaka, the king of Videha and father
j

j
of Sita, lent his hand to the plough. In those
i days even kings and princes did not hesitate to
take to manual labour Balarama, the brother
of Krishna, is called Haladhara or wielder of
the plough. In later times ploughing came to be
members of the upper varnas.
prohibited for the

[
The, Vedic people continued to produce
barley, but during this period rice and wheat
became their chief crpps. In subsequent times
wheat became the staple food of the people in
Panjab and western Uttar Pradesh For the
first time the Vedic people came to be acquaint-

ed with rice in the doab It is called vrihi in

the Vedic texts, and its remains recovered from
Hastinapur belong to the eighth century B,C.
The use of rice is recommended but in rituals,
:
of wheat only rarely. Various kinds of
1
jentils were also produced by the later Vedic

t'
people
Thelater Vedic period saw the rise of diverse
8.2 1 I) on Objects fiotn PGW Layers at Atranjikhem 1
artsand crafts, We hear of smiths and smelters,
1

who had certainly to do something with iron

thick, Towards the end of the Vedic period working from about 1000 B.C. Numerous
knowledge of iron spread in eastern Uttar copper tools of the prc-1000 B C. period found
Pradesh and Videha. Iron implements have been in \yestern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar might sug-
discovered in this area from the seventh century gest the existence of coppersmiths in both
B C„ and the metal itself is called syama or Vedic and non-Vedic societies. The Vedic
krishna ayaim the later Vedic texts. people may have used the copper mines of
Although very few agricultural tools made of Khetri in Rajasthan. In any case copper was
iron have been found, there is no doubt that one of the first metals to be used by the Vedic
agriculture was the chief means of livelihood people. Copper objects have been found in
of the later Vedic people. Late Vqdip texts
Painted Grey Ware sites. They were used mainly
spi ak of six, eight, twelve and even
twenty- for war and hunting, and also for ornaments.
four oxen yoked to the plough, This may bp
Weaving was confined to women but was
an exaggeration. Ploughing was done with the practised on a wide scale. Leather work, pot-
help of the wooden ploughshare, which would tery, and carpenter’s work made great progress.
•possiblywork m the light soil of the upper The later Vedic people were acquainted with
Gangetic basm. Enough bullocks could not be four types of pottery: black-and-red ware,
available because of cattle slaughter in sacri-
black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and red
 THE LATER VEDIC PHASE 55

ware. The last type of pottery was most popular contribute much to the rfse of townsi
' '

with them, and has been found almost all over, Although the termSingnra is' used In later
western Uttar' Pradesh. However, the most dis- Vedic texts We can trade only the faiht beginnings

tinctive pottery of the period is known as of towns towards ’the ’end of the later Ve'dic'
1

.
'

Painted Grey Ware. It consisted of bowls and' period. Hastinapur and Kausambi (near. Allaha-
dishes, which were used either for rituals or for bad) can be regarded as primitive towns belong-1

eating or for both, but by the upper orders ing to the end of the Vedib p'e'riod.' They may
Glass hoards and bangles found in the be called proto-ufban Sites, The YediC texts
PGW layers may have been used, as prestige also refer to the seas and sea voyages This 1

objects by a few persons On the whole suggests some kind of commerce' which 'may 1

both Vedic texts and excavations indicate the have been stimulated by 'the rise' of new arts
,!
cultivation of specialized crafts. Jewel-workers and crafts. 1
' '

are also mentioned in later Vedic texts, and they On the whole the later Vedic phase registered
possibly catered to the needs of the' richer a great advance in the'mlterial life of the people.
sections of society The pastoral and semi-nomadic forms of living
Agriculture and various crafts enabled the were relegated to the background Agriculture
later Vedic people to lead a settled life. Excava- became the primary source of livelihood, and
tions and explorations give us some idea about became
life settled and sedentary. Supplemented
settlements in later Vedic times Widespread by diverse and crafts the Vedic people
1

arts
Painted Grey Ware sites aie found not only in now settled dow'n permanently in the upper
western Uttar Pradesh and Delhi, which was Gangetic plains. The peasants living in the
1

the Kuru-Panchala area, but also m the adjoin- plams.produced enough to maintain themselves, 1

ing parts of Panjab and Haryana, which was the and they could also spare a marginal part of
Madra area and in those of Rajasthan,, which their produce for the support of princes and
was the Matsya area Altogether we can count priests. .

nearly 500 sites, mostly belonging to the upper

Gangetic basin Only a few sites such as Hastina- Political Organization
pur, Atranjikhera and Noh have been excavated. In later Vedic tifneS populah assemblies lost
Since; the thickness of the material remains of in. importance, and royal power increased at
habitation ranges from one metre to three their cost The vidatha completely disappeared.
metres, seems that these settlements lasted from
it The labha and samiti cdntmued to hold the 1

11
one to three centuries Mostly these were entirely ground, but their character ohanged They 1

new settlements without having any immediate came dominated by pnnoes and rich
to be '
1

predecessors People lived .

in mudbnck, nobles Women were no longer permitted 'to
houses or in wattle-and-daub houses erected sit on the sabha, and it was how dominatedby
1
1

on wooden Although the. structures

poles nobles and brahmanas.
' ' r
’ ’

are poor, ovens and cereals (rice) recovered The formation of wider kingdoms made the
1

from the sites show that the Painted Grey Ware king more powerful. Tribal atIthOTity' tended 1 '

people, who seem to be the same as the later' td become territorial. Princes ruled over tribes,
Vedic people, were agricultural and led. a settled but their dominant tribes became Identical with '

life But since they cultivated with the wooden territories,. Which might be inhabited by tribes
ploughshare, the peasants could not produce other than their own’. In-Thu beginning each 1

enough for feeding those who were engaged in area was 'named after the" tribe which settled
'
1

other occupations Hence peasants could mot' there ,! first, J,but eveiitually- the tribal name
56 ANCIENT INDIA

became current as the territorial name. At of priests, but they gradually overshadowed
first Panchala was the name of a people, and the other priestly groups and emerged as the
then it became the name of a region. The term most important class. They conducted rituals
\ashtra, which indicates territory, first appears and sacrifices for their clients and for themselves,
in this period. and also officiated at the festivals associated
The king’s influence was strengthened by rituals. with agricultural operations. They prayed for
He performed the rajasuya sacrifice, which was the success of their patron in war, and in return
supposed to confer supreme power on him. He the king pledged not to do any harm to them.
performed the asvamedha, which meant unques- Sometimes the brahmanas came into conflict
tioned control over an area in which the royal with the rajanyas, who represented the order
horse ran Uninterrupted. He also performed of the warrior-nobles, for positions of supre-
the vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the macy But when the two upper orders had to
royal chariot was made to win the race against made up their
deal with the lower orders they
his kinsmen. All these rituals impressed the differences. From the end of the later Vedic
people with the increasing power and prestige period it began to be emphasized that the two
of the king. should cooperate to rule over the rest of society
During this period collection of taxes and The vaisyas constituted the common people,
tributes seems to have become com- and they were assigned the producing functions
mon, They were probably deposited with an such as agriculture, cattle-breeding, etc Some
officer called sangrthnri The epics tell us that of them also worked as artisans Towards the
at the time of big sacrifices large-scale distri- end of the Vedic period they began to engage n i

butions were made by the princes and all sec- trade. The vaisyas appear to be the only tribute-
tions of people were fed sumptuously. In the payers in later Vedic times, and the kshatriyas
discharge of his duties the king was assisted by are represented as living on the tributes collec-
the priest, the commander, the chief queen and ted From the vaisyas The process of subjugat-
a few other high functionaries. At the lower ing the mass of the tribesmen to the position
level the administration was possibly carried on of tribute-payers was long and protracted.
by village assemblies, which may have been We have several rituals prescribed for making
controlled by the chiefs of the dominant tribes. the refractory people (vis- or vaisya) submissive
These assemblies were also entrusted with the to the prince ( rajanya ), All the three higher
trial of local cases. But even in later Vedic varnas shared one common feature; they were
times the king did not possess a standing army. entitled to upanayana or investiture with the
Tribal units were mustered in times of war, sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras.
and, according to one ritual for success in war, The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred
the kinghad to eat along with his people (m) thread ceremony, and with this began the
from the same plate. imposition of disabilities on the sudras
The prince, who represented the rajanya
Social Organization order, tried to assert his power over all the three
The later Vedic society came to be divided other varnas. According to the Aitareya Brah-
into Four varnas called the brahmanas, rajanyas mana, m relation to the prince the brahmana is
or kshatriyas, vaisyas and sudras. The growing described as a seeker of livelihood and an
cult of sacrifices enormously added to the power acceptor of gifts but removable at will. A
of thebrahmanas In the beginning the brah- vaisya is meant for being
called tribute-paying,
manas were only one of the sixteen classes beaten, and to be oppressed at will. The worst
 THE LATER VEDIC PHASE 57

position is reserved for the sudra. He is called Gods, Rituals and Philosophy
the servant of another, to be made to work at In the later Vedic period the upper doab
will by another, and to be beaten at will. developed to be the cradle of Aryan culture
under brahmanical influence. The whole of the
But generally the later Vedic texts draw a
Vedic literature seems to have been compiled
line of demarcation between the three higher
in this area in the land of the Kuru-Panchalas.
orders on the one hand, and the sudras on the
The cult of sacrifice was the corner-stone of this
other. There were, nevertheless, several public
culture and was accompanied by numerous
rituals connected with the coronation of the
ritualsand formulae.
king in which the sudras participated, presum-
The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra
ably as members of the original tribe. Certain
and Agni, lost their former importance. On the
such as ratkakara or chariot-
sections of artisans
other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to
maker enjoyed a high status, and were entitled
occupy the supreme position in the later Vedic
to the sacred thread ceremony Therefore even
pantheon. Some of the other minor gods of the
Vedic times varna distinctions had not
in later
Rig Vedic period also came to the forefront
advanced very far
'Rudra, the god of animals, became important
In the family we notice the increasing power in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be
of the father, who could even disinherit his conceived as th preserver and protector of the
son In princely families the right of primo- people who now led a settled life instead of a
geniture was getting stronger Male ancestors semi-nomadic life as they did in Rig Vedic
came to be worshipped. Women
were generally times. some symbolic objects be-
In addition,
given a lower position Although some women gan to be worshipped, and we notice signs of
theologians took part m
philosophic discussions idolatry m later Vedic times As society be-
and some queens participated in coronation came divided into social classes such as brah-
rituals, ordinarily women were thought to be manas, rajanyas, vaisyas and sudras, some of
inferior and subordinate to men the social orders camo to have their own deities.
Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle,
The institution of gotra appeared in later
came to be regarded as the god of the sudras,
Vedic times Literally it means the cow-pen or
although in the age of the Rig Veda cattle-
the place where cattle belonging to the whole
rearing was the primary occupation of the
clan aie kept, but in course of time it signified
Aryans
descent from a common ancestor. People began
People worshipped gods for the same
to practise gotra exogamy. No marriage could
material reasons in this period as they did in
take place between persons belonging to the
earlier times However, the mode of worship
same gotra or having the same ancestor,
changed considerably Prayers continued to
Asramas or four stages of life were not well be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant
established in Vedic times. In the post- Vedic mqda of placating the gods. Sacrifices became
texts we hear of four asramas: that of brahma- far more important, and they assumed both
chan or student, grihastha or householder, public and domestic character. Public sacri-
vanaprastha or partial retirement and samyasa fices involved the king and the whole of the
or complete retirement from the world. But community, which was still in many cases
only three a re mentioned in the later Vedic identical with the tribe. Private sacrifices were
texts, the last or the tourth stage had not been performed by individuals in their houses be-
well established in later Vedic times. cause in this period the Vedic people led a
58 1

ANCIENT INDIA

settled .life and maintained well-established land as possible But really considerable trans-
households. Individuals offeied oblations to fer of land to priests could not have taken

Agni, and each one of these took the form of a place. There is a reference where land, which
ritual or> sacrifice. was being given to the priests, refused to be
Sacrifices involved the killing of animals on transferred to them
a large scale and especially the destruction Towards the end of the Vedic period we
of cattle wealth. The guest was known as notice a strong reaction against priestly domi-
goghna or one who was fed on cattle nation, against cults and rituals, especially in
Brahmanas werfe only one of the' sixteen the land of the Panchalas and Videha where,
types of priests. The priests who officiated at around 600 B.C., the Upanishads weie com-
sacrifices were rewarded generously and given piled. These philosophical texts criticized the
dakshinas or gifts. rituals and laid stress on the value of right
weie
Sacrifices accompanied by formulae i
belief and knowledge They emphasized that
which had to be pronounced by the
carefully’ the knowledge of the self or atma should be
sacrificer. The sacrificer was known as the acquired and the relation of atma with Brahma
yajamana, the performer of ya'jna, aftd 'much '^ould be properly understood. Brahma emer-
of his success depended on the magical power ged as the supreme god, comparable to the
of words uttered in the sacrifices, Some rituals powerful kings of the period. Some of the
performed by the Vedic Aryans are common kshatriya princes in Panchala
and Videha'
to the Indo-European peoples, but many rituals also cultivated this type of thinking and created
seem to have developed on the Indian soil. the atmosphere for the reform of the priest-
These formulae and sacrifices were invented, dominated religion Their teachings also pro-
adopted and elaborated by the priests called mpted the cause of stability and integration.
the brahmanas Ttie brahmanas claimed a Emphasis on the changelessness, indestructibi-
monopoly of priestly knowledge and expertise. lity and immortality of atma or soul served

They invented a large number of rituals, some the cause of stability which was needed for the
of which were adopted from the non-Aryans. rising state power. Stress on the relation of
The reason for the invention and elaboration atmfi with Brahma served the cause of loyalty
of the rituals is not clear, though mercenary to,, superior authority.
motives cannot be ruled out. We hear that The Vedic period saw certain impor-
later
as many as 240,000 cows were given as dak- tant changes. We find the beginnings of terri-
shina or gift to the officiating priest m the torial kingdoms. Wars were fought not only
,

rajsuya sacrifice. for the possession of cattle but also for that
In addition to cows, which were usually of territory. The famous Mahabharata battle,
given as sacrificial gifts, gold, cloth and horses fought between the Kauravas and the Pan-
were also given. Sometimes the priests claimed davas, is attributed to this period. The predo-
portions of territory as dakshina, but the grant minantly "pastoral society of early Vedic times
of land as sacrificial fee is hot well established became agricultural. The tribal pastoralists
in the later Vedic period. The Satapatha Brah- came to be transformed
' into peasants who
mana states that' in the asvamedha, north, south, could maintain their chief with frequent
' tri-

east and West, all should be given to the priest. butes. Chiefs grew at the expense of the tribal
If this tehlly happened, then what would re- .peasantry, and handsomely .rewarded the priests
main to the king? This therefore merely indi- who supported their patrons against the com-
cates the desire of the priests' to grab as much mon people called the vaisyas The sudras were
 THE LATER VEDIC PHASE 59

a small serving order The tribal society

still without a regular system of taxes and a pro-
broke up into a varna-divided society, But fessional army, which again depends on taxes.
varna distinctions could not be carried too far. But the existing mode of agriculture did not
In spite of the support of the brahmanas the leave scope for taxes and tributes in sufficient
rajahyas or the kshatriyas _
could not estab- measure.
lish a state system. A state cannot be set up

EXERCISES

1. Trace the expansion of the Aryans in the later Vedic period.

2. Describe the material life of the later Vedic people. How was it different from the
Rig Vedic life 7
3. What is meant by the Painted' Grey Ware culture?
4. Give an account of the political set-up in the later Vedic period
5. How was society organized in later Vedic times?
6. What kind of religion developed in the later Vedic age?
 CHAPTER 9

Jainism and. Buddhism

Numerous religious sects arose m the middle to wearing sacred thread and studying the
Gangetic basin in the sixth century B.C. We Vedas from which the sudras were kept out
hear of as many as 62 religious sects in this The sudras were meant for serving the three
1

period Many of these sects were based on higher varnas, and along with women were
regional customs and rituals practised by barred, from taking to Vedic studies. They
different peoples living in north-east India, appear as domestic slaves, agricultural slaves,
Of these sects Jainism and Buddhism were thp craftsmen and hired labourers in post-Vedic
most important, and they emerged as the most times. They were called cruel, greedy and
potent religious reform movements, thieving in habits and some of them were
treated as untouchables. The higher the varna
Causes of Origin the more privileged and purer a person was.
In post-Vedic times society was clearly divid- The lower the varna of an offender, the more
ed into four varnas' brahmanas, 'kshatriyas, severe was the punishment prescribed for him.
vaisyas and sudras. Each varna was assigned Naturally the varna-divided society seems to
well-defined functions, although it was em- have generated tensions We have no means to
phasized that varna was based, on birth and find out the reactions of the vaisyas and the
the two higher varnas werp given some pri- sudras The kshatriyas, who acted as rulers,
vileges The brahmanas, who were given the however, reacted strongly against the ritualistic

functions of priests and teachers, claimed the domination of the brahmanas, and seem to
highest status in society. They demanded se- have led a kind of protest movement against
veral privileges, including those of receiving the importance attached to birth in the varna
gifts and exemption from taxation and punish- system. The kshatnya reaction against the do-
ments, In post-Vedic texts we have many in- mination of the priestly class called brahmanas,
stances of such privileges enjoyed by them. who claimed various privileges, was one of the
The kshatriyas-' ranked second in the varna causes origin of new religions. Var-
of the
hierarchy. They fought and governed and lived dhamana Mahavira, who founded Jainism, and
on the taxes collected from the peasants, The Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism,
vaisyas weie engaged in agriculture, cattle- belonged to the kshatriya clan, and both dis-
rearing and trade. They appear as principal puted the authority of the brahmanas.
taxpayeis. However, along with the two higher But the real cause of the rise of these new
varnas they were placed in the category of religions lay in the introduction of a new agri-
dvija or the twice-born. A dvija was entitled cultural economy in north-eastern India. North-
 JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 61

east India, including the regions of eastern process of erosion and flooding In the middle
Uttar and northern
Pradesh and southern Gangetic basin large-scale habitations began
Bihar, has about 100 cm of rainfall, Before from a^out 600 B.C ,
when iron came to be
these areas- came to be colonized on a large used m this area. On account of the moist
scale, they were thickly forested, The thick nature of the soil in this area too many iron
jungles could not be cleared without the aid of tools of earliest times have not survived, but
iron axes. Although some people lived in this quite a few axes have been recovered from
area B.C they used implements
before 600 , the layers belonging to circa 600-500 B.C The
of stone and copper, and they led a precarious use of Won tools made possible clearance,
life on river banks and confluences, where agriculture and large settlements. The agri-
land was opened to settlement through the cultural economy based on the iron plough-
share required the use .of bullocks, and it

could not flourish without animal husbandry.

ii ii i
But the Vedic practice of killing cattle indis-
criminately in sacrifices stood in the way of
the progress of new The cattle
agriculture.
wealth slowly decimated because the cows
and bullocks were killed in numerous Vedic
sacrifices. The tribal people living on the south-

ern and eastern fringes of Magadha also killed

battle for food. But if the new agrarian eco-
nomy had to be stable this killing had to be
stopped.
The period saw the rise of a large number of
cities in north-eastern India. We may refer, for
example, to Kausambi near Allahabad, KuSi-
nagar (in the Deoria district of Uttar Pradesh),
Banaras, Vaisali (in the newly created district

of the same name in north Bihar), Chirand

(in the Chapra and Rajgir (situated at
district)

a distance of about 100 km

from Patna). Besides
others these cities had many artisans and traders,
who began to use coins for the first time. The
earliest coins belonged to the fifth century B.C.,
and they are called punch-marked coins. They
circulated for the first time in -eastern Uttar
Pradesh and Bihaf. The use of coins naturally
and commerce, which added to
facilitated trade
the importance of the vaisyas. In the brahman-
ical society the vaisyas ranked third, the
I'l Mil M \I'M II 'll ' I II

first two being brahmanas and kshatriyas

Naturally they looked for some religion which
would improve their position. The vaisyas exten-
9.1 Punch-marked Coins ded generous support to both Mahavira and
62 ANCIENT INDIA

Gautama Buddha. Tha merchants, called the trial Revolution made many people think of
setthis, made handsome gifts to Gautama Buddha return to the pre-machine age life, similarly
and his disciples. There were several reasons people in the past wanted to return to the pre-

for it First, Jainism and Buddhism in the initial iron age life.

stage did not attach any importance to the

existing varna system Second, they preached Vardhamana Mahavira and Jainism
the gospel of non-violence, which would put Vardhamana Mahavira was bom in 540 B.C.
an end to wars between different kingdoms and in a village near Vaisali, which is identical with

consequently promote trade and commerce. Basarh in the district of Vaisali m north Bihar.
Third, the brahmanical law-books, called the His father was the head of a famous kshatriya
Dharmasutras, decried lending money on inter- clan, and his mother a Lichchhavi princess,

est. A person who lived on interest was They were also connected with the royal family
condemned by them Therefore the vaisyas, who ofMagadha. High connections made it easy
lent money on account of growing trade and for Mahivira to approach princes and nobles
commerce, were not held iri'estcem and were in the course of his mission.
eager to improve their social status. In the beginning Mahavira led the life of a
On the other hand we also notice a strong householder, but in the search for truth he aban-
reaction against various forms of private pro- doned tha world at the age of 30 and became
perty Old-fashioned people did not like the use an ascetic He kept on wandering for 12 years
and accumulation of coins made certainly of from place to place He would not stay for more
silver and copper and possibly of gold. They than a day in a village and for more than five
detested new dwellings and dresses, new sys- days in a town. During the course of his long
tems of transport which amounted to luxury, journey, it is said, he never changed his clothes
and they hated war and violence The new forms for, 12 years, and abandoned them altogether
of property created social inequalities, and when he attained perfect knowledge or kcuvalya
caused misery and suffering to the masses of of 42. Through kaivalya he conquered
at the age
the people So the common people yearned to misery and happiness Because of this conquest
return to primitive They wanted to get back
life. he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or
to tha ascetic idealwhich dispensed with the jina, i e„ the conqueror, and his followers are
new forms of property and the new style of life. known as Jainas He propagated his religion
Both Jainism and Buddhism preferred simple, and
for 30 years, his mission took him to Kosala,
puritan, ascetic living.The Buddhist and Jaina Magadha, Mithila, Champa, etc. He passed
monks were asked to forgo the good things of away at the age of 72 in 468 B C at a place
life. They were not allowed to touch gold and called Pavapuri near modern Rajgir.
silver. They were to accept only as much from

their patrons as was sufficient to keep body and Doctrines of Jainism

soul together. They therefore rebelled against Jamism taught five doctrines (1) do not -

the material advantages stemming from the new commit violence, (2) do not speak a lie, (3) do
life words we find
in the Gangetic basin. In other not steal, (4) do not acquire property and (5)
the same kind of reaction against the changes observe continence ( brahmacharya), It is said
in material life in north-eastern India in the that only the fifth doctrine was added by Maha-
six^h century B.C. as we notice against the vira, the other four being taken over by him
changes introduced by the'Industrial Revolution from previous teachers Although Parsva, the
jn modern times. Just as the advent of Indus- predecessor of. Mahavira, had asked his follow-
 ,

JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 63

ers to cover the upper and lower portions of The famine lasted for 12 years, and so in order

their body, Mahavira asked them to discard to protect themselves many a Jaina went to the
clothes completely. This implies that Maha- south under the leadership of .Bhadrabahu, but
vira asked 'his followers 1o lead a more "austere the rest of them stayed back in Magadha under
life On account of this in later times Jainism the leadership of Sthalabahu. The immigrant
was divided into two sects svetambaras or : Jainas spread Jainism in south India At the
those who put on white dress, and chgambaras end of the famine they came back to Magadha,
or those who keep themselves naked where they developed differences with the local
Jainism recognized the existence of the Jainas, Those who came back from the south
gods but placed them lower than the jina Jt claimed that even during the famine they strictly

did not condemn the vaina system, as Buddhism observed the religious rules ,
on the other hand,
did. According to Mahavira, a person is born they alleged, the Jaina ascetics living in Magadha
in a high or in a lower varna in consequence violated those rules and become lax. In
1

had
of the sins or the virtues acquired by him in the order to sort out these differences and to compile
previous birth Mahavira looks for human val- the main teachings of Jainism a council was
ues even in a chandala. In his opinion through convened in Pataliputra, modern Patna, but the,
pure and meritorious life members of the lower southern Jainas boycotted the council and
castes can attain liberation. Jainism mainly refused to accept its decisions. ,
From now
aims at the attainment of freedom from worldly onwards the southerners began to be called
bonds. It is not necessary to use any ritual digambaras, and the Magadhans svetambaras.
for acquiring such liberation. It can be obtained However, epigraphic evidence for the spread of
through knowledge and action. Full know-
full Jainism in Karnataka is not earlier than the
ledge, action and liberation are considered to third century A.D. In subsequent centuries,
be the three gems or ratnas of Jainism especially from .the sixth century, numerous
Jaina monastic establishments called basadis
Spread of Jainism sprang up m Karnataka and were granted land
In order to spread the teachings of Jainism, by the kings for their support
Mhhavira organized an order of his followers
which admitted both men and women It is Jainism spread to Kalmga in Orissa in the
said that his followers counted 14,000, which fourth century B.C., and in the first century
is not a large number Since Jainism did not B C- it enjoyed the patronage of the Kalinga
very clearly mark itself out from the brahmani- king Kharavela who had defeated the princes
cal religion, it failed to attract the masses. of Andhra and Magadha. In the ,second and
Despite this Jainism gradually spread into south first centuries B.C it also seems to have reached

and west India According to a late tradition, the southern districts of Tamil Nadu. In later
the spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed centuries Jainism penetrated Malwa, Gujarat
to Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 B.C.). The and Rajasthan, and even now these areas have a
emperor became a Jaina, gave up his throne good number of Jainas, mainly engaged in trade
and spent the last years of his life in Karnataka and commerce. Although Jainism did not win as
as a Jaina ascetic. But this tradition is not much state patronage as Buddhism did and did
corroborated by any other source. The second not spread very fast in early times, it still retains

cause of the spread of Jainism in south India itshold in the areas where it spread. On the
is said to be the great famine that took place in other hand Buddhism has practically disappear-'
Magadha 200 years after the death of Mahavira. ed frpm the 'Indian subcontinent,
64 ANCIENT INDIA

Contribution of Jainism moved by which people suffered in

the misery
Jainism made the first serious attempt to the world, and looked for solution. At the age
mitigate the evils of the varria older and the of 29, like Mahavira again, he left home. He
ritualistic Vedic religion The early Jamas kept on wandering for about seVen years and
discarded Sanskrit language mainly patronized then attained knowledge at the age of 35 at
by the brahmanas. They adopted Prakrit langu- Bodh Gaya under a pipal tree. From this time

age of the common people to preach their onwards he began to be called the Buddha or
doctrines Their religious literature was written the enlightened.
in Ardhamagadhi, and the texts were finally Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermons
compiled in the sixth century A.D in Gujarat at Sarnath in Banaras. He undertook long
at a place called Valabhi, a great centre of edu- journeys and took his message far and wide,
cation. The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas He had a very strong physique, which enabled
helped the growth of this language and its him to walk 20 to 30 km a day He kept on
literature Many regional languages developed wandering, preaching and meditating con-
out of Prakrit languages, particulaily Sauraseni, tinuously for 40 years, resting only in the rainy
out of which grew the Marathi language The season every year During this long period he
Jainas composed the earliest important works encountered many staunch supporters of rival
in Apabhramsa and its first grammaL. The sects inoluding the brahmanas, but defeated
Jaina literature contains epics, Puranas, novels them in debates. His missionary activities did
and drama. A large portion of the Jaina writing not discriminate between the rich and the poor,
is still form of manuscripts, which have
in the the high and the low,and man and woman,
not been published and which are found in the Gautama Buddha passed away at the age of 80
Jaina shrines of Gujarat and Rajasthan In in 483 B.C. at a place called Kusinagar,
early medieval times the Jainas also made good identical with the village called Kasia in the
use of Sanskrit and wrote many texts in this district of Deoria in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
language Last but not the least, they contribu-
ted to the growth of Kannada, in which they Doctrines of Buddhism
wrote extensively. The Buddha proved to be a practical refor-
mer who took note of the realities of ihe day.
Gautama Buddha and Buddhism He did not involve himself in fruitless controver-
Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was a con- sies regarding the soul (
atman) and the Brahma
temporary of Mahavira. He was boin in 563 which raged strongly in his time; he addressed
B.C in a Sakya kshatiiya family m Kapilavastu, himself to the worldly problems He said that
which is situated in the foothills of Nepal. the world is full of sorrows and people suffer
Gautama’s father seems to have been the elected on account of desires. If desires are conquered,
ruler of Kapilavastu, and headed the republi- nirvana will be attained, that is, man will be
can clan of the Sakyas. His mother was a princess free from the cycle of birth and death.
from the Kosalan dynasty. Thus, like Maha- Gautama Buddha recommended an eight-
vira, Gautama also belonged to a noble family. fold path ( astangika marga) for the elimination
Born in a republic, he also inherited some of human misery. This path is attributed to
republican sentiments. him in a text of about the third century B.C.
From his early childhood Gautama showed It comprised right observation, right determina-
a meditative bent of mind. He was married early, tion, right speech, right action, right livelihood,
but married life did not interest him. He was right exercise, right memory and right medita-.
 JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 65

tion. If a person follows this eightfold path he the spread of Buddhism. He tried to fight evil
would not depend on the machinations of the by goodness and hatred by love He refused to
priests, and yet he will be able to reach his be provoked by slander and abuse. He main-
destination Gautama taught that a person tained poise and calm undei difficult conditions,

should avoid the excess of both luxury and and tackled opponents with wit and presence
his
austerity. He prescribed the middle path. of mind. It is said that on one occasion an igno-
The Buddha also laid down a code of conduct rant person abused him The Buddha listened on
for his followers on the same lines as was done silently, and whan the person had stopped
by the Jama teachers. The main items in this abusing, the Buddha asked: “My son, if a
social conduct are •
(1) do not covet the pro- person does not accept a present what will hap-
perty of others, (2) do not commit violence, pen to it?" His adversary replied. “It remains
(3) do not use intoxicants, (4) do hot speak a with the person who has offered it.” The Buddha
lie, and (5) do not indulge incorrupt practices. than said “My son, I do not accept your
”
These teachings are common to the social con- abuse
duct ordained by almost all religions. The use of Pali, the language of the people,
also contributed to the spread of Buddhism.
Special Features of Buddhism and the Causes It facilitated the spread of Buddhist doctiines
of its Spread among the common people. Gautama Buddha
Buddhism does not recognize the existence also organized the sangha or the religious order,
of god and soul ( atman ). This can be taken as whose doors were kept open to everybody,
a kind of revolution in the history of Indian and sex, The only condition
irrespective of caste
religions. Since early Buddhism wrs not en- required of the monks was that they would
meshed in the clap-trap of philosophical discus- faithfully observe the rules and regulations of
sion, it appealed to the common people. It the sangha Once they were enrolled as members
particularly won the support of the lower orders of the Buddhist Church they had to take the
as it attacked the varna system People were vow of continence, poverty and faith. So there
taken into the Buddhist any order without are three main elements in Buddhism. Buddha,
consideration of caste. Women
were admit- also sangha and dhamma As a result of organized
ted to the sangha and thus brought on a par preaching under the auspices of the sangha
with men. In comparison with brahmanism, Buddhism made rapid strides even in the
Buddhism was liberal and democratic lifetime of the Buddha The monarchies of
Buddhism made a special appeal to the Magadha, Kosala and Kausambi And several
people of the non-Vedic areas where it found republican states and their people adopted this
a virgin soil The people of
for conversion. religion.
Magadha responded to Buddhism readily Two hundred years after the death of the
because they wore looked down upon by the Buddha Maurya king Asoka embrac-
the famous
orthodox brahmanas. Magadha was placed ed Buddhism. This was an epoch-making event.
outside the pale of the holy Aryavarata, the land Through his agents Asoka spread Buddhism
of the Aryas, covering modern Uttar Pradesh into Central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka,
The old tradition persists, and the people of and thus transformed it into a world religion.
north Bihar would not like to be cremated Even today Sri Lanka, Burma, Tibet and parts
south of the Ganga in Magadha. of China and Japan profess Buddhism. Although
v

The personality of the Buddha and the method Buddhism disappeared from the land of its
adopted by him to preach his religion helped birth, it continues to hold ground in the coun-
 66 ANCIENT INDIA

tries of South Asia, South-East Asia and East would have continued, for thousands of years,

Asia. but because this admission has been granted

it would last only five hundred years.”
Causes of the Decline of Buddhism For their riches the monasteries came to be
By the twelfth century A.D., Buddhism be- coveted by the Turkish invaders. They ‘became
came practically extinct in India. It continued special targets of the invaders’ greed The
to exist m a changed form in Bengal and Bihar Turks killed a large number of Buddhist monks
till the twelfth century, but after that this reli- in Nalanda, although some of the monks
gion almost completely vanished from the managed to escape to Nepal and Tibet In any
country. What were its causes? We find that in case by the twelfth century A.D. Buddhism had

the beginning every religion is inspired by the practically disappeared from the land of its

spirit of reform, but eventually it succumbs to birth.

rituals and ceremonies it originally denounced.

Buddhism underwent a similar metamorphosis. Importance and Influence of Buddhism
It became a victim to the evils of brahmamsm Despite its ultimate disappearance as an organ-
against which it had fought in the beginning. ized religion Buddhism left its abiding mark
To meet the Buddhist challenge the brahmanas on the history of India The Buddhists showed a
reformed their religion. They stressed the need keen awareness of the problems that faced the
for preserving the cattle wealth and assured people of north-east India in the sixth centuiy
women and sudras of admission to heaven B C. The new iron ploughshare agriculture,
Buddhism, on the other hand, changed! for trade,and the use of coins enabled the traders
the worse. Gradually the Buddhist monks were and nobles to accumulate wealth, and we hear
cut off from the mainstream of people’s life; of people possessing eighty kotis of wealth All
they gave up Pali, the language of the people, this naturally created sharp social and economic
and took to Sanskrit, the language of intellec- inequalities. So Buddhism asked people not to
tuals. From the first century A.D. they practised accumulate wealth According to it poverty breeds
idol worship on a large scale and received hatred, cruelty and violence. To eradicate these
numerous offerings ,
from devotees. The rich evils the Buddha advised that farmers should be
offerings supplemented by generous royal provided with gram and other facilities, the trad-
grants to the Buddhist monasteries made the ers with wealth, and the labourers with wages
life of monks easy. Some of the monasteries These measures were recommended to remove
such as Nalanda collected revenue from as poverty m this world. Buddhism further taught
many as 200 villages. By the seventh century that if the poor gave alms to ,the monks they
A.D. the Buddhist monasteries had coma to be would be born wealthy in the next world
dominated by ease-loving p opla and became The code of conduct prescribed for the monks
centres of corrupt practices which Gautama represents a reaction against fhe material condi-
Buddha had strictly prohibited. The new form tions of north-east India in the sixth and fifth

of Buddhism was known as Vajrayana The on the food,

centuries B.C. It imposes restrictions
enormous wealth of the monasteries with women dress and sexual behaviour of the monks They
, living in them led to further degeneration. cannot accept gold and silver and they cannot
Buddhists came to look upon women as objects take to sale and purchase. These rules were
of lust. The Buddha is reported to have said relaxed after the -death of the Buddha, but the
to his favourite disciple Ananda “If women early rules suggest a return to a kind of primitive
were not admitted into the monasteries Buddhism communism, a characteristic of the tribal society
 JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 67

in which people did not practise trade and plough society by keeping its doors open to women and

agriculture..The code of conduct prescribed sudras. Since both women and sudras were placed
for monks partially reflects a revolt against the
j
in the same category by_ brahmanism, they were
use of money, private property and luxurious neither given sacred thread nor allowed to read
living, which appeared m the sixth century B C. the Vedas.' Their conversion to Buddhism freed

in north-east India In those days property and them from such mark of inferiority.
money were regarded as luxuries. With its emphasis on non-violence and the
Although Buddhism tried to mitigate the sanctity .of animal life. Buddhism boosted the

evils resulting from the new material life in the cattle wealth of the country The earliest Buddhist

sixth century B C ,
it also tried to consolidate text Suttanipata declares the cattle to
be givers
the changes in the social and economic life of of food, beauty and happiness (annada vannada
the people. The rule that debtors were not per- sukhada), and thus pleads for their protection.
mitted to be members of the sangha naturally This teaching came significantly at a time when
helped the moneylenders and richer sections of the non-Aryans slaughtered animals for food,
society from whose clutches the debtors could and the Aryans in the name of religion. The
not be saved. Similarly the rule that slaves brahmamcal insistence on the sacredness of the
could not join the sangha helped the slave- cow and non-violence was apparently derived
owners Thus the rules and teachings of Gautama from Buddhist teachings
Buddha took full account of the new changes Buddhism created and developed a new aware-
in the material life and strengthened them ness in the field of intellect and culture. It taught
ideologically. the people not to take things for granted but to
Although the Buddhist munk$ had renounced argue and judge them on merits. To a certain
the world and repeatedly criticised the greedy extent the place of superstition was taken by
brahmanas, in several ways they resembled the logic. This promoted rationalism among people.
brahmanas. Both of them did nol participate In order to preach the doctrines of the new reli-

directly in production, and lived on the alms or gion the Buddhists compiled a new type of litera-

gifts given by society. Both of them emphasised ture.They enormously enriched Pah by their
the virtues of carrying out family obligations, writings.The early Pali literature can be divided
protecting private property and respecting politi- into three categories. The first contains the say-
cal authority.Both of them supported the social ings and teachings of the Buddha, the second
order based on classes; for the monks however deals with the rules to be observed by members
the vama was based on action and attributes of the sangha, and the third presents the philo-
but for the brahmanas it was based on birth. sophical exposition of the dhamma.
Undoubtedly the objective of the Buddhist the literary activities of the Buddhist monks
,

teaching was to secure the salvation of the indivi- continued even in the Middle Ages, and some
dual or nirvana. Those who found it difficult to famous Apabhramsa writings in east India were
adjust themselves to the break-up of the old composed by them. The Buddhist- monasteries
tribal society .and the rise of gross social inequa- developed as great centres of learning, and can
litieson account of private property were pro- be called residential universities. Mention may
vided with some way of escape, but it was be made of Nalanda and Vikramasila in Bihar,
confined to the monks. No escape was provided and Valabhi in Gujarat.
for the lay followers, who were taught to come Buddhism left its mark on the art of ancient
to terms with the existing situation. India The first human statues worshipped in
Buddhism made an important impact on India were probably those of the Buddha. The
68 ,
ANCIENT INDIA

faithful devotees portrayed the various events in in this region betray Indian as well as foreign
the life of the Buddha in stone. The panels found For the residence of the monks rooms
influence,
at Gaya in Bihar and at Sanchi and Bharhut in were hewn out of the rocks, and thus began the
Madhya Pradesh are illuminating examples of cave architecture in the Barabar hills m Gaya
artistic activity. From the first century A D and in western India around Nasik. Under the
the panel images of Gautama Buddha began to impetus of Roman trade Buddhist art flourished
be made. The Greek and the Indian sculptors in the Kushna delta, and under that of Central
worked together to create a new kind of art Asian contacts it thiove in Mathura and
on the north-west frontier of India, which is Gandhara.
known as the Gandhara art. The images made

EXERCISES

1. Explain the causes of the origin of the religious sects in north-east India in the
sixth century B C.
,

2. “The sixth century B,C. is remarkable for the origin of numerous religious sects
in north-east India,” Explain
3. Who was Vardhamana Mahavira and what were his teachings?
4. Trace the origin and development of Jainism in India.
5 Give an account of Jainism. What did it contribute to Indian society?
6. Who was Gautama Buddha? State his teachings
7. Explain the social aspects of Buddhism.
8 Why did Buddhism spread in India and abroad?
9. Account for the decline of Buddhism.
10. Discuss the importance and influence of Buddhism.
 CHAPTER 10
k

Territorial States and the First Magadhan Empire

From the sixth century B.C. the widespread century B C. Eventually the kingdom of Anga
use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and western was swallowed by its powerful neighbour
Bihar facilitated the formation of large terri- Magadha.
torial states;, Because of iron weapons the warrior Magadha embraced the modern districts of
class now played an important part. The new Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad, and grow
agricultural tools and implements enabled the to be the leacling state of the time. North of
peasants to produce far more foodgrains than the Ganga in the division rof Tirhut was the
they required for consumption The extra pro- state of the Vajjis which included eight clans.
duct could be collected by the princes to meet But the most powerful were the Lichchhavis with
theii military and administrative' needs! The their capital a,t Vaisali which is identical with

surplus could also be made available to the the village of Basarh in $e district of Vaisali.

towns which had sprung up in the sixth century The Puranas push the antiquity of Vaisali to a
B.C These material advantages naturally en- much earlier period, but archaeologically Basarh
abled the people to stick to their land, and also was not settled earlier than the sixth century B.C.,

to expand at the cost of the neighbouring areas. Further west we find the kingdom of Kasi
The rise 'of large states with towns as their base with its capital at Varanasi Excavations at
of operations strengthened the territorial idea Rajghat show that the earliest habitation started

People owed strong allegiance to the janapada around 700 B C and the city was enclosed by
,

or the territory to which they belonged and not mud-walls in the sixth century B.C. In the begin-
to the jana or the tribe to which they belonged. ning Kasi appears to be the most powerful of

»
the states, but eventually it had to submit to
'

The Mahajanapadas the power of Kosala.

In the age of the Buddha we '
find 16 large Kosalaiembraced the area occupied by eastern
states called mahajanapadas. They were mostly Uttar Prkdesh and had its capital at Sravasti,
situated north of the Vindhyas and extended which is identical with Sahct-Mahet on the
from the north-west frontier to Bihar. Of these, borders bf Gondla and Bahraich districts in Uttar!

Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti seem to Pradesh. Diggings indicate that Sahet-Mahct did
have been considerably powerful. Beginning not possess any large settlement in the sixth cen-
from the east we hear of the kingdom of Anga tury B.C, Kosala. contained an important city

which covered the modern districts, of Monghyr called Ayodhya, which is associated with the story
and Bhagalpur. It had its capital at Chanipa, in the Ramayatya. But excavations, show that
which shows signs of habitation from the sixth it was not settled on any scale before the sixth
70 ANCIENT INDIA

,
Based upon Survey of Indiaimap with the permission of the Surveyor General of India.
© Government of India copyright, 1 982
The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from
the appropriate base line.

Figure 8 The Mahajanapadai

 TERRITORIAL STATES AND THE FIRST MAGADHAN EMPIRE 7-1

century B C. Kosala also included the tribal re- Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire
publican territory of Sakyas of Kapilavastu, the , • Magadha "came 1

prominence under the

into
birth-place of the Buddha The capital of Kapila- leadership of Bimbisara, who belonged to the Har-
vastu has been identified with Piprahwa in Basti yaiika dynasty. Tiewas a contemporary of the
district, but Lumbini, which lies at a distance Buddha. Hd started the policy of Oonqucsts and
of 15 km front Piprahwa in Nepal, served as aggrandisement whioh ended with the Kalinga whr
another capital of the Sakyas of Asoka Bimbisara acquifed Anga and placed !

In the neighbourhood of Kosala lay the repub- itunder the viceroyalty of Ajatasatru at Chaiiipd.)
lican clan of the Mallas, whose territory touched He also strengthened his position 'by marriage

the northern border of the Vajji state. One of alliances.* He took three' wives. His first Wife

the capitals of the Mallas lay at Kusinara, where was the daughter of the king of Kosala' and ‘M
Gautama Buddha passed away Kusinara lS sister TheKosalan bride brought
of Prasenajit.
identical with Kasia in Deoria district, him as dowry aKasivillage;' yldlding'h, r eve ini e
kind^om of the Vatsas, of 100,000, which suggests that Seventies wef'd
Further west lay the
' '

along the bank of the Yamuna, with its capital

assessed m terms of coins The marriage bought
off the hostility of Kosala and gaVe him a fried
at Kausambi The Vatsas were a Kuru clan who
hand in dealing with the other states, His ''second
had shifted from Hastinapur and settled down
wife Chellana was a Lichchhavi
princess' from
at Kausambi near Allahabad. Kausambi was
Vaisali, and was the -daughter 'of
his third wife'
chosen because it was situated near the confluence
the chief of the Mddra clan-of Panjab. Marriage
of the Ganga and the Yamuna. In the sixth cen-
relations with the different princely families gave'
tury B C. it had a strong fortified capital, as can
enormous diplomatic prestige and phved tlife
be gathered from excavations, '

way for the expansion of Magadha westward and.'

Vfe also hear of the older states of the Kurus northwardi '
i
-
,
, ,
‘
vi,

and the Panchalas which were situated in west- Magadha’s 'most serious rival "was" Avartfi 1

ern Uttar Pradesh, but they no longer enjoyed'

with its capital
1

at Ujjain. Its king Chanda 1

the political importance which they had attained ,

1

Pradyota Mahasena fought Bimbisara, but- ulti-

in the later Vedic period.
two thought it wise to become friends':"’
mately, the
1

In central Malwa and the adjoining, part? of Later when Pradyota was attacked by jaundice, 1 f

Madhya Pradesh lay the state of the Ayantis. , at the Avanti king’s request Bimbisara sent 'the
1

It was divided into two parts. The northern part royal physician Jivaka to Ujjain. Bimbisati iS"

nad its and the southern part

capital at Ujjain, also said to* have received an embassy and
1
r
a’

at Mahishamati. Excavations show that both , letter from the ruler of Gandhara with which 1

these towns became fairly important from the Pradyota had fought unsutcessfully So through 1
.

sixth centuryB.C. onwards, though eventually* his conquests and diplomacy Bimbisara made
Ujjain surpassed Mahishamati, It* developed Magadha the paramount power in th!e -'sixth
1

large-scale working in iron, and erected strong century B:C. *His kingdom is said’ tb havk" '

fortification, ,
,
consisted lof 80;000 villages, which is a 'conveh-'
tional number; u
‘
1 '
'
u
The political history of India front the sixth, * 1

century B.C. onwards is the history of struggles The earliest capital of Magadha wa's at Raj gif, r

between these states for supremacy, Ultimately which (whs called Girivraja' at that time: It ‘was 1

1,

the kingdom of Magadha emerged to be the , surrounded, by five hills, the openings in* which
most powerful and succeeded in founding ian wdre'closed by ston- -walls* on all sides. This made
1 11
empire. ,
•
,
.
Rajgir impregnable.
72 ANCIENT INDIA

According to the Buddhist chronicles Bim- "in the centre, of the Magadhan kingdom, which
bisara ruled for 52 years, roughly from 544 now extended from the Himalayas in the north
B.C. to 492 B.C. He was succeeded by his son to the hills of Chotanagpur in the south. Patna’s

Ajatasatru (492-460 B C.) Ajatasatru killed position, as will be seen later, was crucially

his father and seized the throne for himself. strategic.

His reign saw the high watermark of the Bim- Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of
bisara dynasty, He fought two wars and made Sisunagas, who temporarily shifted the capital

preparations for the third Throughout his reign to Vaisali. Their greatest achievementwas .the
he pursued an aggressive policy of expansion destruction of the power of Avanti with its

This provoked against him a combination of capital at Ujjain This brought to an end the

Kasi and Kosala. There began a prolonged 100-year old rivalry between Magadha and
conflict between Magadha and Kosala. Ulti- Avanti. From now onwards Avanti became a
mately Ajatasatru got the best of the war, and part of the Magadhan empire and continued to
1
the Kosalan king was compelled to purchase be so till Maurvd rule.
the end of the
peace by giving his daughter in marriage to The Sisunagas were' succeeded by the Nandas,
Ajatasatru and leaving him in sole possession who proved to be the most powerful rulers of
of Kasi. *, Magadha. So great was their power that Alexan-
was no respector of relations.
Ajatasatru der, who invaded Panjab at that time, did not
Although mother was a Lichchhavi princess,
his dare to move towards the east. The Nandas
this did not prevent him from making war added to the Magadhan power by conquering
against Vaisali. The excuse was that the Lich- Kalinga from where they brought an image
chhavis were the allies of Kosala. He created of the Jina as a victory trophy. AH this took
dissensions in the ranks of the Lichchhavis and place in the reign of Mahapadma Nanda. He
finally destroyed their independence by invad- claimed to be ekarat, the sole sovereign who
ing their territory and by defeating them in destroyed all the other ruling princes. It seems
battle. It took him full 16 years to destroy that he acquired not only Kalinga but also
Vaisali. Eventually he succeeded in doing so Kosala which had probably rebelled against
because of a war engine which was used to him
throw stones like catapults. He also possessed The Nandas were fabulously rich and enoi-
a chariot to which a mace was attached, and it mously powerful It is said that they maintained
facilitated mass killings. The Magadhan empire 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry and 6000 war
was thus enlarged with the addition of Kasi elephants. Such a huge army could be main-
and Vaisali. tained only through an effective taxation system.
Ajatasatru faced a stronger rival in the ruler It was because of these considerations that'
of Avanti. Avanti had defeated the Vatsas of Alexander did not advance against them
Kausambi and now threatened an invasion of The later Nandas turned out to be weak and
Magadha. To meet this danger Ajatasatru began unpopular. Their rule in Magadha was supplant-
fortification of Rajgir The remains of the walls ed by that of the Maurya dynasty under which
can be still seen. However, the invasion did not the
1

Magadhan empire reached the apex of

materialize in his lifetime, glory
Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444
BC). His reign is important because he built Causes of Magadha’s Success
the fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and The march of the Magadhan empire during
Son at Patna. This was done because Patna lay the two centuries preceding the rise of the.
 TERRITORIAL STATES AND THE FIRST MAGADHAN EMPIRE 73

Mauryas is like the march, of the Iranian empire pre-industriai days, when communications were
during the same period. The formation of lUc difficult the army could move north, west,
largest state in India during this period was the south and cast by follow ing the courses of the
work of several enterprising and ambitious rivets 1 urther, the position of Patna itself was
rulers such' as Bimbisara, Ajatasatru and rendcied invulnerable because of its being
Mahapadma Nanda. They employed all means, sunounded by rivers on almost all sides. While
fair and foul, at their disposal to enlarge then the Son and the Ganga surrounded it on the
kingdoms and to strengthen their states. 'But north and west, the Poonpun surrounded it
this was not the only reason for the expansion on the south and east. Pataliputra therefore
of Magadha. was a trtie water-fort {jaladurga), and it was
Thera were some other important factors. not easy to capture this town in those days.
Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographi- Magadha lay at the centre of the middle
cal position in the age of iron,, because the Gangetic plain. The alluvium, once cleared of
richest iron deposits were situated not far away the jungles, proved immensely fertile. Because
from Rajgir, the earliest capita) of Magadha of heavy rainfall the area could be made pro-
The ready availability of th^ rich iron ores in ductive even without nngation. The country
the neighbourhood enabled thi Magadhan produced varieties of paddy, which are men-
princes to equip themselves with etlective tioned in the early Buddhist texts. This area was
weapons, which were not easily available to far moio productive than the areas to the west
their rivals. Iron mines are also found in eastern of Allahabad This naturally enabled the
Madhya Pradesh, and were not far from the' peasants to produce considerable surplus, which
kingdom of the Avantis with their capital at could be mopped up by the rulers in the form
Ujjain. Around 500 B.C. iron was certain^ of taxes.
forged, and smelted in Ujjain, and probably TJhc princes of fylagadha also benefited from
the smiths manufactured weapons of good the rise of towns and use of coins. On account
On account of this 'Avanti proved to Be
quality. of trade and commerce in north-east India, the
the most serious competitor of Magadha for princes could levy tolls on the sale of commodi-
the supremacy of north India, and Magadha ties and accumulate wealth to pay and main-
took about a hundred years to subjugate Ujjain. tain their army.
Magadha enjoyed certa n other advantages
:

Magadha enjoyed a special advantage in

The two capitals of Magadha, the first at Raj- military Although the Indian
organization,
gir and the second at Pataliputra, were situated states were well acquainted with the use of
at very strategic points. Rajgir was surrounded by horses and chariots, it was Magadha which
a group of five hills, and so it was rendered first used elephants on a large scale in its wars

impregnable in those days when there were no ^gainst its neighbours. The eastern part of the
easy means of storming citadels <$uch as cannons country could supply elephants to tho princes of
which came to be invented much later. In the Magadha, and we learn from Greek sources that
fifth century the Magadhan princes shifted their the Nandas maintained 6000 elephants. Elephants
capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra, which occu- could b,e used in storming fortresses and in
pied a- pivotal position commanding commu- marching over marshy and other areas lacking
nications on all sides. Pataliputra was situated roads and other means of communication.
i at the confluence of the Ganga, the Gandak Finally, we may refer to the unorthodox
and the Son, and a fourth river called the Sarayu character of the Magadhan society. It was
joined the Ganga not far from Pataliputra. in inhabited by the Kiratas and Magadhas, who
74 ANCIENT INDJA

were; held in low esteem by the orthodox brah- doms which had been
brought under the
manas. But it underwent a happy racial admix- Vedic influence On
account of all
earlier.
hire on account of the advent of the Vedic
. these reasons Magadha succeeded in defeating
people. Since it was recently aryanized j.t showed the other kingdoms and in founding the first
more enthusiasm for expansion than the king- empire in India.
'i i ,

EXERCISES

1. Describe the political condition of India in the sixth, century B.C.

2. .With the help of a sketch-map trace the expansion of the first Magadhan empire.
3. Account for the success of Magadha in founding an empire.
 CHAPTER 11

Iranian and Macedonian Invasions

Iranian Invasion that India continued to be a part of the Iranian

In north-east India smaller principalities and empire till Alexander’s invasion of India,
republics gradually merged with the Magadhan
empire. But the north-west India presented a
different picture in the first half of the sixth Results of the Contact
century B,C, Several small principalities such The Indo-Iranian contact lasted for about
as those' of the Kambojas, Gandharas and 200 years. It gave an impetus to Indo-Iranian

Madras fought one another. This area did not trade and commerce. The cultural results were
have any powerful kingdom like that of Maga- more important. The Iranian scribes brought
dha to weld the warring communities into one into India a form of writing which came io be
organized kingdom, The area was also wealthy, known as the Kharosthi script. It was written
and could be easily entered through the passes from right to left like the Arabic. Some Asokan
in the Hindukush. inscriptions in north-west India were written
The Achaememan rulers of Iran, who expan- in the third century B.C. in this script, which
ded their empire at the same time as the Maga- continued to be used in the country till the third
dhan princes, took advantage of the political century A.D. Iranian coins are also found in

disunity on the north-west frontier. The Iranian the north-west frontier region which points to
ruler Darius penetrated into north-west India the existence of trade with Iran. But it is wrong
in 516 B.C. and annexed Panjab, west of the tb think that the punch-marked coins continued
Indus, and Sindh. This area' constituted the in India as a result of contact with Iran. How-
twentieth province or satrapy of Iran, the total ever, Iranian influence on the Maurya sculpture
number of satrapies in the Iranian empire being is clearly perceptible. The monuments of Asoka’s
28. The Indian satrapy included Sindh, the time, especially the bellshaped capitals, owed
north-west frontier and the part of Panjab Something to the Iranian models. Iranian in-

that lay to the west of the Indus. It was the most fluence may also be traced in the preamble of
fertile and populous part of the empire. It' paid Asoka’s edicts as well as in certain words used
a tribute of 360 talents of gold, which accounted in them! For instance, , for the Iranian term
for one-third of the total reveriue of Iran from dipt the 'Asokan scribe used the term lipi, Fur-
its Asian provinces. The Indian subjects were ther, it seems that through the Iranians the
also enrolled in the Iranian army. Xerxes, the Greeks came to know about the great wraith of
successor of Darius, employed the Indians in India, which whetted their greed and eventually

the long war against the Greeks. It appears led to Alexander’s invasion of- India.
 :

76 ANCIENT INDIA

Alexander’s Invasion him and made him his Then he advanced

ally.

In the fourth century B.C. the Greeks and the as far as the Beas river. to moveHe wanted
Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world. still further eastward but his army refused to

Under the leadership of Alexander of Macedo- accompany him. The Greek soldiers had grown
nia the Gieeks finally ' destroyed the Iranian .warweary and disease-stricken. The hot climate
empire. Alexander conquered not only Asia of India and ten years of continuous cam-
Minor and Iraq but also Iran. From Iran he paigning had made them terribly homesick. They
marched to India, obviously attracted by its had also experienced a taste of Indian fighting
great wealth. Herodotus, who is called father qualitieson the banks ctf the Indus, which made
of history, and other Greek writers had paint- them from further progress. As the Greek
desist
ed India as a fabulous land, which tempted historian Arrian tells us “In the art of war the
.

Alexander to invade this country. Alexander Indians were far superior to the other nations
also possessed a strong passion for geographi- inhabiting the area ,at that tune ” Especially
cal inquiry and natural history. He had heard the Greek soldiers were told of a formidable
thaton the eastern side of India was the conti- power on the Ganga Obviously it was the
nuation of the Caspian Sea. He. was also kingdom of Magadha ruled _by the Nandas
inspired by the mythical exploits of past who maintained an army far outnumbering
conquerors whom he wanted to emulate and that of Alexander ' So, despite the repeated
surpass. appeals of Alexander to advance, the Greek
The political condition of north-west India soldiers did not budge an inch Alexander
The area was parcelled out into
suited his plans. lamented. *,T am trying to rouse the hearts that
many independent monarchic^ and tribal re- are disloyal and crushed with craven fears.”
publics which were strongly wedded to the soil The king who had never known defeat at the
and had a fierce love of the principality over hands of his enemies had to accept defeat from
which they ruled. Alexander found it easy to his own men He was forced to retreat, and his
conquer these principalities one by one. Among dream of. an eastern empire remained unful-
the rulers of these territories, two were well filled. On his return march Alexander vanquish-

—
known Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, and Porus ed many small republics till he reached the
whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the end of the Indian frontier. He remained in
Chenab. Together they ought have effectively India foF months (326-325 B.C,), which
19
resisted the advance of Alexander But they were full He had barely any time to
of fighting.
could ,not put up a joint front, .the Khyber organize his conquests Still he made some

pass remained unguarded. arrangements. Most conquered states were

After the conquest of Iran Alexander moved restored to .their rulers who submitted to his
-
on from where he marched to India
to Kabul, authority, But his own territorial possessions
througli the Khyber pass, It took him five were divided into three parts, which were
months to reach the Indus. Ambhi, the ruler of placed under three Greek governors. He also
Taxila, readily submitted to the invader, augmen- founded a number of cities to maintain his
ted his army and replenished his treasure. When power m this area.
he reached the Jhelum, Alexander met from
Porus the first and the strongest resistance. Effects of Alexander’s Invasion
Although Alexander defeated Porus he was Alexander’s invasion provided the first occa-
impressed by the bravery and courage of the sionwhen ancient Europe came into close
Indian prince. So he restored his kingdom to contact with ancient India. It produced certain
 IRANIAN AND MACEDONIAN INVASIONS 77

important results. The Indian campaign of Therefore he despatched his new fleet under his

Alexander was a triumphant success He added friend Nearchus to explore the coast and search
to his empire an Indian province which was for harbours from the mouth of the Indus to

much larger than that conquered by Iran, though that of the Euphrates. So Alexander's, historians’
the Greek possessions in India were soon lost have left valuable geographical accounts. They
to the then Maurya rulers. also have left clearly dated records of Alexander’s

The most important outcome of this invasion campaign, which enable us to build Iiidian

was the establishment of direct contact between chronology for subsequent events on a definite

India and Greece in different fields Alexander’s basis Alexander’s historians also give us< im-
campaign opened up four distinct routes by land portant information about social and econo-
and sea. It paved the way for Greek merchants mic conditions They tell us about the sati

and craftsmen, and increased the existing facili- system, the sale of girls in maiket places by poor
ties for trade. parents, and the fine breed of oxen in north-west
Although we hear of some Greeks living on India. Alexander sent from there 200,000 oxen
the north-west even before the invasion of to Macedonia for use in Greece The art of
Alexander, the invasion led to the establish- carpentry was the most flourishing craft in

ment of more Greek settlements in this area. India, and carpenters built chariots, boats and
The most important of them were the city ships.

of Alexandria in the Kabul region, Boukephala By destroying the power of petty states in
on the Jhelum, and Alexandria in Sindh Al- north-west India Alexander’s invasion paved
though the areas were conquered by the Mauryas the way for the expansion of the Maurya empire
the settlements were not wiped out, and some of m that area. According to tradition Chandragupta
the Greeks continued to live in this area, under Maurya, who founded the Maurya empire, had
both Chandragupta Maurya and Asoka. seen something of the working of the military
Alexander was deeply interested m the geo- machine of Alexander and had acquired some
graphy of the mysterious ocean which he saw knowledge which helped him in destroying the
for the first time at the mouth of the Indus. power of the Nandas

EXERCISES

1. Give an account of the Iranian invasion of India in the sixth century B.C. What
were its results?
2. Narrate the history of Alexander’s invasion of India, indicating on a sketch-map
the route he took.
3. ,
What were the effects of Alexander’s invasion of India?
 CHAPTER 12

State and Varna Society in the Age

of the Buddha

Material Life Wooden been found in Patna,

palisades have
The picture of material life in north India, and these possibly belong to Maurya or pra-
especially in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Maurya Some of these towns were also
times.
can be drawn on the basis of the Pali texts ai}d Houses were mostly made of mud-
fortified.

the Sanskrit Sutra literature in combination with brick and wood, which naturally have perished
archaeological evidence. Archaeologically the in the moist climate of the middle Gangetic
sixth century B.C, marks the beginning of the basin. Although seven-storied palaces are
NBP phase. The abbreviation NBP stands for mentioned in Ihe Pali texts, they have not bean
the Northern Black Polished Ware, which was discovered anywhere. Structures excavated so
a very glossy, shining type of pottery. This far are generally unimpressive,
but together
(

pottery was made of very fine fabric and apparen- with the other material remains they indicate
tly served as the table-ware of richer people. great increase in population when compared
In association with this pottery are found iron with th,e Painted Gray Ware settlements.
implements, especially those meant for crafts Many towns were seats of government, but
'

and agriculture This phase also saw the (begin- whatever be the causes of their origih they
'

ning of metallic money, The use of burnt Ibricks eventually turned out to be markets and came
and ringwells appeared in the middle of the to be inhabited by artisans and merchants.,
NBP phase, i.e., in the third century B.C. At soma places there was concentration of
The NBP phase marked the beginning of the artisans, Saddalaputta at Vaisali had 500 potters’
second urbanization in India. The Harappan shops. Both artisans and merchants were
towns finally disappeared in about 1500 B.C. organized into guilds under their respective
'

After that for about 1.00Q years we do not find headmen. Wa hear of 18 guilds of artisans but
any towns in India. With the appearance of only the guilds of smiths! carpenters, leather
towns in the middle Gangetic basin in the
'

,, workers and painters are specified. Both arti-

sixth century B.C., a second urbanization sans and merchants lived in fixed localities in
began in India, Many toilvns mentioned in towns, We hear of vessa's or merchants’ street
the Pali and Sanskrit texts such as Kausambi, iri Varanasi. Similarly we hear of the street of
Sravasti, Ayodhya, Kapilavastu, Varanasi, ivory-workers. Thus specialization in crafts
Vaisali, Rajgir, Pataliputra, Champa have been developed on account of the guild system as
excavated, and in each case signs of habitation well as localization. Generally crafts were
and mud structures belonging to the advent hereditary, and the son learned his family
of the NBP phase or its middle have been found. trade from the father.
 STATE AND VARNA SOCIETY IN THE AGE OF THE BUDDHA 79

The .territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a 'distance of twelve nautical miles

measured from the appropriate base line,.

Figure 9 India —NBP Sites '

80 ANCIENT INDIA

The products of crafts ware carried over ed. Writing led to the compilation of not
long distances by merchants. We repeatedly hear only laws and rituals but also facilitated book-
of 500 cartloads of goods. These contained keeping, which was so essential to trade, tax-
fine textile goods, ivory objects, pots, etc. All collection, and the keeping of a large pro-
the important cities of the period
were situated fessional army. The period produced texts
on banks and trade routes, and connect-
river dealing with sophisticated measurement (Sul-
ed with one another, Sravasti was linked with vasutras), which presuppose writing and which
both Kausambi and Varanasi. The latter was may have helped the demarcation of fields and
considered to be a great centre of trade in the houses
age of Buddha The route from Sravasti passed Although rural settlements belonging to the
eastward and southward through Kapilavastu NBP phase have not been excavated, we cannot
and Kusinara and came to Vaisali. Traders think of the beginning of crafts, commerce and
crossed Ganga near Patna and went to
the urbanization in the middle Gangetic basin
Rajgir, They also went by the Ganga river to without a strong rural base Princes, priests,
Champa near modern Bhagalpur. If we believe artisans, traders, administrators, military .per-
the Jataka stories the traders of Kosala and sonnel and numerous other functionaries
Magadha went via Mathura as far northward could not live in towns unless taxes, tributes and
as Taxila.' Similarly from Mathura they went tithes were available in sufficient measure to
to Ujjain and the Gujarat coast. support them. Non-agriculturists living in towns
Trade was facilitated by the use of money. had to be fed by agriculturists living in villages.
The terms nishka and satamana in the Vedic In return artisans and traders living in towns
texts are taken to be names of coins, but coins made tools, cloth, etc., available to the
actually found ’are not earlier than the sixth rural folk. We, hear of a village trader deposit-
century B.C, It seems that in Vedic times ex- ing 500 ploughs' with a town merchant. Obvious-
change was carried on through means of barter, ly these were iron ploughshares. From the
and sometimes cattle served the purpose of NBP phase in Kausambi iron tools consisting of
currency. Coins made of metal appear first in axes, adzes, knives, razors, nails, sjckles, etc.,
the age of Gautama Buddha. The earliest are have been discovered. A good number of them
made largely of silver though a few coppers belong to the earliest layers of the NBP phase,
also appear. They are punch-marked
called and were probably meant for rbe use of the
because pieces of these metals were punched with peasants who bought them by paying in cash
certain marks such as hill, trees,' fish, bull, or kind
elephant, crescent, etc. The earliest hoards of Numerous villages mentioned in the
are
these coins have been found in eastern Utrar Pali texts, and towns seemto have been situa-
Pradesh aand Magadha, some early
although ted amidst the clusters of villages It seems
coins are also found in Taxila. The Pali texts that the nucleated rural settlement in which
indicate plentiful use of money ,and show that all people settled at one^olaco and had their
wages and prices were paid in it. The use of agricultural lands mostly outside the settlement
money had become so universal that even the first appeared m the m'ddle Gangetic basin in
pripe of a dead mouse was estimated m it. the age of Gautama Buddha. The Pali texts
It is likely that writing started a couple of speak of three t,pes of villages. The first
centuries before Asoka and contributed to trade. category included the typical village inhabited by
The earliest records were probably not written various castes and communities. Its nulnbar
on stone and metal and have therefore perish- seems to have been the largest, and it was headed
 ‘

STATE AND VARNA SOCIETY IN THE AGE OF THE BUDDHA 81

\
by a village headman called bhojaka. The second The place of technology in promoting rural
included suburban villages which were in the and urban economy needs to be underlined.
nature of craft villages; for instance a carpen- Iron played a crucial role in opening the rain-
ters’ village lay in the vicinity of Varanasi fed forested, hdrd-soil area of the middle Ganga
Obviously these villages served as markets for basin to clearance, cultivatidn and settlement.
the other villages and linked the towns .with The smiths knew how to harden Jron tools.
countryside. The third category consisted of Some tools from Rajghat (Varanasi) show that
border villages situated on the limits of the .they were made out of the iron ores obtained
countryside which merged into forests. People from Singhbhum and Mayurbhanj. It thus
living in these villages were mainly fowlers and appears that people came to be acquainted with
hunters, and led a backward life, the richest iron mines m
the country which
The ware divided into cultivable
village lands was bound to increase, the supply of tools for
plots and allotted family-wise. Every family crafts and agriculture.
cultivated its plots with the help of its members The picture of economy that emerges from
supplemented by that of agricultural labourers. a study of material remains and the Pali texts
Fields were fenced and irrigation channels dug is much different from the rural economy of

collectivelyby the peasant families under the later Vedic times in western Uttar Pradesh
supervision of the village headman. or the nature of the economy of a few chal-
The peasants had to pay one-sixth of their colithic communities found in some parts of
produce as tax Taxes were collected directly by Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. We notice for the
royal agents, and generally there were no in- first time an advanced food-producing economy

termediate landlords, be -ween the peasants on spread over the alluvium soil of the middle
the one hand and the state on the other. But Gangetic basin and the beginning of urban
some villages were granted to brahmanas and big economy in this area It was an economy which
merchants for their enjoyment. We also hear of provided subsistence not only to direct producers
large plots of land worked with the help of but also to many others who were not farmers
slaves and Rich peasants
agricultural la bourers or artisans. This made possible collection of
were called grihapatis, who were almost the taxes and maintenance of armies on a long-
same as vaisyas. term basis, and created conditions in which
Rice was the staple cereal produced in eastern large territorial states could be formed and
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar’m this period, Various sustained.
types of paddy and paddy fields are described
in the Pali texts. The, use of the term for trans- Administrative System
plantation is found in the Pali and Sanskrit Although we hear of many states in this

texts of the period, and it seems that large-scale period only Kosala and Magadha emerged as
paddy transplantation began in the age of the powerful Both of them were ruled by the heredi-
Buddha. Paddy transplantation or wet paddy tary monarchs belonging to the kshatriya varna.
production enormously added to the yield. In The Jatakas or the ‘stones relating to the previ-
addition the peasants also produced barley, ous births of the Buddha- tell us that oppressive
pulses, millets, cotton and sugarcane Agri- kings and their chief priests were expelled by
culture made great advance because of the use the people and new kings were installed. But
of the iron ploughshare and immense fertility occasions of expulsion were as rare as those of
of the alluvium soil in the area between Allaha- election. The king enjoyed the highest official
bad and Rajmahal status and special protection of his person and
82 ANCIENT INDIA

property. He yielded ground' only to great hoadfnon were known by different titles such as
religious leaders of the stature tif the Buddha. gramabhojaka, gramini or gramika. Eighty-six
The king was primarily a warlord who led his thousand gramikas are said to have been sum-
kingdom from victory to victory. This is well moned by Bimbisara The number may be con-
illustrated by the careers of Bimbisara and ventional, but it shows that the village head-

Ajatasatru. men enjoyed considerable importance and had

The kings ruled with the help of officials, direct links with the kings The village head-
both high and low. Higher officials Were called men assessed and collected the taxes from the
mahamatras, and they performed various func- villagers, and they also maintained law and
tions such as those of the minister ( mantrin ), order in their locality. Sometimes oppressive
commander {senanaydka), judge, chief accoun- headmen were taken to task by the villagers.
tant and head of the royal harem. It is likely
that a class of officers called ayuktas also per- Army and Taxation
formed similar functions in some of the states. The real increase in state power is indicated
The kings carried on administration with by the formation of a large professional army.
the help of the officers. Varsakara of Magadha At the time of Alexander’s invasion, the Nanda
and Dirghacharayana of Kosala were effective ruler of Magadha kept 20,000cavalry, 200,000
and influential ministers. The first succeeded infantry, 2000 horse-chariots and about 4000
in sowing seeds of dissension in the ranks of elephants. The chariots were losing their impor-
the Lichchhavis of Vaisali and enabled Ajatasa- tance hot only in north-east but also in north-
tru to conquer the republic. The second render- west India, where they had bean introduced
ed help to the king of Kosala. It seams that by the Aryans. Very few elephants were main-
high officers and ministers were largely recruited tained by the rulers of the states in north-west
from the priestly class of the
brahmanas. Gene- India, though some of them maintained as
rally they do not seem to have belonged to the many horses as the Magadhan king did. The
clan of the .king. possession of numerous elephants gave an edge
In both Kosala and Magadha, despite the to the Magadhan princes.
use of the punch-marked coins made of silver, The large long-service army had to be fad by
influential brahmanas and were paid by
setthis the state exchequer We are told that the
the,.grant of the revenue of villages. In doing Nandas possessed enormous wealth which must
so, the king did not have to obtain the consent
have enabled them to support the army, but we
of the clan, as was the case in later Vedic times, have no clear idea of the measures by which
but the beneficiaries ware granted only revenue; they raised taxes from the people. The fiscal
they were not given any administrative authority. system was established on a firm basis. Warriors
The rural administration was in the hands of and priests, i.e., the kshatriyas and the brah-
thet village headman. In the beginning, the manas, were exempted from payment of taxes,
headmen functioned as leader's 6f the tribal and the burden fell on the peasants who were
regiments,and So they were called gramini mainly vaisyas or grihapatis. Bah, a voluntary
which means the leader <Sf the grama or a tribal payment made by the tribesmen to their chiefs
military unit. As life became sedentary and in Vedic times, became a compulsory payment
plofigh cultivation 'well-established, tribal con- to be made by the peasants in the age of the
'down to agriculture. The gra-
tingents' settled 1

Buddha, and “
called balisadhakas were
officers
rhini therefore was transformed into a village appointed to collect it. It seems that one-sixth
-
headman in pre-Maurya times. The' village
'
of the produce was collected as tax by the king
 STATE AND VARNA SOCIETY IN THE AGE OF THE BUDDHA 83

from the peasants. Taxes ware assessed and a small body called parishad consisting exclu-
by royal agents with the help of vil-
collected sively of the brahmanas. Even in this period
lage headihen. The advent of writing may have assemblies were there, but not in the monarchies,
helped the assessment and collection of taxes. They flourished in the smaller republican states
The discovery of many hoards of punch-marked of the Sakyas, Lichchhavis, etc.

coins suggests that payment was made in both

cash and kind. In north-eastern India payment The Republican Experiment
was made in paddy. In addition to these taxes The republican system of government existed

the peasants were subjected to forced' labour either in the Indus basin or in the foothills of
for royal work. The birth stories of the Buddha the Himalayas in eastern Uttar Pradesh and -

speak of cases in which peasants left the coun- Bihar. The n. publics in the Indus basin may
try of the king m order to escape the oppressive have been the remnants of the Vedic tribes

burden of taxes. although some monarchies may have been

Artisans and traders also had to pay taxes. followed by republics. In some cases in Uttar
Artisans were made to work for a day in a Pradesh and Bihar people were possibly inspired
month for the king, and the traders had to pay by the old ideals of tribal equality which did not
customs on the sale of their commodities. The give much prominence to the raja

tolls were collected, by officers known as saul- In the republics real power lay in the hands
kika or sulkadhyaksha of tribal oligarchies. In the republics of Sakyas
The kings of the period no longer summoned and Lichchhavis the ruling class belonged to
the sabha and samitu Popular assemblies had - the same clan and the same varna. Although
practically disappeareu in post-Vedic times. in the case of the Lichchhavis of Vaisali 7707
Since they were essentially tribal institutions rajas saton the assembly held in the motehall,
they decayed and disappeared as tribes disin- the brahmanas were not included m this group.
tegrated into, varnas and lost their identity. In post-Maurya times, in the republics of the
Their place was taken by, varna and caste groups, Malavas and the Kshudrakas, the kshatnyas
and, so caste .laws and customs were given due and the brahmanas were given citizenship, but
weight by the writers of the law-books. How- slaves and hired labourers were excluded from
ever, these regulations were mainly confined to it. In a state situated on the Beas river in
social matters. Popular assemblies could succeed Panjab, membership was restricted to those who
only in small kingdoms where members of the could supply at least one elephant to the state'.
tribe could easily be summoned, as may have This was a typical oligarchy in the Indus basin
been the case m the Vedic period. With the emer- ,The administrative machinery of the Sakyas
gence of the large states of Kosala and Maga; and Lichchhavis was simple. It consisted :of
dha it was not possible to hold, big assemblies raja,’ uparaja (vice-king), senapati (commander),
attended by. people jbelonging to different social and bhandagarika (treasurer). We heat of as
classes and different parts of the empire/ The many as seven courts, for trying thh same case
sheer difficulty of communication made regular one after another; in the Lichchhavi republic,,
meetings, impossible. Further, being tribal the but this seems to bp too good to be, true.
,
| ,

old assembly cou[d not 'find place for

,
,
many In any case certain states in, the age. of the
non-Vedic people who lived in the new kingdoms. Buddha were pot ruled by hereditary kings',
(The changed circumstances therefore were but,by persons who were responsible to, the
npt congenial for the continuance of the old
, ,
assemblies: Thus although the people ‘living in
assemblies Instead, ,in this period we hear of ancient republics may not have shared ,p,oliti-,
 —

84 ANCIEN T INDIA

cal power equally, the republican tradition king, and this is how kingship or the state
in the country is as old as the age of the Buddha originated.
The republics differed from the monarchies
in several ways In the monarchies the king Social Orders and Legislation
claimed to be the sole recipient of revenue from The Indian legal and judicial system origina-
the peasants, but in the republics this claim ted in this period. Formerly people were governed
was advanced by every tribal oligarch who was by the tribal law, which did not recognize any
known Each one of the 7707 Lichchhavi
as raja class distinction But by now the tribal commu-
rajas maintained his store-house and apparatus nity jbad been clearly divided into four classes
of administration. Again, every monarchy brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaisyas and sudras.
maintained its regular standing army and did So the Dharmasutras laid down the duties of
not permit any group or groups of people to each of the four varnas, and the civil and cri-

keep arms within its boundaries But in a tribal minal law came to be based on the varna
oligarchy each raja was free to maintain his division. The higher the varna
the purer
own army under his senapati, so that
little it was,and the higher was the order of
each of them could compete with the other. moral conduct expected by civil and criminal
The brahmanas exercised great influence in '
law. All kinds of disabilities were imposed
monarchy, but they had no place in the early on the sudras They were deprived of religious
republics, nor did they recognize these states and legal rights and relegated to the lowest
m their law-books Finally, the main difference position in society. They could not be invested
between a monarchy and a republic lay in the with upanayana. Crimes committed by them
fact’ that the latter functioned under the leader- against the brahmanas and others were punish-
ship of oligarchic assemblies and
not of an ed severely; on the other hand the crimes
individual, aswas the case with the former. committed against the sudras were punished
The republican tradition became feeble from lightly. The lawgivers emphasized the fiction that

the Maurya period. Even in pre-Maurya times, the sudras were born from the feet of the Creator.
monarchies were far stronger and common. So members of the higher varnas, especially
Naturally ancient thinkers looked upon king- the brahmanas, shunned the company of the
ship as the common and most important form sudra, avoided the food touched by him and
of government. To them the state, government refused to enter into marriage relations with
and kingship meant the same thing. Since the him He could not be appointed to high posts,
state was well established in the age of the and above all he was specifically asked to serve
Buddha, thinkers began to speculate about its the twice- born as slave, artisan and agricultural
possible origins The Digha Nikaya, one of the labourer. In this respect even Jainism and
earliest Buddhist Pah texts, points out that Buddhism did not make any substantial change
in the earliest stage human beings lived happily. in the position of the sudras Although they
Gradually they came to have private property could be admitted to the now religious orders
and set up house with their wives So they their general position continued to be low It

began to quarrel over property and women. is said that Gautama Buddha visited the assem-
In order to put an end to this quarrel they blies of the brahmanas, the kshatriyas and the
elected a chief who would maintain law and grihapatis or householders, but the assembly of
order and protect people. In return for protection the sudras is not mentioned in this connection.

the people promised to give to the chief a part Civil and criminal law was administered by.
of their paddy. This chief came to be called royal agents, who inflicted rough and ready
 STATE AND VARNA SOCIETY IN THE AGE OF THE BUDDHA 85

punishments such as scourging, beheading, tear- ancient Indian polity, economy and society

ing out of the tongue, etc In many cases punish- really took shape in this period. Agriculture
ments for criminal offences were governed by based on the use of iron cools in alluvial areas
the idea of revenge. It meant tooth for tooth gave rise to an advanced food-producing econo-
and eye for eye. my, particularly in eastern Uttar Pradesh and
Although the brahmamcal law-booKs took Bihar It was possible to collect taxes from the
into account the social status of the different peasants, and on the basis of regular taxes and
varnas in framing then laws, they did not ignore tributes large states could be founded. In order

the customs of those non-Vedic tribal groups to continue this system the vama order was

who ware gradually absorbed into the brah- devised, and the functions of each varna were
mamcal social order which went on expanding clearly laid down According to this system,
as a result of conquests Some of these indigen- rulers and fighters were called lcshatriyas, priests

ous tribals were given fictitious social origins, and teachers were called brahmanas, peasants
and, what is further important, they were allowed and taxpayers were called vaisyas, and those
to be governed by their own customs who served all these three classes as labourers
The age of the Buddha is important because were called sudras.

EXERCISES

1. Point out the important economic developments in the age of the Buddha.
2 What is meant by the NBP phase?
3 How were the varnas organized in post-Vedic times?
4. Describe the system of administration in the monarchical states.
5. Give an account of the republican system of government.
 CHAPTER 13

The Age of the^Mauryas

Chandragupta Maurya the Mauiyas ruled over the whole of the subcon-
The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandra- tinent In the noith-west they held sway oveT
gupta Maurya, who seems to have belonged to certain areas which were not included eyen in

some ordinary family, According to the brah- the British empire,

manical tradition he was bom of Mura, a sudra
woman in the court of the Nandas But an earlier Imperial Organization
Buddhist tradition speaks of the existence of a The Mauiyas organized a very elaborate
kshatnya clan called Mauryas living in the system of administration, We know about it

region of Gorakhpur adjoining the Nepalese from the account of Megastheues and the

teiai In all likelihood Chandragupta was a Aithasastra of Kautilya Megasthenes was a

member of this .clan, He took advantage of the Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the
growing weakness and unpopularity of the couTt of Chandragupta Maurya He lived in

Nandas in the last days of their rule With the the Maurya capital of Pataliputra and wrote an
help of Chanakya, who is known as Kautilya, account not only of the administration of the
he overthrew the Nandas and established the city of Pataliputra but also of the Maurya empire
rule of the Maurya dynasty. as a whole. The account of Megasthenes does
Justin, a Greek writer, says that Chandra- not survive in full, but quotations occur in the

gupta overran the whole of India with an army works of several subsequent Greek writers

of 600,000. This may or may not be true But These fragments have been collected and
Chandragupta liberated north-western India published m the form of a book, which throws
from the thraldom of Seleucus, who ruled over valuable light on the administration, society and
the area west of the Indus. In the war with the economy of Maurya times,
Greek viceroy, Chandragupta seems to have The account of Megasthenes can be supple-
coma out victorious. Eventually peace was mented by the Arthasastra of Kautilya Although
concluded between the two, and in return for the Arthasastra was finally compiled a few
500 elephants Seleucus gave him eastern Afghani- centuries after the Maurya rule, some of its

stan, Baluchistan and the area west of the Indus. books contain material that is genuine and gives
Chandragupta thus built up a vast empire which authentic information about the Maurya admini-
included not only Bihar and good portions of stration and economy. On the basis of these
Orissa and Bengal, but also western and north- two sources we can draw a picture of the admini-
western India, and the Deccan Leaving Kerala, strative system of Chandragupta Maurya
Tamil Nadu and parts of north-eastern India Chandragupta Maurya was evidently an
 —

THE AGE OF THE MAURYAS 87

autocrat who concentrated all power in his earned on by a board of 30 officers divided
hands. If we believe in a statement of the into six committees, each committee consisting
Aithasastra, the king had set a high ideal He of five members It seems rhat the six wings
'stated that in the happiness of his subjects lay of the armed forces —the army . the cavalry, the
his happinessand in their troubles lay his elephants, the chariots, the navy and transport
troubles.But we do not know how far the king were each assigned to the care of a separate
acted up to these norms. According to Megas- committee The Mauryan military strength
thenes the king was assisted by a council was almost three times that of the Nandas.
whose members were noted for wisdom. There This happened apparently on account of a
is nothing to show that their advice was binding much larger empire and far more resources.
on the king, but from the councillors were How did Chandragupta Maurya manage to
chosen the high officers meet the expenses of such a huge army? If we
The empire was divided into a number of rely on the Aithasastra of Kautilya, it would
provinces, and each province was placed under appear that the state controlled almost all the
a prince who was a scion of the royal dynasty. economic activities m
the realm The state
The provinces were divided into still smaller brought new land under cultivation with the
units We know from excavations that a large help of cultivators and sudra labourers The
number of towns belonged to Maurya times virgin land which was opened to cultivation
and special attention had to be paid to their yielded handsome income to the state in the
administration Pataliputra, Kausambi, Ujjain form of revenue collected from the newly settled
and Taxila were the most important cities. The peasants It seems that taxes collected from the
administration of Pataliputra, which was the peasants varied from one-fourth to one-sixth
capital of the Mauryas, was carried on by of the produce. Those who weie provided with
six committees, each committee consisting of five irrigation facilities by the state had to pay for
members. These committees were entrusted it. In addition to this in times of emergency
with sanitation, care of foreigners, registration peasants were compelled to raise more crops.
of birth and death, regulation of weights and Tolls were also levied on commodities brought
measures and similar other functions. Various to town for sale, and they were collected at
types of weights belonging to Maurya times the gates. Moreover, the state enjoyed a mono-
have been found at several places in Bihar. poly in mining, sale of liquor, manufacture of
In addition to these officers the central govern- arms, etc This naturally brought money to
ment maintained about two dozen departments the royal exchequer.
of the state, which controlled social and econo- Chandragupta thus established a well-organiz-
mic activities at least m the areas which were ed administrative system and gave it a sound

near the capital The most striking feature of financial base.

Chandragupta’s administration is the mainten-
ance of a huge army. According to the account Asoka (273-232 B.C.)
of a Roman writer, called Plmy, Chandragupta Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by
maintained 600,000 foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalry Bmdusara, whose reign is important for con-
and 9000 elephants. Another source tells us that tinued links with the Greek princes His son,
the Mauryas maintained 8,000 chariots. In Asoka, is the greatest of the Maurya rulers
addition to this it seems that the Mauryas also According to Buddhist tradition, he was so
maintained a navy. The administration of the cruel in his early life that he killed his 99 brothers
armed forces, according to Megasthenes, was to get the throne. But since the statement is
88 ANCIENT INDIA

based on a legend, it may well be wrong. His conquered Kalinga. A hundrecj and fifty

biography, prepared by Buddhist writers, is thousand people were deported, a hundred

so full of fiction that it cannot be taken thousand were killed and many times that
seriously. number perished. Afterwards,, now that
Kalinga was annexed, the Beloved of the Gods
Asokan Edicts very earnestly practised Dhamma, desired
We can reconstruct the history of Asoka on Dhamma, and taught Dhamma On conquer-
the basis of his inscriptions. He is the first ing Kalinga the Beloved of the Gods felt
Indian king to speak directly to the people remorse, for, when an independent country
through his inscriptions. They were engraved is conquered the slaughter, death, and deporta-
on rocks, on polished stone pillars mounted by tion of the people is extremely grievous to

capitals and in the caves. They are found not the Beloved of the Gods, and weighs heavily
only in the Indian subcontinent but also in on his mind What is even more deplorable
Kandhar in Afghanistan. These inscriptions to theBeloved of the Gods, is that those who
are in the form of 44 royal orders, and each dwell there, whether brahmans, sramanas,

royal order has several copies. The inscriptions or those of other sects, or householders who
were composed in Prakrit language, and written show obedience to their teachers and behave
in the Brahmi script throughout the greater well and devotedly towards their friends,
part of the empire. But in the north-western acquaintances, colleagues, relatives, slaves,
part they appear in Kharosthi script, and in and servants —
all suffer violence, murder, and

Kandhar in Afghanistan they were written even separation from their loved ones. ... Today
m Aramaic, in Greek script and Greek language. if a hundredth or a thousandth part of those

These inscriptions were generally placed on people who were killed or died or were depor-
ancient highways. They throw light on the career ted when Kalinga was annexed were to suffer
of Asoka, his external and domestic policies, similarly, it would weigh heavily on the mind
and the extent of his empire of the Beloved of the Gods. The Beloved
. . .

of the Gods considers victory by Dhamma

Impact of the Kalinga War to be the foremost victory. .

The ideology of Buddhism guided Asoka’s Asoka now made an ideological appeal to-
state policy at home and abroad. After his wards the tribal peoples and the frontier king-
accession to the throne Asoka fought only one doms. The subjects of the independent states
major war called the Kalinga war, According in Kalinga were asked to obey the king as their
to him 100,000 people were killed in this war, father and to repose confidence m him. The
and 150j000 were taken prisoners The war appointed by Asoka were instructed to
officials

brought to the brahmana priests and the propagate this idea among all sections of his
Buddhist monks great suffering, which caused subjects. The tribal peoples were similarly asked
Asoka much, grief and remorse. So he abandoned to follow the principles of dhamma.
the policy of physical occupation in favour of a Asoka no longer treated foreign dominions as
policy of cultural conquest. In other words, legitimate areas for military conquest. He tried
bherighosha was replaced by dhammaghosha, to conquer them ideologically. He' took steps
We quote below the words of Asoka from his for the welfare of men and animals in foreign
13th Major Rock Edict . lands,which was a new thing considering the
When he had been consecrated eight years He sent ambassadors
condition of those days,
the Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, of peace to the Greek kingdoms in Western
i lluuil upon Survey or I mlin map wUh he permission of ibe
l Surseypr Oenernl or India
1

© Government of India copyright 1 982-

The territorial waters of ml in extend ln|o ihe
I wj to n distune* or twelve nautical miles measured
from the appropriate tmMi line ~

Figure 10 Empire of Asoko

90 ANCIENT INDIA

Asia and Greece. All this can be said on the

basis of Asoka’s inscuptions If we rely on
the Buddhist tradition it 'would appear that

he sent missionaries for the propagation ofj

Buddhism to Su Lanka and Central Asia As
an enlightened ruler Asoka tried to enlarge his
area of political influence through propaganda, i

would be wrong to think that the Kalinga

'

It

wai made Asoka an extreme pacifist. He did

not pursue the policy of peace for the sake of
peace under all conditions. On the other hand,
he adopted a practical policy of consolidating
his empne He letained Kahnga after its con-
13.1 Rummdel Pillar Inscription of Asoka
quest and incorporated it into his empire
There is show that he disbanded
also nothing to The inscription is in Brahmi script. The language of
the huge army maintained from the time of the inscription is Prakrit
Chandragupta Maurya Although he repeatedly The Nagari rendering and English translation of the

asked the tribal people to follow the policy inscription are given below

of dharma, he threatened them if they violated

the established rules of social order and right- 1 fq-Trfffir trrfaR BHtfhfaptB
eousness (dharma). Within the empire he ap- 2 5RPT BTBTB
pointed a class of officers known as the rajukas ,
3 feWT—far?— BtTT TTHlfacf fhvfT—TB
who were vested with the authority of not only
rewarding people but also punishing them,
t ^ unfair
wherever necessary, The policy of Asoka to 4 MT BTrT fcT vrfffiff-Tlfa' T?
consolidate the empire through dharma bore 5. — nfnr B
fruit. The Kandhar inscription speaks of the
success of his policy with the hunters and [When king Devanampriya Pnyadarsin had been
fishermen, who gave up killing animals and anointed twenty years, he came himself and worship-
ped (this spot), because the Buddha Sakyamuni was
possibly took to a settled agricultural life
born here
(He) both caused to be made a stone bearing wall
Internal Policy and Buddhism and caused a stone pillar to be set up (in order to
Asoka was converted to Buddhism as a show) that the Blessed one was bom here.
result of the Kalinga war. According to tradi- The village of Lumbini was exempted from bah
(tribute) and bhaga (the royal share ol the produce)
tion hebecame a monk, made huge gifts to the
was reduced to one-eighth.]
Buddhists and undertook pilgrimages to the
Buddhist shrines. The fact of his visiting the /

Buddhist shrines is also suggested by the dharma there. Brahmi inscriptions of the second aitd-fifst
yatras mentioned m his inscriptions. centuries B.C. have been found in Sn Lanka.
According to tradition the Buddhist council Asoka set a very high ideal for himself, and
was held under the chairmanship of Asoka’s this was the ideal of paternal kingship. He
brother, and missionaries were sent not only repeatedly asked his officials to tell the subjects
to south India but also to Sri Lanka, Burma that the king looked upon them as his children.
and other countries to convert the people As agents of the king, the officials were also
 THE AGE OF THE MAURYAS 91

asked, to take care of the people Asolca appoin- called Brahmi which was used in most of
teddharmamahamau as for propagating dhanna his inscriptions In unifying the country he
among various social groups including women. respected such scripts as Brahmi, Kharosthi,
He also appointed rajukas for the administra- Aramaic and Greek Evidently he also accommo'
tion of justice m his empire dated such languages as Greek, Prakrit and
He disapproved of rituals, especially those Sanskrit and various religious sects Asoka
observed by women He forbade killing of followed a tolerant religious policy He did not
certain birds and animals, and completely try to foist his Buddhist faith on his subjects
prohibited the slaughter of animals in the On theothei hand he made gifts to non-Buddhist
capital He interdicted gay social functions in and even anti-Buddhist sects
which people indulged in revelries, Asoka was fired with -zeal for missionaiy
But Asoka’s dhaima was not ajjarrow dharma activities. He deputed officials in the farflung

It cannot be regarded as a sectarian faith. Its parts of the empae This helped the cause
broad objective was to preserve the social order. of administration and also promoted cultural

Itordained that people should obey then parents, contacts between the developed Gangetic basin
pay respect to the brahmanas and Buddhist and the backward distant provinces. The
monks, and show mercy to slaves and seivants. material culture, typical of the heart of the
These instructions can be found in both the empire, spread to Kalinga and the lower Deccan
Buddhist and brahmanical faiths, and northern Bengal
Asoka taught people to live and let live He Above all Asoka is important in history for

emphasized compassion towards animals and his policy of peace, non-aggression and cultural

proper behaviour towards relatives His teach- conquest He had no model in early Indian
ings were meant to strengthen the institution of history for pursuing such a policy, nor did such

family and the existing social classes He held an example exist in any country except Egypt
that if the people behaved well they would where Akhnaton had pursued a pacific policy in
attain heaven. He never said that they would the fourteenth century B C But it is obvious
attain mi vana, which was the goal of Buddhist that Asoka was not aware of his Egyptian
teachings Asoka’s teachings were thus intended predecessor Although Kautilya advised the

to maintain the existing social order on the basis king to be always intent on physical conquest
of tolerance. He does not seem to have preached Asoka followed just the reverse policy. He asked
any sectarian faith. his successors to give up the policy of conquest
and aggression, which had been followed by the
Asoka’s Place in History Magadhan princes till the Kalinga war. tie coun-

It is said that the pacific policy of Asoka selled them to adopt a policy of peace, which
ruined the Maurya empire, but this is not true was badly needed after a period of aggressive
On the contrary Asoka has a number of wars lasting for two centuries Asoka consistently
achievements to his credit. He was certainly the stuck to his policy. Although he possessed suffi-
greatest missionary ruler in the history of the cient resources and certainly maintained, a

ancient world. He worked with great zeal and huge army, he did not wage any war after the
devotion to his mission, and achieved a lot, conquest of Kalinga In this sense Asoka
both at home and abroad. was certainly far ahead of his day and
Asoka brought about the political unification generation

of the country He bound it further by one However, Asoka’s policy did not make
dharma, one language and practically one script any lasting impression on his viceroys and
92 ANCIENT INDfA

vassals, who declared themselves independent not convert his neighbours, who swooped on
in their respective areas after the retirement of the north-western frontier of his empire within
the king in 232 B C. Similarly the policy could 25 years of Asoka’s exit from power in 232 B C,

EXERCISES ,

1 Who was Chandragupta Maurya? How did he establish the ruleof the Maurya dynasty?
2. Describe the imperial organization set up by the Mauryas
3 Write notes on Megasthenes and Kautilya’s Arthasastra
4. What meant by the dharma of Asoka 7
is

5. How Asoka promote Buddhism?

did
6 Wnte a biography of Asoka
 )

CHAPTER 14

Significance of the Maurya Rule

State Control They also helped the collection of

officers

The brahmanical law-books again and again money from credulous people through deli-
stressed that the king should be guided by the berate resort to superstitious practices.
laws laid down in the Dharmasastras and by Important functionaries were called tiithas.

the customs prevalent in the country. Kautilya It seems that most functionaries were paid in
ad/ises the king to promulgate dharma when cash The highest functionaries were minister
the social order based on the varnas and asram- mantrin ), high priest
(.
(
purohita ), commander-
as (stages in life) perishes. The king is called in-chief ( senapati ) and crown-prince (
yuvaraja ),
ry him dhannapravartaka or promulgator of who were paid generously as much as 48 thou-

the social order. That the royal orders were sand panas (
pana being a silver coin equal to
superior to other orders was asserted by Asoka three-fourths of a tola) In sharp contrast to
m Asoka promulgated dharma
his inscriptions. them the lowest officers were given 60 panas
and appointed officials to inculcate and enforce in consolidated pay although some employees
its essentials throughout the country were given as little as 1 0 or 20 panas. Therefore
Assertion of royal absolutism was a natural it would seem that there were enormous gaps
culmination of the policy of military conquest between the highest and the lowest category of
adopted by the princes of Magadha. Anga, government servants
Vaisah, Kasi, Kosala, Avanti, Kalinga, etc.,

were annexed to the Magadhan empire one Economic Regulations

by one. The military control over these areas If we rely on the Arthasastra of Kautilya
eventually turned into coercive control of all it would apoear that the state appointed 27
aspects of life of the people, Magadha possessed superintendents (adhyakshas mostly to regulate
the requisite power of sword to enforce its the economic activities of the state They con-
overall control trolled and regulated agriculture, tirade and
In order to control all spheres of life the state commerce, weights and measures, crafts such
had to maintain a vast bureaucracy. In no other as weaving and spinning, mining, and so on,
period of ancient history we hear of so many The state also provided irrigation facilities and
officers as Maurya times
in regulated water supply for the benefit of
The administrative mechanism was backed agriculturists. Megasthenes informs us that in

by an elaborate system of espionage Various the Maurya empire the officer measured the
types of spies collected intelligence about land as in Egypt and inspected the channels
foreign enemies and kept an eye on numerous through which water was distributed into
94 ANCIENT INDIA

smaller channels. told their army did not exceed 650,000 men.
If we believe the Arthasastra of Kautilya, a If ten per cent of the population was recruited,
striking social development of the Maurya the total population would not be more than
period was the employment of slaves in agri- six and a half million Asokan inscriptions show
cultural operations. Megasthenes states that that royal writ ran all over the country except
he did not notice any slaves in India. But there the extreme east and south but rigid state
is no doubt that domestic slaves were found control may not have proved effective much
m India from Vedic times onwards. For the beyond the middle Gangetic zone.
first time in the Maurya period slaves were The Maurya period constitutes a landmark in

engaged in agricultural work on a large scale the system of taxation in ancient India. Kautilya
The state maintained farms, on which numer- names many taxes to be collected from peasants,
ous slaves and hired labourers were employed artisans and traders. This required a strong
150,000 war-captives brought by Asoka from and efficient machinery for assessment, collec-
Kahnga may have bean engaged in agricul- tion and storage. The Mauryas attached greater
ture. But ancient Indian society was not a importance to assessment than to storage and
slave society. What the slaves did m Greece and depositing. The samaharta was the highest
Rome was done by the sudras m India. The officer m
charge of assessment, and the scim\i-
sudras were regarded as the collective property dhata was the chief custodian of the state trea-
of the three higher varnas They were compelled sury and store-house. The harm done to the

to serve them as slaves, artisans, agricultural state by the first is thought to be more serious
labourers, and domestic servants. than the harm caused by the second. In fact, an'
Several reasons suggest that royal control elaborate machinery for assessment first appears \

worked over a very large area, at least in the in the Maurya period The list of taxes mention-
core of the empire. This was because of the ed in the Arthasastra is impressive, and if these
strategic position of Pataliputra, from where were really collected very little would be left
royal agents could sail up and down the four to the people to live on.
directions. Besides this, the royal road ran We have epigraphic evidence for the existence
from Pataliputra to Nepal through Vaisali and of rural store-houses, which show that taxes
Champaran. We also hear of a road at the were also collected in kind and these granaries
foothills of the Himalayas. It passed from Vaisali were meant for helping local people in times
through Champaran to ‘Kapilavastu, Kalsi (in of famine, drought, etc.
Dehradun district), Hazara, and eventually to seems that the punch-marked silver coins,
It

Peshawar. Megasthenes speaks of a road con- which carry the symbols of the peacock, and the
necting north-western India with Patna. Roads hill and crescent, formed the imperial curren-

also connected Patna with Sasaram and from cy of the Mauryas. They have been discovered
there theywent to Mirzapur and central India. in largenumbers. Apparently they contributed to
The was also connected with Kalinga
capital the collection of taxesand payment of officers
by a route through eastern Madhya Pradesh, in cash, Further because of its uniformity the
and Kalinga in its turn was connected with currency must have facilitated market exchange
Andhra and Karnataka. All this facilitated in a wider area.
transport in which horses may have played an The Mauryas made a remarkable contribu-
important part. tion to art and architecture. They introduced
Further, it seems that the Maurya rulers did stone masonry on a wide scale Megasthenes
1

not have to deal with a large population, All states that the Maurya palace at Pataliputra was
 SIGNIFICANCE OF T'HE MAURYA RULE 95

that technical knowledge involved in their

polishing and transport had spread far and

wide. The Maurya artisans also started the
practice of hewing out caves from rocks for
monks to live in The earliest examples are the
Barabar caves at a distance of 30 km from
Gaya. Later this kind of cave architecture spread
to western and southern India

Spread of Material Culture

On the one hand the Mauryas created for the
first time a well-organized state machinery, which

as splendid as that in the capital of Iran. Frag-

ments of stone pillars and stumps, indicating
the existence of a 80-pillared hall, have been
discovered atKumrhar, on the outskirts of
modern Patna. Although these remains do not
recall the magnificence mentioned by Megasthe-
nes, they certainly attest the high technical skill
attained by the Maurya artisans in polishing the
stone pillars, which are as shining as Northern
Black Polished ware. It must have been a diffi-
huge blocks of stone from
cult task to carry the
the quarries and to polish and embellish them
when they were placed erect. All this seems to
be a great feat of engineering Each pillar is
made of a single piece of sandstone. Only then;
capitals, which contain beautiful sculptures m
the form of lions or bulls, are joined with the
pillars on the top. These polished pillars were
set up throughout' the country, which shows 14 2 Bull Capital, Rampuno
96 ANCIENT INDIA

operated in the heart of the empire. On the account of their multiplicity Thus the Maurya
other hand their conquest opened the doors period witnessed rapid development of material
for trading and missionary activities. It seems culture in the Gangetic basin. On account of

that the contacts established by administrators, easy access to the rich iron ores of southern
traders, and Jama and Buddhist monks led to Bihar, people used more and more of iron
the spread of the material culture of the Gange- implements To this period belong socketed
tic basin to the areas situated on the periphery axes, and pos'sibly ploughshare on a
sickles

of the empire The new material culture m the large scale. Although arms and weapons were
Gangetic basin was based on an intensive use the monopoly of the Maurya state, the use of
of iron, plenty of punch-marked coins, abun- the other iron tools was not restricted to any
dance of beautiful pottery called Northern class. Their use and manufacture must have

Black Polished ware, introduction of burnt spread from the Gangetic basin to the distant
bricks and ringwells, and above all on the parts of the empire. In the Maurya period burnt
rise of towns in north-eastern India. A Greek bricks were used for the first time in north-
writer called Arrian states that it is not possible eastern India. The Maurya structures made of
to record with accuracy the number of cities on burnt bricks have hpen found in Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh Houses were made of both
bricks and timber which was available in plenty
because of thick vegetation m ancient times.
Megasthenes speaks of the wooden .structures
at the Maurya capital PataUputra Excavations
show that logs of wood were also used as an
important line of defence against flood and
foreign invasion. The use of burnt bricks spread
of the empire. Because
in the outlying provinces
of moist climate and heavy rainfall it was not
possible to have lasting and large structures
made of mud or mud-bricks, as we find in the
dry zones. Therefore the diffusion of the use of
burnt bricks proved to be a great boon. Eventu-
ally it led to the flowering of towns in the diff-

erent parts of the empire. Similarly the ringwells

which appeared first under the Mauryas in the
Gangetic basin spread beyond the heart of the
empire. Since ringwells could supply water to
people for domestic use it was not imperative

now to found settlements on the banks of rivers.

They also served as soakage-pits in congested
settlements.
The elements of the middle Gangetic material
culture seem to have been transferred with
modification to northern Bengal, Kaltnga,
Andhra and Karnataka. In Bangladesh, where
14.3 Terracotta Figurine of the Maury a Period we find the Mahasthana inscription m Bogra
 14.4 A View of the Lomasrishi Cave, Barabar Hills

districtin Maury a Brahmi, we find NBP at in the fourth century B.C ,

when the Nandas
Bangarh in, Dmajpur district. NBP sherds have are said to have conquered Kalinga. But it deep-

also been found at some places, such as Chan- ened after the conquest of Kalinga in the third

draketugarh in the 24 Parganas, in West Bengal. century B.C Possibly as a measure of pacifica-
Gangetic associations can be attributed to tion after the Kalinga war, Asoka promoted
settlements at Sisupalgarh in Orissa. These Some settlements in Orissa, which had been
settlements are ascribed to Maurya times in the incorporated into his empire.
third centuiy B.C., and they contain NBP and Although we find iron weapons and imple-
iron implements and punch-marked coins. ments at several places in Andhra and Karna-

Since Sislipalgirh is situated near Dhauli and taka in the Maurya period,' the advance of iron
Jaugada, where Asokan inscriptions have been technology was the contribution of the megalith
found on the ancient highway passing along builders, who are noted for various kinds of

the eastern coast ot India, material culture may large stone burials including those of a round
,

have reached this area as a result of contact form. But soipe of these places have Asokan
with Magadha. This contact may have started inscriptions as well as NBP etc., belonging tothe.
98 ANCIENT INDIA

14.5 Ringed Soak-wells found at Ropar

third century B.C. For example, a few inscrip- In some ways the Satavahana empire was a
tions Maurya times have been found at
of projection of the Maurya empire in the Deccan.
Amaravati, and Asokan inscriptions have been, The Satavahana rulers adopted some of the
found at Erragudi in Andhra and at several administrative units of the Mauryas, and m
places in Karnataka. It therefore appears that their times Buddhism flourished in the same
from the eastern coast ingredients of the material manner as it did in the heart of the empire of
culture percolated through Maurya contacts Asoka.
into the lower Dfeccan plateau The existence of inscriptions, occasional
The making steel may have spread
art of NBP potsherds and
punch-marked coins in
through Maurya contacts in some parts of the parts of Bangladesh, Orissa, Andhra and Karna-
country. Steel objects belonging to about 200 taka from near about 300 B.C. shows that in
B.C. or to an earlier date have been found in the Maurya period attempts were made to
the middle Gangetic basin. The spread of steel spread elements of the middle Gangetic basin
may have led to the use of better methods of culture in distant areas.The process seems to
cultivation in Kahnga and created conditions be m
accord with the instructions of Kautilya.
for the rise of the Cheti kingdom in that region Kautilya advised that new settlements should
 significance of THE MAUKYa rule 99

be founded with the help of cultivators, who and fall of the Maurya empire.
were apparently and with that of
vaisyas,
sudra labourers who should be drafted from Brahmcmical Reaction
overpopulated areas In older to bring the
The brahmamcal leaction began as a result
virgin soil under cultivation, the new peasants
of the policy of Asoka There no doubt that
is
were allowed remission in tax and supplied with
Asoka adopted a and asked the
tolerant policy
cattle, seeds and money The state followed
people to lespcct even the brahmanas But he
this policy m
the hope that it would get back
prohibited killing of animals and birds, and
what it had given Such settlements were neces-
derided superfluous rituals performed by women.
sary m those areas where people were not
This naturally affected the income of the brah-
acquainted with the use of the non ploughshare.
manas. The anti-sacrifice attitude of Buddhism
This policy led to the opening of large areas to
and of Asoka naturally brought much loss to
cultivation and settlement
the brahmanas, who lived on the gifts made to
How far the Maurya towns facilitated the
them in various kinds of sacrifices. Hence m
diffusion of the material culture of the Gangetic
spite of the tolerant policy ofAsoka the brah-
basin into the tribal belt of central India, exten-
manas developed some kind of antipathy to
ding from Chotanagpur in the east to the
him Obviously they were not satisfied with
Vindhyas in the west, cannot be said But it is
his tolerant policy They really wanted a policy
pretty clear that Asoka maintained intimate
that should favour them and uphold the existing
contacts with the ti ibal people, who were exhor-
interests and privileges. Some of the new king-
ted to obseive dhaima Their contact wiLh the
doms, which arose on the ruins of the Maurya
dharmamahcimcitras appointed by Asoka must
empire, were ruled by the brahmanas. The
have enabled them to imbibe elements of higher
Sungas and the Kanvas, who ruled in Madhya
culture prevalent in the Gangetic basin In this
Pradesh and Fuither east on the remnants of
sense Asoka launched a deliberate and systema-
the Maurya empire, were brahmanas. Similarly
tic He states that as a
policy of acculturation
the Satavahanas, who founded a lasting king-
result of the diffusion of dharma men would
dom in the western Deccan and Andhra, claimed
mingle with gods. This implies that tribal and
to be brahmanas These brahmana dynasties
other peoples would take to the habits of a
performed the Vedic sacrifices, which were
settled, taxpaying, peasant society, and develop
neglected by Asoka,
respect for paternal power, royal authority and
for monks, priests and officers who helped
enforce this authority Financial Cusis
His policy succeeded
Asoka claims that hunters and fishermen had The enormous expenditure on the army and
given up killing and practised dharma This payment to bureaucracy created a financial
means that they had taken to a sedentary crisis for the Maurya empire. As far as wo know,

agricultural fife. in ancient times the Mauryas maintained the

largest army and the largest regiment of officers
Causes of the Fall of the Maurya Empire Despite all kinds of taxes imposed on the people,
The Magadhan empire, which had keen it was difficult to maintain this huge superstruc-

reared by successive wars culminating in the ture It seems that Asoka made large grants to
conquest of Kalinga, began to disintegrate the Buddhist monks which left the royal treasury
after the exit of Asoka in 232 B.C Several empty In order to meet expenses in the last
causes seem to have brought about the decline stage they had to melt the images made of gold.
100 ANCIENT INDIA

Oppressive Rule Kalinga and that of the Satavahanas in the

Deccan.
Oppressive rule in the provinces was an im-
portant cause of the break-up of the empire Neglect of the North-West Frontier and the

in the reign of Bmdusara the citizens of Taxila Great Wall of China

bitterly complained against the misrule of Since Asoka was mostly preoccupied with
wicked bureaucrats (
dushtamatyas ) Their missionary activities at home and abroad, he
grievance was redressed by the appointment of could not pay attention to the safeguarding
Asoka. But whan Asoka became emperor, a of the passage on the north-western frontier.

similar complaint was lodged by the same city. This had become necessary in view of
The Kalinga edicts show that Asoka felt very the movement of tribes in Central Asia
much concerned about oppression in the pro- in the third century B.C. The Scythians were
vinces and therefore asked the mahamatras in a state of constant flux. A nomadic people
not to torture townsmen without due cause mainly relying on the use of horse, they posed
For this purpose he introduced rotation of serious dangers to the settled empires in China
officers in Tosali (in Kalinga),. Ujjain and Taxila. and India. The Chinese ruler Shih Huang Ti
He himself spent 256 nights on a pilgrimage (247-210 B.C) constructed the Great Wall of
tour which may have helped administrative China in about 220 B C. to shield his empire
supervision. But all this failed to stop oppression agamst.the attacks of the Scythians. No similar
in the outlying provinces, and after his retire- measures were taken by Asoka. Naturally when
ment Taxila took the earliest opportunity to the Scythians made a push towards India they
throw off the imperial yoke and the Greeks
forced the Parthians, the Sakas
to move towards India. The Greeks had set up
Spread oj the New Material Knowledge in the a kingdom in north Afghanistan which was
Outlying Areas known as Bactria. They were the first to invade
India in 206 B.C This was followed by a series
We have seen how Magadha owed its expan- of invasions which continued till the beginning
sion to certain basic material advantages Once of the Christian era
the knowledge of the use of these elements of The Maurya empire was finally destroyed by
culture spread to central India, the Deccan and Pushyamitra Sunga in 185 B.C. Although a
Kalinga as a result of the expansion of the brahmana he was a general of the last Maurya
Magadhan empire, thp Gangetic basin which king called Brihadratha. He is said to have
formed the heart of the empire lost its special killed Brihadratha in public and forcibly usurped
advantage The regular use of iron tools and the throne of Patalipufra. The Sungas ruled in
weapons in the peripheral provinces coincided Patahputra and central India, and they per-
with the decline and fall of the Maurya empire. formed several Vedic sacrifices m order to mark
On the' basis of material culture acquired from the revival of the brahmanical way of life. It

Magadha new kingdoms could be founded and is said that they persecuted the Buddhists They
developed. This explains the rise of the Sungas were succeeded by the Kanvas who were also
and,Kanvas in central India, of the Chetis in brahmanas.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MAURY A RULE 101

EXERCISES

1. Why is the Maurya rule important in the history of India?

2 Describe the material culture of Indiam the age of the Mauryas.
3. How did the Maurya empire spread the culture of the GaugCtic basin?
4 Explain the downfall of the Maurya empire.
 CHAPTER 15

Central Asian Contacts and Their Results

The period which began in about 200 B,C started during the period.

did not witness a large empire like that of the The first to invade India were the Greeks,

Mauryas, but it is notable for intimate and who are called the Indo-G reeks or Bactrian
widespread contacts between Central Asia and
India In eastern India, central India and the
Deccan the Mauryas were succeeded by a
number of native rulers such as the Sungas, the

Kativas and the Satavahanas In north-western

India they were succeeded by a number of
ruling dynasties from Central Asia

The Indo- Greeks

A series of invasions took place from about
200 B,C. The first to cross the Hindukush were
the Greeks, who ruled Bactria, lying south of the

Oxus river m the area covered by north Afghani-

stan. The invaders came one after another, but

some of them ruled at one and the same time on

parallel lines. One important cause of invasions
was the weakness of the Selucid empire, which
had been established in Bactria and the adjoin-
ing areas of Iran called Parl'hia On account of
growing pressure from the Scythian tribes, the
later Greek rulers were unable to hold their

power in, this area. With the construction of the

Chinese Wall the Scythians were now not in a
position to push forward into China. So they
turned their attention towards the neighbouring
Greeks and Parthians. Pushed by the Scythian
tribes, -the Bactrian Greeks were forced to invade
India. The successors of Asoka were too weak
to stem the tide of foreign invasions which 15.1 lndo-Greek Coins
CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND
THEIR RESULTS 103

Figure 1 1 Central Asian Contacts

104 ANCIENT INDIA

Greeks. In the beginning of the socond century history of India because of the large number of
B.C., the Indo-Greeks occupied a large part of poms which the Greeks issued The Indo-Greeks
north-western, India, much larger than that were the first rulers m India to issue coins which
conquered by Alexander, It is said that they can be definitely attributed to the kings This
pushed forward as far asAyodhya and Patali- isnot possible in the case of the early punch-
putra But the Greeks failed to establish united marked coins, which cannot be assigned with
rule in India. Two Greek dynasties ruled north- certainty toany dynasty The Indo-Greeks were
western India on parallel linos at one and the which in-
the first to issue gold coins in India,
same time, The most famous Indo-Greek ruler creased in numbor under the Kushans The ,

was Menander (165-145 B.C.) He is also known Greek rule is also memorable on account of the
by the name Milinda. He had his capital at introduction of Hellenistic art features in the
Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Panjab, and he north-west frontier of India, giving rise to the
invaded the Ganga-Yamuna doab He was Gandhara art.

converted to Buddhism by Nagasena, who is

also known as Nagarjuna. Menander asked The Sakas
Nagasena many questions relating to Buddhism The Greeks were followed by the Sakas, who
These questions and Nagasena's answers controlled a much larger part of India than the
were recorded m
the form of a book known as Greeks did. Theie weie five branches of the
Milinda Panho or The Questions of Milinda. Sakas with their seats of power in different parts
The Indo-Bactnan rule is important in the of India and Afghanistan One branch of the

15.2 Copperplate Inscription of about the First Century A D from Katawan ( near Taxila)

Its script is Kharosthi, which was written from right to left, The language is Prakrit, The Nagari
rendering and English translation of the first two lines are given below

I 100 30^10 4 SETO HW wfegf 20 1 I 1 SToph

'TuRtv fcPTCT srftT TT-wSfcT I

[Twenty-third day of the month of Sravana in the year 134 of Azes (?)—on this day the lay
worshipper Chandrabhi, who is the daughter of Grihapati Dharma and wife of Bhadravala, instals
the relics of the Buddha at Chhatrasilaka
]
 CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS 105

Sakas .settled in Afghanistan Anothei branch All the earlier longer inscriptions that ,,we have
of the Sakas settled in Panjab with Taxila as in this Country were composed in Prakrit,
their capitalA third branch settle d in Mathura,
where they ruled for about two centuries. A The Parthians
fourth branch established us hold ovei western The Saka domination in north-western India
'

India, where they continued to rule till the fourth was followed by that of the Parthians, and in
century AD
A fifth branch of the Sakas many ancient' Indian Sanskrit texts the two
established its power in the upper Deccan peoples are together mentioned as Saka-Pahla-
The Sakas did not meet much, effective resist- vas In fact they ruled over this country on
ance from the rulers and peoples of India In parallel lines for somu time Originally the
about 58 B.C we hear of a king of Ujjam who
, Parthians lived in Iran, from where they moved
effectively fought against the Sakas and succeed- to India. In comparison with the Greeks and the
ed in driving them out m
his time. He called him- Sakas they occupied only a small portion of
self Vikramaditya, and an era called the Vikrama north-western India in the first century. The
Samvat is reckoned from the event of his victory most famous Parthian king was Gondophernes,
over the Sakas in 58 B.C. From this time cn- in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have come
wards Vikramaditya became a coveted title to India for the propagation of Christianity
Whoever achieved anything great adopted this In course of time the Parthians, like the Sakas
title just as the Roman emperors adopted the before them, became an integral part of Indian
title of Caesar in order to -emphasize their gfeat polity and society
power. As a result of this practice we have as
many as 14 Vikramadityas in Indian history, and The Kushans
the title continued to be fashionable with the The Parthians were followed by the Kushans, -

Indian kings till the twelfth century A.D and ,

who are also called Yuachis or Tochanans. The
it was especially prevalent in western India and Kushans were one of the five clans into which
the western Deccan. '
the Yuechi tribe was divided. A nomadic people
Although the Sakas established their rule in from the steppes of north.Central Asia living in
different parts of the country, only those who the neighbourhood of China, the Kushans first
ruled in western India held power forany occupied Bactria or north Afghanistan where
considerable length of time, for about four they displaced the Sakas. Gradually they moved
centuries or so. The most famous Saka ruler to the Kabul valley and seized Gandhara by
in India was Rudradaman l ( A D 130-1 50) crossing the Hindukush, replacing the rule of
Heruled notonlyoverSindh.Kutchand Gujarat, the Greeks and Parthians in these areas. Finally
but had also recovered from the Satavahanas they set up their authority over the lower Indus
Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa and basin and the greater part of the Gangetic basin.
Kathiawar. He is famous m history because of Their empire extended^ from the Oxus to the
the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudar- Ganga, from Khorasan in Central Asia to
sana lake in the semi-and zone of Kathiawar. Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. A good part of
This lake had been in use for irrigation for a Central Asia now included in the USSR, a por-
long time, and was as old as the time of the tion of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, almost
Mauryas. '
the whole of Pakistan, and almost the whole of
Rudradaman was a great lover of Sanskrit, northern India were brought under one rule by
Although a foreigner settled in India, he issued the Kushans This Created a unique opportunity
the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit, fo* the commingling of peoples and cultures,
106 ANCIENT INDIA

and the process gave rise to a new type of to have suffered defeat at the hands of the

culture which embraced five modern countries Chinese, he is known to history because of two
We come across two successive dynasties of reasons First, he started an era in A D. 78,

the Kushans. The first dynasty was founded by which is now known as the Saka era and is used
a house of chiefs who were called Kadphises and by the Government of India Secondly, Kanishka
who from about A.D. 50
ruled for 28 years extended his whole-hearted patronage to Buddh-
It had two kings The was Kadphises I,
first ism. He held a Buddhist council in Kashmir,
who issued coins south of the Hindu kush. He where the doctrines of the Mahayana form of
minted coppers in imitation of Roman coins. Buddhism were Kanishka was also a
finalized.

The second king was Kadphises II, who issued great patron of art and Sanskrit literature
a large number of gold money and spread his The successors of Kanishka continued to
kingdom east of the Indus. rule in north-western India till about A.D
The house of Kadphises was succeeded by that 230, and some of them bore typical Indian names
of Kanishka. Its kings pxtended the Kushan. such as Vasudeva.
power over upper India and the lower Indus The Kushan empire in Afghanistan
and in the
basin. The early Kushan kings numerous issued areas west of the Indus was supplanted in the
gold coins with higher gold content than is found mid-third century A. D. by the Sassaman power,
in the Gupta coins Although the gold coins of which arose in Iran But Kushan principalities
the Kushans are found mainly west of the Indus, continued to exist in India for about a century,
their inscriptions are distributed not only in The Kushan authority seems to have lingered
north-western India and Sindh but also in in the Kabul valley, Kapisa, Bactna, Khorezm
Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi and Varanasi and Sogdiana (identical with Bokhara and
Hence they had set up their authority in the Samarkand) m the third-fourth centuries. Many
greater part of the Gangetic basin. Kushan Kushan coins, inscriptions and terracottas
corns, inscriptions, sculptures and structures have been found in these areas. Especially at
found in Mathura show that it was their second a place called Toprak-Kala in Khorezm a huge
capital in India, the first being Purushapura or Kushan palace of the third-fourth centuries has
Peshawar, where Kanishka erected a monas- been unear-hed It housed an administrative
tery and a huge stupa or relic-tower which archives containing inscriptions and documents
excited the wonder of foreign travellers. written in Aramaic script and Khorezmian
The most famous Kushan ruler was Kanishka language.
Although outside the borders of India he seems
Impact of Central Asian Contacts

Structures and Pottery

The Saka-Kushan phase registered a distinct

advance in. building activities. Excavations
have revealed several layers of structures,
sometimes more than half a dozen at various
sites in north India In them we find the use of

burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles

for both flooring and roofing. But the use
of surkhi and tiles may not have been
15.3 Kanishka’s Com adopted from outside. The period is also
 CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS 107

marked by the construction of brick-wells Its country, the dependent princes turned them to
typical pottery is red ware, both plain and good use against their former conquerors.
polished with medium to fine fabric The' dis- The coming of the foreigners established in-
tinctive pots are
spunklers and spouted channels. timate contacts between Central Asia and India.
They remind us of red pottery with thin fabric As a result India received a good deal of gold
found in the same period m Kushan layers in from the Altai mountains in Central Asia
Soviet Central Asia. Red pottery techniques Gold also may have been received in India
were widely known in Central Asia, and they are through trade with the Roman empire The
found even in regions like Fargliana which Kushans controlled the Silk Route, which
were on the peripheries of the Kushan started from China and passed through their
cultural zone. mpire in Central Asm and Afghanistan to
Iran, and Westerr Asia which formed part of
Trade and Technology the Roman empire in the eastern Mediterranean
The Sakas and Kushans added new ingredi- zone, This route was a source of great income
ents to Indian culture and enriched it immense- to the Kushans, and they built a large pros-
ly. They settled in India for good and com- perous empire because of the tolls levied from
pletely identified themselves with its culture. the traders. It is significant that the Kushans
Since they did not have their script, language or were the first ruleis in India to issue gold coins
religion, theyadopted these elements of culture on a wide scale
from India. They became an integral part of
Indian society to which they contributed con- Polity
siderably. They introduced better cavalry and The Central Asian conquerors imposed their
the use of the riding horse on a large scale. rule on numerous petty native princes. This
They made common the use of reins and led to the development of a feudatory organiza-
saddles, which appear in the Buddhist sculp- tion The Kushans adopted the pompous title

tures of the second and third centuries A D. of king of kings, which indicates their supremacy
The Sakas and the Kushans were excellent over numerous small princes.
horsemen. Their passionate love for horseman- The Sakas and the Kushans strengthened
ship is by numerous equestrian terracotta
attested the idea of the divine origin of kingship. The
figures of Kushan times discovered from Begram Kushan kings were called sons of god. This
in Afghanistan Some of these foreign horse- was adopted by the Kushans from the
title

men were heavily armoured, and fought with Chinese, who called their king the son of heaven.
spears and lances Possibly they also used some It was used in India naturally to stress the royal

kind of a toe stirrup made of rope which authority. The Hindu lawgiver Manu asks the
facilitated their movements. The Sakas and people to respect the king even if he is a child,
Kushans introduced turban, tunic, trousers, because he is a great god ruling in the form of
and heavy long coat Even now the Afghans and a human being.
Panjabis wear tuTbans, and the sherwani is a They also introduced the satrap system of
successor of the long coat. The Central Asians government. The empire was divided into
also brought in cap, helmet and boots which numerous satrapies, and each satrapy was placed
were used by warriors. Because of these advan- under the rule of a satrap. Some curious practices
tages they made a clean sweep of their opponents such as hereditary dual rule, two kings ruling
iii Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. Later, in the same kingdom at one and the same time,
when this military technology spread in the were introduced. We find that father and son
 ,

108 ANCIENT INDIA

a curious way. The lawgiver Manu stated that

the Sakas and the Parthians were the kshatriyas
who had fallen from their duties. In other words,
they came to be considered as second-class
kshatriyas. In no other period of ancient Indian
history were foreigners assimilated into Indian
societyon such a large scale as they were in

post-Maurya times

Religion
Some of the foreign rulers were converted
to Vaishnavism, which means the worship of
Vishnu, the god of protection and preservation.
The Greek ambassador called Heliodorus set
up a pillar in honour of Vishnu near Vidisa
(headquarters of Vidisa district) in Madhya
Pradesh.
A few other rulers adopted Buddhism. The
famous Greek ruler Menander was converted
to Buddhism. The questions and the answers
that he exchanged with, the Buddhist teacher
Nagasena, also called Nagarjuna, constitute a'
good source for the cultural history of the post-
Maurya period. The Kushan rulers worshipped
15.4 Pillar of Kehodorus near Vidisa both Siva and the Buddha, and the images of
these two gods appeared on the Kushan coins.
ruled jointly at one and the same time. Thus / Several Kushan rulers were worshippers of
it appears that there was less of centralization Vishnu This was certainly the case with' the
under these rulers. Kushan ruler Vasudeva, whose very name is
The foreigners also introduced the practice a synonym for Krishna, who was worshipped
of military governorship. This was done by the as an incarnation of Vishnu.
4
Greeks, who appointed their governors called
strategos. Military governors were necessary to The Origin of Mahay ana Buddhism
maintain the power of foreign rulers over the The contact with foreigners brought about
conquered people. changes in Indian religions. This especially
happened to Buddhism. Buddhism in its ori-
New Elements in Indian Society ginal form was too puritanical and too abstract
The Greeks, the Sakas, the Parthians and the for foreigners, who wanted something concrete
Kushans ultimately lost their identity in India and intelligible. They did not appreciate the
They became completely Indianized in course of philosophical doctrines of Buddhism, empha-
-
time. Since. most of them came as conquerors sized by the existing Buddhist schools. They
they were absorbed in Indian society as a warrior wanted something which they could easily under-
class, that is as the kshatnyas. Their placement stand and which could satisfy their religious
in the brahmanical society was explained in cravings. So there developed a new form of
 CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS 109

Buddhism called the Mahayana or the Great far. Kamshka set up many stupas in memory of
Wheel, in which the image of the Buddha the Buddha.
began to be worshipped. The doors of this sect
were opened to all sections of the people. Those Gandhara Art
who did not subscribe to the newly-founded sect The foreign princes became enthusiastic
came to be known as the followers of the Hina- patrons of Indian art and literature, and they
yana or the Small Wheel. Fortunately for showed the zeal characteristic of new converts.
Mahayana, Kamshka became its great patron The Kushan empire brought together masons
He convened a council in Kashmir, where and other artisans trained in different schools
the Buddhist teachings were engraved on sheets and countries Indian craftsmen came into
of copper and deposited under a stupa. We contact with the Greeks and the Romans,
do not know the contents of these inscriptions especially in the north-western frontier of India
because this stupa has not been discovered so in Gandhara This gave rise to a new kind of art

15,5 Air View of the Remains of the Ancient City of Taxila ( first century A.D )
110 ANCIENT INDIA

At present the Mathura Museum possesses the

largest collection of sculptures of Kushan times

in India
During the same period we notice beautiful
works of art at several plaoes south of the
Vindhyas. Beautiful Buddhist caves were con-
structed out of rocks in Maharashtra. In Andhra
Pradesh, Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati be-
came great centres of Buddhist art, and the
stories connected with the Buddha came to be

portiayed in numerous panels The earliest pan-

els dealing with Buddhism are found at Gaya,
Sanchi and Bharhut, and belong to the second
century B.C. But we notice further develop-
ment in sculpture in the early centuries of the

Christian era.

-m

IS 6 Image of the Buddha, Gandhara

in which images of the Buddha were made the m

Graeco-Roman style. The hair of the Buddha

was fashioned m the Graeco-Roman style

The influence of the Gandhara art also spread „

to Mathura although it was primarily a centre

of indigenous art. Mathura produced beauti-
ful images of the Buddha, but is famous
also
for the headless erect statue of Kanishka whose
name is on its lower part.
inscribed
It produced several stone images of
also
Vardhamana Mahavira. The Mathura school
of art flourished in the early centuries of the
Christian era,and its products made of red i

sandstone are found even outside Mathura. 15.7 Sculpture from Mathura
 CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS 111

15.8 Sanchi Stupa —A View o] the Gateway

Literature and Learning the composition of numerous avadanas. Most

The foreign princes patronized and cultivated of those texts were composed in what is known
Sanskrit literature The earliest specimen of as the Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit one
Their
kavya found in the inscription of Rudra-
style is objective was to preach the teachings of Maha-
daman in Kathiawar in about A D. 150. From yana Buddhism to the people. Some of the
now onwards inscriptions began to be composed important books of this genre were the Maha-
in chaste Sanskrit, although the use of Prakrit vastit and the Divyavadana,

in composing inscriptions continued till the The foreigners also contiibuted to the develop-
fourth century A.D., and even later ment of the Indian theatre, by introducing the
It seems that some of the great creative use of the curtain Since the curtain was borrowed
writers such as Asvaghosha enjoyed the patron- from the Greeks it came to be known as yavani-
age of the Kushans. Asvaghosha wrote the ka This word was derived from the term yavana,
Buddhacharita, which is a biography of the which was asanskritized formof Ionian, a branch
Buddha. He also composed Saundarananda, of the Greeks known to the ancient Indians.
which is a fine example of Sanskrit kavya At a later stage the term yavana came to be
The progress of Mahayana Buddhism led to used for all kinds of foreigners
 112 ANCIENT INDIA

15.10 Silver Coiris

,1

hita contains names of numerous plants and

herbs from which drugs are to be prepared for
the use of patients The processes laid down for
the pounding and mixing of the plants give us
an idea of the developed knowledge of chemistry
in ancient India For the cure of ailments the
ancient Indian physician relied chiefly on
plants, for which the Sanskrit word is oshadhi,
1S.9 A Panel from Bharhut and as a resultmedicine itself came to be known
as aushadhi.
In the field of technology also the Indians
seem to have profited from contact with the
Science and Technology Central Asians. Kamshka is represented as
Indian astronomy and astrology profited from wearing trousers and long boots. Possibly the
contact with the Greeks We notice many Greek practice of making leather shoes began in India
terms about the movement of planets in Sanskrit during this period. In any case the Kushan
texts, Indian astrology came to be influenced copper coins in India were imitations of the
by Greek ideas, and from the Greek term Roman coins. Similarly gold coins in India
horoscope was derived the term horasastra were struck by the Kushans in imitation of
used for astrology in Sanskrit, the Roman gold coins. We hear of two em-
However, the Indians did not owe anything bassies being exchanged between the Indian
striking to theGreeks in medicine, botany and tyngs and the Roman kings. Embassies were
chemistry, These three subjects were dealt sent from India to the court of the Roman
with by Charaka and Susruta, The Charakasam- emperor Augustus in A.D. 27-28 and also to
 CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS 113

the Roman emperor Trajan in A.D. 110-20. especially influenced by foreign ideas and
Thus the contacts of Rome with ancient India practices, In no other period in India did glass-
may have introduced new practices in techno- making make such progress as it did during this
logy Working in glass during this period was period.

EXERCISES

1. Who were the Indo-Greeks?

2. Who were the Sakas 7 Give an account of their activities in India during the
first four centuries A.D
3. What part did the Kushan rule play in the life of India?
4. Form an estimate of Kanishka.
5 How did Central Asian contacts affect the polity and society of India?
6. Write short notes on the following:
Mahayana Buddhism
Mathura school of art
Gandhara art.
 CHAPTER 16

The Age of the Satavahanas

Political History destroyed many kshatriya rulers. He claims to

have destroyed the Kshaharata lineage to which
The most important of the native successors his adversary Nahapana belonged. This claim
of the Mauryas in the Deccan and in central is true, because more than 8,000 silver coins of
India were the Satavahanas. The Satavahanas Nahapana, found near Nasik, bear marks of
are considered to be identical with the Andhras being restruck by the Satavahana kmg He also

who are mentioned in the Puranas The Pu- occupied Malwa and Kathiawar which lay

ranas speak only of the Andhra rule and not of under the control of the Sakas. It seems that
the Satavahana rule. On the other hand the name the empire of Gautamiputra Satakarni extended
Andhra does not occur in Satavahana inscriptions, from Malwa in the north to Karnataka in the
According to some Puranas altogether the Andh- south Possibly he also enjoyed general autho-
ras ruled for 300 years and this period is assigned rity over Andhra.
to the rule of the Satavahana dynasty. The ear- The successors of Gautamiputra ruled till

liest inscriptions of the Satavahanas belong A.D 220 The coins and inscriptions of his
to the first century B.C., when they defeated immediate successor Vasisthiputra Pulumayi
the Kanvas and established their power in parts (A.D 130-154) are found in Andhra, and show
of central India The early Satavahana kings that by the middle of the second century this

appeared not in Andhra, but in Maharashtra area had become a part of the Satavahana
where most of their early inscriptions have kingdom He set up his capital at Paithan or
been found. They sat up their power in the up- Pratisthan on the Godavari in Aurangabad
per Godavari valley, which at present produces district, The Sakas resumed their conflict with
rich and diverse crops in Maharashtra. Gra- the Satavahanas for the possession of the Kon-
dually the Satavahanas extended their power kan coast and Malwa. Rudradaman I (A.D.
over Karnataka and Andhra, their greatest 130-150), the Saka ruler of Saurashtra (Kathia-
competitors were the Sakas, who had estab- war), defeated the Satavahanas twice, but did
lished their power rathe upper Deccan and west- not destroy them on account of matrimonial
ern India. At one stage the Satavahanas were relations. Yajna Sri Satakarni (A.D. 165-194),
dispossessed of their dominions by the Sakas in one of the later kings, recovered north Konkan
Maharashtra and western India. The fortunes and Malwa from the Saka rulers, He was a
of the family were restored by Gautamiputra lover of trade and navigation. His coins have
Satakarni (A.D. 106-130). He called himself been found not only m Andhra but also in
the only brabraana, defeated the Sakas and Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat.
 THE AGE OF THE SATJtVAHANAS 115

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of

the Surveyor General of India.

(g) Government of India copyright, 1882 .

The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a

distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the

appropriate base line.

Figure 12 India In about A D 150

116 ANCIENT INDIA

His love for navigation, and overseas trade is vanced rural economy. According to Plmy, the
shown by the representation of a ship on his coins. Andhra kingdom maintained an army of 100,000
infantry,2000 cavalry and 1000 elephants. Ap-
Aspects of Material Culture parently the peasants produced enough to sup-
The material culture of the Deccan under the port this military strength.
Satavahanas was a fusion of local elements and Through contacts with the north the people
northern ingredients. The megalith builders df of the Deccan learnt the use of coins, burnt
the Deccan were fairly acquainted with the use bricks, ringwells, etc These elements of material
of iron and agriculture. Although before circa life had become quite important in north India
200 B.C. we find some hoes made of iron, the by 300 B.C., but they acquired importance in
number of such tools increased substantially the Deccan a couple of centuries later. In
in the first two or three centuries of the Christian Peddabankur (200 B.C -AD. 200) -in Karim-
era. We do not notice much change in the form nagar district we find regular use of fire-baked
of the hoes from megalithic to the Satavahana bricks, and use of flat, perforated roof tiles. All
phase. Only hoes were now fully and properly this must have contributed to lasting structures.
socketed. Besides socketed hoes, sickles, spades, What is further remarkable is the fact that as
ploughshares, axes, adzes, razors, etc., belong many as 22 bnckwells belonging to the second
to the Satavahana layers. Tanged and socketed century A.D. have been discovered at that site.

arrowheads as well as daggers have also been Naturally these facilitated thick habitations,
discovered. At a site in Kanmnagar district even and we find there covered drains underground
a blacksmith’s shop has been discovered. The to lead waste water into soakage pits. Towns
Satavahanas may have exploited the iron ores appeared in Maharashtra by the first century
of Karimnagar and Warangal, for in these dis- B C,, when wc find several crafts. They emer-
tricts indications of iron workings as early as ged m the eastern Deccan, a century later. Pliny
the megalithic phase have been found. Evidence informs us that the Andhra country in the east-
of ancient gold workings has been found in the ern Deccan included 30 walled towns, besides
Kolar fields m the early Christian centuries. numerous villages. Several towns of the second
The Satavahanas may have used gold as bul- and third centuries in this area are known from
lion, for they did not issue gold coins as the inscriptions and excavations. Increasing trade
Kushans did They issued mostly coins of lead,
. is indicated by numerous Roman and Satava-

which found in the Deccan. They also issued

is hana coins. They appeared about a century later
potin, copper and bronze money. The in the eastern Deccan, in the Godavari-Krishna
Ikshvakus also issued their coins. Both the area.
Satavahanas and Ikshvakus seem to have
exploited the mineral resources of the Deccan. - Social Organization
The, people of the Deccan knew the art of The Satavahanas seem to have been
originally
paddy transplantation, and in the first two a tribe of the Deccan. But they were brahm'a-
centuries the area between the Krishna and the nized, and their most famous king Gautamiputra
Godavari, especially at the mouths of the two Satakarni claims to have established the four-
rivers,formed a great rice bowl. The people fold varna system which had fallen into dis-

of the Deccan also produced cotton. In the order. He boasts that he put an end to the inter-

foreign accounts Andhra is considered tp be mixture between the people of different social
famous for its cotton products. Thus a good orders. Such a confusion was obviously caused
portion of the Deccan developed a very ad- by the Saka infiltration and by thql thin and
 THE AGE OF THE SATAVAHANAS 117

superficialbrahmanization of the tribes living have belonged to a patriarchal society. But the
1

in the Deccan. The absorption of the Sakas Satavahanas show traces of a matnhneal social
in Hindu society as kshatriyas was facilitated structure. Itwas customary for their king to be
by intermarriage between the Sakas and the .named, mother Such names as Gau-
after his
Satavahanas Similarly the indigenous tribal tamiputra and Vasisthiputra indicate that in
people were more and more acculturated ,by their society mother enjoyed a great deal of
the Buddhist monks, who were induced by importance At present in peninsular India the
land grants to settle in the western Deccan. It ,
son’s name includes a part of the father’s name,
is suggested that traders also supported the jaut in it there is no place for mother. Queens
Buddhist monks, for the earliest caves seem to made important religious gifts m their own
have been located on the trade routes. The light, and some of them acted as regents. But
Satavahanas were also the first rulers to make jbasically the Satavahana ruling family was
land grants to the brahmanas, although we have patriarchal because succession to the throne
tnoro instances of grants being made to Bud- passed to the male member
dhist monks
According to the Dharmasastras it was 'the Pattern of Administration
function of the kshatriyas to rule, but the Sata- The Satavahana rulers strove for the royal
vahana ruleis called themselves brahmanas ideal set forth in the Dharmasastras. The king
Gautamiputra boasts that he was the true brah- was represented as the upholder of dharma To
mana Since the Andhras are identified with the him were assigned a few divine attributes. The
early Satavahanas, probably they were a local Satavahana king is represented as possessing
tribe who were converted to brahmamsm. The the qualities of ancient gods such as Rama,
orthodox brahmanas of the north looked upon Bhima, Kesava, Arjuna, etc. He is compared
the Andhras as a mixed caste. This shows that in prowess and lustre to these legendary figures
the Andhras were a tribal people who were and to supernatural forces. This was evidently
brought within the fold of Hindu society as a meant to attribute divinity to the Satavahana
mixed caste king.
Increasing craft and commerce in this period The Satavahanas kept some of the adminis-
brought many merchants and artisans to the trative unitsfound in Asokan times Their dis-
Merchants took pride in naming them-
forefront. trict was called ahara, as it was known in the

towns to which they belonged.

selves after the time of Asoka. Their officials were known as
Both artisans and merchants made generous amatytis and mahamatras, as they were known
donations to the Buddhist cause. They set up in Maurya times.

small memorial tablets Among the artisans the But we notice certain military and feudal
gandhikas or the perfumers are repeatedly men- elements in the administration of Satavahanas.
tioned as donors At a later stage the teim It is significant that the senapati was appointed
gandhika became so general as to denote all provincial governor. Since the tribal people
kinds of shopkeepers The modern title Gandhi in the Deccan were not thoroughly hinduized
is from this ancient term.
'derived and reconciled to the new rule, it was necessary
The most interesting detail about the Sata- to keep them under strong military control.

vahanas relates to their family structure. In The administration in the rural areas was placed
Aryan society in north India father enjoyed in the hands of gaulmika, who was the head of

greater importance than mother, and the prin- a military regiment consisting of nine chariots,
ces whom we have considered so far seem to nine elephants, 25 horses and 45 foot-soldiers.
118 ANCIENT INDIA

The head of the army platoon was therefore However, the Satavahana rulers promoted
posted in the countryside to maintain peace Buddhism by granting land to the monks In
and order their kingdom the Mahayana form of Buddhism

The military character of the Satavahana rule commanded considerable fol'owing, especially
is also evident from the common use of such in the artisan Nagaijunakonda and
class.
terms as kataka and skandhavaras in their ins- Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh became impor-
criptions, These were military camps and settle- of Buddhist culture under the Satava-
tant seats
ments wluch served as administrative centres hanas and more so under their successors, the
so long as the kingwas there. Thus coercion Ikshvakus Similarly, Buddhism flourished in
played an important part in the Satavahana the Nasik and Junar areas in the western
administration. Deccan in Maharashtra, where it seems to
The Satavahanas started the practice of grant- have been supported by the traders
ing tax-free villages to brahinanas and Bud- _

dhist monks. The cultivated and villages fields

granted to them were declaied free from molesta-

tion by royal policemen and soldiers, and all
kinds of royal oificers. These areas therefore
became small independent islands within the
Satavahana kingdom. Possibly the Buddhist
monks also preached peace and rules of good
conduct among the people they lived with, and
taught them to respect political authority and
social order The brahmanas, of course, helped
enforce the rules of the varna system which made
society stable
The Satavahana kingdom had three grades of
feudatories. The highest grade was formed by
the king who was called raja and who had the
16 1 Chaitya at Kcirle
right to strike coins, The second grade was form-
ed by fhe mahabhoja, and the third grade by Architecture

the senapati It seems that these feudatories In the Satavahana phase many temples and

and' ’anded beneficiaries enjoyed some autho- monasteries were cut out of the solid rock in
rity in their respective localities. the north-western Deccan or Maharashtra with
great skill and patience. In fact the process had
Religion started about a century earlier from 200 B C,
The Satavahana rulers claim to have been The two common structures were the temple
brahmanas, and they represented the march of which was called chaitya and the monastery
triumphant brahmanism. From the very begin- which was called vihara. The chaitya was a
ning kings and queens performed the Vedic large hall with a number of columns, and the

sacrifices such as the asvamedha, vajapeya, etc. vihara consisted of a central hall entered by a
, They also worshipped a
,
,
large number of doorway from a verandah in front. The
Vaishnava gods such as Krishna, Vasudeva, most famous chaitya is that of Karle m the
and (Others, They paid liberal sacrificial fees to western Deccan It- is about 40 metres long,
the ,
brahmanas, 15 metres wide and 15 metres high It is a most
 the age oe the satavahanas
119
I

16 3 Scene depicting Buddha’s Sermon —

16.2 Sculpture depicting the Worship' of Buddha’s Nagarjunakonda
Foo tprints —A maravati
AD. Its dome measured 53 metres across the
impressive specimen of massive rock architec- base, seems to have been 33 metres m
and it
ture height. The Amaravati stupa is full of sculp-
The viharas or monasteries were excavated tures which depict the various scenes from the
near the chaitycis for the residence of monks life of the Buddha.
in the rainy season. At Nasik we have three Nagarjunakonda prospered most under the
viharas. Since they carry the inscriptions of Ikshvakus, the successors of the Satavahanas.
Nahapana and Gautamiputra, it seems that they It contains not only Buddhist monuments but
belong to the first-second centuries A.D. also the earliest brahmanical brick temples
Rock-cut architecture is also to be found in
Andhra m the Krishna-Godavan region, but Language
the region famous for independent
is really The official language of the Satavahanas
Buddhist structures. The most important of was Prakrit. All inscriptions were composed in
these monuments are the stupas distribute d over this language and written in the Brahmi script,
an area of 125 km all around Ellora. The most as was the case in
Asokan time! Some Satava-
famous of them are Amaravati and Nagarjuna- hana kings may have composed Prakrit books.
konda. The stupa was a large round structure One Prakrit text called Gathasaptasati is attri-
erected over some relic of the Buddha buted to a Satavahana king called Hala. It
The Amaravati stupa began m about consisted of 700 verses, all written m Prakrit,
200 B C but was completely reconstructed but it seems to have been finally re-touched
in the second half of the second century much later, possibly after the sixth century AD
EXERCISES

1. Who were the Satavahanas? How long did they rule'5

2 What is meant by matrilineal family?
3. Describe the Satavahana system of administration
4. Give an account of art and religion in the Satavahana dominions,
 CHAPTER 17

The Dawn of History in the Deep South

\

The Megalithic Background did not practise an advanced type of agri-

Several elements mark the beginning of the culture.
historical period. These are: settlements of large The megaliths are found in all upland areas
scale rural communities which carry on plough of the peninsula, but their concentration seems
agriculture with the help of iron implements, to be in eastern Andhra and in Tamil Nadu.
formation of the state system, rise of social Their beginnings can be traced to circa 1000
classes, use of writing, beginnings of written B.C ,
but in many cases the megalithic phase
literature. All these phenomena are not found lasted from about the fifth to the first century
at the tip of the peninsula with the Kaveri B C. ;
in a few places this phase persisted even
delta as the nuclear zone till about the second up to the early centuries of the Christian era
century B.C. Up to this period the upland por- The Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras mentioned
tions of the peninsula were inhabited by people in Asokan inscriptions were probably in the
who are called megalith builders. They are megalithic phase of material culture. The megali-
known not from their actual settlements which thic people in the southern districts of Tamil
are rare, but from their graves. These graves Nadu had certain peculiar characteristics.
are called megaliths because they were encircled They buried the skeletons of the dead in urns
by big pieces of stone. They contain not only made of red pottery m pits. In many cases these
skeletons of people who were buried but also urns were not surrounded by stone circles, and
pottery and iron objects. The people used grave goods were not too many. The practice of
various types of pottery, but black-and-red urn-burial was different from that of cist-burial
ware seems to have been popular with them. or pit-burial surrounded by stone circles, which
Obviously the practice of burying goods in the practice prevailed in the Krishna -Godavari
graves with the dead bodies was based on the valley, But in any case, of the use of
in spite
belief that the dead would need all these in the iron, the megalithic people depended partly
next world. These goods give us an idea of their for settlement and burials on the slopes of the
sources of livelihood. We find arrowheads, hills. Although the megalithic people produced
spearheads and even hoes and sickles, all made paddy and ragi, apparently the area of culti-
of iron. Tridents, which later came to be associa- vable land used by them was very limited, and
ted with Siva, have also been found in the mega- generally they did not settle on the plains
liths. Howevei, compared to the number of or the low lands.
agricultural tools that were buried, those meant By the beginning of the Christian era, or
and hunting are larger in number.
for fighting probably a little earlier, these people moved
This would show that the megalithic people from the uplands into fertile river basins and
 THE DAWN OF HISTORY IN THE DEEP SOUTH 121

17.1 Megalithie Burial

reclaimed marshy deltaic areas. Under the sti- Three Early Kingdoms
mulus of contact with the elements of material The southern end of the Indian peninsula
culture brought from the north to the extreme situated south of the Krishna rivei was divided
end of the peninsula by traders, conquerors into three kingdoms— Chola, Pandya and Chera
and Jaina and Buddhist missionaries, they came or Kerala, The Pandyas are first mentioned by
to practise wet paddy cultivation, founded Magasthenes, who says that their kingdom was
numerous villages and towns, and came to celebrated for pearls. He also speaks of its being
have social classes. All these created conditions' ruled by a woman and states that seven-year
for the rise of state systems in the deep south, old mothers were found in the Pandya country,
whose history from the first century A.D. All this sounds exaggerated but suggests that
can be constructed on the basis of written the Pandya society was matriarchal. The Cholas,
records supplemented by Greek and Roman the Pandyas and the Cheras, all the three are
accounts and by archaeology. mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka in the
122 ANCIENT INDIA

third centruy B C., but it is clear that their wealth of the Cholas was trade in cotton cloth.
lay outside the Maurya empire in
territories They maintained an efficient navy which sailed
modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala. as far as the mouths of the Ganga and the

The Pandya territory occupied the southern- Iravadi, and in later centuries went even to the

most and the south-eastern portion of the Malaya archipelago

Indian peninsula, and it roughly included the Under Kaiikala’s successors the Chola
modern districts of Tmnevelly, Ramnad and power rapidly declined. Their capital, Kaveripa-
Madurai in Tamil Nadu. It had its capital at ttanam, was ovei whelmed and destroyed.
Madurai, which was the Tamil word for Their two neighbouring powers, the Cheras
Mathura. The literature compiled in the Tamil and the Pandyas, extended at the cost of the
academies in the early centuries of the Chris- Cholas. What remained of the Chola power was
tian era and called the Sangam literature re- almost wiped out by the attacks of the Pallavas
fers to thePandya rulers, but it does not give from the north. From the fourth to the ninth
any connected account One or two Pandya century A.D. the Cholas played only a margi-
conquerors are mentioned. However, it is nal part in south Indian history
evident from this literature that the country was The Chera or the Kerala country was situa-
wealthy and prosperous. The Pandya kings ted to the west and north of the land of the
profited from trade with the Roman empire and Pandyas. It included the narrow strip of land

sent embassies to, the Roman emperor Augustus. between the sea and the mountains and covered
The brahmanas enjoyed considerable influ- a portion of the modern Kerala State. In the
ence, and the Pandya kings performed Vedic early centuries of the Christian era the Chera
sacrifices in the early centuries of the Christian country was as important as the country of the
era. Cholas and the Pandyas It owed its import-
The Chola kingdom was called Cholaman- ance to trade with the Romans. The Romans
dalam or Coromandal. It was situated to the setup two regiments at Muziris identical with
north-east of the territory of the Pandyas, Cranganore m the Chera’ country to protect
between the Pennar and the Velur rivers. We their interests. It is said that they also built there
have some idea of the political history of the a temple of Augustus.
Cholas, whose chief centre of political power The most important event m the political
lay at Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton trade. history of the Cheras was their fight against the
It seems that in the middle of the second cen- Cholas about A.D. 150, Although the Cheras
tury B.C. a Chola king named Elara conquered killed the father of the Chola king Karikala,
Sri Lanka and ruled over it for nearly 50 years the Chera king also lost his life. Later the two
A firmer history of the Cholas begins in the kingdoms temporarily came to terms and
second century A.D. with their famous king concluded a matrimonial alliance. The Chera
Karikala,who flourished around A.D. 100. king next allied himself with the Pandya rulers
He founded Puhar and constructed 160 km of against the Cholas But the Cholas defeated the
embankment along the K^veri river. This was and it is said that since the Chera king
allies,

built with the labour of 12,000 slaves who were was wounded in the back he committed sui-
brought as captives from Sri Lanka. Puhar is cide out of shame.
identical with Kaveripattanam, which Was the' According to the Chera poets their greatest
Chola capital. It was a great centre of trade king was Senguttuvan, the Red Chera. He
and commerce, and excavations show that it routed his rivals and established his cousin
had a large dock. Qne of the main sources of the securely on the throne. It is said that he invaded
 THE DAWN OF HISTORY IN THE DFFP SOUTH 123

they much profited from their natural

very
resources and foreign trade, These kingdoms
were immensely rich, They gievv spices, especi-
ally pepper, which was in great demand in the
western world. Their elephants supplied ivory,
which was highly valued in the West The sea
yielded pearls and their mines produced precious
stones,and both these were sent to the West in
good quantity, In addition to this they produced
muslin and silk. We hear of cotton cloth as thm
as the slough of a snake The early Tamil poems
also mention the weaving ot complex patterns on
silk Uraiyur was noted for its cotton trade,
From very early times the Tamils traded with
the Greek or kingdom of Egypt and
Hellenistic
Arabia on the one and with the Malaya
side,
archipelago and from there with China on the
other. As a result of trade the woids for rice,
ginger, cinnamon and several other articles in
Greek language were derived from Tamil lang-
uage, When Egypt became a Roman province
and when the monsoons were discovered about
the beginning of the first century A.D ,
this
trade received great impetus. Thus for the first
two and a half centuries A D. the southern
kingdoms carried on lucrative trade with the
Romans. With the decline of this trade, these
kingdoms also began to decay.

The Purse and the Sword

Trade, foieign and internal, constituted a
17.2 Objects of Carved Ivory belonging to the Eat ly
very important source of loyal revenue, We
Centuries of the Christian Eta
know how the custom officials functioned in
Puhar. Transit duties were also collected from
the north and crossed the Ganga. But all this merchants who moved with their goods from
seems to be exaggerated. After the second place to place For the safety of merchants and
century A.D. the Chera power declined, and we prevention of smuggling, soldiers maintained
have nothing of its history again till the eighth constant vigil on the road
century A.D. Spoils of war further added to royal income.
The main interest of the political history of But the real foundation of war and polity lay
these three kingdoms lies in the continuous in regular income from agriculture The share
wars they fought with one another and also of the agricultural produce, claimed and collec-

with Sn Lanka. ted by the king, is not specified. The tip of the '

Although the wars weakened these states, peninsula and the adjacent
,
regions were ex-
124 ANCIENT INDIA

tremely fertile. The land produced paddy, ragi purpose. Agricultural operations were generally
and sugarcane. was said of the Kaveri delta
It carried on by women of the lowest class (kctdaisi
-

that the space in which an elephant could lie yar ), whose status appears to have differed little

down produced enough to feed seven persons. from that of the slave
In addition to this the Tamil region produced Besides agricultural labourers we come across
grains, fruit, pepper and turmeric. It seems that low class artisans To this category belonged the
the king had a share in all this produce. pulaiyans, who made rope charpaiys and used
Apparendy out of the taxes collected from the animal skins as mats. Several outcastes and
peasantry the state maintained a regular army forest tribes suffered from extreme poverty and
It consisted of chariots drawn by oxen, of ele- lived from hand to mouth. We notice
phants, cavalry and infantry. Elephants played sharp social inequalities in the age of the
an important part in war. Horses were imported Sangam. The rich lived in houses of brick and
by sea into the Pandyan kingdom. The nobles mortar, and the poor in huts and humbler
and princes or captains of army rode on ele- structures In the cities the rich merchants lived
phants, and the commanders drove on chariots. in the upper storey of their houses. But it is
The foot soldiers and horsemen wore leather not clear whether rites and religion were used
sandles for the protection of their feat. to maintain social inequalities. We notice the
dominance of the brahmanas and the ruling
Rise of Social Classes caste, but acute caste distinctions which appeared
Taxes enabled the king not only to maintain in later times are lacking in the early Sangam
a professional army but also to pay the poets and age.
priests, who were mainly brahmanas. The
brahmanas first appear in the Tamil land in the Beginnings of Brahmanism
Sangam age. An ideal king was one who never The state and society that were formed in the
hurt the brahmanas. Many brahmanas func- Tamil land in the early centuries of the Christian
tioned as poets, and in this role they were era developed under the impact of brahmanism.
generously rewarded by the king. Karikala is But the brahmanical influence was confined to
said to have given one poet 1,600, 000 gold pieces. a small part of the Tamil territory and only to
Besides gold, the poets also received cash, the upper levels of Tamil society in that area.
land, chariots, horses and even elephants. The The kings performed the Vedic sacrifices. The
Tamil brahmanas took meat and wine. The brahmanas, who were the followers of the
kshatriyas and vaisyas do not appear as regular Vedas, carried on disputations, possibly with the
varnas in the Sangam texts. But the class of Jainas and the Buddhists. But the chief local
warriors was not absent. Captains of the army god worshipped by the people was Murugan,
were invested with the title of enadi at a formal who was also called Subramaniya. The worship
ceremony. Civil and military offices were held of Vishnu is also mentioned, although it may
under both the Cholas and the fiandyas by have been a later practice. The megalithic prac-
vallalas or rich peasants. The ruling caste was tice of providing for the dead continued. People
called the arasar, and itsmembers had marriage offered paddy Cremation was in-
to the dead.
relations with the vallalas, who constituted the troduced, inhumation followed in the
but
fourth caste. They held the bulk of the land and megalithic phase was not abandoned.
thus constituted the peasantry, divided into the
rich and the poor. The rich did not plough the Tamil Language and Sangam Literature
land themselves but employed labourers for this All that has been stated above .about the life
I

THE DAWN OF HISTORY IN THE DEEP SOUTH > 125

l

of the Tamils m the beginning of the histori- accounts, and from archaeology. There is no
cal period is based on the Sangam literature, doubt that the art of writing was known to the

As shown earlier, the sangam was a college or Tamils before the beginning of the Chnstian
assembly of Tamil poets held probably under era, More than 75 short inscriptions in the

royal patronage. But we do not know the num- Brahmi script have been found in natural caves,

ber of sangams or the period for which they mainly in the Madurai region They provide
were held. It is stated in a Tamil commentary of the specimen of the earliest form of Tamil
the middle of the eighth century A.D. that mixed with Prakrit words. They belong to the
three sangams lasted for 9,990 years, They were second-first centuries B.C when the Jama
attended by 8,598 poets, and had 197 Paudya and Buddhist missionaries appeared in this

kings as patrons. All this is wild exaggeration, area. Inscribed potsherds during recent ex-

All that can be said is that a sangam was held cavations have been found at several places,

under royal patronage in Madurai. and they provide examples of Tamil in the
The available sangam literature, which was beginning of the Christian era, It is therefore

produced by these assemblies, was compiled in no wonder that considerable Sangam literature

circa A.D. 300-600. The early, middle and last was produced in the early centuries of the

strata of the texts are yet to be clearly identified, Christian era, although it was finally compiled

but they contain descriptions which tally with by A.D. 600.

what we know from the Greek and Roman

EXERCISES

1 . What is meant by the megaliths? What light do they throw on the material culture

of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu?

2. When did the Pandyas first appear in history? Give an account of their activities

in the early centuries of the Christian era,

3. Where did the Cholas rule first? Narrate the history of Kaveripattanam,

4. Write a note on the Cheras,

5. Mention the commercial activities of the early Tamil kingdoms,

6. What is meant by the Sangam literature? Give an account of life covered by it.
 CHAPTER 18

Crafts, Trade and Towns in the Post-Maurya Age

r
i
, ,

Crafts hana layers at various excavated sites But the

The age of the Sakas, Kushans, Satavahanas Telangana region of Andhra seems to have made
(200B.C.—A D. 200) and the first Tamil states special progress in iron manufacture In addi-

was the most flourishing period in the history tion to weapons, balance rods, socketed axes
of crafts and commerce in ancient India. Arts and hoes, sickles, ploughshares, razors and
and crafts witnessed a remarkable growth. We ladles have been discovered in the Karimnagar
do not come across so many kinds of artisans in and Nalgonda districts of this region. Indian iron
the earlier texts as are mentioned in the writings and steel including cutlery were exported to the
of this period. The Digha Nikayb, which belongs Abyssinian ports, and they enjoyed great prestige
to pre-Maurya times, mentions about two dozen in Western Asia.

occupations, but the Mahamtu ,

which belongs Cloth-making, silk-weaving and the making
to this period, catalogues 36 kinds of workers of arms and luxury articles also made progress,
living in the town of Rajgir, and the list is not Mathura was a gieaf centre for the manufacture
exhaustive.The Milinda Panho or the Questions of a special type of cloth which was called

of Milinda enumerates as many as 75 occupa- <;ataka Dyeing was a thriving craft in some
tions, 60 of which are connected with vaiious south Indian towns. A brick-built dyeing vat

kinds of crafts. Craftsmen are mostly associa- has been unearthed at Uraiyur, a suburb of
ted with towns in literary texts, but some excava- Tiruchirapalli town in Tamil Nadu. Similar
tions show that they also inhabited villages, In dyeing vats were excavated at Ankamedu.
a village settlement in Karimnagar in Telangana These structures belong to the lst-3rd centuries
carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, potters, A D. during which handloom textile industry
etc., lived in separate quarters and agricultural flourished in these towns. The manufacture

and other labourers lived at one end. of oil increased because of the use of
Eight crafts were associated with the working the oil wheel. The inscriptions of the period
of gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, brass, iron and mcnlion weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, workers
precious stones or jewels Various kinds of brass, in metal and ivory, jewellers, sculptors, fisher-

zinc, antimony and red arsenic are also men- men, smiths and perfumers as constructors of
tioned. All this shows great advance and speci- caves and donors of pillars, tablets, cisterns,

alization in mining and metallurgy, Technologi- etc., to the Buddhist monks. All these suggest
cal knowledge about the work of iron, had made that their crafts were in a flourishing condition,
great progress. Iron artifacts have been discov- Of the handicrafts meant for manufacturing
ered in greater numbers in Kushan and Satava- luxury articles mention may be made of ivory
 CRAFTS) TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POST-MAURY A AGE 127 .

© Government of India copyright. 1912

The territorial waters of India catenet into the tea to a distance of twelve
milea measured from the appropriate base Irnc

Figure 13 India— circa 200 B.C.—A.D. 200

1 28 ANCIENT INDIA

work, glass manufacture and bead cutting. of which a hundred brahmanas were to be

Many products of these crafts have been found served daily. On the basis of different texts we
as a result of digging in the Kushan complexes. can say that artisans of this peiiod were organ-
Indian ivories have been found in Afghanistan two dozen guilds. Most artisans
ized into at least

and Rome They are likened to ivory objects known from inscriptions were confined to the
found in excavations at Satavahana sites in the Mathura region and to the 'western Deccan,
Deccan. Roman glass objects appear in Taxila which lay on the trade routes leading to the
and in Afghanistan, but it was about the begin- ports on the western coast.
ning of the Christian era that the knowledge of The most important economic development
glass-blowing reached India and attained its of the period was the thriving trade between
peak. Similarly large numbers of beads of semi- India and the eastern Roman empire. In the
precious stones appear in post-Maurya .layers. beginning a good deal of this trade was carried
Coin-minting was an important craft, and the on by land, but the movement of the Sakas,
period is noted for numerous types of coins made Parthians and Kushans from the first century
of gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead and potin B.C. disrupted trade by land route.
The craftsmen also made fake Roman coins. Although the Parthians of Iran imported
Various coin-moulds belonging to the period iron and steel from India they presented great
have been found both in north India and in obstacles to India’s trade with the lands further
the Deccan. A coin-mould from the Satavahana west of Iran. But from the first century A.D,
level shows that through dozen coins
it half a trade was carried on mainly by sea. It seems
could be turned out at a time. These urban handi- that around the beginning of the Christian era
crafts were supplemented by the manufacture the monsoons were discovered, So the sailors
of beautiful pieces of terracotta, which are found now could sail in much less time directly from
in profuse quantities. They have been found in the eastern-coast of the Arabian Sea to its west-
almost all Kushan and Satavahana sites, but ern coast. They could call easily at the various
mention may be made of Yelleshwaram
special ports such as Broach and Sopara situated on
inNalgonda district, where we find the largest the western coast of India, and Arikamedu and
number of terracottas and the moulds in which Tamralipti situated on its eastern coast. Of all

they were manufactured. Terracottasand their these portsBroach seems to have been the most
moulds have also been found at Kondapur, at important and flourishing. To it were brought
a distance of about 65 km from Hyderabad. not only the commodities produced in the
Terracottas were meant mostly for the use of Satavahana kingdom but also the goods pro-
upper classes in towns. It is significant that with duced in the Saka and Kushan kingdoms. The
the decline of towns
Gupta, and especially
in Sakas aud the Kushans used two routes from the
in post-Gupta times, such terracottas almost north-western frontier to the western sea coast.
went out of fashion, Both these routes converged at Taxila, and were
Artisans were organized into guilds, and in connected with the Silk Road passing through
the second century A.D. in Maharashtra lay Central Asia. The first route directly ran from
devotees of Buddhism deposited money with the north to the south connecting Taxila with
the guilds of potters, oil millers and weavers from where it passed on
the lower Indus basin
for providing robes and other necessities to to Broach.The second route called the uttara-
the monks. In the same century money was patha was m more frequent use. From Taxila
deposited by a chief with the guild of flour it passed through the modem Panjab up to the
makers at Mathura out of the monthly income western coast of the Yamuna. Following the
CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POST-MAURYA AGE 129

Figure 14 Ancient Trade Routes

130 ANCIfiNT INDIA

course of the Yamuna it went southward to Gauhati. Lead, which was used for making coins
Mathura, From Mathura it passed on to Ujjain by the Satavahanas, seems to have been impor-
in Malwa and again from Ujjain to Broach on ted from Rome, in the shape of coiled strips.
the western coast. Ujjain was the meeting-point The Roman goods have not been discovered in
of another route which started from Kausambi any good number in north India. But there is
near Allahabad. ,
no doubt that under the Kushans the north-
western part of the subcontinent in the second
Foreign Trade century A.D carried on trade with the eastern
Although the volume of trade between India Roman empire This was facilitated
part of the
and Rome seems to have been large, it was not by the Roman conquest of Mesopotamia, which
carried on in articles of daily or common use. was made a Roman province in A.D 115. The
There was a brisk commerce in luxury goods, Roman emperor Trajan not only conquered
notin the articles of day-to-day use. The Romans Muscat but also explored the Persian Gulf.
first started trade with the southern-most por- As a of tiade and conquest the Roman
result
tion of the country, because their earliest coins objects reached Afghanistan and north-western
have been found in the Tamil kingdpms which India. At Begram, 72 km north of Kabul, large
lay outside the Satavahana dominions. The glass jars made in Italy, Egypt and Syria have
Romans mainly imported spices for which come to light. We also find there bowls, bronze
south India was famous. They also imported stands, steel yards, weights of western origin,
muslin, pearls, jewels, and precious stones from Graeqo-Roman bronze statues of small size,
central and south India. Iron goods, especially jugs and other vessels made of alabaster Taxila,
cutlery, formed an important item of export to which is identical with the modern Sirkap in
the Roman empire. In addition to the articles North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan,
directly supplied by India, certain articles were* provides fine examples of the Graeco-Roman
brought to India fiom China and Central Asia sculpture in bronze. We also find silver orna-
and then sent to the eastern part of the Roman ments, some bronze pots, one jar and coins of
empire. Silk was directly sent from China to the Roman emperor Tiberius. But Arretine pot-
the Roman empire through the Silk Road pass- tery, which has been found commonly in south
ing through north Afghanistan and Iran. But the India, is not noticed m
central or western India
establishment of the Parthian rule in Iran and or in Afghanistan. Evidently these places
the neighbouring areas created difficulties. did not popular
receive western articles,
Therefore silk had to be diverted to the western which have been found mostly south of the
Indian ports through the north-western part of Vindhyas in the Satavahana kingdom and fur-
the subcontinent. Sometime^ it also found its kingdoms of both the Sata-
ther south, Thus; the
way from China to India via the east coast of vahanas as well as the Kushans profited from
India.From there it went to the West. Thus trade with the Roman empire, although the
there was considerable transit trade in silk maximum profit seems to have accrued to the
between India and the Roman empire. Satavahanas.
In return the Romans exported to India .wine- The most significant Roman export to India
amphorae and various other types of pottery was the large number of coins, invariably
which have been discovered in excavations at made of gold and silver. About 85 finds
Tamluk West Bengal, Arikamedu near
in of Roman coins have come to light in
Pondicherry and at several other places in the whole ofthe subcontinent, and most of
south India. Sometimes they travelled as far as them come from the south of the Vindhyas,
 CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POST-MAURYA AGE 131

This justifies the complaint of the Roman writer tern India.Copper and bronze coins were also used
Pliny, who wrote his account called Natural by the rulers of some indigenous
in large quantities
History tn Latin ifi A,D 77. He bewails that dynasties such as the Nagas who ruled in central
Rome was being drained of gold on account of India, the Yaudheyas who ruled in eastern Rajas-
her trade with India. This may be an exaggera- than together with the adjacent areas of Haryana,
tion. But as early as A. D. 22 we hear of com- Panjab and Uttar Pradesh and the Mitras who
plaints against excessive expenditure on the ruled in Kausambi, Mathura, Avanti, and Ahi-
purchase of pepper from the East. Since the chchhatra (Bareilly district in Uttar Pradesh).
westerners were very much fond of Indian Perhaps in no other period had money economy
pepper, it is called yavanapriya in Sanskrit. penetrated so deeply into the life of the common
There also began a strong reaction against the people of the towns and their suburbs as during
use of India-made steel cutlery for which the this period This development fits well with the
Roman nobles paid very high prices The balance growth of arts and crafts and the country’s
of trade was so much in favour of India that thriving trade with the Roman empire.
eventually steps had to be taken in Rome to
ban Rome’s trade with India in pepper and steel Urban Settlements
goods. The growing crafts and commerce and the
How did the Indians use the silver and gold increasing use of money promoted the prosperity
currency which came to India from Rome? of numerous towns during this period Impor-
The Roman gold coins were naturally valued for tant towns in north India such as Vaisalt, Patali-

their intrinsic worth, but they also may have putra, Varanasi, Kausainbi, Sravasti, Hastina-
circulated in big trans; ctions. In the north the pur, Mathura, Indraprastha (Purana Quila in

Indo-Greek rulers issued a few gold coins. But New Delhi) are all mentioned in literary texts,

the Kushans issued gold coins in considerable and some of them are also described by the
numbers. It is wrong to think that all Kushan Chinese pilgrims Most towns flourished in the
gold coins were minted out of Roman gold. Kushan pci lod in the first and the second cen-
As early as the fifth centruy B.C India -had turies A, D. This may be saidon the basis of
paid a tribute of 320 talents of gold to the
Iranian empire. This gold may have been
extracted from the gold mines in Sindh. The
Kushans ptobably obtained gold from Central
Asia They may also have procured it either
from Karnataka' or from the gold mines of
Dhalbhum in south Bihar which latercame under
their sway. On account of contact with Rome the
Kushans issued the dinar type of gold coins which
became abundant under the Gupta rule But
gold coins may not have been used in day-to-
day transactions, which were carried on coins m
of lead, potin. or copper. Both lead and copper
deposits arc. found in Andhra The Andhras
issued a large number of lead or potin coins in
theDeccan, and the Kushans issued the largest 18.1 Terracotta Figures found in . Ter
number of copper comsin northern and northwes- '
(Distt Osmanabad)
132 ANCIENT INDIA

from Kausambi and the other from Mathura.

But it was also important because of its export
of agate and carnelian stones. Excavations show
that agate, jasper and carnelian were worked on
a large scale for the manufacture of beads after
200 B C. This was possible because the raw
material could be obtained m
plenty from the
trap bedrock in the bed of the Sipra river.
Towns thrived in the Satavahana kingdom
during the same peiiod as they did under
the Sakas and Kushans. Tagar (Ter), Paithan,
Dhanyakataka, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda,
Broach, Sopara, Arikamedu, Kaveripattanam
were prosperous towns in the Satavahana period
in western and south India. Several Satavahana
18.2 Remains of the Stadium at Nagatjunakomia
settlements, some of which may be identical with
the thirty walled towns of the Andhras mention-
ed by Pliny, have been excavated in Telangana.
excavations, which have revealed better struc- They had originated much earlier than towns in
tures belonging to the Kushan age. Excavations the coastal Andhra although not much later
furthershow that several sites in Bihar such as than towns in western Maharashtra. But the
Chirand, Sonpur and Buxar, and Mason in decline of towns in Maharashtra, Andhra and
Ghazipur in eastern Uttar Pradesh witnessed Tamil Nadu generally took place from the
prosperous Kushan phases. Similarly in Uttar third century AD. onwards.
Pradesh, Sohgaura, Bhita, Kausambi and Towns prospered in the Kushan and Satava-
Shringaverapur near Allahabad, Atranjikhera hana empires because they carried on thriving
and several sites in the districts of Meerut and trade with the Roman empire. The country trad-
Muzaffarnagar were in a thriving state in ed with the eastern part of the Roman empire
Kushan times. We notice considerable brick as well as with Central Asia Towns in Panjab
Kushan period at both Shringa-
structures of the and western Uttar Pradesh thrived because the
verapur and Chirand. The excavations at Sonkh centre of Kushan power lay in north-western
in Mathura show as many as seven levels of the India. Most Kushan towns in India lay exactly
Kushan phase, and only one of the Gupta phase. on the north-western or uttarapalha route
Again in Jullundar, Ludhiana and Ropar, all passing from Mathura to Taxila. The Kushan
lying in Panjab, several sites show good Kushan empire ensured security on the routes. Its end

structures. The same is true of the sites excavated m the third century A.D. dealt a great blow to
in Haryana. In many cases the Gupta period these towns. The same thing seems to have
had poorly built structures made of used Kushan happened m the
Deccan With the ban on trade
bricks. On the whole the material remains as- with India imposed by the Roman empire from
cribable to the Kushan phase display urbaniza- the third century A D, towns could not
tion at its peak. This also applies to towns in support the artisans and merchants who lived
the Saka kingdom of Malwa and western Tndia. there. Archaeological excavations in the Deccan
The most important town was Ujjain, because also suggest decline in the urban settlements
of its being the nodal point of two routes, one after the Satavahana phase.
 CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POST-MAURYA AGE 133

EXERCISES

1. “The age of the Sakas, Kushans and Satavahanas was the most flourishing
period in the history of crafts and commerce m ancient India.” Discuss.
2. —
Describe the main economic activities in post-Maurya times ( circa 200 B.C.
A.D 200).
3. Give an account of India’s foreign trade between circa 200 B.C. and A.D. 200.
4 “The growth of crafts and commerce promoted the prosperity of towns in post-
Maurya times ( circa 200 B C.v-A.'D 2Q0),” Expand,
 CHAPTER 10

The Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire

Background and fanned out in different directions. Probably

After the break-up of the Maurya empire the with their centre of power at Prayag they spread
Satavahanas and the Kushans emerged as two in the neighbouring regions.
large political powers. The Satavahanas acted The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of

as a stabilizing factor in the Deccan and south, the Kushans in Uttar Pradesh, and seem to
to which they gave political unity and economic have succeeded them without any wide timelag.
prosperity on the strength of their trade with At many places in Utt?r Pradesh and Bihar the

the Roman empire. The Kushans performed Kushan antiquities are immediately followed
the same role in the north. Both these empires by the Gupta antiquities It is likely that the

came to an end in the middle of the third Guptas learnt the use ot saddle, reins, buttoned-'
century A D. coats, trousers and boots from the Kushans.
On the ruins of the Kushan empire arose a All these gave them mobility and made them
new empire, which established its sway over a excellent horsemen. In the Kushan scheme of
good part of the former dominions of both the things chariots and elephants had ceased to be
Kushans and Satavahanas. This was the power important. Horses played the mam part This
of the Guptas, who may have been of vaisya also seems to have been the case with the Guptas
origin. Although the Gupta empire was not as on whose coins horsemen are represented.
large as the Maurya empire, it kept north India Although some Gupta kings are described as
politically united for more than a century, from excellent and unrivalled chariot warriors, their

335 to 455. The original kingdom of the Guptas basic strength lay m the use of horses.
comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar at the end The Guptas enjoyed certain material advan-
of the third century A.D. Uttar Pradesh seems tages. The centre of their operations lay m the
to have been a more important province for the fertile land of Madhyadesa covering Bihar and

Guptas than Bihar, because early Gupta coins -Uttar Pradesh. They could exploit the iron ores
and inscriptions have been mainly found in that of central India and south Bihar. Further, they
state. If we leave out some feudatories and took advantage of their proximity to the areas
private individuals, whose inscriptions have in north India which carried on silk trade with
been mostly found in Madhya Pradesh, Uttai the Eastern Roman empire, also known as the
Pradesh will stand out as the most important Byzantine empire. On account of these favour-
area in respect of the finds of the Gupta able factors the Guptas set up their rule over
antiquities.Hence Uttar Pradesh seems to have Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Prayag
been the place from where the Guptas operated (modern Allahabad), Saketa (modern Ayodhya)
 THE RISE AND GROWTH OF THE GUPTA
EMPIRE 135

»nd Magadha. In course of time this kingdom by Chandragupta I’s son and successor Samudra-
became an all-India empire. The Kushan power gupta (A.D. 335-380). He was the opposite of
in north Indiacame to an end around A.D. 230 Asoka Asoka believed in a policy of peace
and then a good part of central India fell under and non-aggression, but Samudragupta delighted
the rule of the Murundas, who were possibly in violence and conquest. His court poet Hari-
the kinsmen of the Kushans. The Murundas shena wrote a glowing account of the military
continued to rule till A.D. 250. Twonty-five exploits of his patron In a long inscription the
years later, in about A.D. 275, the dynasty of poet enumerates the peoples and countries that
the Guptas came to power. were conquered by Samudragupta. The in-
The first important king of the Gupta dynasty scription is engraved at Allahabad on the same
was Chandragupta I. He married a Lichchhavi an inscription of the peace-loving
pillar as carries
princess from Nepal, which strengthened his Asoka, The places and the countries conquered
position. The Guptas were possibly vaisyas, by Samudragupta can be divided into five groups.
and hence marriage in a lcshatriya family gave Group one includes princes of the Ganga-
them prestige. Chandragupta 1 seems to have Yamuna doab, who weie defeated and whose
been a ruler of considerable importance because kingdoms were incorporated into the Gupta
the Gupta era
he started m
A.D. 319-20, which empire. Group two includes the rulers of the
marked the date of, his accession. Later many eastern Himalayan states and son;e frontier states
inscriptions came to be dated in the Gupta era. such as princes of Nepal, Assam, Bengal, etc.,
who were made to fee) the weight of Samudra-
Samudragupta (A.D. 335-380) gupta’s arms. It also covets some republics of
The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously Panjab. The republics, which flickered on the

19.1 The Allahabad Pillar Insciiplioii of Samudragupta (lines 30-31 and 33)

The Nagari rendering of lines 30, 31 and 33 and English translation of lines 30-31 are given below

(1.30) h r=t fctfxt '

uru i srerr-wsr-

(1.31) ffnfa *pTSJT qrr| wt to: ii qrnm-"

(1.33)
i

LI 30-31 —
[And whose fame, ever heaped up higher and higher by the development of (his) liberality
and prowess of arm and composure and (study of) the precepts of the scriptures, — travelling
by many paths, purifies the three worlds, as if it were the pale yellow water of (the river)
Ganga, flowing quickly on being liberated from confinement the thickets of the matted hair
of (the god) Pasupati.] >
 .

Based upon Survey or India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India.
© Government of India copyright, 1982
The territorial waters of India extend mto the sea to a distance of twelvh nautical
miles measured from
the appropriate base line.
j

Figure 15 The Gupta Empire, circa A,D, 400

 THE RISE AND GROWTH OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE 137

ruins of theMaurya empire, were finally put out distantlands. The prestige and influence of
by Samudragupta Group three includes the Samudragupta spread even outside India.
forest kingdoms situated in the Vindhya region According to a Chinese source, Meghavarman,
and known as atavika rajyas; they were brought the ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a missionary to
under the control of Samudragupta. Group Samudragupta for permission to build a Buddhist
four includes 12 rulers of the eastern Deccan and temple at Gaya. This was granted, and the
south India, who were conquered and liberated temple developed into a huge monastic establish-
Samudragupta’s arms reached as fai as Kanchi ment If we believe the eulogistic inscription
from
im Tamil Nadu, where the Pallavas were corn- Allahabad, would appear that Samudragupta
it

pelled to recognize his suzerainty. Group five never knew any defeat, and in this sense he is
includes thenames of the Sakas and Kushans, called the Napoleon of India. There is no doubt

some of them ruling in Afghanistan. It is said that Samudragupta forcibly unified the greater
that Samudragupta swept them out of pbwer part of India under him, and his power was felt
and received the submission of the rulers of in a much larger area.

Chandragupta II (A.D. 380-412)

The reign of Chandragupta II saw the high
watermark of the Gupta empire. He extended
the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and
conquests. Chandragupta married his daughter
Prabhavati with a Vakataka prince who belong-
ed to the brahmana caste and ruled central m
India. The prince died, and was succeeded by
his young son. So Prabhavati became the vir-
tual ruler. As shown by some of her land char-
ters, which -betray the influence of the eastern
Gupta writing, she managed the affaus of her
kingdom with the help of an official sent by her
father Chandragupta. Thus Chandragupta exer-
cised indirect control over the Vakataka king-
dom in central India This afforded a great
advantage to him. Passing through this area
Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa
and Gujarat, which had been under the rule of
the Sakas for about four centuries by that time.
The conquest gave Chandragupta the western
sea coast, famous for trade and commerce.
This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa,
and its chief city Ujjain Ujjain seems to have
been made the second capital by Chandragupta
II.

The exploits of a king called Chandra are

19.2 Coins of Chandragupta-L, —-Samudragupta and— glorified in an iron pillar inscription fixed near

Chandragupta 11 Qutb Minar in Delhi If Chandra is considered

138 ANCIENT INDIA

to be identica with Chandragupta II, it will by the rise of the feudatories. The governors
appear that he established Gupta authority in appointed by the Gupta kings in north Bengal
north-western India and in a good portion of and their feudatories in Samatata or south-east
Bengal. Bengal tended to become independent. The, later
Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikrama- Guptas of Magadha established their power
ditya, which had been first used by an Ujjain in Bihar. Alongside them the Maukharis
ruler in 58 B.C. as a mark of victory over the rose to power Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, and
in
Sakas. The court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain had their capital at Kanauj. It seems that by
was adorned by numerous scholars including 550 Bihar and Uttar Pradesh had passed out of
Kalidasa and Amarasimha, Gupta hands. By the beginning of the sixth
It was in Chandragupta’s time that the Chinese century we find independent princes issuing land
pilgrim Fa-hsien (399-414) visited India and grants in their own rights in northern Madhya
wrote an elaborate account of the life of its Pradesh, although they use the Gupta era in
people. dating their charters. The of Valabhi
rulers
i
established their authority
Gujarat and
in"
Fall of the Empire western Malwa. After the reign of Skanda-
The successors of Chandragupta II had to gupta i.e., A.D. 467, hardly any Gupta coin
face an invasion by the Hunas from Central Asia or inscription has been found in western Malwa
in the second half of the fifth centruy A.D. and Saurashtra. The loss of western India, which
Although in the beginning the Gupta king seems to have been complete by the end of the
Skandagupta tried effectively to stem the march fifth must have deprived the Guptas
century,
of the Hunas into India, his successors proved' of the from trade and commerce
rich revenues
to be weak and could not cope with the Huna and crippled them economically, and the princes
invaders, who excelled in horsemanship and of Thaneswar established their power in Haryana
who' possibly used stirrups made of metal They and then gradually moved on to Kanauj.
could move quickly, and being excellent archers The Gupta state may have found it difficult to
they seem to have attained considerable success maintain a large professional army on account
not only in Iran but also in India, of the growing practice of land grants for
By 485 the Hunas occupied eastern Malwa religious anjl other purposes, which was bound
and a good portion of central India where their to reduce their revenues. Their income may
.inscriptions have been found. The intermediate have farther been affected by the decline of for-
regions such as Panjab
and Rajasthan also eign trade. The migration of a guild of silk
passed under their possession, This must have weavers from Gujarat to Malwa in A.D. 473 and
drastically reduced the extent of the Gupta their adoption of npn-productive professions
empire at the beginning of the sixth century. show that there was not much demand for
Although the Huna power was soon overthrown cloth produced by them. The advantages from
by Yasodharman of Malwa, the Malwa prince Gujarat trade gradually disappeared. After the
successfully challenged the authority of the middle of the fifth century the Gupta kings made
Guptas and set up, in 532, pillars of victory desperate attempts to maintain their gold cur-
commemorating his conquest of almost the whole rency by reducing the politest of pure gold in it.
of northern India. Although Yasodharman’s But this proved of no avail. Although the) rule
rule was shortlived, it must have given a severe of the Imperial Guptas lingered till the middle
blow to the Gupta empire. of the sixth century A.D,; the imperial gloiy
The Gupta empire was farther undermined had ended a century earlier.
 THE RISE AND GROWTH OP THE GUPTA EMPIRE 139

EXERCISES

1. Outline the rise and growth of the Gupta empire.

2. Enumerate the conquests of Samudragupta.
3. “The reign of Chandragupta II was the high watermark of the Gupta empire.’*
Expand.
 .

CHAPTER 20

Life in the Gupta Age

System of Administration maintenance of royal officers on duty in the rural

In contrast to the Mauryas the Gupta kings areas. In central and western India the villagers

adopted pompous' titles such as pai amesvara, were also subjected to forced labour called

maharajadhiraja and paramabhattaraka. This vishti for serving the royal army and officials,
signifies that they ruled over lesser kings m their The judicial system was far more developed
empire, Kingship washereditary, but royal power under the Guptas than in earlier times, Several
was limited by the absence of a firm practice law-books were compiled in this period. For the

of primogeniture. The throne did not always go first time civil and criminal law were clearly

to the eldest son. This created uncertainties, of defined and demarcated. Theft and adultery
which the chiefs and high' officials could take came under criminal law. Disputes regarding
advantage. The Guptas made munificent gifts to various types of property came under civil law,

the brahmanas, who expressed their gratitude by Elaborate laws were laid down about inheritance.
comparing the king to different gods. He was During this period also many laws continued to
looked upon as Vishnu, the protector and pre- be based on differences in varnas. It was the duty

server, The goddess Lakshmi is represented in- of the king to uphold the law. The king tried cases
variably on the other side of the coins as the with the help of brahmana priests. The guilds
wife of Vishnu. of artisans, merchants and others were governed
The numerical strength of the Gupta army is by their own laws, Seals from Vaisali and from
not known. Evidently the king maintained a Bhita near Allahabad indicate that these guilds
standing army, which was supplemented by the flourished exceedingly well in Gupta times.
forces occasionally supplied by the feudatories. The Gupta bureaucracy was not as elaborate
Chariots receded into the background, and ca- as that of the Mauryas. The most important
valry came to the forefront. Horse archery be- officers in the Gupta empire were the kumarama-

came prominent in military tactics. tyas. They were appointed by the king in the

In the Gupta period land taxes increased in home provinces and possibly paid in cash. Since
number, and those on trade and commerce the Guptas were possibly vaisyas, recruitment
decreased. Probably the king collected taxes was not confined to the upper varnas only. But
varying from one-fourth to one-sixth of the several offices came to be 'combined in the hands
pioduce, In addition to this, whenever the royal of the same person, and posts became hereditary.
army passed through the countryside the local This naturally weakened the royal control.
people had to feed it. The peasants had to supply The Guptas organized a system of provincial
animals, foodgrains, furniture, etc., for the and local administration. The empire was
 LIFE IN THE GUPTA AGE 141

divided into divisions (bhuktis), and each, bhukti The charters marked with
for ruling in the areas.
was placed under the charge of an uparika. The the royal Garuda seal seem to have been issued
bhuktis w'ere divided into districts (
vishayas ), to the vassals The Guptas thus had several
which were placed under the charge of vishaya- tributary princes m Madhya Pradesh and else-
pati. In eastern India the vishayas were divided where. The subordinate position of the princes
into vithis, which again were divided into turned them into feudal vassals
villages. The second important feudal development
The village headman became more important was the grant of fiscal and administrative con-
in Gupta times He managed the village affairs cessions to priests and administrators. Started
with the assistance of elders. With the adminis- in theDeccan by the Satavahanas, the practice
tration of a village or a small town leading became ,a regular affair in Gupta times, parti-
local elements were associated. No land transac- Madhya Pradesh Religious function-
cularly in
tions could be effected without their consent. arieswere granted land, free of tax for ever,
In the urban administration organized pio- and they were authorized to collect from the
fessional bodies were given considerable share peasants all the taxes which could have other-
The from Vaisali show that artisans, mer-
seals wise gone to the emperor The villages granted to
chants and scribes served on the same corporate the beneficiaries could not be entered by royal
body, and m
this capacity they obviously con- agents, retainers, etc. The beneficiaries were
ducted the affairs of the towns. Besides this also empowered to punish the criminals
common organization, artisans and bankers Whether state officials were paid by grants of
were organized into their own separate guilds. land in Gupta times is not clear. Abundance of
We hear of numerous guilds of artisans, traders, gold coins would suggest that higher officials
etc., at Bhita and Vaisali. At Mandasor in Malwa were paid in cash. But many officers may have
silkweavers maintained their own guilds, and at been paid by land grants
Indore in the district of Bulandshahar in western Since much of the imperial administration was
Uttar Piadesh oil-pressers had their own guilds. managed by feudatories and beneficiaries, the
It seems that these guilds, especially those of Gupta rulers did not require as many officials
merchants, enjoyed certain immunities. In any as the Mauryas did. They did not require too
case they could look after the affairs of their many officers also because the state did not take
own members and punished those who violated part m economic activities on any big scale, as
the customs and law of the guild it did in Maurya times The participation of
The system of administration described above leading artisans, merchants, elders, etc ,
in rural
applied only to north Bengal, Bihar, Uttar and urban administration also lessened the need
Pradesh and some adjoining areas of Madhya for maintaining a large retinue of officers. The
Pradesh, which were ruled directly by the officers Guptas neither needed nor possessed the elabo-
appointed by the Gupta kings. The major part rate administrative machinery of Maurya times,
of the empire was held by feudatory chiefs, and in several ways their political system appears
many of whom had been subjugated by Samu- to be feudal.
dragupta. The vassals who lived on the fringe of
the empire carried out three obligations, They Decline of Trade and Rise of Landed Classes
i offered homage to the sovereign by personal We get some idea of the economic life of the
i
attendance at his court, paid tribute to him and people of Gupta times from Fa-hsien, who
presented to him daughters in marriage. It seems visited different parts of the Gupta empire.
that in return for these they obtained charters Among other things, he informs us that Maga-
 '

142 ANCIENT INDIA

dha was full of cities and its rich people suppor- Since the foreigners mainly came as conquerors

ted Buddhism and gave charities But during they were given the status of the kshatriya in
this period we notice a decline in foreign trade. society. The Hunas, who appeared in India
Till A.D 550 India carried on some trade with towards the close of the fifth century, ultimately
the Eastern Roman empire, to which it exported came to be recognized as one of the thirty-six
silk. Around A
D. 550 the people of the Eastern clans of the Rajputs. Even now some Rajputs
Roman empire learnt from the Chinese the ait bear the Huna The other reason for the
title

of growing silk. This adversely affected the ex- increase in the number of castes was the absorp-
port trade of India. Even before the middle of tion of many tribal peqples into brahmanical
the sixth century A.D. the demand for Indian society by way of land grants, To the ruling
silk abroad had slackened. In the middle of the was ascribed a respectable
chiefs of the tribes

fifth century a guild of silk weavers left their But most of the rest of the tribal people
origin,

home in western India in the country of

original were given a low origin, and every tribe now
; Lata and migrated to Mandasor, where they became a kind of caste in Hindu society.
gave up their original occupation and took to In some ways, the position of sudras and
other professions women improved in this period. They were now
The striking development of the Gupta period permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas.
was the emergence of priestly landlords at the They could also worship a new god called
cost of local peasants Land grants made to Krishna From the seventh century onwards the
the priests certainly brought many virgin areas sudras were mainly represented as agriculturists;
under But these beneficiaries were
cultivation. in the earlier period they always appeared as
imposed from above on the local tribal peasants, servants, slaves and agricultural labourers
who were reduced to a lower status In central working for the three higher varnas
and western India the, peasants were also sub- But during this period the untouchables
jected to forced labour. increased in number, especially the chandalas.
The chandalas appeared m
society as early as
Social Developments the fifth centuryB.C By the fifth century A.D
Land brahmanas on a large scale
grants to the their number had become so enormous and
suggest that the brahmana supremacy continued their disabilities so glaring that it attracted the
in Gupta times. The Guptas who were origin- attention of the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien. He
ally vaisyas came to be looked upon as kshatri- informs us that the chandalas lived outside the
yas by the brahmanas. The brahmanas represen- village and meat and flesh. Whenever
dealt in
ted the Gupta kings as possessing the attributes they entered the town the upper caste people
of gods, and the Gupta princes became great kept themselves at a distance from them because
supporters of the brahmamcal order. The the road was supposed to have been polluted by
brahmanas accumulated wealth on account of them.
numerous land grants! So they claimed many
privileges, which are listed in the law-book of Buddhism and Brahmanism
Narada. Buddhism no longer received royal patronage'
The castes proliferated into numerous sub- in the Gupta period Fa-hsien gives the impres-
castes as a result of two factors. On the one hand sion that this religion was in a very flourishing
a large number of foreigners had been assimilated state. But really Buddhism was not so important
into the Indian society, and each group of for- in the Gupta period as it was in the days of Asoka
eigners was considered a kind of Hindu caste. and Kamshka. Especially it suffered in Magadha.
 LIFE IN THE GUPTA AJBE

Brahmanism had come to the forefront. The

two gods who commanded the worship of their
followers were Vishnu and Siva. Vishnu emer-
ged as the god of devotion, and he came to be
represented as the saviour of the varna system.
Numerous legends gathered about .him, and a
whole Purana called the Vishnupurana was
compiled in his honour. Similarly a law-book
oalled the Vishnusmnti was, also named after
this god. Above all, by the fourth century
A.D. there appeared the famous Vaishnava
work Bhagavadgita, which taught devotion to
Lord Krishna and stressed the performance of
the functions assigned to each varna,
A few Gupta kings were worshippers of Siva,
the god of destruction. But he came in the front
rank at a later stage, and does not seem to have
been as important as Vishnp in the early phase

20.2 Temple at Saucfii built dm mg the Gupta Period

of the Gupta rule

Idol worshipm the temples became a common
feature ofHinduism from the Gupta period.
Many festivals also came to be celebrated.
Agricultural festivals observed by different
classes of people were given religious garb and
colour, and turned into good sources of in-
come for the priests.
The Gupta kings followed a policy of toler-
ance towards the different religious sects. We
findno example of the persecution of the fol-
lowers of Buddhism and Jainism. This was also
on account of the change in the character of
Buddhism which ha<d come to acquire many of
th<? features of Hinduism.

The Gupta period is called the Golden Age

of ancient India. This may not be true in the
 ANCIENT INDIA

It led to the creation of massive stone pillars,

cutting of beautiful cavesand raising of high

stupas or relic towers. The stupas appeared as
dome-like structures on round bases mainly
of stone. Numerous images of the Buddha were
fashioned.
In the Gupta period we find an over two-
metre high bronze image of the Buddha, which
was recovered from Sultanganj near Bhagalpur.
Fa-hsien saw an over 25 metre high image of the
Buddha made of copper, but it is not traceable
now. In the Gupta period beautiful images of
the Buddha were made at Sarnath and Mathura.
But the greatest specimen of Buddhist art in

Gupta times is provided by the Ajanta paintings.

Although these paintings covered the period
•'

from the first to the seventh century A.D.,

20.3 Image ofthe ‘'Buildjiafrom Sarna't

economic field because several towns in north

India declined during this period. But the
Guptas possessed a large amount of gold, what-
ever might be its source, and they issued the
largest number of gold coins. Princes and richer
people could divert a part of their income for
the support of those who were engaged in art
and literature. Both Samudragupta and Chan-
dragupta II were patrons of art and literature. !

Samudragupta is represented on his coins

playing the lute (yma'), and Chandragupta II
is credited with maintaining in his court nine
luminaries or great scholars.
In ancient India art was mostly inspired by
religion. Survivals of non-religiousart from
ancient India are Buddhism gave great
few.
ms
Z0.4 Image of Yamuna from Ahichhaira .

impetus to art in Maurya and post-Maurya times.

( Distt , Bareilly)
 LIFE IN THE GUPTA AGE

most of them belong to Gupta times. They

depict various events in the life of Gautama
Buddha and the previous Buddhas.
These
paintings are and natural. They are
lifelike

marked by the brilliance of their colours, which

have not faded even after 14 centuries or so.

20.6 Ajanta Painting of an Apsara*

Since the Guptas were supporters of brah-

manism, for the first time we get in the Gupta
period images of Vishnu, Siva and some other
Hindu gods. At many places we get a whole
pantheon in which the chief god appears in the
middle and his retainers and subordinates
appear on the same panel all around him. The
leading god is represented large in size, but his
retainers and subordinate gods are drawn on a
smaller scale. This represents a clear -social
distinction and hierarchy.' The Gupta period was
poor in architecture. All we get is a few temples

made of brick in Uttar Pradesh and a stone tem-

ple. We may mention the- brick temples of

BJiitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur and

20.5 Image of the Buddha from Mathura Deogarh in Jhansi. The Buddhist university at
 146 ANCIENT INDIA

Nalanda was set up m the fifth century, and its umphs over the forces of evil, and good order
earliest structure, made of brick, belongs to over bad order.
tliis period. The Mahabharata' is essentially the story of

a conflict between two groups of cousins, the

Literature Kauravas and the Pandavas. It shows that
The Gupta period is remarkable for the kingship knows no kinship Although the Pan-
production of secular literature. To this period davas were entitled to their share in the kingdom
belong 13 plays written by Bhasa. But what has left by Dhritarashtra, the Kauravas refused to
made the Gupta period really famous is the give them even a single inch of territory. This
work of Kalidasa. Kalidasa wrote Abhijnanasa- led to a prolonged fratricidal war between the
kuntalam, which is considered to be one of the Pandavas assisted by Krishna, and the Kaura-
best hundred literary works in the world. It was vas. Eventually the Kauravas were worsted in

one of the earliest Indian works to be transla- the fight, and the Pandavas came out victorious.
ted into European languages, the other work This story also represents the victory of righte-
being the Bhagavadgita. Two things can be noted ousness over the forces of evil. The Bhagavadgita
about the plays produced in India in the Gupta forms an important part of the Mahabharata.
period. First, these are all comedies We do It teaches that a peison must carry out the duties

not come across any tragedies. Secondly, charac- assigned to him by his caste and rank under
ters of the higher and lower classes do not speak all circumstances without any desire for reward.
the same language; women and sudras featuring The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and
in these plays use Prakrit the earlier ones were finally compiled in Gupta
During this period we also notice an increase times. They are full of myths, legends, sermons,
in the production of religious literature. Most etc., which were meant for the education and
works of the period had a strong religious bias. edification of the common people. The period
The two great epics, namely the Ramayana and also saw the compilation of various Smritis or
the Mahabharata, were finally compiled probab- the law-books written in verse. The phase of
ly in the fourth century AD The Ramayana writing commentaries on the Smritis begins after
tells Rama, who was banished
us the story of the Gupta period.
by his father Dasaratha from the kingdom of The Gupta period also saw the development
Ayodhya for 14 years on account of the machina- of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and
tions of his stepmother Kaikeyi. He faithfully Patanjali. This period is particularly memorable
carried out the orders of his father and went to for the compilation of the Amarakosa by Amara-
, live in the forest, where his wife Sita was abduc- simha, who was a luminary in the court of
ted by Ravana, the king of Lanka Eventually Chandragupta II. This lexicon is learnt by heart
Rama with the help of his brother Lakshmana by students taught Sanskrit in the traditional
led an expedition to Lanka, defeated Ravana and . fashion. On the whole the Gupta period was a
brought back Sita, The story has two important bright phase in the history of- classical literature.

moral strands. First, it idealizes the institution It developed an ornate which was different
style,
of family in which a son must obey his father, from the old simple Sanskrit. From this period
the younger brother must obey his elder brother onwards we find greater emphasis on verse than
and the wife must be faithful to her husband in on prose. We also come across a few co mrnen-.
all circumstances. Second, Ravana symbolizes taries. There is no doubt that Sanskrit was the
the force of evil, and Rama symbolizes the force court language of the Guptas. Although we
of righteousness. In the end righteousness tri- get a good deal of brahmanical religious litera-
 LIFE IN THE GUPTA AGE 147

ture, the period' also produced some of the

earliest pieces of secular literature.

Science and Technology

In the field of mathematics we come across
during this work called Aryabhatiya
period a
written by Aryabhata, who belonged to Patali-
putra It seems that this mathematician was |

well versed in various kinds of calculations. A

Gupta inscription of 448 from Allahabad dis-

trict suggests that the decimal system was known

in India at the beginning of the fifth century
AD In the fields of astronomy a book called
Romaka Sidhanta was compiled It was influenc-
ed by Greek ideas, as can be inferred from its

name.
The Gupta craftsmen distinguished themselves
by their work in iron and bronze. We know of
several bronze images of the Buddha, which
began to be produced on a considerable scale
because of the knowledge of advanced iron
technology In the case of iron objects the
best example is the iron pillar found at Delhi
near Mehrauli-, Manufactured m the fourth
1

century A.D., the pillar has not gathered any ’

20.7 Iron Pillar at Delhi

rust m the subsequent 15 centuries, which is

a great tribute to the technological skill of the about a century ago. It is a pity that the later
craftsmen It was impossible to produce such ciaftsmen cduld not develop this knowledge
a pillar in any iron foundry in the West Until further

EXERCISES

1. Describe the system of administration under the Imperial Guptas

2. Survey the economic life of the people of India in Gupta times.
3. “The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of ancient India ” Discuss,
4 Give an account of the social and religious conditions of India in Gupta times
5 Who was Fa-hsien 7 What does he say concerning India ?
 ,

CHAPTER 21

Spread of Civilization in Eastern India

Signs of Civilization ed an important role in spreading and strength-

A region is considered to be civilized if its ening elements of rdvanced culture The
people know the .art of writing, have a system process can be understood by attempting a
for collecting taxes and maintaining order, and region-wise survey.
possess social classes and specialists for perform-

ing priestly, administrative and producing Orissa and Eastern and Southern Madhya Pradesh
functions. Above all a civilized society should Kalinga or the coastal Orissa, south of the
be able to produce enough to support not only Mahanadi, leapt into importance under Asoka,
the actual producers consisting of artisans and but a strong state was founded in that area
peasants but also consumers who are not en- only m the first century B. C. Its ruler Kharavela
gaged in production. All these elements make for advanced as far as Magadha. In the fust and
civilization. But they appear in a large part of second centuries AD. the ports of Orissa
eastern India on a recognizable scale very late. carried on brisk trade m pearls, ivory and
Practically no written records are found in the muslin. Excavations at Sisupalgarh, the site of
greater portions of eastern Madhya .Pradesh Kalinganagari which was the capital of Khara-
and the adjoining areas of Orissa, of West vela at a distance of 60 km from Bhubaneswar,
Bengal, of Bangladesh and of Assam till the have yielded several Roman objects indicating
middle of the fourth century A.D trade contacts with the Roman empire. But the
The period fiom the fourth to the seventh greater part of Orissa, particularly northern
century is remarkable for the diffusion of an Orissa, neither experienced state formation nor
advanced rural economy, formation of state sys- witnessed much commercial activity. In the
tems and delineation of social classes in eastern fourth century Kosala and Mahakantara figure
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, eastern Bengal and in the list of conquests made by Samudragupta.
south-east Bengal, and Assam, This is indicated They covered parts of northern and western
by the distribution of a good number of inscrip- Orissa. From .the second half of the fourth
tions in these areas in Gupta times Many century to the sixth century several states

inscriptions dated in the Gupta era are found in were formed in Orissa, and at least five of
these areas. They are generally in the form of them can be clearly identified. The most im-
land grants made by feudatory princes and portant of them is the state of the Matharas,
others for religious purposes to Buddhists and who are also called Pitribhaktas. At the peak of
brahmanas and also to Vaishnavite temples and their power they dominated the area between
Buddhist monasteries, These beneficiaries play- the Mahanadi and the Krishna. Their contem-
 SPREAD' OF CIVILIZATION IN EASTERN INDIA 149

poraries and neighbours were the Vasisthas, year was divided into three units, each consist-
the Nalas and the Manas. The Vasisthas ruled ing of four months, and time was reckoned on
on the borders of Andhra in south Kalmga, the the basis of three seasons. Under the Matharas,
Nalas in the forest area of Mahakantara, and in the middle of the fifth century began the
the Manas in the coastal area m the north beyond practice of dividing the year into twelve lunar
the Mahanadi. Each state developed its system months. This implied a detailed idea of
of taxation, administration and rnilitary or- weather conditions, which was useful for agri-
ganization., The bfalas, and probably the cultural operations.
Manas, also evolved their system of coinage. In the coastal Orissa writing was certainly
Each kingdom favoured the brahmanas with known from the third century B C., and inscrip-
land grants and even invited them from outside, tions up to the middle of the fourth century
and most kings performed Vedic sacrifices not A. D. appeared in Prakrit. But from about A. D.
only for spiritual merit but also for power, 350 Sanskrit began to be used. What is more
prestige and legitimacy. significant, charters in this language appear
In this period elements of advanced culture outside the coastal belt beyond the Mahanadi
were not confined to the coastal belt known as in the north. Thus the art of writing and Sans-
Kalmga, but appeared in the other parts of krit language spread ovet a good portion of
Orissa. The find of the Nala gold coins in the Orissa, and some of the finest Sanskrit verses
tribal Bastar area in Madhya Pradesh is signifi- are found in the epigraphs of the period. Sans-
cant. It presupposes
an economic system in krit served as the vehicle of not only brahmani-
which gold money was used in large transac- cal religion and culture but
also of property
tions and served as medium of payment to high laws and social regulations in new areas. Verses
functionaries. Similarly the Manas seemed to from the Puranas and Dharmasastras are quoted
have issued copper coins, which implies the use in Sanskrit charters,and kings claim to be the
of metallic money even by artisans and pea- preservers of the varna system. The affiliation
sants. The various states added to their income of the people to the culture of the Gangetic basin
by forming new fiscal units in rural areas. is emphasized. A dip in the Ganga at Prgyag at
The Matharas created a district called Mahen- the confluence of the Ganga and the Yamuna
drabhoga in the area of the Mahendra moun- is considered holy, and victorious kings visit
tains. They also ruled over a district called Piayag
Dantayavagubhoga, which apparently supplied
ivory and rice-gruel to its administrators and had Bengal
thus been backward area. The
created in a As regards Bengal, portions of north Bengal,
Matharas made endowments called agraharas, now Bogra district, give evidence of the
in
which consisted of land and income from vil- prevalence of writing in the time of Asoka. An
lages and were meant for supporting religious inscription indicates several settlements main-
and educational activitiesof the brahmanas. taining a storehouse filled with coinsand food-
Somo agraharas had to pay taxes although grains for theupkeep of Buddhist monks. Clearly
elsewhere in the country they were tax-free.
, the local peasants were in a position to spare a
The induction of the brahmanas through land part of their produce for paying taxes and
grants in tribal, forest and red soil areas brought making gifts. Further, people of this area knew
new lands under cultivation and introduced better Prakrit and professed Buddhism, Similarly an
methods of agriculture, based on improved inscription found in the coastal district of
knowledge of weather conditions. Formerly the Noakhali in south-east Bengal shows that
150 ANCIENT INDIA

people knew Prakrit and Brahmi script in that of the grants was to bring plots of land within
area in the second century B.C. But for the the purview of cultivation and settlement.
greater part of Bengal we do not hear anything The Bengal formed by the
deltaic portion of
till we come to the fourth .century A.D In Brahmaputra and called Samatata was made
about the middle of the fourth century a king to acknowledge the authority of Samudragupta
with the title of maharaja ruled in Pokharna on It covered south-east Bengal. A portion of this
the Damodara in Bankura district. He knew territory may have been populated and im-
Sanskrit and was a devotee of Vishnu, to whom portant enough to attract the attention of the
he possibly granted a village. Gupta conqueror But possibly it was not ruled
The area lying between the Ganga and the by brahmamsed princes, and consequently it nei-
Brahmaputra now covering Bangladesh emerged ther used Sanskrit nor adopted the varna system,
as a settled and fairly Sanskrit-educated area in as was the case in north Bengal. From about
and sixth centuries The Gupta gover-
the fifth A D. 525 the area came to have a fairly organis-
nors seem to have become independent after ed state covering Samatata and a portion of
about A.D. 550, and occupied north Bengal, Vanga which lay on the western boundary of
a portion may have been seized by the rulers Samatata. It issued a good number of gold coins
of Kamarupa Local vassal princes called in the second half of the sixth century. In
samanta maharajas had created their own addition to this state, m the seventh century we
administrative apparatus and built their mili- come across the state of the Khadgas, literally
tary organization consisting of horses, elephants swordsmen, in the Dacca area. We also notice
and foot soldiers and boats to fight their rivals the kingdom of a brahmana feudatory called
and collect taxfes from the local peasantry. Lokanatha and that of theRatas, both in the
By A.D. 600 the area came to be known as Comilla area All these princes of south-east
Gauda with its independent state ruled by Sasan- and central Bengal issued land grants in the
ka, the adversary of Harsha sixth and seventh centuries. Like the Orissa n
For a century from AD 432-33 we notice kings they also created agraharas. The land
a of land sale documents recorded on
series charters show cultivation of Sanskrit, leading to
copper-plates m
Pundravardhanabhukti, which the use of some sophisticated metres in the
covered almost the whole of north Bengal, now second half of the seventh century. At the same
mostly in Bangladesh, Most land grants indicate time they attest the expansionof cultivation and
that land was purchased with gold coins called rural settlements. A and administrative
fiscal
dinara. But once land was given for religious unit called Dandabhukti was formed in the
purposes, the donees did not have to pay any border areas lying between Bengal and Orissa.
tax. The land transactions show the involvement Danda means punishment, and bhukti enjoy-
of leading scribes, merchants, artisansj landed ment. Apparently the unit was created for taming
classes, etc'., in local administration, which was and punishing the tribal inhabitants of that
manned by the governors appointed by the region. It may have promoted Sanskrit and other
Gupta emperors. The land sale documents not elements of culture in tribal areas. This was
only .indicate the existence of different social '
also true of Vardhamanabhukti (Burdwan),
groups and local functionaries but also shed of which we hear in the seventh century. In south-
valuable light on the expansion qf agriculture east Bengal in the Faridpur area five plots of
Mostly land purchased for religious endow- land granted to a Buddhist monastery were
ments is described as fallow, uncultivated, and waste and water-logged, paying -no tax to the
therefore imtaxed Without doubt the effect state. Similarly 200 brahmanas were given a
 .

SPREAD OF CIVILIZATION IN EASTERN INDIA 151

large area in Comilla district within a forest - guage. They were also familiar with the teachings
region full of deer, boars, buffaloes, tigers, ser- of the Puranas and the Dharmasastras. The
pents, etc All such instances are sufficient proof period therefore is very significant because of
of the progress of colonization and civilization the onward march of civilization m this area,

in new areas.
The two centuries from about the middle of Assam
the fifth appear to be very momentous in the Kamarupa, identical with the Brahmaputra
history of Bengal. They saw the .formation basin running from east to west, shot into
of about half a dozen states, some large and prominence in the seventh century. Excavations

others small, some independent and others however show settlements in Ambari near
feudatory But each had its victory or military Gauhati from the fourth centuty of the Christian
camp where it maintained its infantry, cavalry, era. In the same century Samudragupta received

elephants and boats. Each had its fiscal and tributes from Davaka and Kamarupa. Davaka
administrative districts with its machinery for possibly accounted for a portion of Nowgong
tax collection and maintenance of order. Each district,and Kamarupa covered the Brahma-
practised expansion through war and land grants putra basin The ruleis who submitted to Samu-
to Buddhists and brahmanas The number of dragupta may have been chiefs living on the
endowments had increased so much that ulti- tributes collected from the tribal peasantry.
mately an officer called agrahai ika had to be The Ambari excavations show that settlements^ -

appointed to look after them Land gifts led to were fairly developed in the sixth and seventh
rural expansion and created hew rights in land. centuries This is supported by inscriptions.
Generally land was under the- possession of in- By the beginning of the sixth century the use of
dividual families But its sale and purchase was Sanskrit and the art of writing are clearly in
subject to the overall control of the local commu- evidence. The Kamarupa kings adopted the
nitiesdominated by leading artisans, merchants, title varman,, which obtained not only in north-
landowners and scribes They helped the local ern, central and western India but also in
agents of the king But ordinary cultivators were Bengal, Orissa, Andhra, Karnataka and Tamil
also consulted about the sale of land in the Nadu They strengthened their position through
village It seems that originally, only the tribe land grants to the brahmanas. In the seventh
or the community could grant land because century Bhaskaravarman emerged as the head
they possessed it. Therefore even when indivi- of a state which controlled a good deal of the
duals came to possess their own lands and made Brahmaputra basin and some areas beyond it.
gifts for religious purposes, the community Buddhism also acquired a foothold, and the
continued to have a say in the matter. Probably Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang (Hieun Tsang)
at an community donated land
earlier stage the visited this state ,
,
-

to the priests for services and paid

religious
taxes to the princes for military and political The Formative Phase
services. Later the king received from the com- Although different parts of eastern India
munity a good part of the land and arrogated to acquired prominence at different times, the
himself much more, which enabled him to make formative phase ranged from the fourth to the
land grants The king was entitled to taxes and seventh century. In this period writing, Sanskrit
also possessed rights over waste and fallow Learning, Vedic rituals, brahmamcal social
land. The administrative functionaries of each classes, and state systems spread and developed
state knew Sanskrit, which was the official lan- in eastern Madhya Pradesh, in north; Orissa,
152 ANCIENT INDIA

m West Bengal, m a good, part of Bangladesh whether the practice was indigenous or came
and in Assam. Cultural contacts with the Gupta from Magadha. North Bengal produced good
empire stimulated the spread of civilization in quality sugarcane, All this made for sufficient

the eastern zone. North Bengal and north- agricultural production, which was able to sus-

west Onssa came under the Gupta rule; in other tain both people and government, and could
areas of these regions the Gupta association foster widespread rural settlements in such
1

can be inferred from the use of the Gupta era areas as were either sparsely inhabited or not at

in inscriptions. In Bengal new states were all inhabited, A connected narrative of the
formed by feudatories, who maiiltained a good princes and dynasties and their feudatories, all

numbei of elephants, horses, boats, etc., in revolving round a central power, cannot be
their military camps. Obviously they collected prepared. But there is no doubt about cultural

regular taxes from the rural communities to evolution and conquest of civilization in the
maintain professional armies. For the first time outlying provinces in the eastern zone.
m the fifth and sixth centuries wo clearly notice The decline and fall of the Gupta empire
large-scale writing, use of Sanskrit, formation therefore coincided with considerable pro-
of vama society, and progress of Buddhism gress in the outlying regions. Many obscure
and brahmanism in the form of Saivism and areas, which were possibly ruled by tribal

Vaishnavism in this area. We find only the chiefs and were thinly settled, came into his-
remnants of communal authority over land, but torical limelight. This applied to the red soil

we can see the existence of private property areas of West Bengal, north Orissa and the
in land, and the use of gold coins with which adjoining areas of Madhya Pradesh, which
it could be purchased. All this presupposes an formed part of the Chotanagpur plateau and
advanced food-producing economy. Apparently were difficult to cultivate and settle. It applied
it was based on iron ploughshare agriculture, more to the jungle areas with alluvial soil and
wet paddy cultivation, and knowledge of various heavy rainfall in Bangladesh and to the Brahma-
crafts, Kalidasa refers to the transplantation of putra basin.
paddy seedlings in Vanga, but we do not know

EXERCISES

1. Describe the process of the spread of civilization in eastern India. What factors
helped this process?
2. Survey the position of brahmanas in the early kingdoms of Orissa.
3. How were new states formed in Bengal and with what results ?

4. What light do the land grants throw on the social system the eastern m states ?
 CHAPTER 22

Harsha and His Times

Harsha’s Kingdom quired prominence. To this class belonged

The Guptas with their seat of power in Kanauj. Situated in Farrukhabad district of
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar ruled over north and Uttar Pradesh, it shot up into political pro-
western India for about 160 years, till the minence from the second half of the sixth
middle of the sixth century A D. Then north century. Its emergence as a centre of political
India again split up into several kingdoms. power from Harsha onwards typifies the advent
The white Hunas established their supremacy of the feudal age in north India just as Patali-
over Kashmir, Panjab and western India from putra largely represents the pre-feudal order.
about A.D. 500 onwards. North and western Fortification of places m the plains was far
India passed under the control of about half a more difficult, but Kanauj was situated on an
dozen feudatories who parcelled out Gupta elevated area, which was easily fortifiable.

empire among themselves Gradually one of Located right in the middle of the doab, it was
these dynasties ruling at Thanesar in Haryana well-fortified in the seventh century. So to exer-
extended its authority over all the other feuda- cise control over both the eastern and western
tories. The ruler who brought it about was wings of the doab soldiers could be moved by
Harshavardhana (A.D. 606-647). both land and water routes.
Harsha made Kanauj the seat of his power The early history of Harsha’s reign is recon-
and therefrom extended his authority in all structed from a study of Banabhatta, who was
directions. During this period Pataliputra fell his court poet and who wrote a book called
on bad days and Kanauj came in the forefront. Harshacharita. This can be supplemented by
How did this happen? Pataliputra owed its the account of the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan
power and importance to trade and commerce Tsang, who visited India in the seventh century

and the widespread use of money. Tolls could '

A.D. and stayed in the country for about 15

be collected from the traders who came to years. Harsha’s inscriptions speak of various

the city from the east, west, north and south types of taxes and officials.

by means of four rivers. Harsha is called the last great Hindu emperor
But onqe money became scarce, trade de- of north India, but such a characterization is

clined, and officers and soldiers began to be paid only partly true. For his authority did not

through land grants, the city lost its impor- extend to the whole of the country though he
tance. Power shifted to military camps (skan- established his hold practically over the whole

idhavaras), and places of strategic importance, of north India except Kashmir. Rajasthan,

which dominated long stretches of land, ac- Panjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were
154 ANCIENT INDIA

under his direct control, but his sphere of This is natural because we do not have too
influence spread over a much wider area It many Harsha
coins issued by
seems that the peripheral states acknowledged In the empire of Harsha law and order was
his sovereignty His southward march was not well maintained. Tbe Chinese pilgrim
stopped on the Narmada river by the Chatu- Hsuan Tsang, about whom special care may
kyan king Pulakesin, who ruled over a great have been taken by the government, was robbed
part of modern Karnataka and Maharashtra of his belongings, although he reports that
with capital in Badami in the modern
his according to the laws of the land severe punish-
Biiapur district of Karnataka Except this ments were inflicted for crime. Robbery was
Harsha did not face any serious opposition and considered to be a second treason for which the
succeeded in giving a measure of political unity righthand of the robber was amputated. But it
to a large part of the country seems that under the influence of Buddhism
the severity of punishment was mitigated, and
Administration criminals were imprisoned for life.
(

Harsha governed his empire on the same

lines as the Guptas did, except that his admi- Hsuan' Tsang’s Account
nistration had become more feudal and de- The reign of Harsha is important on ac-
centralized, It is Harsha had 100,000
stated that count of the visit of the Chinese' pilgrim Hsuan
horses, and 60,000 elephants. This seems to be Tsang, who left China in A.D. 629 and travelled
astonishing because the Mauryas, who ruled all ffie way to India. After a. long stay m India,
over practically the whole of the country he returned to China in A.D. 645. He had
except the deep south, maintained only 30,000 come to study m the Buddhist university of
cavalry and 9000 elephants. Harsha co.uld Nalanda situated m
the district of the same
possess a larger army only if he could mobilize name in Bihar and to collect Buddhist texts
the support of all his feudatories at the time of from India. The pilgrim spent many years m
war Evidently every feudatory contributed his Harsha’s court and widely travelled m India.
quota of foot soldiers and horses, and thus made He vividly, describes Harsha’s court and life m
the imperial army vast in numbers those days. This account is much richer than
Land grants continued to be made to priests that of Fa-hsien It sheds light on the economic
for special services rendered to the state. In and social life as well as the religious sects of
addition Harsha is credited with. the grant of the period.
land to the officers by charters. These grants The Chinese account shows that Patalipulra
allowed the same concessions to priests as were was in a state of decline; so was Vaisali, On the
allowed by the earlier grants The Chinese other hand Prayag and Kanauj in the doab had
pilgrim Hsuan Tsang informs us that the re- become important. The brahmanas and kshatri-
venues of Harsha were divided into four parts. yas are reported to have led a simple life, but
One part was earmarked for the expenditufe of the nobles and priests led a luxurious life. Hsuan
the king, a second for scholars, a third for the Tsang calls the sudras, agriculturists, which is
endowment of officials and public servants, and significant In the earlier texts they are re-
a fourth for religious purposes. He also tells presented as serving the three higher vamas.
us that ministers and high officers of the state The Chinese pilgrim takes notice of untouch-
were endowed with land. The feudal practice ables such as scavengers, executioners, etc. They
of rewarding and paying officers with grants lived outside and took
the villages, garlic and
of land seems to have begun under Harsha. onion. The untouchables announced their entry
 HARSHA AND HIS TIMES 155

into the town by shouting loudly so that people tributary princes, ministers, nobles, etc. On
might keep away from them this occasion an image of the Buddha was
worshipped, - and discourses were given by
Buddhism and Nalanda Hsuan Tsang At the end Harsha made huge
The Buddhists were divided into 18 sects
in the time of the Chinese pilgrim. The old
centres of Buddhism had fallen on bad days.
The most famous centre was Nalanda, which
maintained a great Buddhist university meant
for Buddhist monks. It is said to have had as
many as 10,000 students, all monks They were
taught Buddhist philosophy of the Mahayana
school Although all the mounds of Nalanda
have not been dug, excavations have exposed a

very impressive complex of buildings These

buildings were raised and renovated over a
period of 700 years from the fifth century A D.
The buildings exposed by excavations do not
have the capacity to accommodate 1 0,000 monks.
In 670 another Chinese pilgrjm I-tsing visited 22.1 Remains of a Stupa at Nalanda

Nalanda; he mentions only 3000 monks living

there. This is reasonable because even if the and he gave away everything except
charities,

remaining mounds are excavated the buildings his Hsuan Tsang speaks of
personal clothing
could not be so spacious as to have accommoda- Harsha in glowing terms. The king was kind,
ted 10,000 monks The monastery at Nalanda courteous and helpful to him, and the pilgrim
was supported from, the revenues of 200 could visit the different parts of the empire.
villages.Nalanda thus had a huge monastic Harsha was a literary figure He wrote three
establishment in the time of Harshavardhana. plays, and he rewarded and patronized literary

Harsha followed a tolerant religious policy. men. Banabhatta gives us a flattering account

A Saiva in his early years, he gradually became of the early years of his patron m his book
a great patron of Buddhism. He held at Prayag Harshacharita in an ornate style which became
a great assembly, which was attended by all the a model for later writers.

EXERCISES

1. Discuss the achievements of Harsha.

2 How did Harsha administer kingdom 9
his

3. What light does the account of Hsuan Tsang throw on Indian life 9

4. Describe society and religion in the time of Harsha

 C H AP T E R 23

Formation of New States and Rural Expansion

in the Peninsula

The New Phase free of taxes The grants suggest that many
The period circa A.D 300-750 marks the new areas were brought under cultivation and
second historical phase m the regions south settlement. This period therefore saw far more
of the Vindhyas. It continued some of the expansion of agrarian economy
processes which had started in the first his- We also march of triumphant
notice the
torical phase (circa 200 B.C —-A.D. 300) It brahmamsm In phase we encounter
the first

also introduced certain new phenomena which extensive Buddhist monuments in both Andhra
are not found on any scale in earlier times. and Maharashtra. Cave inscriptions probably
In the first phase we notice the ascendancy indicate the existence of Jainism and also of
of the Satavahanas over the Deccan and that Buddhism in the southern districts of Tamil
of the Tamil kingdoms in the southern districts Nadu. But now Jainism was confined to Kar-
of Tamil Nadu. In that period the northern nataka, and in the peninsula as a whole we
portion of Tamil Nadu, southern Karnataka, find numerous instances of the performance of
a portion of southern Maharashtra, and the the Vedic sacrifices by kings This phase also
land between the Godavari and the Mahanadi marked the beginning of the construction of
broadly owed allegiance to seats of political stone temples for Siva and Vishnu in Tamil
authority established outside theii; areas. They Nadu under the Pallavas, and in Karnataka
themselves did not have their own states. Now under the Cmlukyas of Badami, By the begin-
in these areas and also in Vidarbha between ning oi u, second phase south India had ceased
A.D. 300 and A.D, 600 there arose about two to be the land of megaliths, and towards its end
dozen states which are known to us from their we notice the process which eventually made it

land charters. Eventually by the beginning of a land of temples.

the seventh century the Pallavas of Kanchi, The language followed by the rulers and the
the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pandyas of literate class underwent a change. Even if we
Madurai emerged to be the three major slates. leave aside the Asokan inscriptions found in
The first historical phase is marked by the Andhra and Karnataka, epigraphs between the
appearance of numerous crafts, internal and second B C. and the third century
century
external trade, widespread use of coins and a A.D. were mostly written in Prakrit. The Brahnii
good number of towns. Trade, towns and inscriptions which are found in Tamil Nadu
coinage seem to be in a state of decline in the also contain Prakrit words. But from about
second phase which is distinguished by a large A.D. 400 Sanskrit became the official language
number of land grants made to the brahmanas in the peninsula, and most chartors were
 NEW STATES AND RURAL EXPANSION IN THE PENINSULA 157

Based upon Survey of India map with (tie pci mission of the Surveyor General of India.

(c) Government of India copyiigl 1,1982

I he tei ritoi ml watcis of India extend in(o the- sea lo a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from
the ctpptopi iafc base line.

Figure 16 The Deccan and South India, circa A D. 300 —A.D. ISO
158 ANCIENT INDIA

composed m it. claimed their descent either from Brahman or

Manu or Moon They boast that their ancestors
States of the Deccan and South India ruled atAyodhya, but all this was done to claim
northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha
In. legitimacyand respectability? Really they seem
(Berar) the Satavahanas were succeeded by the to have been a local Kanarese people, who were
Vakatakas, a local power The Vakatakas, who improvised into the ruling varna under brah-
were brahmanas themselves, are known from a mamcal influence.
large number of copper plate land grants issued The Chalukyas set up their kingdom towards
to the brahmanas They were great champions the beginning of the sixth century A.D. in the
of the brahmamcal religion and performed western Deccan. They established their capital
numerous Vedic sacrifices. Their political his- at Vatapi, modern Badami, in the district of.
tory is of more importance to north India Bijapur which forms a part of Karnataka.
than to south India Wa have seen how Chandra- Later they branched of!' into several independent
gupta II married his daughter Prabhavati ruling houses, but themam branch continued to
Gupta in the Vakataka royal family and with rule at Vatapi fortwo centuries In this period
its support succeeded in conquering Gujarat no other power in the Deccan was so important
and the adjoining parts of western India from as the Chalukyas of Badami until we come to
the Sakas -m the last quarter of the 'fourth Vijayanagar in late medieval times.
century A
D. But culturally the Vakataka king- On the ripns of the Sdtavahana power . in
dom became a channel for transmitting brah- the eastern part of the peninsula there arose the
nmnical ideas and social institutions to the Ikshvakus m
the Krishna-Guntur region. They
south seem to have been a local tribe who adopted
The Vakataka power was followed by that the exalted name of the Ikshvakus in order
of the Chalukyas of Badami who played an to demonstrate the antiquity of their lineage.
important role in the history of the Deccan and They have left behind many monuments at
south India for about two centuries till A.D Nagarjunakonda and Dharanikota They started
757, when they were overthrown by their the practice of land grants in the Krishna-
feudatories, the Rashtrakutas. The Chalukyas Guntur where several of their copper-
region,
plate charters have been discovered
The Ikshvakus were supplanted by the Pal-
lavas. The term pallava means creeper, and is a
Sanskrit version of the Tamil word tondai,
which also carries the same meaning. The
Pallavas were possibly a local tribe who estab-
lished their authority m
the Toridainadu or the
land of creepers. But it took them some time to
be completely civilized because in Tamil the
word pallava is also a synonym of robber. The
authority of the Pallavas extended over both
southern Andhra and northern Tamil Nadu.
They set up their capital at Kanchi, identical
with modem Kanchipuram which became a
town of temples and Vedio learning under them,
23 1 Cave Temple at Badami The early Pallavas came into conflict with
 NEW STATES AND RURAL EXPANSION IN THE PENINSULA 159

the Kadambas, who had founded their rule in were collected from the peasantry by the brah-
northern Karnataka in the fourth century AD manas for their own enjoyment. As many as

They claim to be brahmanas, and they rewarded 18 kinds of immunities were granted to the
men generously.
their fellow caste brahmanas m a Pallava grant of the fourth
The Kadamba kingdom was founded by century, They were empowered to enjoy the
Mayurasarman It is said that he came to granted land free from payment of land tax,
receive education at Kanchi, but he was driven from supply of forced labour, from supply of
out unceremoniously. Smarting under this insult provisions to royal officers in town, and fiee
the Kadamba chief set up his camp in a forest, from the interference of royal constabulary
and defeated the Pallavas possibly with the help and agents.
of th forest tribes. Eventually the Pallavas The Pallavas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas
avenged the defeat but recognized the Kadamba of Badami and their other contemporaries were
authority by formally investing Mayurasarman great champions of Vedic sacrifices They per-
with the royal insignia Mayurasarman is said to formed asvamedha and va/apeya sacrifices,

have performed eighteen asvamedhas or horse- which' nol only legitimatized their position and
sacrifices and granted numerous villages to enhanced their prestige but also added enor-
brahmanas The Kadambas established their mously to the income of the priestly class
capital at Vaijayanti or Banavasi m North The brahmanas therefore emerged as an im-
Kanara Karnataka
district in portant class at the expense of the peasantry,
The Gangas were another important con- from whom they collected their dues directly
temporary of tbi Pallavas They set up their and also received as gifts a good portion of the
rule in southern Karnataka around the fourth taxes collected by the king from his subjects.
century. Their kingdom lay between that of the This situation seems to have proved oppres-
Pallavas tn the east and of the Kadambas in sive, and eventually it caused a revolt led by
the west They are called Western Gangas or the Kalabhras in the sixth century The revolt

Gangas of Mysore in order to demarcate them affected the Pallavas as well as their neighbour-
from the Eastern Gangas who ruled in Kaltnga ing contemporaries. The Kalabhras .are called

from the fifth century For most of the time the evil rulers who overthrew innumerable kings
Western Gangas were the feudatories of the Pal- and established their hold on the Tamil land
lavas. Their earliest capital is located at Kolar, They put an end to the brahmadeya rights
which may have helped the rise of this dynasty granted to the brahmanas in numerous villages,
because of its gold mines. It seems that the Kalabhras held Buddhist
The Western Gangas made land grants mostly persuasions, for they patronized Buddhist mo-
to the Jainas, the Kadambas also made grants nasteries It is significant that the Kalabhras

to the Jainas, but they favoured the brahmanas revolt could be put down only through the
more. But the Pallavas granted numerous vil- joint efforts of the Pandyas, the Pallavas and
lages free of taxes largely to the brahmanas. * the Chalukyas of Badami, There a is also

We have as many as 16 land charters of the tradition that the Kalabhras had imprisoned
early Pallavas A few, which seem to be earlier, the Chola, the Pandya and the Cheia kings
j

are written on stone in Prakrit, But most of them All thisshows that their revolt had assumed wide
were recorded on copper-plates in Sanskrit. proportions, and produced repercussions out-
The villages granted to the brahmanas were ‘side the The confederacy of the
Tamil land
exempted from payment of all taxes and forced kings against the- Kalabhras, who had revoked
labour to the state. This implied that these the land grants made to the brahmanas, shows
160 ANCIENT INDIA

that the revolt was directed against the existing region between the Krishna and the Godavari,

social and political order in south India- which came to be known as the province of
Vengi. Here was set up a branch of the main
Conflict between the Pailavas and the Chalukyas dynasty, and it is known as the Eastern Chalu-
The mam interest in the political history of kyas of Vengi. However, Pulakesin’s second
peninsular India from the sixth to the eighth invasion of the Pallava territory ended in
centuries centres round the long struggle between failure. The Pallava king Narasimhavarman

the Pailavas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of (A.D. 630-668) occupied the Chalukya capital
Badami for supremacy. The Pandyas, who were at Vatapi in about A.D. 642, when Pulakesin II

in control of Madurai and Tinnevelly districts was probably killed in fight against" the Pai-
of Tamil Nadu, joined this conflict as a poor lavas. Narasimhavarman assumed the title of
third. Although both the Pailavas and Chalukyas Vatapikonda or the conqueror of Vatapi.
championed brahmanism, performed Vedic He is also said to have defeated the Cholas,
sacrifices and made grants’ to the brahmanas, the Cheras', the Pandyas and the Kalabhras.
the two quarrelled with each other for plunder,
Towards the end of the seventh century there
prestige and territorial resources. Both tried to
was a lull in this conflict, which was again
establish supremacy over the land lying between
resumed in the first half of the eighth century
the Krishna and the Tungabhadra. This doab
A.D. The Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (A.D.
formed the bone of contention in late medieval
733-745) is said to have overrun Kanchi three
time's between the Vijayanagar and the Bahmani
times. In 740 he completely defeated the
kingdoms. Time and again the Pallava princes
Pailavas. His victory ended the Pallava supre-
tried to cross the Tungabhadra, which formed
macy in the far south although the ruling house
the natural historic boundary between many
continued for more than a century afterwards.
a kingdom of the Deccan and the deep south.
However, the Chalukyas could not enjoy the
The struggle continued for long with varying
fruits of their victory over the Pailavas for long
fortunes.
for their own hegemony was brought to an end
The first important events in this long conflict
in 757 by the Rashtrakutas.
took place in the reign of Pulakesin II (609-
642), the most famous Chalukya king. He is
Temples
known to us from his eulogy written by the
court poet Ravikirti in the Aihole inscription. Besides the performance of Vedic sacrifices, 1

This inscription an example of poetic excel-

is the worship of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, es-
lence reached in Sanskrit, and in spite of its pecially of the last two, was getting popular.
exaggeration is a valuable source for the bio- From the seventh century the Alvar saints,
graphy of Pulakesin. He overthrew the Kadamba who were great devotees of Vishnu, popularized
capital at Banavasi and compelled the Gangas the worship of this god. The Nayannars ren-
of Mysore to acknowledge his suzerainty. He dered a similar service to the cult of Siva. The
also defeated Harsha’s army on the Narmada Pallava kings constructed a number of stone
and checked his advance towards the Deccan. temples m
the seventh and eighth centuries for
In his conflict with the Pailavas he almost housing these gods. The most famous of them
reached the Pallava capital, but the Pailavas are the seven ratha temples found at Mahabali-
purchased peace by ceding their northern puram, at a distance of 65 km from Madras.
provinces to Pulakesin II. About A.D. 610 These were built m
the seventh century by
Pulakesin II wrested from the Pailavas the Narasimhavarman, who founded the port city
 NEW STATES AND RURAL EXPANSION IN THE PENINSULA 1 61

23.2 The Ratha Temples at Mahabalipuram 23 3 Kailasanath Temple at Kanchi

of Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram This the templesseem to have been constructed and

city is alsofamous for the Shore Temple, which maintained out of the taxes collected by the
was a structural construction. In addition to king from the common people. Some temples
this the Pallavas constructed several structural in Karnataka under the Chalukyas were erected
temples at their capital Kanchi. A very good by the Jaina traders Although the common
example was the Kailasanath temple built in people worshipped their village gods by offering
the eighth century. The Chalukyas of Badami them paddy and toddy, they may also have
erected numerous temples at Aihole from about made offerings to these temples to acquiro
A.D. 610. Aihole contains as many as 70 tem- status and to satisfy their religious cravings.
ples. The work was continued in the adjacent
towns of Badami and Pattadakal. Pattadakal Demands on the Peasantry
has ten temples, built m the seventh and eighth There no doubt that for carrying on wars,
is

centuries. The most celebrated of these are the for cultivating art and literature, for promoting
Papanatha temple (c. 680), and the Virupaksha religion, and for maintaining the administrative
temple (c. 740). The first, although 30 metres staff, enormous resources wero needed, These

long, has a low and stunted tower m the northern were apparently provided by the peasantry
style The second was constructed purely in The nature of burdens imposed on the agrarian
southern style It is about 40 metres in length .communities is more or less the same in the
and has a very high square and stoned tower Vakataka kingdom and the Pallava lcingdom
(
sikhara). The temple walls are adorned with although the former belonged to Vidarbha and
beautiful sculptures representing scenes from Maharashtra, and the latter to southern Andhra
the Ramayana and northern Tamil Nadu. In addition to land
We have no clear idea how these early temples tax, which was a part of the produce, the king
were maintained. After the eighth century land could demand benevolence in the form of
grants to temples became a common pheno- cereals and gold, and could bore certain trees,
menon m
south India, and usually they were such as the palmyra, for obtaining salt and
recorded on the walls of the temples. But earlier moist substances such as sugar and liquor, all
162 ANCIENT INDIA

derived from plants. Of course all the deposits methods of agriculture from them. In certain
and hidden treasures in the villages belonged areas there was dearth of labour power. In
to him Further, he demanded flower? and order to keep the economy of such areas going
milk, wood and grass, and could compel the it was also found necessary to make over some
villagers to carry loads free of charge. The sharecroppers and weavers to the brahmanas,
king was also entitled to forced labour or vishti as is known from an early Pallava grant. There-
In connection with the visit of royal officials, fore the large number of grants made to the
who would appear in the villages either for brahmanas played an important role spread- m
collecting taxes or for punishing the criminals, ing new methods of cultivation and increasing
and also in course of the march of the army, the size of the rural communities.
the rural communities had to perform a number In this period we come across three types of
of obligations. They had to supply bullocks for villages m south India, ur, sabha and nagaram,
carts and provide cots, charcoal, ovens, cooking Ur was the usual type of village inhabited by
pots, and attendants. who perhaps held their land in
peasant castes,
This whole list of imposts would show that common; it was the responsibility of the vil-
.the state made heavy demands on the labour lage headman to collect and pay taxes on their
and produce of the peasantry. Most of these behalf. These villages were mainly found m
demands are covered by the 18 types of im- southern Tamil Nadu The labha type of village
munities granted to the brahmanas from the consisted of brahamadeya villages or those
fourth century A D. Later more and more granted to the brahmanas, and of agrahara
demands were made on the peasantry villages. The brahmana owners enjoyed indi-

vidual rights in the land but earned on their

Rural Expansion activities collectively The nagaram type of
These numerous demands made by the king village consisted of the villages settled and
on the agrarian population presuppose capacity dominated by combinations of traders and
to pay on the part of the peasantry. Collection merchants. happened possibly because
This
could not have been possible unless there was trade declined and merchants moved to vil-
increase m agricultural production. In this lages. In the Chalukya areas rural affairs were
peuod we witness formation of new states in managed by village elders called mahajana. On
the trans-Vindhyan regions. Every state had a the whole the period circa A.D. 300-A.D. 750
number of feudatory chiefdoms, which were provides good evidence of rural expansion, rural
small states within a large state. Each of these organization and better use of land.
states, big or small, paramount or feudatory,

needed its own army, its own taxation system, Social Structure
its own administrative machinery, and a good We can present a rough picture of the social
number of priestly and similar supporters. structure that developed iu this period. Society
Every state therefore needed resources which was dominated by princes and priests. The
could be obtained from its rural base, There- princes claimed the status of brahmanas or
fore the state could not multiply without the kshatriyas though many of them were local
proliferation of rural communities or increase tribal chiefs promoted to the second varna
in agricultural production in the existing vil- through benefactions made to the priests. The
lages. It seems that m
tribal areas the brahmanas priests invented respectable family trees for
were granted land, and the tribal peasantry these chiefs and traced their descent from age-
learnt the value of preserving cattle and better old solar and lunar dynasties, This process
 ' NEW STATES AND RURAL EXPANSION IN THE PENINSULA 163

enabled the new rulers to acquire legitimacy in Such a situation was described as the age of

the eyes of the people. The priests were mainly Kali. It was the duty of the king to put an end
brahmanas, though the Jaina and Buddhist to such a state pf affairs and restore peace and
monks should also be placed in this category order which worked in favour of chiefs and

In this phase priests gained in influence and priests. The title dhama-maharaja therefore is

authority because of land grants. Below the adopted by the Vakataka, Pallava, Kadamba
princes and priests came the peasantry, which and Western Ganga kings. The real founder

was divided into numerous peasant castes. of the Pallava power, Simhavarman, is credited

Possibly most of them were 'called sudras in with coming to the rescue of dharma when it

the brahmamcal system. If the peasant and was beset with the evil attributes typical of the

artisan castes failed to produce and render Kahyuga, Apparently it refers to his suppres-

services and payments, it was looked upon as a sion of the Kalabhras who upset the existing

departure from the established dharma or norm social order

EXERCISES

1. Survey the main currents of the history of peninsular India during the period

A.D. 300-A.D. 750,

2. Outline the history of the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of Badami

3 Discuss the position of the brahmanas in the Peninsula.

4 Describe the temple architecture of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas

5 What burdens were imposed on the peasantry 9

6 Discuss the factors leading to the formation of new states in peninsular India
 CHAPTER 24

India’s Cultural Contacts with the Asian Countries

Medieval lawgivers and commentators or- of Buddhism, and erected many temples and
dained that a person should not cross the seas. statues in honour of the Buddha What is more
This would imply that India shunned all rela- significant, the Burmese and Sri Lanka Bud-
tions with the outside world. But this is not so, dhists produced a rich corpus of Buddhist litera-
for India maintained contacts with its Asian ture, not to be found m India. All the Pali
neighbours since Harappan times. Indian trad- texts were compiled and commented upon
ers went to the cities of Mesopotamia, where m Sri Lanka, Although Buddhism disappeared
their seals belonging to the period between from India it continued to command a large
2400 B.C. and 1700 B.C have been found. following in Burma and Sri Lanka, which is
From the beginning of the Christian era India the case even now.
maintained commercial contacts with China, Beginning with the reign of Kamshka a large
South-East Asia,. West Asia and the Roman number of Indian missionaries went to China,
empire. We have seen how the Indian land Central Asia and Afghanistan for preaching
routes were connected with the Chinese
Silk their religion. From China Buddhism spread
Route. We have also dwelt on India’s com- to Korea apd Japan, and it was in search of
mercial intercourse with the eastern part of the Buddhist texts and doctrines that several Chinese
Roman empire. In addition to this India sent pilgrims such as Fa-hsien and Hsuan Tsang
its missionaries, conquerors and traders to the came to India. Eventually this contact proved
neighbouring countries where they founded fruitful to both the countries. A Buddhist
settlements. colony cropped up at Tun Huang, which was
The propagation of Buddhism promoted the starting point of the companies of mer-
India’s contacts with Sri Lanka, Burma, China chants going across the desert. The Indians
and Central Asia. Most probably the Buddhist learnt the art of growing silk from China,
missionaries were sent to Sri Lanka in the reign and the Chinese learnt from India the art of
of Asoka m the third century B.C. Short in- Buddhist painting,
scriptions in Brahmi belonging to the
script The two other great centres of Buddhism
second and first centuries B.C. have been in ancient times were Afghanistan and Central
found in Sri Lanka. In course of time Buddhism Asia, In Afghanistan many statues of the
came to acquire a permanent stronghold in Sri Buddha and monasteries have been discovered.
Lanka. In the early centuries of the Christian Begram and Bamiyan situated in the north of
era Buddhism spread from India
to Burma. this country are famous for such relics. Begram
The Burmese developed the Theravada form is famous for ivory work, which is similar to
 India’s cultural contacts '(vith the asian countries 165

belonging to the fourth century A.D. Written

language was used for official and day-to-day
correspondence as well as for the preservation
and propagation of Buddhism In Central Asia
Buddhism continued to be a dominant religious
force till it was replaced by Islam around the
end of seventh century A.D.
Indian culture also spread to South-East
Asia, but not through themedium of Buddhism
Except in the case of Burma it was mostly diff-
used through the brahmanical cults. The name
Suvarnabhumi was given to Pegu and Moul-
meiri in Burma, and merchants from Broach,
Banaras and Bhagalpur traded with Burma.
Considerable Buddhist remains of Gupta times
have been found in Burma. From the first cen-
tury A.D. India established close relations with
Java in Indonesia, which was called Suvarna-
dvipa or the island of gold by the ancient Indians,
The earliest Indian settlements m Java were
established in A D. 56. In the second century
of the Christian era several small Indian princi-
palities were set up. When the Chinese pilgrim
iFa-hsien visited Java in the fifth century A.D ,

he found the brahmanical religion prevalent

24.1 Statue of the Buddha at Bamtyan in Afghanistan ,
|
- '
'

,
\ - there. In the early centuries of the Christian
- era the Pallavas founded their colonies in
Indian workmanship m Kushan times. Bamiyan Sumatra. Eventually these flowered ^into the
hats the distinction of possessing the tallest kingdom of SriVijaya, which continued to be an
Buddha statue cut ‘
out of rock in the early important power and a centre of Indian culture
centuries of the Christian era. It has thousands from the fifth to the tenth century A.D.The Hindu
of natural and artificial caves m 'which the settlements in Java and Sumatra became channels
monks lived Buddhism continued to hold for the radiation of Indian culture The prodess
ground in this country till the seventh century of founding settlements continued afterwards.
A.D. when it whs supplanted by Islam.' In Indo-China, which is at present divided
A similai1 process took’ place in the Central
' - into Vietnam, Kampuchea and Labs, the
Asian republics of the USSR. Excavations have Indians set up two kingdoms in
powerful
revealed Buddhist monasteries, stupas and Kamboja and Champa The powerful kingdom
inscriptions, and manuscripts written in Indian of Kamboja, identical with modern Kampuchea,
languages at several places in the Central Asian was founded in the sixth century A D. Its rulers
parts of the USSR As a result of the extension were devotees of Siva They developed Kamboja
!

of the Kushan rule Prakrit written in Kharosthi as a centre of Sanskrit learning, and numerous
script spread to Central Asia, where we find inscriptions were composed in this language.

many Prakrit inscriptions and manuscripts In the neighbourhood of Kamboja at Champa,

166 ANCIENT INDIA

embracing southern Vietnam and the fringes ,

many folk plays are performed on its basis,

of northern Vietnam, it seems that the traders The Indonesian language called Bahasa Indonesia
set up their colonies. The king bf Champa- was contains numerous Sanskrit words.
and the official language of Champa
-

also a Saiva, In respect of sculptures the head of the

was Sanskrit. This country was considered ,to Buddha from Thailand, the head from Kamboja
be a great centre of education ip the Vedas and and the magnificent bronze images from Java are
Dharmasastras.
1

, ,
regarded as the best examples of the blending
Indian settlements in the Indian Ocean con- of Indian art with the local art traditions of

tinued to flourish till the thirteenth century, .and South-East Asia. Similarly beautiful examples
during this period intermingled with the local of painting comparable to those of Ajanta have
peoples. Continuous comrningling gave rise to been found not only in Sri Lanka but in the Tun
a new type of art, language and literature. We Huang caves on the Chinese border.
find in these countries several art objects, which It would be wrong to think that religion alone
contributed to the spread of Indian culture.
Missionaries were backed by traders and con-
querors. Trade evidently played a vital 'part in
establishing India’s relations with Central Asia
and South-East Asia. The very names Suvarna-
bhumi and Suvarnadvipa given to territories in
South-East Asia suggest Indians’ search for
gold. Trade led not only to exchange of
goods but also of elements of culture. It

would be inaccurate to hold that the Indians

alone contributed to the culture of their neigh-
bours. It ‘was a two-way traffic The Indians
24.2 General View of the Teitiple at Borobudur
‘

acquired the craft of minting gold coins

show .a happy blending of both Indian and
(
from the Greeks and Romans. They learnt the art
indigenous elements. It is astonishing that the of growing silk from China, that of growing betel
greatest Buddhist temple is found pot in India leaves from Indonesia, and several other pro-
but in Borobudur ip Indonesia Considered to be ducts from the neighbouring countries' Similarly
the largest Buddhist temple in the whole world, the method of growing cotton spread from
was constructed in the eighth century A D.,
it. India to China and Central Asia. However,
and 436 images of Buddha were engraved on it. Indian contribution seems to be more important
The temple of Ankorvat in Kampuchea is in art, religion, script and language. But in no
larger than that of Borobudur Although this case the culture which developed in the neigh-
temple belongs to medieval times ,it can .be bouring countries was a replica of the Indian
compared to the best artistic achievements of culture. Just as India retained and developed
the' Egyptians and Greeks. The stories of the its own personality in spite of foreign influences,

Ramayarn, ..and Mahabharata are written in similarly the countries in South-East Asia evolved
relief on the walls of the temple. The story of their own indigenous culture by assimilating the
the Repnayana is so popular in Indonesia that Indian elements. ,
 INDIA’S CULTURAL CONTACTS WITH THT ASIAN COUNTRIES 167

EXERCISES

1 . Give an account of India’s cultural contacts with Central Asia.

2. Describe the spread of Indian, culture in South-East Asia.
3. What did the Indians borrow from foreign countries in ancient times?
 CHAPTER 25

Transformation of the Ancient Phase

Social Crisis and the Origin of Land Grants in the Puramc passages of the third-fourth'
The central factor that ultimately transformed centuries A.D. '

the ancient Indian society into medieval society Several measures were adopted to overcome

was the practice of land grants Why did this the crisis The almost contemporary law-book:
practice originate 7 The .charters say that the of Manu advises that the vaisyas and sudras
givers, mainly kings, wanted to acquire religious should not be allowed to deviate from their

merit, and the receivers, mainly monks and duties This may have led to coercive measures
priests, needed means for performing religious But a more important step to meet the situation
rites. But the practice really came into being was to grant land to priests and officials in
because of a serious
- crisis that affected the lieu of salaries and remuneration. Such a practice
ancient social order, The varna society was had the advantage of throwing the burden of
based on the producing activities of the peasants collecting taxes and maintaining law and order

who were called vaisyas and of the labourers in the donated areas on the beneficiaries They
who v?ere called sudras, The taxes collected by could deal with the recalcitrant peasants on the
the loyal officers from the vaisyas enabled the spot. The practice could also bring new lands
kings to pay salaries to their officials and sol- under cultivation. Moreover by implanting
diers, reward their priests, and purchase luxury brahmanas in the conquered tribal areas the
and other articles from merchants and big tribal people could be taught .the brahmanical
artisans But in the third-fourth centuries A.D. way of life and the need of obeying the king
a deep social crisis afflicted this system. Con- and paying takes to him
temporary Puranic texts complain of a situa-
tion in which varnas or social classes discarded Decline of Central Control
the functions assigned to them The lower Land grants became frequent from the fifth

orders attempted to arrogatb to themselves the century A.D According to this the brahmanas
status and functions of thi higher orders. In were granted villages free from taxes. All the
other words they refused ip pay taxes and taxes which were collected by the king from the
render labour services. This led to vatna-sam- villages were transferred to the brahmanas.
kara or intermixture of social classes Varna In addition to this the beneficiaries were given
barriers were attacked because the producing the right to govern the people living in the
masses were oppressed with heavy taxes and '

donated villages, Government officials and royal

impositions, and were denied protection by the retainers were not permitted to enter the gift
kings. This state of affairs is known as Kahyuga villages. Up to the fifth centqry A.D. the ruler
 TRANSFORMATION OF THE ANCIENT PHASE 169

generally retained the right to punish the thieves, they no longer cultivated land mainly as slaves
but in later, times the beneficiaries were and agricultural labourers; they possibly occu-
authorised to punish all criminal offenders. So pied it temporarily. This evidently happened in
the brahmanas not only Collected taxes from the old settled areas in north India.
the peasants and artisans but also maintained When were granted in the tribal areas
villages
law and order in the villages granted to them. the agriculturists were placed under the control of
Villages were granted to the brahmanas for religious beneficiaries, especially the brahmanas,

ever, so that the power of the king was heavily because the brahjnanas began to be granted land
undermined from the' end of the Gupta period. on a large scale from the fifth-sixth centuries.

In the Maurya period taxes were assessed and From the sixth century onwards sharecroppers
collected by the agents of the king, and law and and peasants we e particularly asked to stick to
order were maintained by them. But as a result the land granted to the beneficiaries in the back-
of land grants there sprang up many pockets ward and mountainous areas such as Orissa, Dec-
which were free from royal control. can, etc. From there the practice spread to ,the

Royal control was further eroded through the basin of the Ganga. In north India also artisans
payment of government officials by land grants. and peasants were asked not to leave the villages,
In the Maurya period the officers of the state granted to the beneficiaries. So they could not
from the highest to the lowest were generally move from one village to another ,
on the other
paid in cash. The practice continued under the hand they had to live in the same village to
Kushans.who issued a large number of copper and cater to its all possible needs..
gold coins, .and it lingered under the Guptas. But
from the sixth century A.D. the position seems Decline of Trade and Towns
to have changed. The law-books of that century From the sixth century A.D. trade
began to
recommended that services should be rewarded decline. Trade with the western part of the
in land. Accordingly from the time of Harsha- Rpman empire ended in the third century, and
vardhana public officials were paid in land silk trade with Iran and the Byzantium stopped

revenues. A fourth of the royal revenue was in the middle of the sixth century. India carried
earmarked for the endowment of great public on some commerce with China and South-East
servants. The governors, ministers, magistrates Asia, but its benefits were reaped by the Arabs
and were given portions of land for their
officers who acted as middlemen. In the pre-Muslim
personal upkeep. All this created vested interest period the Arabs practically monopolized the ex-
at the cost of royal authority. port trade of India. The decline of trade for well
over 300 years after the sixth century is striking-
New Agrarian Economy ly demonstrated by the practical absence' of

We notice an important cliange in the agrarian gold coins in the country. The paucity of coins
economy. Landed beneficiaries could not,culti-, after tlie sixth century is true not only of north

vate lands by themselves, nor, could they' collect India but also of south India.
revenues by themselves. The actual cultivation The decline of trade led to the decay of towns.
was entrusted to peasants or sharecroppers who Towns flourished in west and north India
were attached to the land but did not legally own under the Satavahanas and Rushans. A few
it. The Chinese pilgrim I-tsing states that most cities continued to thrive in Gupta times. But

Indian monasteries got their lands cultivated by the post-Gupta period witnessed the ruin of
servants and others. Hsuan Tsang describes the many old commercial cities in north India.
sudras as agriculturists, which suggests that Excavations show that several towns in Haryana
170 ANCIENT INDIA

and east Panjab, Purana Qila (Delhi), Mathura, favoured with generous land grants by his

Hastinapur (Meerut district), Sravasti (Uttar master. This created difficulties because though

Pradesh),Kausambi (near Allahabad), Rajghat economically well off, socially he was low.
and
(Varanasi), Chiraud (Saran district), Vaisali According to the Dharmasastras social positions
Patabputra began to decline in the Gupta hitherto were mainly regulated by the varna
period, and mostly disappeared in post-Gupta system. The people were divided into four
times. The Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang visited vamas, the brahmanas being the highest and
several towns considered sacred on account the sudras being the lowest. The economic rights

of their association with the Buddha but found of a person were also determined by the vama
them almost deserted or dilapidated. On account to which he belonged. So some changes had to

of restricted market for Indian exports, artisans be made m the written texts to recognize the
and merchants living in these towns flocked to position of the new landed classes. An astrologer
the countryside and took to cultivation. In the called Varaharuihira, who belonged to the
late fifth century a group- of silk weavers from the sixth century, prescribed houses in sizes varying
western coast migrated to Mandasor in Malwa, according to the varna, as was the old practice.
gave up silk weaving and adopted other pro- But he also fixes the size according to the grades
fessions. On account of the decay of trade and of Various classes of ruling chiefs. Thus formerly'
towns the villagers had to meet their needs in all things in society were graded according to
respect of oil, salt, spices, cloth, etc., all by '
thevamas, but now they also came to be deter-
themselves. So this gave rise to smaller units mined according to the landed possessions of
of production, each unit meeting its own a person.
needs. From the seventh century onwards numerous
From the sixth century A.D. onwards some castes were created. A
Purana of the eighth
changes occurred in the social organization. In. century’ states that thousands of mixed castes
the Gangetic basin in north India the vaisyas were produced by the connection of vaisya
were regarded as free peasants, but land grants Women with men of lower castes. This implies
created landlords between the peasants On the that the sudras and untouchables were divided
one hand and the king on the other, so that the into countless Sub-castes. So were the brahman-
vaisyas became as good as the sudras. tnthis as, and the Rajputs who appeared as an impor-
way the old brahmanical order was modified. tant factor in Indian polity and society around
This modified social order spread from north the seventh century. Tim number of castes
India into Bengal and south India as a result of increased on account of the nature of the econo-
land grants to the brahmanas, brought from the my in which people could not move from one
‘

north, from the fifth-sixth centuries. In the place to another. Although people living in
outlying areas we "find mainly two’ orders, the different areas followed the same occupation,
brahmanas and the sudras they became divided into sub-castes according
to the territory to which they belonged. In
addition to this many tribal- peoples were
Changes In the Varna System admitted into Hindu society because of the
Frequent seizures of power land land grants land grants given to the brahmanas in the
gave rise to several categories of landed people. aboriginal tracts Most of these peoples were
When a person acquired land and power he enrolled as sudras and mixed castes. Every
naturally sought a high position in society. He tribe was now 'given the status of a separate
might belong to a lower varha, but he might be caste in Hindu society.
 TRANSFORMATION of the ancient phase 171

Cultural Developments lack of communication between the various re-

about the sixth-seventh centuries started
In gions, and this promoted the growth of regional
the formation of sub-national units such as languages.
Andhra, Assain, Bengal, Gujarat, Karnataka, Regional scripts became more, prominent
Maharashtrh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, from the seventh century A.D. From .Maurya
etc. The identity of the sub-national groups is to Gupta times, although the script underwent
recognized by both foreign and Indian sources. changes, more or less the same script Conti-
The Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang mentions nued to obtain throughout the country. Thus a
several nationalities Visakhadatta, an author person who has mastered the script of the
of about the sixth century A.D., speaks of Gupta age can read from different
inscriptions
different regions inhabited by peoples different parts of the country in that period But from
in customs, clothing and language The Jaina the seventh century every- rt gion came to have
books of the late eighth century notice the its own script, and hence nobody can read post-

existence of 18 major peoples or nationalities. Gupta inscriptions found m different parts of

It describes the physical features of 16. It pro- the country unless he learns several scripts
duces samples of their language and says some-
thing about their character. Bhakti and Tantricistn
The sixth-seventh centuries are equally im- In sculpture and construction of temples
portant in the history of Sanskrit literature. every region came to evolve its own style from
Sanskrit continued to be used by the ruling class the seventh-eighth centuries Particularly south
from about the second century A.D. As the India tended to become the land of stone
rulers came to live in pomp and splendour, the temples. Stone and bronze were the two mam
style of their language became verbose and ornate media in which divinities were represented.
The ornate style in Sanskrit prose and poetry be- Bronze statues' began to be manufactured on an
came common from the seventh century, and the impressive scale. Although they are also found
traditional Sanskrit pandits still love to write in good numbers in the Himalayan territories,
in it. The example of verbiage in prose is
best they predominated im south India because of
found in the writings of Bana Although the their use in brahmanical temples and in eastern
prose of Bana was not easy to imitate, it continued India because of their use m Buddhist temples
to serve as a model for Sanskrit writers in the and monasteries. Although the same gods and
medieval period. goddesses were worshipped throughout the
From the seventh century A.D. we also notice country, people of every region portrayed them
a remarkable development in the linguistic his- in sculptures in their own way.
tory of India. Buddhist writings from eastern We also notice some religious changes in
India show the faint beginnings of Bengali, post-Gupta times. Hindu divinities came to be
Assamese, Maithili, Oriya, and Hindi. Similarly arranged according to their grades in the hierar-
the Jaina Prakrit works of the
same period show chy. Just, as society was divided into unequal
the beginning of Gujaiati and Rajasthani. It classes based on ritual, landed property, mili-
seems that each region came to develop its own tary power, etc., so the divinities were also
language on account of its isolation from the divided into unequal ranks. Vishnu, Siva and
others. On the break-up of the Gupta empire Durga appeared as suprem deities, presiding
there arose several independent principalities, over many other gods and goddesses, who were
which naturally hindered countrywide contacts placed in lower positions as retainers and
and communications. The decline of trade meant attendants. Especially the supreme mother
,172 ANCIENT INDIA

goddess was represented in a dominating pos- also appeared. Tantncisni admitted both women
ture in relation to several minor deities. This and sudras into its ranks, and laid great stress

was reflected in both art and literature. The on the use of magic rituals. Some of the rituals

monastic organization of the Jainas, Saivites, may have been m use in earlier times, but they
Vaishnavites, etc., also came to be divided into were systematized and recorded in the tantric

about five ranks.' The highest rank was occu- texts from about the sixth century A.D. They
pied by the acharya, whose coronation took were intended to satisfy the material desires of
place in the same manner as the coronation of a the, devotees for physical possessions and to

prince. cure the day-to-day diseases and injuries. Ob-

From the seventh century A.D. the Bhakti viously tantricism arose as a result of the large-

cult spread throughout the country, and es- soale admission of the aboriginal peoples in
pecially in the south Bhakti meant that people brahmanical society. The brahmanas adopted
made all kinds of offerings to the god in return many of the tribal rituals and charms, which
for which they received the prasada or the favour were now officially compiled, sponsored and
of the god-. It meant that the devotees com- fostered by them. In course of time these were

pletely surrendered to their god. This practice distorted by the brahmanas and priests to serve

can be compared to the complete, dependence the interests of their rich clients. Tantricism
of the tenants on the landowners. Just as the permeated Jainism, Buddhism, Sa[vism and
tenants offered and rendered various services to Vaishnavism. From the seventh century it con-
the lord and then received land and protection tinued to hold ground throughout the medieval
as a kind of favour from him, a similar relation age. Many medieval manuscripts found , in
came to be established between the individual different parts of the country deal with tantricism
and his god. „
. and astrology, and the two are completely mixed
The most -remarkable 'development in the with each other.
religious field in India from about the sixth Thus in the sixth and seventh centuries we
century A.D. was the spread of tantricism. notice certain striking developments in polity,
In the fifth-seventh centuries many brahmanas society, economy, language, script and religion.
received land in Nepal, Assam, Bengal, Orissa, This shows that in this period, ancient India was
central India and the Deccan, and it is about coming to an end and medieval India was
this time that tantric texts, jshrinos and practices taking shape.

EXERCISES ,, ,

1. What is meant by the end of the ancient period? ,

2. Point out important changes in Indian polity, economy and society m the fifth-

, seventh centuries.
3. What developments do you notice in religion and culture in the fifth-seventh
centuries?
 CHAPTER 26

Sequence of Social Changes

There are no written texts for the study of daughter was called duhitr, that is one who

society in pre-Vedic times. Archaeology tells us milks. So intimate was the acquaintance of the
that people lived m small groups in the hilly Vedip people with kine that when they came
areas in the Palaeolithic Age The main source across the buffalo in India they called it govala
of their subsistence was the game they hunted, or cow-haired. In contrast to references to cows
and wild fruits and vegetation roots they col- those to agriculture are fewer in the Rig Veda.
lected. Man learnt toproduce food and live in Cattle-rearing therefore was the main source of
houses towards the end of the stone age and livelihood.
'the beginning of the metal age. The neolithic
-
In such a society people could hardly produce
'

and chalcolithic communities lived on the up- anything over and above what was needed for
lands not far from the bills and rivers. Gradually their subsistence. Tribesmen could afford only
there arose peasant villages in the Indus basin occasional presents for their chiefs. The main
area, and eventually they blossomed into the income of a chief or a prince came from the
urban society of Harappa, with large and small spoils of war. He captured booty from enemy
houses. But once the Harappan civilization tribes and exacted tributes from hostile tribes
disappeared, urbanism did not reappear in and tribal compatriots. The offering of tribute
India for a thousand years or so. received by him was called ball. It seems that
the tribal kinsmen gave trust and voluntary
Tribal and. Pastoral Phase presents to the tribal chief. In return the chief
For the history of society from the time of led them from victory to victory and stood by
the Rig Veda we can also use written texts. them in difficult times. The respect and occa-
They tell us that the Rig Vedic society was sional gifts received by the prince from his
primarily pastoral. People were semi-nomadic, tribesmen may have become customary in Vedic
and their chief possessions consisted of cattle times. But defeated hostile tribes were made to
and horses. The term for cow (gau) occurs 176 pay tributes. Periodical sacrifices provided an
times in the earlier parts of the Rig Veda, important occasion for the distribution of those
Cattle were considered to be
synonymous with gifts and tributes. The lion’s share went to the ,

wealth, and a wealthy person

was called gomat. priests in lieu of the prayers they offered to
Wars were fought for the sake of cattle, and gods on behalf of their patrons. At one place
therefore the laja whose main duty was to in the Rig Veda the invoked god is asked to
protect the cows was called gopa or gopati. bestow wealth only on princes and
priests,
Cow was so important to the family that the sacrificers. This suggests an attempt at un-
 ;

174 ANCIENT INDIA

equal distribution. Princes and priests wanted to rise of trade and towns; this, feature became

grab more at the cost of the common peoplej prominent m the age of the Buddha. His
although, people voluntarily gave a larger share society did not know the use of metallic
to their chiefs and princes out of deference and money.
because of their military qualities and services. The Vedic communities had established nei-
Ordinary members of the tribe received a share nor a professional army,
ther a taxation system

which was known as amsa or bhaga Distri- There did not exist collectors of taxes apart
bution took place in folk assemblies, which from the kinsmen of the prince. Payment made
were attended 'by the rajas and their tribal to the king was not much different from the

followers, sacrificial offering made to the gods. The tribal

Although artisans, peasants, priests and war- militia of the pastoral society was replaced by
riors appear even in the earlier pprtions of the the peasant militia of agricultural society, ,

Rig Veda society as a whole was tribal, pastoral,

,
The vis or the tribal peasantry formed the

semi-nomadic and egalitarian. Spoils of war and sena or the , armed host The peasantry in
cattle constituted the main forms of property, later Vedic times was called force ( bala). The

Cattle and women slaves were generally given army to protect the asvamedha horse comprised
as gifts. Gifts of cereals are hardly mentioned both the kshatnyas and the vis. Armed with
because these were not produced on any consi- bows, quivers and shields, the former acted as
derable scale. Therefore apart, from the booty military captains and leaders; armed with sticks,
captured in wars, there was no other substantial the latter constituted the rank and file. For the
source for the maintenance of princes and sake of victory the chief or noble was asked
priests, It was possible to have high ranks, to eat from the same vessels with the vis. The

but npt high social classes. Princes and priests priests stressed through rituals the subjection
employed women slaves for domestic service, of the peasantry or vaisyas to, the warrior nobles
but their number may not have been large. The but at this stage the process of turning the

Rig Vedic society did not have a serving order tribesmen into was very
taxpaying peasants
in the form of the sudras. weak. On account of the use of the wooden
ploughshare and indiscriminate killing of cattle
Agriculture and the Origin of Upper Orders m sacrifices the peasants did not produce, much
When the Vedic people moved from Afgha- over and above their needs. Hence they could
nistan and Panjab to western Uttar Pradesh not pay regular taxes. On the other hand princes
they became full-fledged agriculturists. In later were not completely alienated from the peasants.
Vedic times we notice continuous- settlements In consonance with tribal practices the rajas were
for two to three,
centuries. This gave rise to expected to extend agriculture and even to lend
territorial chiefdoms. Out of the tributes obtain- theirhands to plough, so that the gap between the
ed from peasants and others the princes could vaisya and the rajanya was not very wide. Although
perform sacrificesand reward their priests.
1

the nobles and warriors ruled over their peasant

The later Vedic peasant paid to the nobles and kinsmen, they had to depend upon peasant
warriors who in their turn paid to the priests militia for fighting agaiftst enemies and they
in addition, he also paid sacrificial fees to the could not grant land without the consent of the
priests. The peasant supplied food for smiths, tribal peasantry. All this placed them in a
chariotmakers and carpenters, who mainly difficult position and could not sharpen
served the emerging class of warriors. But the the distinctions between the rulers and the
,
later Vedic peasant could not contribute to the ruled,
 SEQUENCE OF SOCIAL CHANGES 175

Varna System of Production and Government regular Collection administrative and religious
The use of iron tools for crafts and cultiva- methods were devised. The king appointed tax-
tion created, conditions' for the transformation collectors to assess and collect taxes. But it,

of the comparatively egalitarian Vedic society was also important to convince people of the
into a fully agricultural and class-divided social necessity of obeying the raja, paying him taxes
order in, the sixth century B.C. Once the forested and offering gifts to the priests. For this purpose
areas ,of the middle Gangetic basin were cleared the vafna system was devised. According to it

with the help of the iron axe, one of the most members of the three higher varnas or social
fertile parts Of the world was opened to settle- orders were distinguished ritually from those
ment. Now we find numerous rural and urban of the fourth varna. The twice-born were en-
settlements.Large territorial states resulted in titled to Vedic studies and investiture with the
the formation of the Magadhan empire. All sacred thread, and the fourth varna or the
this was possible because with the help of the sudras were excluded from it. They were meant

iron ploughshare, sickles, and other tools pea- for serving the higher orders, and some law-
sants produced a good deal more than what givers reserved slavery only for the sudras.
they needed for their subsistence. Peasants Thus the twice-born can be called citizens and
needed the support of artisans, who not only the sudras non-citizens. But there grew distinc-
provided the peasants with tools, clothing, etc., tions between citizen and citizen in the ranks
but also supplied weapons and luxury articles of the twice-born. The brahmanas were not
to the princes and priests. The technique of allowed to take to the plough and manual
production in post-Vedic times attained a much work Gradually the contempt of the higher
higher level than that found in the Vedic age. varnas for manual work reached such limits
The new technique and the use of force that they developed hatred for the hands that
enabled some people to possess large stretches practised crafts and thus came to look upon
of- land which needed a good number of slaves some manual labourers as untouchables. The
and hired labourers. In Vedic times people, more a person withdrew from physical labour,
cultivated their fields with the help of their the purer he came to be considered. The vaisyas,
family members, there is no word for wage- although members of the twice-born group,
earner in Vedic literature. But slavesand wage- worked as peasants, herdsmen and artisans and
earners engaged in cultivation became a regular later as traders. What is more important, they
feature in the age of the Buddha. In the'Maurya were the principal taxpayers whose payments
period they worked on large state farms. Pro- maintained the kshatriyas and brahmanas. The
bably 150,000 people captured in Kalinga by varna system authorised the kshatriya to collect

Asoka were drafted for work in farms and taxes from the peasants and from traders
tolls

mines. But .by and large slaves in ancient India and artisans, which enabled him to pay his
were meant, for domestic work. Generally the priests and employees in cash and kind.
small peasant occasionally aided by slaves, and The payment and economic privileges
rate of
hired labourers played the dominant role in differed according to the varna to which a
production. person belonged. Thus a brahmana was required
With the new technique peasants, artisans, to pay two per cent interest on loans, a kshatriya
hired labourersand agricultural slaves produced three per cent, a vsisya four per cent, and a
much more than they needed for their sub- sudra, five per cent.Sudra guests could be fed
sistence. A good part of this produce was only' if theyhad done some work at the house
collected from them by princes and priests For of the host These rules laid down m theDharma-
176 ANCIENT INDIA

s&stras or law-books may not have been observed the importance' of danda or coercive measures,
strictly, but they indicate the norms which were and Manu lays down
that the vaisyas and

set by society sudras should not be allowed to deviate from

Since both priests and warriors lived on the their' duties. The kings appear as upholders and

taxes, tributes, tithes and labour supplied by restorers of the vama system. 1

peasants and artisans, their relations were But coercive measures alone were not suffi-

marked by occasional feuds for the sharing of cient to make the peasants pay and labourers
social savings. The kshatriyas were also hurt work. Instead of extracting taxes directly through
by the vanity of the brahmanas, who claimed itsown agents and then distributing them
the highest status in society. But both resolved among its priestly, military .and other em-
•

their conflicts and differences in face of the ployees and supporters, the state found it con-
opposition of the vaisyas and sudras., Ancient venient to assign land revenues directly to
texts emphasize that the kshatriyas cannot priests, military chiefs, administrators, etc.,

prosper without the support of the brahmanas, for their support. This development was in

and the brahmanas cannot prosper without the sharp contrast to the Vedic practice Formerly
support of the kshatriyas, Both can thrive and only the community had the right to give land
rule the world only if they cooperate with each to priestsand possibly to princes. But now the
other raja usurped thispower and obliged the leading
members of the community by granting land to
Social Crisis and Rise of Landed Classes them. These beneficiaries were also empowered
For several centuries the system worked well to maintain law and order. This is how fiscal and
in the Gangetic basin, which saw a successive administrative problems were solved. New and
series of large states. In the first and second expanding kingdoms wanted more and more
centuries A.D. it was marked by bumping trade taxes, These could be obtained from the tribal
and urbanism, In this phase art flourished as backward areas provided the tribals adopted
never before. The climax of the old order was new methods of agriculture and were taught to
reached in about the third century. Then its be loyal. The problem was tackled by granting
progressive role seems to have been exhausted. land in the tribal areas to enterprising brah-
Around the third century A.D. the old social manas, who could tame the inhabitants of the
formation was afflicted with a deep crisis. ‘
wild tracts and make them amenable to discip-.
The crisis is clearly reflected in the description line.

of the Kali age in those portions of the Puranas In backward areas land grants to brahmanas
which belong to the third and fourth centuries and others spread agricultural calendar, diffused
A.D. The Kali age is characterised by varna- the knowledge of ayiirveda medicine and thus
samkara ,
i.e. intermixture of vamas or social contributed to increase in overall agricultural
orders, which implies that the vaisyas and production. Artofwritingandtheuse of Prakrit
sudras (peasants, artisans and labourers) and Sanskrit were also disseminated. Through
either refused to ,
perform producing functions land grants civilization spread in the deep south
assigned to them or else the vaisya peasants and far east although some spade work had been
declined to pay taxes and the sudras refused done by traders and by Jainas and Buddhists
to make their labour available. They did not earlier. The grants brought to the Hindu fold a
observe the vama boundaries relating to mar- large number of aboriginal peasants who came to
riage and other types of social intercourse. On be ranked as sudras. The sudras therefore began
account of this situation the epics emphasize1

to be called peasants and agriculturists in early

 SEQUENCE OF SOCIAL CHANGES 177

medieval texts. On the other hand land grants, by a society of horse-users and cattle-herders.

especially in developed areas, depreciated the The Rig Veda indicates a social formation which
position of independent vaisya peasants. Hence was largely pastoral and tribal The pastoral
vaisyas and sudras came closer to each other society became agricultural in later Vedic times,

from Gupta times onwards socially and eco- but its primitive agriculture did not yield much,

nomically. But the most significant consequence and so the rulers could not get much at the cost
of land grants was the emergence of a class of of the peasants The class-divided society comes
landlords living on the produce of the peasants into full view in post-Vedic times, It came to
This prepared the ground in about the 5th-6th be known as vama system. This social organi-
centuries A.D. for a new type of social for- zation rested on the producing activities of the

mation which can be called feudal. vaisyas supplemented by those of the sudras.

By and large, the social system worked well

Summary from the age of the Buddha to Gupta times.
It is therefore not possible to give one label to Then it underwent a change on account of
society m ancient India, but we have to think of internal upheavals. Priests and officials began to
several stages in its evolution. The food-gather- be granted lands for their maintenance, and
ing society of the Palaeolithic Age was succeeded gradually there emerged a class of, landlords
by the food-producing societies of neolithic and between the peasants and the state This under-
chalcolithic communities. Eventually the peasant mined the position of the vaisyas and caused
communities developed into the Harappan modification in the varna system.
urban societies Then we Live a break followed

EXERCISES

h Describe the main stages in the evolution of Indian society in ancient ‘

times.
2. Why is society in the time of the Rig Veda called pastoral?
3 What factors led to the rise of social inequalities in ancient India?
4 In what, way did the land grants mark a new stage in the development of Indian society?
 CHAPTER 27

Legacy in Science and Civilization

Religion and Formation of Social Classes state and religion. The functions of priests,

In spite of the existence of towns in Harappan warriors, peasants and labourers were defined
times and again for about 1,000 years from in law and supposed to have been laid down by
the Maurya to the Gupta period the ancient Those who departed from their
divine agencies.
Indian civilization was not as urban as the functions and were found guilty of offences
ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome. The were subjected to secular punishments as well
greater part of the subcontinent was hundreds as the performance of rituals and penances, all

of kilometres away from the sea-coast, and it differing according to the vamas. Each varna
could not develop much trade and commerce. was given not only a social but also a ritual-
Indian life therefore remained primarily agra- istic recognition In course of time varnas or
rian, and its people comparatively immobile. social classes and jatis or castes came to be
In comparison with western cultures religion
_
regarded hereditary in the eyes 6f law and
exercised a far stronger influence in India. religion. All this was done to ensure that vaisyas
Every field of ancient Indian life— economy produce and pay taxes and sudras serve as
polity, art, literature— was strongly influenced labourers so that biahmanas act as priests and
by religion. In addition to Hinduism India gave kshatriyas as rulers. The need of carrying out
rise to Jainism and Buddhism. Although Chris- their respective functions was so strongly
tianity came to this country in about the first ingrained in the minds of the various classes
century A.D., itdid not make much headway in that ordinarily they would never think of
ancient times. Buddhism also disappeared from deviating from their dharma The Bhagavadgita
India in course of time, though it had spread taught that people should lay down their lives
as far as Japan in the east and as far as Central in defence of their own dharma rather than
Asia in the north-west. In the process of diffu- adopt the dharma of others, which is dangerous.
sion Buddhism projected a good deal of Indian The lower orders worked hard in the firm
art, language and literature m the neighbouring belief that they would deserve a better life in
areas. the next world or birth This belief lessened
Religion influenced the formation of yo&al the intensity and frequency of tensiqns and
classes in India in a peculiar way. In other conflicts between those who actually produced
ancient societies the duties and functions of and those who lived off these producers as
social classes were fixed by law which was princes, priests, officials, soldiers and big mer-
largely enforced by the But
state. in India chants. Hence the necessity for exercising
vama laws enjoyed the sanction of both the coercion against the lower orders was not so
 LEGACY IN SCIENCE AND CIVILIZATION 179

strong in ancient India, What was done by a place for the Vedas and the Upanishads.
slaves and other producing sections in Greece Ho used to say that the Upanishads consoled
and under, the threat of whip was done
Rome him m
this life and would also console .him

by the vaisyas and sudras out of conviction after death.

formed through brahmanical indoctrination.
Crafts
Philosophical Systems It would be wrong to think that the Indians
The Indian thinkers looked upon the world did not make any progress in materialist culture.
as illusion and deliberated deeply on the icla- They attained proficiency m several fields of
tion between the soul and God. In fact production. The Indian craftsmen were great
philosophers of no other country delved so experts in dyeing and making various kinds
deeply into this problem as the Indians did. of colours. The basic colours made in India
Ancient India is considered famous for its were so shining and lasting that the beautiful
contribution to philosophy and spiritualism. paintings of Ajanta and Ellora are still intact.

But the Indians also developed a materialistic Similarly the Indians were great experts in
view of the world. In the six systems of philo- making steel. This craft was developed
the art of
sophy which the Indians created we find elements first in The Indian steel was expoited to
India
of materialist philosophy in the sankhya system many countries of the world from very early
of Kapila, who was born around 580 B.C. times and came to be called wootz in later
He believed that the soul can attain liberation times. No other country in the world could
only through real knowledge. Real knowledge manufacture such steel swords as those made

can be acquired througn .observation, inference by Indian craftsmen. They were in great demand
and words The sankhya system does not recog- in the entire region from Asia to Europe.
nize the existence of God. According to it, the
•world has not been created by God but by Polity
"’natureand the world and human life are re- As regards political organization India Was
gulated by natural forces. the only other country with Greece to make
Materialist philosophy received the greatest experiments in some kind of democracy. The
impetus from Charvaka, who lived in about country also pioduced a great ruler in Asoka,
the sixth century B.C. The philosophy that he who, in spite of his great victory over Kalinga,
propounded is known as He argued
lokayata. adopted a policy of peace and non-aggression.
that what is not experienced by man through Asoka and several other Indian kings practised
his sensual organs does not really exist. It implies religious toleration and stressed that .the wishes
that gods do not exist. The Indians thus de- of the followers of the other religions should be
veloped both the idealist as well as the material- respected. i . .

ist systems of philosophy. The idealist system.

,
'i

taught that theworld is an illusion and ignor- Science and Mathematics , * >

ance.People were asked by the Upanishads to India made an important contribution to

abandon the world and to strive for real know- science, In ancient times religion and science -

ledge. Western thinkers have taken to the were inextricably linked together. Astronomy
teachingsof the Upanishads because they are made great progress in the country because the
unable to solve the human problems created planetscame to.be regarded as gods,, and their
modern technology. The famous German movements began to be closely .observed. Their '

by

philosopher Schopenhauer finds in his system study became essential .on account of their
 ANCIENT INDIA
180

knowledge was borrowed not from Greece but

connection with changes in seasons and weather
agricul- from the Arabs who had acquired it from India,
conditions which were important foi
The science of grammar and In the second century B.C. Apastamba pro-
tural activities.
because the ancient brahmanas duced a practical geometry for the construction
linguistics arose
that Vedic prayer and every
every of altars at which the kings could offer sacri-
stressed
It describes acute angle, obtuse angle,
mantra should be recited with meticulous cor- flees.

right angle. Aryabhata formulated the rule for

rectness. In fact the first result of the scientific
finding the area of a triangle, which led to the
outlook of Indians was the production of
origin of trigonometry. The most famous work
1

Sanskrit grammar. In the fourth century B.C.

Panini systematized the rules governing Sanskrit of this time is the Suryasiddhanta, the like

and produced a grammar called the Ashtadhyayi. of which is not found in contemporary ancient
the third century BC. mathematics, East
By.
astronomy and medicine began to develop The most renowned scholars of astronomy
separately. In the field of mathematics the were Aryabhata and Varahamihira Aryabhata

Indians made three distinct contribu- belonged to the fifth century, and Varaha-
ancient
tions the notatiqn system, the decimal system
- mihira to the sixth, Aryabhata calculated the

and the use of' zero. The earliest epigraphic position of the planets according to the Baby-

evidence foi the use of the decimal system is Ionian method. He discovered the cause of

m the beginning of the fifth A.D. The

century lunar and solar eclipses The circumference of

Indian notational system was adopted by the the earth which he measured on the basis of
Arabs who spread it in the Western world, speculation is considered to be correct even now.
He pointed out that the sun is stationary and
The Indian numerals are called Arabic in
English, but the Arabs themselves called their the earth rotates. The book of Aryabhata is

numerals hmdsa. Before these numerals ap- called the Aryabhatiya.

peared in the West they had been used in

’

Varahamihira’s well-known work is called the

India for centuries. They are found in the Brihatsamhita, which belongs to the sixth
.inscriptions of Asoka, which were written in century AD. Varahamihira stated that the
the third century B.C. moon rotates round the earth and the earth
The Indians were the first to use the decimal rotates round the sun. He utilized several Greek,
system. The famous mathematician Aryabhata works to explain the movement of the planets
(A.D. 476-500) was acquainted with it. The and some other astronomical problems. Al-
Chinese learnt this system from the Buddhist though the Greek knowledge influenced Indian
missionaries,and the Western world borrowed astronomy, there is no doubt that the Indians
it from the Arab? when they came jn contact pursued the subject further and made use of it
'

with India. Zero was discovered by the Indians in their observations of the planets.
in about the second century B.C. From the In the applied field Indian craftsmen con-
very beginning the Indian mathematicians con- tributed much the progress of chemistry,
to

sidered zero as a separate numeral, and it was’ The Indian dyers invented lasting colours and
used in this sense in sums of arithmetic. In they also discovered the blue colour. It has
Arabia the earliest use of zero appears in A.D: been already stated how the Indian smiths were
873. The Arabs and adopted it from
learnt the first in the world to manufacture stpel.

India and spread it in Europe. So far as algebra

is concerned both the Indians and the Greeks Medicine

contributed to it, but m Western Europe its The ancient Indian physicians studied ana-
 LEGACY IN SCIENCE 'AND CIVILIZATION 181

tomy. They devised methods tp diagnose diseases power far away from the coast and since there
and prescribed, medicines for their cure. The was no danger from the sea side, the ancient
earliest mention of medicines is in the Atfiarva Indian princes did not pay any particular
Veda. But, as in other ancient societies, the ,
attention to navigation.
remedies recommended were replete with magi;
cal charms and spells, and medicine could not , Art and Literature
develop along scientific lines. ,
, .
The ancient Indian masons and craftsmen
In post-Maurya times India produced two produced beautiful works ofart. The mono-

famous scholars of the Ayurveda, Susruta and lithic pillars erected by Asok’a are famous for
Charaka. In the Susrutasamhita Susruta des- their shining polish, which matches with the
cribes the method of operating cataract, stone polish on Northern. Black Polished ware It is

disease and several other ailments He men- still a mystery how the craftsmen could achieve
tions as many as 121 implements to be used this kind of polish on pillars and pottery.
for operations. In the treatment of disease he The Mauryan polished pillars were mounted
lays special emphasis on diet and cleanliness. by, statues of animals, especially lions The
Charaka wrote the Charakasamhila iD the been adopted as the national
lion capital has
second century A.D. It is like an encyclopaedia emblem of the .Government of India. We may
of Indian medicine. It describes various types also refer to the caVe temples of Ajanta as well
of fever, leprosy, hysteria ( mirgi ) and tuber- as the famous Ajanta paintings, which go back
culosis Charaka did not know that
Possibly to, the beginning of the Christian era In a way
some of these are infectious. His book con- Ajanta is the birth-place of Asian art It con-
tains the names of a large number of plants, tains, as many as 30 cave temples, constructed
and herbs which were to be used as medicine. between the second century B.C. and the seventh
The book is thus useful not only for the study century A.D. The paintings appeared in the
of Indian medicine but also for that of ancient second century AD
and most of them belong
,

Indian flora and chemistry. In subsequent to Gupta times Their themes were 'borrowed
centuries Indian medicine developed on the from stories about previous incarnations of
lines laid down by Charaka the Buddha and from ancient literature. The
achievement of Indian painters at Ajanta has
Geography been lauded by all an connoisseurs. The lines
Ancient Indians also made some contribu- and colours used at Ajanta display a proficiency
tion to the study of geography They had little which is not found in the world before the
knowledge of the geography of the lands out- renaissance m Europe Indian art, moreover,
side India, but the rivers, mountain ranges, was not limited to India, it spread to Central
places of pilgrimage and different regions of the Asia and China at one end and to South-East
country are described in the epics and Puranas Asia on the other The focal point for the
Although the Indians were acquainted with spread of Indian art into Afghanistan and the
China and Western countries, they neither had neighbouring part of Central Asia was Gandhara.
any clear idea of where they lay nor of their Elements of Indian art were fused with those
distances from India of Central Asian and Hellenistic art giving rise

In early times the ancient Indians obtained to a new art style called the Gandhara style
some knowledge of navigation and they contri- The first statue of the Buddha was fashioned m
buted to the craft of shipbuilding. But since this style. Although its features are Indian the
important political powers had their seats of size and the presentation of the head and the
182 ANCIENT INDIA.

drapery show Greek influence, Similatly the could be admitted to this university. Nalanda

one of the earliest examples of a residential*

temples constructed in south India served in is

as models for the construction of cum-teaching institution which housed thou-

some ways

temples in South-East Asia We have already sands of monks devoted to learning, philo-

referred to the temple at Anlcorvat in Kampu- sophy and meditation,

chea and the temple at Borobudur m Java, In the field of literature the Indians produced

we may refer to the the Rig Veda, which is the earliest specimen
In the field of education

huge monastic establishment of Nalanda. It of Indo-Aryan literature, and on the basis

attracted students not only from different parts of which an attempt has been made to deter-

of India but also from Tibet and China, The mine the nature of the Aryan culture In Gupta

standards of examination were stiff, and only times we have the works of Kalidasa, whose

those who could pass the test prescribed by play Abhjnanasakunlalam has been translated

the (hmpmhti or the scholar at the gate into all the important languages of the world,

EXERCISES

1, State the contribution Of ancient India to art, language, literature, religion and

philosophy,

2. Describe the mam schools of Indian philosophy,

3, Write short notes on ancient Indian medicine, geography, mathematics and

astronomy

4. What did India contribute to science and technology?

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184 ANCIBNT INDIA

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Dawn of History in the Deep South
C. J. Shah, Jainism in Northern India (c 800 5.C-526 V. Kanakasabhai Pillai, The Tamils Eighteen Hundred
A D.), Bombay, 1932 Years Ago, Madras, 1904
R.S Sharma, ‘'Material Background of the Origin of K. ANilakanta Sastri,/! Histoiy of South India, 4th edn ,

Buddhism”, Mohit Sen and B, Rao (ed.) DasM Madras, 1976, Chapters VIII & IX
Kapital Centenary Volume, Delhi, 1968 —
CHAPTER 18 Crafts, Trade and Towns in the Posl-
CHAPTER 10~Territorial States and the First Maga- Maurya Age
dhan Empire G. L. Adhya, Eaily Indian Economics Studies m the Eco-—
HC Raychaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, nomic Life of Northern and Western India c 700
Calcutta, 1972, Part II, Chapters I & II B.C-300 AD,, Bombay, 1966
CHAPTER 11 —Iranian and Macedonian Invasions PL. Gupta, Roman Coins from Andhia Pradesh, Hydei a-
E.J Rapson (ed ), Cambridge History of India, Vol, I, bad, 1965
Cambridge, 1922, Chapters XIV to XVI W Schoff, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 1912
—
CHAPTER 12 State and Varna Society in the Age of the R E.M Wheeler, Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers,
Buddha London, 1954
AN Bose, Social and Rural Economy of Northern India, 2 CHAPTER 19 —The Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire
Vols., Calcutta, 1942-45 CHAPTER 20—Life in the Gupta Age
D.R. Chanana, Slavery m Ancient India, New Delhi, 1960 J F. Fleet, Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings, London,
Richard Fick, The Social Organisation in North-East India 1888, Chapters II-III
in Buddha’s Time, Calcutta, 1920 S R Goyal, The History of the Imperial Guptas,
Narendra Wagle, Society at the Time of the Buddha, Allahabad, 1967
Bombay, 1966 RC Majumdar &AS Altekar (ed ), The Vakataka-Gupta
CHAPTER 13—The Age of the Mauryas Age, Banaras, 1954
CHAPTER 14—Significance of the Maurya Rule HA. Giles (tr.), The Travels of Fa-Hsien or Record of
B.M. Barua, Asoka and His Inscriptions, Calcutta, 1955 Buddhistic Kingdoms, Cambridge, 1933
D.R Bhandarkar, Asoka, Calcutta, 1932 CHAPTER 21 —Spread of Civilization in Eastern India
R.P. Kangle, The Kautilya Arthasastra A Critical Edi-
‘ — P.C Choudhury, History of Civilisation of the People of
tion with a Glossary, Bombay, 1960 Assam to the 12th Century A.D., Gauhati, 1959
RK Mookerji, Chandragupta Maurya and His Tunes , R. C. Majumdar (ed ), History of Bengal, Dacca, 1 943
Banaras, 1960 Niharranjan Ray, Bangahr Itihas (in Bengali), Calcutta,
RK. Mookerji, Asoka, Loudon, 1928 1947
KA Nilakatvta Sastri (ed ), Age of the Nandas and N.K Sahu (ed.), History of Orissa, Vol. I, Calcutta
Mauryas, Banaras, 1952 1956
Romila Thapar, Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, CHAPTER 22 —
Harsha and His Times
Oxford, 1961 S. Beal The Life of Hiuen Tsiang, London, 1888
(tr.).

R.E.M. Wheeler, Early India and Pakistan, London, 1959 D Devahuti, Harsha, A Political Study, Oxford, 1970
CHAPTER 15 —Central Asian Contacts and Their Results R.S Tripathi, History of Kanauj, Banaras, 1937 (Reprints)
Central Asia in the Kushan Period, 2 Vols ,
Moscow, T. Watters edited by T. W. Rhys Davids & S Bushell, W
1974-75 On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 2 Vols , London,
B. Chattopadhyay, Age ofKushans—A Numismatic Study, 1904-5
Calcutta, 1967 CHAPTER —
23 Formation of New States and Rural
A. K 'Narain, The Indo-Greeks, OxFord, 1957 Expansion in the Peninsula, c. A.D 300-750
B. N. Puri, India under the Kushans, Bombay, 1965 T.V. Mahalmgam, South Indian Pou'v, Madras, 1955
CHAPTER 16—The Age of the Satavahanas
‘
K.A Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South Indiu, 4th edn.,
‘

K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, 4th Madras, 1976

edn., Madras, 1976 CHAPTER 24 — India’s Cultural Contacts with the Asian
K A. Nilakanta Sastri (ed ), A Comprehensive History of Countries
India, Vol. H, The Mauryas and Satavahanas, P C. Bagchi, India and Central Asia, Calcuita,
Bombay, 1957 1955
 bibliography 185

George Coedes, The Indiamzed States of South East Asia ,

A.D. 500-1200), The First Devraj Chanana Memorial
East-West Centre Press, Honolulu, 1968 Lecture, Delhi, 1969
K A NUakanta Sastri, Aspects of India's History and CHAPTER 27 — Legacy in. Science and Civilization
Culture, Delhi, 1974 D M. Bose & Others, Concise History of Science in India,
CHAPTER —
25 Transformation of the Ancient Phase New Delhi, 1971
R.S Sharma, “Problem of Transition from Ancient to D.P Chattopadhyaya, What is Living and What is Dead in
Medieval in Indian History”, The Indian Historical Indian Philosophy, New Delhi, 1976
Review, Vol. I, No I, Delhi, 1974 M. Hinyaiina, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, London,
RS Sharma, Social Changes in Early Medieval India (circa 1970
 1

Index
(Matter covered by the Contents is generally left out m the Index.)

K Aryablwtiya, 147, 180

Asoka 1, 65, 71, 77, 80, 87, 97, 99, 100, 117, 135, 142,
Ahhljnanasakuntalam, 7, 146, 182 148, 175, 179
acculturation, policy of, 99, 117 asramas, 57, 93
adhyukshas, 93 astrology, 112, 172
Aditi, 50 astronomy, 112, 147, 179, 180
Aiholc, 160, 161 Asvaghosha, 111
Afghanistan, 4, 17, 86, 102, 105, 106, 107, 126, 130, Atlwna Veda, 6, 'll, 51, 181
137, 164, 174 Atranjikheia, 132
55,
Africa, 20 Auanti, 17, 69, 71, 72, 73, 93
Agm, 49-50, 57, 58 A vesta, 45
ay alarm, 149, 150, 162 Ayodhva, 69, 78, 104, 158
agrarian economy, 60, 61 , 1 56, 1 69 avukta r, 82
agriculture, 1 38, 46, 54, 55, 56, 59, 66, 67, 78, 80, 81 , 82, Ayurveda, 176,
,
L 8
85, 93, 94, 116, 120, 149, 150, 162, 168, 173, 174, 176
aiutra, 117 B
Ahar, 26
Alturtya Brahmma, 56 Bactna, 100, 102, 105, 106
Ajanta paintings, 144, 166, 179, 181 bah , 47, 82, 173
Ajatasatru, 71, 72, 73, 82 balmtUialtn, 83
Akhnaton, 91 Bamiyan, 164, 165
Alexander, 7, 72, 75, 76, 77. 104 BanabluilUt, 7, 8, 153, 155, 171
Alexandria, 77 Banaras, 2, 61, 165
Alvar saints, 160 Bangladesh, 4, 10, %, 98, 148, 150, 152
Amaravati, 98, 110, 118, 119, 137 Bamvali, "4, yi t 38
Atnarakosa, 146 Barabm Caves (near Gaya), 95
umaiws, 1 17 Basarh, 69
Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, 76 beads, 30, 126, H2
Andhra Pradesh, 12, 17, 19, 24, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 110, Beas, 76, 83
114, 120, 126, 131, 132, 151, 15^, 158, 171 blwya, 1 74
Anga,'69, 71, 93 Bhagavqelyita, 141, 146, 178
Ankorvat (in Kampuchea), 166, 182 bhatitlugoi ika (treasurer;, 83
Arabs, 169, 180 Bhaiata, 1, 46, 53
Aramaic (script), 5, 88 bhrrt$ht'iha, 88
archheetur*, 94-95, 119, 145 Hhirmilvtkii, 20 _ ,

Arlkamedu. 14, 126, 128, 130, 132 bhosaka, 8(

1
army, 48, 59, 72, 73, 82, 84, 87, 90, 99, 140, 174 bhukli, J4i, 150
Arrian, 76, 96 Bihar, 10, 1
5, 17, 69, 78, 81, 83, 84, 86, 96, 134, 138, 153-
art, 67, 94, 110, 144, 181 Bilhana, 8
Arlkauulra of Kautllya, 7, 86, 87, 9,1, 94 Bimblsara. 71, 72, 73, 82
artisans, 31, 39, 43, 47, 56, 57, 61, 78, 81, 83, 84, 94, 95, Blndusara, 87, 100
109, 117, 126, 128, 132, 140, 141, 148, 149, 151, 169, black gran-', 28
170, 174, 175,176 blacksmith, 116, 126
Aryabhata, 147, 180 bon6 cools, 22
 ANCIENT INDIA

Borobudur (Indonesia), 166, 182 chiefdoms, 162, 174

Boukephala, 77 China, 65, 107, 130, 164, 167, 181
Brahma, 160 Chirand, 22, 26,31,61, 131, 170
brahmanas, 15, 56, 57, 60, 61, 64, 65, 67, 81, 85, 88, citadel, 34, 36

90, 99, 117, 122, 124, 128, 140, 142, 148, 159, 162, civil law, 84
168, 172, 175, 176, 180 , Chotanagpur, 19, 20, 21. 31, 72, 99, 152
biahmadcya, 159, 162 coins, 4, 61, 71, 73, 75, 80, 104, 106, 107, 108, 113, 114,
brahmanism, 124, 143, 145, 152, 156, 160 116, 128, 130, 131, 141, 144, 149, 150, 154, 156, 166,
brahmanizatson, 117 ;
169
Brahmaputra, 1, 13, 150, 151, 152 communication, 12, 14, 15
Brahnn (script) 5, 88, 90, 91, 119, 125, 150, 164 copper, 4, 17, 26, 28, 30, 31, 39, 46, 47, 52, 54, 6], 62, 80
brass, 4, 126 105, 109, 126, 128, 131
brickwell, 107 copper plates, 4, 5, 150, 159
Brihatsamhlta, 180 copper smelting, 30
Broach, 128, 130, 132, 165 coppersmiths, 30, 31
bronze, 4. 31, 39, 43, 45, 46, 116, 147, 171 ,
cotton, 28, 30, 38, 39, 81, 116, 122, 123, 166
Buddha (Gautama), 71,' cows, 28, 47, 48, 58,173
60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, '80, 81, 84,

108, 110, 144, 145, 147 crafts, 30, 77, 78, 80, 81, 93, 126, 156, 175, 179

Buiidhachanta, 111 craftsmen, 147

Buddhism, 1, 5, 10, 84, 88, 90, 98, 99, 106, 108, 118, 142, Crete, 17, 31, 43
143, 14i, 152, 154, 155, 164, 172, 178 criminal law, 84
Buddhist art, 144 cultivation, 12, 19, 24, 99, 150, 170, 175
Buddhist Council, 90, 106, '109 curtain (yavanika) ,111
Buddhist monks, 118, 149
28
buffalo, D
Burdwan, 26
bureaucracy, 93, 99, 140 Daimabad, 26
Burma, 17, 65, 90, 164, 165 danda, 150
burnt bricks, 3, 15, 28, 78, 96, 106, 116 Darius, 75
Burzahom, 22 dasas, 46, 49
Byzantine empire, 134, 169 Dasyus, 46, 49
Deccan, 3, 15,38,86,91,98,99, 100, 102, 105, 114, 116,
C 128,131,141, 156,158, 160
decimal system, 147, 180
carpenters, 78, 126, 174 Davaka, 151
caste, 142 dhamma, 65, 67, B8
castes, mixed, 170 dhammaghosha, 88
cattle, 5, 19, 58, 61, 99, 173, 174 dharrna, 90, 91, 93, 99, 117, 163, 178
cjiaitya, 118 Dharmasastras, 7, 62, 93, 117, 149, 151, 166, 170, 175-76
Chalukyas of Badami, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161 Dharmasutras, 7, 84
Champa, 60, 71, 78, 80 Dhauli, 97
Champa (Indochina), 165 digambaras, 63
Chanakya, 14, 86 Digha Nikaya, 84, 126
chandalas, 142 Diimun (Bahrain), 39
Chanda Pradyota Mahasena, 71 Dlvyavadana, 111
Chandoli, 26, 28, 30 doab (Ganga-Yatmina), 12, 14, 17, 31, 32, 52, 54,1 35,
Chandraketugarb, 97 153, 154
Chabhu-daro, 34 dvapara, 8 , ,

Charaka, 111, 181 /lyeing, 126, 1 79

Chwakasamhlta, 111, 181
Charvaka, 179 E
Chemistry, 112, 180
Cbctis, 93, 100 eight-fold path (asiangika marga ), 64, 65
 1

INDEX 189

ekarat, 72 Harshacharita, 8, 153, 155

epigraphy, 4 Haryanka dynasty, 71
Eran, 26,29, 30, 31 Hastinapur, 12, 52, 55, 71, 131, 170
Erragudi, 98 Haaaribagh, 17, 39
Euphrates, 39, 77 Herodotus, 76
F Himalayas, 1, 10, 12,-72, 94
Hinduism, 1, 2, 4Q, 41, 143, 178
Fa-hsien, 8, 138, 141, 142, 144, 152, 164, 165 Hind, 2
feudal age, 153 Hindukush, 10, 75, 102
feudal development, 141 horses, 38, 46, 52, 82, 94, 100, 107, 124, 134, 154, 173
feudatories, 118, 138, 140, 141, 152, 153, 154 Hsuan Tsang, 8, 151, 153, 154, 155, 164, 169, 170, 171
fire cult, 40, 49, 50 Hunas, 1, 138, 143, 153
food-producing economy, 31, 81, 152
footwheels, 24 1

forced labour, 83, 140, 142, 159, 162

Ikshvakus, 113,119,158
G Inamgaon, 26, 28, 29, 30, 3

Gandak, 22, 73 Indka , 7

Gandhara, 52, 68, 71, 75, 105, 109 Indo-Aryans, 1,15
Gandhara art, 68, 104, 1 10, 181 Indo-China, 165
gandhikas (perfumers), 117 Indra, 46, 49, 50, 57
Ganga, 1, 20, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 105, 150 Indraprastha, 131
Gangas of Mysore, 17, 159, 160 Indus, 1, 2, 10, 12, 14, 24, 34, 75, 76, 77, 83, 86, 105, 106
Gangetic basin, 3, 12, 31, 32, 51, 52, 54, 55, 60, 61, 78, inscriptions, 2, 4, 8, 41, 88, 98, 148, 151, 171
80, 81, 91, 96, 98, 99, 100, 105, 106, 149, 170, 175, 176 irrigation, 38, 73, 81, 87, 93, 105
gaulmika, 117 iron, 3, 17, 47, 51, 52, 53, 54, 61, 66, 69, 71, 73, 80, 81,
geometry, 6, 180 85, 86, 96, 97, 100, 116, 120, 126, 128, 130, 134,
Gilund, 26, 28 147,152, 175
Girivraja, 71 I-tsing, 155, 169
glass, 55, 113, 128 ivory, 80, 123, 126, 149, 164
goats, 19, 24, 28
Godavari, 12, 22, 114, 116, 119, 156 J
gold, 4, 17, 62, 66, 106, 107, 116, 126, 128, 131, 138,
144, 166 Jama tests, 6, 7
goldsmiths, 39, 126 Jainism, B4, 143, 156, 172, 178
gotra, 57 jaladurga, 73
grama, 48 Jatakas, 6, 81
gramini, gramika or graniabhojaka, 48, 82 Jaugada, 97
granary, 36, 38 Java, 165
Great Bath, 36, 40 Jhelum, 76, 77
Greece, 77, 90, 94, 179 judicial System, 140
Greek (language and seript), 5, 91 Justin, 86
Greeks, 1, 38, 68, 75, 76, 77, 100, 102, 105, 108, 109, 112,
180 K
grihapatl, 81, 84
guilds, 4, 78, 128; 140, 141 Kadarabas, 159
Gujarat, 8,12,14,15,17,20,80,105,114.158 Kalvarta, 8
Gupta era, 135, 152 Kaiabhras, 159, 160, 163
Kalhana, 8
H kail, 8
Kalibangan, 34, 36, 37, 38, 43
Harappa, 34, 36, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44 Kalidasa, 7, 146, 152, 182
Harsha (Harshavardhana), 8, 150, 153, 169 Kalinga, 12,72,88,90,93,94,96,97,98,100,148,149.159,175
 , 8

190
ANCIENT INDIA

Kalsi, 94
lokayata, 179
Kamarupa, 150, 151
lothal, 34, 38, 40
Kambojas, 75
Lumbini, 71
Kanauj, 138, 153, 154
Kanchi, 135, 158, 159, 160, 161
,\1
Kandhar, 88, 90
Kapila, 179
Madhya Pradesh, 10, 14, 15, 17, 28, 71, 73,
Kapilu\asiu, 64, 71, 78, 80,94 94 99 114 '

134,148,149
Kanmnayiir, 116, 126
Madra, 55, 75
Karnataka, 14, 17, 20,24, 63, 94, 96,
97, 98, 114, 131,151 Magadha, 6, 17, 61, 62, 63, 65, 69, 71, 72,
154,156, 161, 171 73, 75 80 81' ’ '

82 83 9.1, 97, 100, 135, H3, i4s

Kashmir, 3, 8, 10, 19,
, ,
i J52
2?, 106, 109, 153
Mahabnlipmam or M.unallapurain, 14, 160, 161
Kasi, 69„ 71, 72, 93
Mcihablwi lira 2, 6, 52, 146, 166
Kasia, 71
mahadho/a, 1 1
kataka, 118
nmhajemupudtts, 69
Kanravas, 52, 58, 146
mahanw/ras, 82, 100, 117
Kausambi, 52, 55, 61, 65, 71, 78, 80, 87,
106, 130 131 Mahapadma Nanda,
132, 172 72, 73
Maharashtra, 14, 20,26, 28, 30,
Kautilya. 86, 91, 93, 98 31, 110,114, 116 118
128, 132, 156, 171
Kaveri, H, 120 P3, 124
Mahavastu 111, 126
Kayatha, 27, 29, 30, 31
,

Mahishdal, 26
Kerala, 14, 86, 122
Malnshniiiali, 71
Kharavela, 63, 148
Malaya Peninsula, 17
Kharosthi (script), 5,75, 88, 91, 165
'

Mallas, 71
Khetri (copper mine) 14, 17,
39, 46, 54 Malwa, 15,26, 30, 71, 105, 114
Khyber Pass, 10, 76
Manas, 149
Hingshipi origin of, 84
maiiimi, 82, 93
Kiratas, 73
Maim. 107, 108, 168, 176
Kolar, 17, 116, 159
manuscripts, 6, 10
Kosala, 53, 62, 65, 69, 71, 72.
80, 81, 82, 83, 93 Marathas, 15
Krishna (river), 14 21, 116, 119
121, 148, 160
,
,
masons, 109
krita, 8
Matharas, 148, 149
Kshudrakas, 83
mathematics, 6, 147, 80 1
kshatriyas, 56, 59, 60, 61, /

82, 83, 84, 85, 108, 117

Mathura, 68, 80, 105, 106, 110,
124,142,162,174,175,176 122, 126, 128, 130 131 ‘
132, 144 '
kumaifimalytw 140 ,
'

Maurya dynasty, 72,86

Kumrhar, 95
Mauryas, 5, 7, 73, 77, 154
Kurus, 46, 52, 71
Mayurasarman, 159
Kushans, 4, 104, 105ff , 108, 131, 134, 169
Megasthenes, 7, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95 96 121
Kusinagar (Kusinaraj, 61, 64 71, 80
,
Meghalaya, 24
38, 401 78 80 SI [[1 ‘ '32,
‘ ' - 141, 151,
163, 1 68 , 1 70
Mesopotamia, 31, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41,
42, 43, 44, 130,
1 D7
land grants, 5, 1(7, 138, 141, 142, 148, 149, 150, 151,
metallic money, 39, 78,
154 136 ’ * 58 ,59 ' ,61 * 63 - 168 170, 149, 174
j ?\ 176, 177
' ’
i
land
-
*
metal-working, 1, 47
rights, 151
mining, 93
land sale documents, 150
languages, regional, 171
Mohenjo-daro, 34, 36, 37, 38,43, 44
lead, 4. 17, 116, 126, 128, 130,
monarchies (vs republics) 84
131
monasteries, 66, 67, 118,
leather workers, 78 165, 1 71
Lichchhavis. 62, 69, 82, 83, 84
money economy, 131
mothei goddess, 30, 40
//p/,'75
Mura, 86
 1

INDEX 191

Murugan, 124 phallus worship, 41, 46

Murundas, 135 Piklihal, 24
Piprahwa, 71
N ploughshare, 38, 46, 54, 55, 61, 66, 80, 81, 96, 99, 126,
152, 174, 175
nagaram, 162 Poonpun, 73
Nalanda, Buddhist university of, 66, 67, 145, 146, 154, Porus, 76
155, 182 potin, 4, 116, 128, 131
Nalas, 149 pottery, 24, 28, 30, 42, 43, 44, 51, 54, 55, 78, 107, 120, 130
Nagasena, 104, 108 Prakrit, , 6, 8, 64, 88, 91, 111, 119, 146, 149, 156, Up,
Nandas, 72, 73, 76, 77, 82, 86, 87, 97 176
Narasimhdvarman, the Pallava king, 160 Prasenajit, 7
Narmada, 14, 20, 26, 28, 1 54 Prayag, 12,134, 149, 154,155
Nasik,26, 114, 118 Prinsep, 65
Navdatoli,26, 28 pulaiyans, 124
navigation, 39, 114, 116, 181 Pulakesin II, the Chalukyan king, 1, 154, 160

Neaichus, 77 Puranas, 6, 8, 19, 40, 69, 114, 146, 149, 151, 176, 181

Nepal, 4, 10, 66, 94, 172 purohita, 47, 93

Nevasa, 26, 30 Pushyamitra Sunga, 100
nirvana, 67, 91
nishka, 80 R
Northern Black Polished Ware, 78, 80, 95, 96, 97, 98, 181
Rajasthan, 3, 14, 17, 26, 28, 153
O Rajatarangini, 8
Rajghat, 69, 81, 170
Orissa, 12, 17, 24, 86, 87, 98, 148, 149, 151, 169 Rajglr, 61, 62, 71, 72, 73, 78, 80
Oxus, 10 Rajputs, 15, 142, 170
P rajukas, 90, 91
Ramachariia 8 ,

paddy, 73, 81, 83, 84, 116, 120, 124, 152, 161 Ramapala, 8

Painted Grey Ware, 44, 47, 51, 54, 55, 78 Ramayana, 2, 6, 69, 146, 161, 166
painters, 78 Ranchi, 17
palaeography, 4 Rangpur, 34
Pall, 6, 65, 66 Rashtrakutas, 14, 158, 160
Pallavas, 14, 123, 156, 158, 159, 160, 165 republics, 83, 84, 135
panas, 93 revenue, 82, 84, 87, 123
Panchalas, 46, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 71 rice, 12, 24, 28, 30, 31, 54, 116, 123

Pandavas, 52, 58, 146 •

Rig ^eda, 6, 41 , 45, 46. 4T, 48, 49, 50 51,55, 57,173,182
Pandu Rajar Dhibi, 26, 31 ringwells, 78, 96, 1 16
Panini, 146, 180 roads, 94
paramesvara, 140 Rome, 94, 113, 130, 131, 179
Parasurama, 22 routes, 128, 132

parishad, 83 Rudra, 57
Parthians, 100, 102, 105ft, 108, 128 Rudradaman I, 105, 111, 114
i

pastoral economy, 49
Pasupatt Mahadeva, 41 S
Pataliputra, 12, 63, 73, 78, 86, 87, 94, 96, 100, 104, 153,
154, 170 sahha (.assembly), 41, 55, 83,162
Patna, 22, 72, 73, 78, 80, 94, 128 sacrifice, cult oT, 57
peasants, 38, 55, 58, 73, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 94, 99, Sahe(-Mahet,69
124, 140, 141, 142, 148, 149, 163, 168, 169, 170, 174, Saivism, 152, 172 '

175, 176, 177 Saka, 15, l'OO, (04ft, 108, 114, 117
peasant society, 99 Sakaera.116
 , 1 1

192 ANCIBNT INDIA

Sakyas, 71, 83 Sulaiman ranges, 10

samaharta, 94 Sumatra, 165
Sama Veda, 51 Suryaslddhanta, 180
samiti 47, 55, 83 Susruta, 111, 181
Sandhyakara Nandi, 8 Susrutasamhila, 181
Sandrokottas, 7 Suvarnabhumi, 165, 166
Sangam literature, 7, 122, 124, 125 svetambaras, 63
Sanganokallu, 24
sangha, 65, 67 T
sankhya, 1 79
sannidhata, 94 Tamil, 5, 7, 123
Sanskrit, 2, 5, 6, 10, 15, 64, 66, 91, 105, 106, 111, 146, Tamil Nadu, 14, 63, 86, 120, 122, 132, 151, 156, 158, 160,
149, 150, 152, 160, 166, 171, 176, 180 162, 171
Sarayu, 73 tantricism, 172
satamana, 80 taxes, 38, 56, 59, 81, 82, 83, 85, 87, 94, <>9, 124, 140, 141,
saulkika or sulkadhyaksha, 8 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 156, 159, 161, 162, 168, 174,
mi system, 77 175, 176
Saundarananda, 1 1 Taxila, 276, 80, 87, 100, 105, 126, 128, 130
sculpture, 106, 107, 171 Telugu, 5
Scythians, 1, 100, 102 terracotta, 30, 40, 43, 106, 107, 126
seals, 5, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 140, 141, 164 Thanesar, 138, 153
Seleucus, 86 tiles, 106
senapati (commander), 83, 84, 93, I IS timber, 15, 96
setthis, 62, 82 tin, 17, 31, 39, 126
sheep, 19, 24, 28 Tirhut, 69
silk, 30, 123, 130, 134, 142, 164, 166 tu thas , 93
Silk-Route (Silk Road), 107, 128, 130, 164 tolls, 2, 73, 83, 87, 107, 153, 175
silver, 4, 17, 62, 66, 80, 82, 126, 128 Tosali, 100
Singhbhum, 15, 81 towns, 12, 14, 55, 69, 73, 78, 81, 86, 96, 99, 1 16, 117, 121,
Slsunagas, 72 126, 128, 131, 132, 144, 156, 169, 170, 174, 178
SisupalgSrh, 97, 148 trade, 4, 39, 47, 77, 80, 93, 122, 123, 130, 132, 142, J53,
Siva, 41, 143, 145, 156 160, 165, 171 156,166, 169,171, 174, 176
skandftavam, 118, 153 traders, 7, 80, 83, 94,96,107,117, 118,121, 153, 167, 164,
slaves, 47, 49, 67, 83, 84, 94 122 124
, , , 142, 169, 174, 175, 166,167,177
179 traderoutes, 12,80, 117, 128
slave society, 94 tribal law, 84
Smritis,7, 146 tribal oligarchies, 83
Soma, 50 treta, 8
Son, 22, 72,73 tribute, 173, 174, 176
Sopara, 128, 132 Turks, 66
1,
spindle whorls, 30
spinning, 30
U
Sravasti, 69, 78, 80,106,131,170
Sri Lanka, 6, 65, 90, 123, 133, 137, 164, 167 Udayin, 72
Srinagar, 22
Ujtfam, 71, 72, 73, 80, 87, 100, 105, 130, 132, 137'
SriVijaya.165 untouchables, 60, 142, 154, 170, 175
iState, origin of, 84 upanayana, 56, 84
steel-making, 17, 98, 179 Upanishads, 6, 58, 179
strategoi, 107
uparaja (vice-king), 83
stupas, 109, 119, 144, 165 ur,16?
Sudarsana'Iake, 105 urban economy, 81 ,

sudras, 49, 56, 57, 58, 60, 66, 67, 142, 146, 168 , 170, 172, urbanization, 78, 80, 32
1
* 174, 175, 176| 177, 178 Ushas, 50
 INDEX 193

Utnur, 24 Vikrama Samvat, 105

Uttar Pradesh, 3, 19, 24, 69, 71, 78, 80, 81, 83, 84, 96, Vikt atmnkadevai hai ita, 8
105,132,134, 138,153 village assemblies, 56
Villages, types of, 80, 81, 162
V Vishnu, 57, 108, 140, 143, 145, 150, 156, 160, 171
vishayas, 141
Vaijayanti or Banavasi, 159 Visvamitra, 47
Vaisali, 61, 62, 69, 72, 78, 80, 93, 94, 13i, 140
Vaishnavjsm, 5, 108, 152, 172 \V
vaisyas, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 82, 84, 85, 99, 124, 134, 140,
142, 168, 170, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178 Wages, 38, 80
Vajjis, 69 weaving, 24, 30, 54, 93, 123
Vakatakas, 137, 158 weights, 42, 87, 93
Valabhi, 7, 64, 67, 138 Wheat, 12, 24, 28, 30, 31, 38, 54
Vanga, 150, 152 women, 57, 60, 63, 65, 66, 67, 99, 121, 124, 142, 146, 172
Varahamihira, 170, 180
Varanasi, 12, 69, 78, 80, 81, 105 X
Vardharaana Mahayira, 60, 61, 62, 110
varna laws, 178 Xerxes, 75
varna, 2, 7, 49, 56, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 83, 84, 85, 93, 11S,
143, 168, 170, 175, 176, 178 X
Vasistha, 45, 47
vassals, 141, 150 Yamuna, 58, 71, 128, 130
Vatapi, (modern Badami), 158, 160 Yajur Veda, 6, 51
Vatsa, 69, 71 yavana, 111
Vedic sacrifices, 149, 159
vessa's (merchants'), 78 '
Z
vihaia, 118, 119
Vikramaditya, 8, 105 zero, 180