TANZANIA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

DIPLOMA IN SECONDARY EDUCATION

MODULE FOR CHEMISTRY PEDAGOGY

2010
© Tanzania Institute of Education, 2010

First Edition 2010

Designed and prepared by:

Tanzania Institute of Education
P.O. Box 35094
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Tel: +255-22-2773005
Fax:+ 255-22-2774420
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.tie.go.tz

ISBN: ……………………………………………..

All rights reserved. This guideline may not be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the Tanzania Institute of
Education.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Preface…………………………………………… …………………………………iv
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………..v
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..vi
Symbols………………………………………………………………………………viii
1.0 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING CHEMISTRY…………1
1.1 Principles of Teaching and learning chemistry……………………………….1
1.2 Importance of learning chemistry ……………………………………………7
Unit References………………………………………………………………………10
2.0 LABORATORY MANAGEMENT……………………………………………11
2.1 Features of a chemistry laboratory……………………………………………11
2.2 Safety in the chemistry laboratory…………………………………………….15
2.3 Common chemistry reagents ………………………………………………….24
Unit References………………………………………………………………………..45
3.0 CHEMISTRY CURRICULUM MATERIALS………………………………..46
3.1 The chemistry syllabus…………………………………………………………46
3.2 chemistry Text books ………………………………………………………….51
3.3 Teacher’s Guide/Manual……………………………………………………….53
Unit References…………………………………………………………………………54
4.0 PLANNING AND PREPARATION OF TEACHING ………………………...55
4.1 Chemistry scheme of work …………………………………………………….55
4.2 Preparation of the chemistry lesson plan……………………………………….57
4.3 Microteaching of some topics is O-level chemistry ……………………………59
4.4 Preparation of chemistry log book ……………………………………………..61
4.5 Preparation of teaching and learning resources ………………………………...62
Unit References………………………………………………………………………….65
5.0 ASSESSMENT IN CHEMISTRY………………………………………………..66
5.1 Test construction ………………………………………………………………..66
5.2 Moderation of test/examination ………………………………………………...70
5.3 Marking of a tests/examination ………………………………………………….76

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5.4 Standardization of test scores………………………………………..77
Unit reference………………………………………………………...85

GLOSSARY…………………………………………………………86

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 Preface

This chemistry Pedagogy Module is intended for you as a Chemistry student teacher
studying for the Diploma in Secondary Education. It aims at preparing you to become
an effective and competent teacher, who can teach secondary school chemistry from
Form one to Form four.
It is part of the program devised by TIE and MOEVT to help you cover the competences,
skills and knowledge outlined in the Chemistry Pedagogy Syllabus for Diploma in
Secondary Education of 2007.
The outstanding features of this module are the simple language used, the activities aimed
at building your skills and competences, the exercises for self assessment and reflection.
Since the module is self-explanatory, you are expected to be able to use it alone as well as
with the help of a tutor or a mentor when need be. You are expected to use the module
both in the college and in school after graduating as a teacher. You may also find the
module useful in planning and executing your lessons after finishing your teacher training
course.
It is expected that after going through this document you will develop your skills and
competences in designing and executing chemistry lessons where students learn by doing
a variety of activities. The module will help you make reflections on your teaching
process within and after lessons. By so doing you will find chemistry teaching an active,
pleasant and a rewarding endeavour.
This module will enable you to teach chemistry actively through experiments,
demonstrations and projects. It is expected that you will do most of the work as a student
teacher. This module will help you to manage your chemistry laboratory, set up apparatus
and prepare various reagents and solutions needed in various experiments. It will also
help you carry out many interesting experiments and do the necessary calculations.

MRUTU
Commissioner of Education
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

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 Acknowledgements

The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) wishes to extend its thanks to the individuals
and institutions who contributed in one way or another in the design and development of
this module. The Ministry of education and vocational Training (MOEVT) is particularly
thanked for facilitating the writing and mass production of this module.

While we can’t mention each and every person who contributed in the development of
this module to its present stage, we shall mention just a few.

Writers: 1. John E, Massawe: Tanzania Institute of Education

2. Salum Athumani: Morogoro Teachers College
3. Yusuph Ntambala: Klerruu Teachers college

Editors: 1. John E. Massawe: Tanzania Institute of Education

2. …………………………………………………….

Designers 1. …………………………………………………….
2. …………………………………………………….
Illustrators: 1. …………………………………………………….
2. …………………………………………………….

Secretary:
Gladness M. Samiji - Tanzania Institute of Education.

Dr. Paul S.D. Mushi

Director
Tanzania Institute of Education

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 Introduction

Welcome to the Chemistry Pedagogy module for Diploma Teacher Education.

We hope you will find in this module some units that will enhance your skills and
competences in planning, designing and carrying out chemistry activities safely and
efficiently.
This module is prepared specifically for you to use in the process of preparing student
teachers to teach the O-level Secondary Education Chemistry syllabus. The Chemistry
curriculum for O- level has been recently reviewed. The process of reviewing included
the following major aspects:
a) Removal of irrelevant, repetitive and outdated content from the 1996 Chemistry
syllabus.
b) Inclusion of more relevant, up to date content.
c) Improvement of teaching/learning methodology, i.e. from teacher-centred to
learner-centred approaches.
d) Moving from content based teaching / learning to competence based approaches.
e) Inclusion of cross-cutting issues.

These changes are geared towards provision of quality secondary education. This review
has necessitated the writing of this module to enable you to implement this revised
Chemistry curriculum effectively.

The following are the special features of this module:

a) Clearly stated objectives;
b) Teaching and learning strategies that accommodates different appropriate
learning styles;
c) Actively engaging the students through a variety of activities during the
teaching/learning process;
d) Provision of useful examples and illustrations;
e) Using a conversational and simple language style;

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 f) Reflection after every sub-topic to check it’s effectiveness, successes and
failures.

Structure of the module

This module is comprised of two main parts, i.e. the preliminary pages and main body.
The preliminary pages cover the following areas: Title; copy right; acknowledgements,
preface, table of contents and the introduction. The main body consists of 5 units from
selected topics from the Chemistry Pedagogy syllabus. Other areas include references;
glossary and appendices.

Each unit is composed of several sub- units that are organized in the following order:
Title of the unit; introduction, specific objectives; Teaching and learning strategies,
teaching and learning aids; estimated time. The subject matter content is punctuated by
in-text questions, activities, summary, assessment, and reflection.

The teaching and learning process is expected to involve the:

a) Sharing of the learning goals and objectives with students;
b) Providing feedback that helps the students to improve their performance;
c) Both the teacher and students reviewing and reflecting on students’ performance
and progress;
d) Students learning how to use peer and self assessment techniques to discover
areas they need to improve;

This module consists of five units where each unit has several sub-units. The units in this
module have direct relationship with the topics in the Chemistry Pedagogy syllabus for
Diploma in Secondary Education.

Unit one is about the principles of teaching and learning chemistry. In this unit you will
learn about the principles of teaching chemistry through interactive and participatory
approaches. You will learn that chemistry as a branch of science has fundamental
principles to be followed to achieve student understanding.

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Unit two is about laboratory management. It assumes that you will use laboratory
facilities to teach most of your chemistry lessons. While the unit helps you to familiarize
with a laboratory as a safe working place, it also hints on the dangers of careless
behaviour in the laboratory. It is in this unit that you will learn how to prepare and use
different chemical reagents to carry out different chemistry experiments.

Unit three introduces you to different curriculum materials used in chemistry. These
include the syllabus, teachers guide and textbook. An attempt has been made to compare
these curriculum materials to establish their relationships.

Unit four deals with the planning and preparation for teaching. It summarizes the
characteristics of the chemistry scheme of work, lesson plan, as well as the techniques
involved in preparing them. The unit further deals with the microteaching of some topics
in O-level chemistry in order to prepare you for your teaching practice. It is in this unit
that you will learn how to prepare, improvise and use different materials for teaching
chemistry.

Unit five is mainly about assessment in chemistry. Different approaches of assessment

are introduced. You will be required to familiarize and use these approaches in assessing
your students during teaching practice and after your studies.

Each unit is comprised of activities and exercises which are evenly distributed alongside
the education taxonomy. Such taxonomy will enable you develop a culture of utilizing
appropriately the higher levels of thinking and problem solving skills when performing
various teaching and learning activities.

Each unit introduces to you some different methods of assessment which you are
expected to use to determine the level of achievement of your learners. Both objective
and subjective approaches of assessment have been introduced

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Symbols
Dear student teacher, the module has indicated some symbols that will enable you
interact with the important areas in a sub-unit throughout the module.

The following are symbols you will uses within the module.

 Sign for doing activity

 Sign for Assessment

 Sign for Summary

Sign for Reflection



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 UNIT ONE

1.0 Principles of Teaching and Learning Chemistry

Welcome to unit one of this module. As a Chemistry student teacher, you need to start
by thinking about how chemistry is taught in schools. In this unit you shall develop the
principles of teaching chemistry and the importance of learning chemistry. Chemistry
as a branch of science has principles to be followed to achieve student’s understanding.
Therefore, in this unit, you shall learn the principles of teaching chemistry, and use
them in classroom practice to develop skills which are essentials for learning chemistry.

1.1 Principles of teaching and Learning Chemistry

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
a) demonstrate the principles of teaching and learning chemistry;
b) apply the principles in teaching chemistry.
Estimated time: 4 hours
Science has its own principles and its own teaching methods. Chemistry, as one of the
science subjects, adheres to the principles of teaching and learning of science. Effective
teaching and learning follows scientific Principles. Principles in chemistry are a
guiding tool for the teacher to help learners develop their own chemistry knowledge
and skills.

Chemistry as branch of science has seven fundamental principle of teaching and

learning, which are as follows:
 Chemistry students learn better when teaching and learning is inquiry oriented.
 In Chemistry teaching and learning, students usually acquire knowledge by
learning from concrete to abstract.
 Students construct their own chemistry meaning from their prior ideas or
experiences.
 Practice makes teaching and learning chemistry more meaningful.
 Cooperative learning and teaching facilitate the chemistry understanding

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 Effective Teaching and Learning chemistry require presence of feed back.
 Student learning is enhanced in the safe and supportive learning environment.

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1.1.1 Chemistry students learn better when teaching and learning is inquiry
oriented.

Key points in learning this principle are;

 Elements of inquiry teaching.
 Teaching and learning chemistry is influenced by scientific investigations problems,
formulate hypothesis, designing experiments, gathering data and drawing
conclusions
 Free inquiry and guided inquiry.

Inquiry oriented chemistry teaching is investigative in nature. The phenomena we

observe in chemistry and regard them as tentative truth need to be investigated to obtain
reliable scientific reason on their existence.
Inquiry by itself – is the process of defining and investigating problems, formulating
hypothesis, designing experiments, gathering data and drawing conclusion about
problems. The task of chemistry teacher and school system is to develop human
investigative skills. There are two approaches of inquiry learning, Guided and free
inquiry.

1.1.2 In Chemistry teaching and learning, students usually acquire knowledge by

learning from concrete to abstract.

Key points in learning this principle.

 Introducing lesson using tangible things;
 Consider children’s developmental level;
 Utilizing students senses;
 Teach Simple ideas and gradually move to complex concept;
 Known to unknown concepts;
 Summarize points from concrete to abstract concepts.
Secondary schools students engage primarily in concrete reasoning. As a teacher you
should be careful about introducing tasks that primarily requires formal, abstract

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thoughts. Children’s learns chemistry through tangible and directly accessible to their
senses such as visual, auditory, tactile and Kinaesthetic.

Activity 1 Allowed time 40 minutes

 Prepare a chemistry experiment to teach a Form two class about acids and
bases by following sequence in teaching simple ideas to complex ones.

1.1.3. Students construct their own chemistry meaning from their prior ideas or
experiences.
Key points in learning/understanding this principle:
 students construct meaning from trial-and –error experiences;
 teacher to lead student to correct their naïve science concepts;
 Students are not blank slates.

Students construct their own meaning regardless of how clearly teachers or books tell
them things. Chemistry students construct their word from observations, trial-and error
experiences, instructions from classroom teachers, words of wisdom from their parents,
and numerous other sources, then form concepts of how the would works and
behaviours.

Students’ prior-knowledge may not agree with the scientific understanding of new
phenomena. The teachers have the role to play to accommodate student prior
knowledge in chemistry teaching.

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Activity 2: Allowed time 20 minutes

 Discuss in pairs with your colleagues on how you think your students’ prior–

knowledge retained in their mind may be naïve, incomplete, tentative or incorrect,

and may interfere strongly with what you are trying to teach.

1.1.4. Practice makes teaching and learning chemistry more meaningful.

Key points to understand this principle:

 chemistry teaching and learning is activity oriented lesson;
 chemistry teaching and learning is practical based lesson;
 Students to develop experimentations skill.
Chemistry learning involve student is various activities. Activities help students to
develop skills for handling laboratory apparatus, ability manipulate different
equipment.

Students need to have many and varied opportunities for collecting, sorting and
cataloguing, observing, note taking, using lenses, microscopes, thermometer and of the
chemistry instrument. As a chemistry teacher, teach chemistry lesson through
activities.

Activity 3: Allowed time 30 minutes

 Discuss with others in small groups why you think it is important to teach
Chemistry trough practical experiments.

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1.1.5. Cooperative learning and teaching facilitate the chemistry understanding.

Key points to understand this principle:

 basic element of cooperative teaching and learning;
 Skills for cooperative learning;
 chemists shares findings/knowledge.
Chemistry teaching should be strongly reinforced by frequent group activity in and
outside the classroom. Group work or students cooperation help students to gain
experience sharing responsibility for learning with each other. Teachers in the process
of teaching have to develop skills needed for cooperative learning in the class. This
means that you will teach students to work in cooperation in order to help each other.

Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals. Within cooperative

activities individual seek outcomes that are beneficial to themselves and beneficial to
all other group member. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so
that students work together to maximize their own and each others learning.

To Organize Cooperative Learning.

The teacher provides instructions to class members to arrange themselves into small
groups. Then she /he provide assignment to be done. Students work through assignment
until all group members s are successfully understood and completed it. Cooperation
effort result in participants striving for mutual benefit so that all group members gain
from each others efforts recognizing that all group member share a common fate. (Your
success benefit me and my success you and we all sink and swim together).

To make cooperative group work

Some teachers/educators think that telling students “work together”, “Cooperate”, and
“be as team” will be enough to cerate cooperation efforts among groups. Placing
students in groups and telling them to work together does not itself result in
cooperation. Not all groups are cooperative. Example sitting in groups can results in
competition or individualistic effort with talking.

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The teacher or educator must aware essential components for cooperative learning
which are;
i. Positive interdependence.
ii. Face to face for promoting interaction.
iii. Individual and group accountability.
iv. Interpersonal and small group skills and group processing.

Positive interdependence
Structuring cooperative learning is positive interdependence. Positive interdependence
is successfully structured when group members perceive that they are linked with each
other in the way that one cannot succeed unless everyone succeeds. So the teacher must
organize and design group tasks in a way that make each group member believe they
sink or swim together in achieving group goal.
Each group member’s should have unique contribution for the joint effort.
Each group member’s effort is required and indispensable for group success.
Doing so creates a commitment for the success of group members as well as ones own
and the heart of cooperative learning. Example grouping student to perform titration
each group member will be given task, such as pippeting, reading volume, putting
indicator, titrating and related activities until the required data are obtained for
calculating molarity.

Face to face for promoting learning.

Cooperative learning is promoted by face to face interaction. Students need to do real
work together in which they promote each other’s success by sharing resources and
helping, supporting, and applauding each other’s efforts to achieve. There should be
cognitive activities and interpersonal dynamics to promote each other s learning.
To promote each other learning there should be;
 Orally explaining how to solve problem.
 Teaching one’s knowledge to others.

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  Checking for understanding.
 Discussing concepts being learned and correcting present with past learning.
Doing so helps to ensure that cooperative learning groups are both and academic
support system. Through face to face every student in the group becomes personally
committed to each other as to their mutual goals. (Every student has some one who is
committed to helping him or her).

Individual and group accountability.

Again cooperative learning is enhanced by individual and group accountability. The
group must be accountable for achieving its goals and each member must be
accountable for contributing his or her share of the work. Individual accountability
exists when the performance of each individual is assessed and the results are given
back to the group and the individual in order to ascertain who need more assistance
support and encouragement in learning. The purpose of cooperative learning group is to
make each member a stronger individual in his or her right. Students learn together so
that they subsequently can gain greater individual competency. The teacher must make
sure that each group member is accountable for a given task.

Interpersonal and small group skills

For effective cooperative learning there must be interpersonal skills. The teacher must
teach students social skills just as purposefully and precisely as academic skills.
Leadership, decision making, trust building, communication and conflict management
skills empower students to manage both team work and task work successfully. So the
teacher must ensure that relationship is established within group member to ensure
goals achievement for the given task.

Activity 4: Allowed time 25 minutes

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  Discuss how Cooperative learning and teaching principle can facilitate student
understanding.

1.1.6 Effective Teaching and Learning chemistry require presence of feed back.

Key points to understand this principle:

 Students to receive constructive feed back;
 Feedback help to identify strength and weakness;
 Feedback motivates students.
It is true that as you will be teaching you are going to provide activities from the
content you have taught, these activities may be assignments, class wok, homework,
test and examination. You will have to mark them and return the marked work to
students, that means you have provided feedback. A teacher should give feedback to
students work without much delay since helps to motivate them and get interested to
the subject. Providing feedback will enable students to be aware of their weakness and
strength as you will identify to each student through marking.
Learning chemistry also takes place best when students have opportunities to express
ideas and get feedback from their peers. But for feedback to be most helpful to
learners, it must consist of more than the provision of correct answers. Feedback ought
to be analytical, to be suggestive and to come at a time when students are interested in
it.

Activity 5: Allowed time 25 minutes

Discuss how the act of providing feedback of learners’ exercises motivate student
learning.

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1.1.7 Student learning is enhanced in the safe and supportive learning
environment.

Key points to understand this principle

 students learn in safe learning environment
 chemistry teaching should consider health of the learners
Dear student teacher chemical experiments can be dangerous, you should always learn
how to keep yourself safe from dangerous that can be caused by the experiments. All
chemists usually work in laboratories. Laboratories consist of hazardous chemicals,
which need to be used for practical purposes. Teachers and students should know what
dangers are likely to happen and what should be done in case of emergency. It is
necessary to learn the safety laboratory precaution to make chemistry learning
environment safe and enjoyable. You should teach students hazardous chemical
symbols, such as those of explosive, oxidising, highly flammable, toxic, harmful,
corrosive, irritant and radioactive. Therefore as a student teacher you need to learn all
instructions given in order to keep the laboratory safe place. You will learn more about
laboratory management in unit two of this module.

Activity 6: Allowed time 20 minutes

Name some learning environments which are not good for chemistry teaching and
learning. Suggest how such environments can be improved.

 Summary
Chemistry as branch of science has to be learned through seven fundamental principles:
 Learning by doing/practice;
 Learning and teaching is influenced by prior –knowledge (teaching by utilizing
previous knowledge and experiences of students);
 Teaching and learning chemistry is inquiry oriented;

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  Learning develops from simple to concrete (teach from known to unknown
material);
 Chemistry should be taught through cooperation in which students can be able
to
share findings;
 Learning chemistry is enhanced by feedback in which students activities are
checked by teacher. Comments are given to each work then return work to
students without delay;
 Chemistry learning environment should be safe and supportive for learning to
occur.

 Reflection
Which principle(s) of teaching do you think is/are easy to apply during
your teaching/learning of chemistry?

1.2 Importance of Learning Chemistry

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to:
a) explain the importance of chemistry
b) state the applications of chemistry in real life situation
c) identify materials made up of chemistry

Estimated time: 2hours

In this sub unit you are going to learn how chemistry is important in human life.
All people over the world are using products made up of form chemistry knowledge.
Chemistry products are many such that it is difficult to mention all. Think at your own
how many chemistry products surround you at this moment? Consider the time you
work up in the morning as you brash your teeth, wash face, take shower, comb hair,
brash shoes, take breakfast and the like activities until you go to work. Think of your

11
working environment, what materials were made from chemistry knowledge are being
used by your institute?
Chemistry products affect our life directly and indirectly. You can agree with the writer
that no single day has ever passed without using material made up of chemistry.
Therefore chemistry has great importance in our life.

1.2.1. The Importance of Chemistry

Chemistry deals with materials of every description. You can call chemistry as the
central science because it overlaps biology and physics.
 Chemistry is concerned with how to change one substance into another,
For instance dramatic changes, turning of crude oil into a whole range of useful
products such as gasoline/petrol which is used in cars, Paraffin used as a jet
fuel, Kerosene for lighting, diesel oil for Lorries, lubricating oil and waxes for
engine, Oil and candles, fuel oil for ship and power stations and tar or bitumen
for marking tarmac road and roofing.
 Through chemistry diverse products that are useful in our life are produced
these includes nylons, aspirins/paracetamol tablets, paints adhesive, tooth paste,
fungicides for protecting crops rot, Vanish for wood and many others.

 Importance of chemistry is also observed in transformation of various

substances into useful ones, these includes transformation of sand into glass,
and silicon chips, nitrogen from the air into fertilizers and explosives,
Production of vital table salt from sea water.

 Again chemistry helps as to obtain health drinking water without depletion of

the firewood resources. Clean drinking water is packed in bottles for selling
from industries. All packed water for selling are obtained through application of
chemistry.

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 “How many varieties of bottled water are found in your area?” “Which
method(s) do you think were used to prepare the bottle and the water?”

 On other hand chemistry enable us to know causes and how to prevent metal
tools against rusting.

 In hospitals Chemistry products are adequately used in various ways. For

example Calcium sulphate (vi) is used to produce “plaster of Paris” for
protecting broken part of the body, also magnesium sulphate (vi)is used to as
“Epsom salt” in medicine as laxative and against itching.

 Studying Chemistry exposes you to various chemical reactions and

understanding products that contain chemicals. Chemists unravel the chemical
reactions that are responsible for life and they investigate new material with
exciting and potentially useful properties such as shapes and contracting
substances when heated.

Therefore chemistry can be considered as a very big business. It is undeniable however

that chemistry affects the lives of each and every one of us.

Activity 7: Allowed time 30 minutes

 Identify all the products you see around your school environment and discuss
how they have made your life better.

Summary
Chemistry is important to our life because it help us to know:
 The nature of the different materials we use in our daily life.

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  Various methods of synthesising new things which we need in our life.
 How to analyse different substances for different purposes.
 How various chemical substances are manufactured by application of
chemistry.
 How to prepare different medicines to cure diseases.

It is through the application of chemistry principles that one kind of substance can be
changed into another. This is the basis of the industrial synthesis and production of
different materials we use in our daily life.

 Reflection
 In what ways is chemistry involved in the production of the various items we
use in our daily life?
 How is chemistry involved in the production of the things which are extremely
dangerous to mankind?

 Assessment

Find out whether your students can answer the following questions:
1. Name all the items found in the kitchen at home which you think were made by
applying chemistry.
2. Which are the things produced from chemistry that you think are very
detrimental to mankind?
3. In what ways is chemistry involved in the destruction of aquatic, terrestrial and
aerial environments?

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References
Trowbridge, W.L, Bybee, W.R. and Powell, J. C. (2004). Teaching Secondary School
Science: Strategies for Developing Scientific Literacy, Pearson Merrill prentice hall;
Ohio.
AAAS. (1990). Principles Of Learning, Teaching Science, Mathematics, and
Technology, Retrieved 2nd February, 2007. Available online:

http:/www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/Chap13.htm
TIE. (1995). Secondary School Chemistry Book One, University Press; Dar Es Salaam.

Hunt,J.A and Sykes,A.(1987). Chemistry, Longman group (FE) Ltd; Hong Kong.

Johnson,D.W, Johnson,R.T and Holubec,E.J. (1993). Cooperation in the classroom,6th

edition,MN; Interaction book company.

Lister.T and Renshaw.J. (2000).New understanding Chemistry for Advanced level, third
edition, Stanley Thornes Ltd; Cheltenham.

Maro-Guterman.J.S. et all. (1989). Chemistry for A level and 1st year undergraduate
students volume II inorganic chemistry part A, Mzumbe book project; Morogoro.

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 UNIT TWO

2.0 Laboratory Management

Welcome to this chapter on laboratory management. As a chemistry teacher, the school

chemistry laboratory is your work place. You must, therefore, make sure that the
laboratory is a safe place to work in. To maximize safety in the laboratory, you must
organize and manage the school chemistry laboratory properly. That is the essence of
this topic.

A laboratory is a room or building especially designed for doing scientific activities

such as experiments, demonstrations, projects or research. It is usually fitted with
support systems such as benches, sinks, cupboards, running water, electricity and gas
systems, drainage and ventilation.

It is common to find science laboratories in hospitals, schools and colleges, pharmacies,

industries, hotels and homes. The laboratories found in different places serve different
purposes.

A school laboratory is essentially a place of work. It has to be properly managed and

organized for maximum safety and efficiency.

A chemistry laboratory must be carefully managed to avoid any possible accidents.

Laboratory rules must be insisted for this purpose.

Experiments must be carefully designed and executed. They should not be done on a
trial and error basis. No experiment should be done if the expected products can not be
predicted. If this is not observed, there will be a possibility of causing explosions or
poisonous gases.

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This unit attempts to describe how a standard school chemistry laboratory would look
like. It also addresses how to work safely in a chemistry laboratory, and how to prepare
and use different reagents in carrying out chemistry practicals.

2.1 Features of a Chemistry Laboratory

Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to facilitate your students to :
a) identify the main features of a chemistry laboratory;
b) explain the use of different sections of the chemistry laboratory;
c) Observe safety rules in a chemistry laboratory;
d) describe the important systems in a chemistry laboratory.

Estimated time: 2.0 Hours

Chemistry is a branch of science which has some special characteristics. The following
are some of them:
 Chemistry deals with chemical substances, some of which have very special
properties.
 While many chemicals are safe to handle, others are dangerous, i.e. poisonous,
corrosive or explosive.
Enough cupboards and shelves must be placed in the school laboratory for chemical
and apparatus storage. A chemistry laboratory must have a strong room where
expensive and dangerous chemicals are kept.

There must be a preparation room for the technicians and the chemistry teachers to
work in. This room is used to set up and test experiments before a lesson to make sure
that they work. The chemistry laboratory must have a fume chamber for sucking out
gases and fumes.

There must be an electric system, gas system, and water system to make a laboratory
work. The drainage system in the laboratory must never be blocked.

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Activity 8 Allowed time 60 minutes

Use your college laboratory or visit one available in a nearby secondary school
to carry out the following measurements:
i) Size of the windows in cubic metres.
ii) Height of the teachers bench and the student benches in metres
iii) Size of the main doors in cubic metres.
iv) Size of the surface of the bench in cubic metres.
a) Draw an overhead or a vertical plan of a school chemistry laboratory.
Arrange the benches from front to back of the room. In your diagram, show
the locations of water taps, electric sockets, blackboard, gas terminals,
shelves, teacher’s bench and drainage. Explain the limitations or
disadvantages of horizontal bench arrangement in a chemistry laboratory.
b) List the items which are fitted in a chemistry fume chamber of your school
laboratory. Explain how the fume chamber functions to remove gases in a
chemistry laboratory.

2.1.1 Arrangement of Benches in the Laboratory

In a laboratory, benches may be arranged horizontally or vertically. Vertical

arrangement of benches is better because you won’t have the back of any
student facing the blackboard while working on the bench.

2.1.2 Supply Systems in a Chemistry Laboratory

a) Electric system
 The mains electric system must be fused.
 There must be an efficient cut-out apparatus.
 Electric sockets on the bench and on the walls must be at an easy reach.

18
  The main switch must be easily accessible in case of an electric fault.
 The cut-out system must be tested from time to time to know its state.

b) Water System
A standard laboratory is expected to have running water in pipes. A water tap is
placed at every sink on the bench.

c) Gas System
The use of fuel gas is an efficient way of producing flames and heat in the
laboratory. Fuel gas is used with gas burners e.g. the Bunsen burner. Gas taps
at each bench must be placed such that most students will have an easy reach.

2.1.3 Drainage System

The chemistry laboratory must have a well kept drainage system. Drainage starts at the
sink on the bench.

The drainage system on the flour should be covered with slabs for easy cleaning.

To protect the laboratory drainage system, we should never throw any solid into the
sink or drainage (bottle pieces, solid, acids alkalis, wood etc.

“What would happen if a student threw a large piece of sodium or potassium

metal into the sink?”

“ Why should pipes in the drainage system be made of plastic materials?”

2.1.4 Safety System

A school laboratory must be fitted with enough safety systems.
 In a storey building, the chemistry laboratory should be placed at the ground
floor. This is because fires and gaseous accidents may occur, and people
may get access to safety.

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  Fine extinguishers must be at the walls of a chemistry laboratory. These
include water hose, sand bucket, asbestos blanket, soda-acid, and carbon
dioxide fire extinguishers.
 A first Aid Kit fully packed must be placed both in the preparation room and
in the main laboratory.
 There must be a working fume chamber both in the preparation room and in
the main laboratory.
 There must be floor which is not made by polished surface to avoid slippery,
floor should be made of highly resistant materials to chemical reagents
normally concrete.
 Doors should be provided at both ends of the laboratory because in case of
emergence people can escape from either end/side (front and liar door).
Doors should be opened outwards, this is for easy to escape in case of emergence since
excited person tends to push rather than to pull a door.
“Why should you have two fume chambers in the laboratory?”
“What other safety system would you suggest for a chemistry laboratory?”
“Should the windows of a chemistry laboratory be fitted with grills? Why?”

2.1.5 Ventilation and Lighting

A chemistry laboratory is a place where various toxic and bad smelling gases are likely
to be produced.

Windows should be large and in the opposite sides of the long walls of the laboratory to
allow free movement of air.

If windows are large enough, there will be enough light in the laboratory. Students
must always see properly everything they are doing. If lighting is not enough
observation of colours and coloured substances will be difficult.

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Summary
 A school chemistry laboratory is a place where you will be doing your science
activities, experiments or research. It is usually filled with systems which
support scientific work. Such systems may include: gas, electric, ventilation,
and sewage.
 The chemistry laboratory must be well managed to become a safe place,
otherwise it is a potentially dangerous place. You and your learners must
observe the established laboratory rules for maximum safety in the laboratory.
 Benches in the laboratory should be arranged vertically and not horizontally.
Vertical arrangement will allow you to observe students activities all the time.
Students will also be able to see the teacher all the time.
 Lighting and ventilation must be satisfactory in a chemistry laboratory. Poor
ventilation may cause gas poisoning.

 Reflection
 Many secondary schools in Tanzania do not have laboratories. How can
chemistry activities be done in the absence of a chemistry laboratory?
 How did medieval chemists manage to do their activities in the absence of
standard laboratories?

2.2 Safety in the Chemistry Laboratory

Objectives:
By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to:
a) Identify chemistry laboratory rules and regulations;
b) Identify sources of dangers in the chemistry laboratory.
c) Classify types of fires.
d) Classify types and how to use fire extinguishers.
e) Equip the first Aid Kit.
f) Use the First Aid kit to provide services to accident victims.

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Estimated time: 4 hours
This topic will deal with the behaviours which can make the chemistry laboratory a
very safe place to work in.

Activity 9 Allowed time 80 minutes

Work in small groups to discuss and predict what might happen if anybody broke any of the
following laboratory rules:
a) Do not enter the chemistry laboratory if there is no teacher or laboratory assistant.
b) Do not run, play or fight in the laboratory.
c) Do not wet the laboratory floor.
d) Do not direct test tubes with boiling substances to anybody.
e) Do not use any chemical from a container which is not well labelled.
f) Never mix chemicals just out of curiosity.
g) Never eat, drink or smoke in the laboratory.
h) Never thrown solids, concentrated acids and alkalis into the sink.
i) Never block pathways in the laboratory.
j) Never put glassware near the edge of your working bench.
k) Never store food in the laboratory.
l) Never add water on concentrated acids (H2SO4, HCl or HNO3). Instead, dilute by adding the
acid on water.
m) Never use soft glass apparatus for heating purposes.
n) Always keep sodium and potassium metals under kerosene. Phosphorus should be kept under
water.
o) Always carry large containers eg Winchester bottles by both hands.
p) Always do your experiments by following your teacher’s instructions.
q) Always report accidents immediately and record them.
r) Always keep the bench-top clean and stools under the bench when not in use.
s) Always use tongues to pick or hold hot objects, and spatula to pick chemicals.
t) Always close water taps, gas taps and electric mains when not in use.
u) Always clean all apparatus after use and return them to their respective storage places.
v) Always ware safety gear (plastic goggles, up on, shoes or gloves) when working in the
laboratory.

22
People have always worked in laboratories for many years, although it is a potentially
dangerous place. When all the people working in a laboratory are conscious of the
dangers which are likely to be caused by careless behaviour, the laboratory becomes a
relatively safe place. There are fewer accidents in laboratories than in most other parts
of a school despite the wide varieties of activities which take place there. This is
because when people work in laboratories, they generally take great care to follow
advices and instructions and obey the rules on the laboratory wall.
Activity 10 40 minutes


a) Working in small groups, your students should identify and discuss the
sources of accidents when working in the laboratory with:
i) concern treated acids and alkalis;
ii) volatile chemicals such as ether;
iii) extremely reactive metals such as potassium and sodium;
iv) Red phosphorus;
v) Oxalic acid;
vi) Glass delivery tubes and corks.
b) Suggest ways of avoiding the accidents you have mentioned in part a)
above.

Activity 11 40 minutes

a) Use the first Aid Kit to simulate the process of rendering first aid to a victim who
has:
i) cuts on the fingers from broken glass;
ii) wounds and blisters on the hand acquired from hot liquid substances;
iii) contracted corrosive substances on the skin.
b) Describe the processes of carrying out the simulations in (a) above.

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Activity 12 Allowed time 80 minutes

Work with other students in groups to collect as many chemical containers as

possible, and observe their labels. Draw at least six chemical waning signs which
appear in modern books and containers of chemical substances, and explain their
meaning.

2.2.1 Working Carefully in the Laboratory

a) Labels on Containers
Read the labels on reagent containers to know the nature of the chemical
therein. Get rid of any chemical which is in a container which is not labelled.

Get hold of some chemical containers and find out what their labels are
written, especially the: name, formula, molecular mass, specific gravity,
impurities etc.

b) Working Posture in the Laboratory

It is advisable to stand while you manipulate apparatus during experiments.
Do not reach out across a flame to pick things while sited. Concentrate on
your observations whenever you hold things on fire for heating or boiling.

c) Working with Glass

 Fine-polish the ends of glass tubing or rods as soon as they have been cut.
 Don’t force glass tubing or a thistle funnel tube through a hole in a rubber
bang or cork. First lubricate the tube and the stopper. Use a towel to
protect your hand, and then twist the tube as you push it into the hole in
the stopper.
 If the glass stopper of a glass bottle won’t come out, tap it gently upwards.
If not yet, use boiling water to heat and expand the bottle mouth.

24
 “You should not use a glass stopper on a bottle containing sodium hydroxide
solution and keep it for some time. Why? What do you think might happen?”

 It is advisable to boil substances in hard glass test tubes, flasks or beakers

(e.g. Pyrex). Soft glass apparatus will easily break when heated.

d) Working with Acids, Bases and Poisons

 Be extra careful when working with concentrated acids or bases. They
should not come into contact with your skin, cloths or the working bench.
Use these chemicals over a sink.
 You must be sure that you are using the proper kind and concentration of
an acid or base in an experiment.
 If you want to dilute a concentrated acid, always pour the acid slowly into
the water while stirring the mixture, you should not do otherwise.
 If concentrated acids or bases come into contact with your skin, wash with
plenty of water. Then report the incident.
 Most chemical substances are poisonous. You should not allow them to
get into your body through the mouth, nose, skin or eyes.
 If a small amount of acid or base is swallowed accidentally into your
stomach, drink a lot of water.

Activity 13 40 minutes

You should work in groups with other students to discuss:

 The best way to store concentrated acids and bases in a
laboratory;
 How to deal or handle toxic or poisonous chemical
substances;
 How to help a victim of chemical poisoning who has
swallowed a poisonous substance;
 What might happen if a student pours water into a sample of
commercial concentrated sulphuric acid?

25
2.2.2 Causes of Fire Accidents

Fire in the laboratory may be caused by:

 Electric faults;
 Flammable liquids and explosives;
 Gas leakages.

Activity 14 Allowed time: 20 minutes

Working in small groups or in pairs, name at least five common flammable

liquids which can be found in a chemistry laboratory. Try to name the
flammable liquids which are normally found at home?

“Have you heard of the so called fire triangle?”

There are three essential factors which must be present before a fire breaks out. If any
of the three factors is removed, the fire will stop or not start at all. The three factors
are:
 Fuel or any other burning material;
 Heat which is sufficient to reach the ignition temperatures;
 Oxygen or an oxidizing agent which supplies the oxygen.

2.2.3 Classification of Fires

Fires may be classified according to what is actually burning.
a) Class A Fires
They involve the burning of solid materials eg wood, coal, coke, charcoal,
grass, paper, cloth, rubber and plastics. Most common fires belong to this
class.

Class A fires can be extinguished by water or soda –acid fire extinguishers. Other
types of fire extinguishers may also be used.

26
 b) Class B Fires
They involve the burning of liquids e.g. ether, petrol, spirit, paraffin etc. These
liquids are called flammable i.e. they easily catch fire. Class B fires may be
extinguished by the following types of extinguishers:
 A fire blanket;
 Carbon dioxide extinguisher;
 A foam extinguisher;
 A powder extinguisher.

NB: Warning
Never use any water extinguisher on this type of fire. The burning liquid will float on
the water due to an increased surface area exposed to air. Flash evaporation of the
water may cause the fire to erupt violently.

Class C Fires
They involve fires cased by electricity. To control this fire, you must first switch off
the power source. In this type of fire you may use carbon dioxide or powder
extinguishers. Do not use water or foam extinguishers because of their electrical
conductivity.

Class D Fires
These are fires involving the burning of metals. Sodium or potassium may clash fire
easily when they come into contact with water. To extinguish this type of fire you have
to cut off any supply of oxygen by dry powder, asbestos blanket or sand. The water
source must be put off.

2.2.4 Types of fire Extinguishes

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 a) Water Based Extinguishers:
This group extinguishes fires by the cooling action of water.

i) Water Hose: The water hose reel is fixed on the walls of buildings and
connected to the mains water supply.
ii) Soda-acid Extinguishers
The chemicals contained are sulphuric acid and sodium hydrogen carbonate solution in
water. Activation involves the breaking of the acid container. The acid will react with
the bicarbonate to release carbon dioxide. “Write an equation for the reaction which
occurs in a fire extinguisher where the acid reacts with the bicarbonate”.

The carbon dioxide released forces a jet of solution through the nozzle.
iii) Carbon dioxide Expelled Water Extinguisher
The extinguisher contains a built- in cylinder of carbon dioxide and 2 gallons of water.
When the glass cylinder is punctured, the carbon dioxide released forces out a jet of
water.

b) Foam Extinguishers
These fire extinguishers contain aqueous solutions of foaming agents, which
mix and react to produce large amounts of stable foam. The foam keeps oxygen
away from the fire and has a cooling effect. They are used for special
application and are less common.

c) Carbon dioxide Extinguishers

The extinguisher is a cylinder containing liquid carbon dioxide at high pressure.
The carbon dioxide forms a blanket over the fuel to exclude oxygen. It also has
a slight cooling effect. Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers are used primarily on
class C fires and are also effective on class B fires. They have limited use on a
class A fire, where they suppress fire by displacing or diluting oxygen levels.

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Activity 15 Allowed time 40 minutes

Allow your students to work in pairs to prepare a small fire extinguisher

using the following materials:

a) plastic bottle, dilute sulphuric acid, a small test tube, a string, a stopper,
concentrated sodium carbonate solution).

They should consult chemistry textbooks to find out how to set the extinguisher.

They should use this extinguisher to put off a small fire on a burning candle.

d) Sand and Powder Extinguisher

These extinguishers blanket the fire in an inert powder, thus excluding oxygen.
i) Dry sand is kept in buckets and applied on fire to keep out oxygen.
ii) Dry chemical extinguishers contain powdered sodium hydrogen carbonate
which is expelled by carbon dioxide under pressure.
a) Fire Blankets
Fire blankets are made of non-combustible materials eg. Fibreglass or
asbestos. They are used to exclude oxygen from the fire.

How to use a fire extinguisher

The following procedure gives you direction on how to extinguish fire.

Although fire extinguishers come in a number of shapes and sizes, they operates in
similar manner, to use fire extinguisher properly think the following acronym:
P A S S:
P = Pull,
A = Aim,
S = Squeeze
S = Sweep.

29
Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from being accidentally
pressed.

Aim the Nozzle towards the base of the fire while stand approximately 8 feet away
from the fire.

Squeeze the handle discharge the extinguisher. If you release the hand the discharge
will stop.

Sweep the nozzle back and forth the bases of fire continue spraying and sweeping until
the fire is completely out.

2.2.5 Warning Signs

It is now a common practice to find laboratory chemicals labelled with the appropriate
warning signs. You must know the meaning of every warning sign. The common
chemistry warning signs are:
a) toxic/poison,
b) oxidant,
e) Irritant/harmful,
d) corrosive,
e) explosive,
f) radioactive,
g) flammable
Activity 16 40 minutes

Working in pairs, use the words found in the list of warning signs above to
categorize the items commonly found at home. (Soap; detergent powder; kerosene;
cooking gas; petrol; table salt; vinegar; battery acid; alcoholic beverages; pepper )

30
a) Toxic or Poison
They can cause death instantly or after a few days. They should not be
allowed to enter your body by any means; mouth, nose, skin, nose, eye. All
chemicals are potential poisons, but others are more deadly e.g. oxalic acid,
hydrogen cyanide etc. “Name at least three toxic or poisonous substances
found at home or in your environment Draw the warning sign for
poisons.”

b) Irritant/Harmful
Irritant substances may make your skin itch. If taken internally may make
you sick or cause your death. Although irritants are not instantly lethal, they
should not be ignored. They are particularly painful when they get into your
eyes, nose, skin or mouth. “ Draw the warning sign for irritants. Which
common substances are irritants?”

d) Corrosive
Corrosive substances can burn your skin and destroy your cloth. They can
also corrode the bench and the floor. They easily destroy metals. You will
fall blind if they get into your eyes. You must put on plastic goggles when
working with these chemicals. Examples are the concentrated mineral acids
(H2C)4, HNO3, HCL0 and the concentrated or solid bases (NaOH, KOH
NH3). “Draw the warning sign for corrosive substances.”

e) Flammable
Flammable substances can catch five easily. Don’t heat them by direct
flame, but by an electric heater. All burners must be put off before working
with flammable chemicals. Containers of flammable chemicals must be
stopped immediately after use. Examples of flammable substances are
ethanol, ether, methylated spirit, petrol.

31
 f) Explosive
An explosive substance will explode only when detonated. An explosion is
a rapid reaction which involves throwing off particles, e.g. pieces of glass, at
high speed. Examples of explosives are: gunpowder, hydrogen
trinitrotoluene TNT nitro-glycerine etc. “What is the best way to handle
flammable and explosive substances?”

 Summary
 Although the Chemistry Laboratory is a potentially dangerous place, fewer
accidents take place in the laboratory than elsewhere. This is because people
who work in a laboratory do exercise maximum care and observe rules.
 Accidents in chemistry laboratory may be caused by the following:
i) Concentrated corrosive acids and alkalis;
ii) Broken glassware;
iii) very reactive elements e.g. sodium, potassium, chlorine, fluorine,
phosphorus, bromine, etc;
iv) Volatile and inflammable chemicals;
v) Explosive substances;
vi) Poisonous substances.

 You must be familiar with all the items and chemicals found in a First Aid Kit
and how to use them to attend an accident.
 Fires can be classified according to their causes. Class A fires involve burning
solids e.g. wood, paper, grass, plastic charcoal, coal and coke etc. They can be
put of by most types of fire extinguishers.
Class B fires involve burning flammable liquids, and can be extinguished by
powder, foam or carbon dioxide extinguishers.
Class C fires are caused by electric faults. To put them off you have to use
powder or carbon dioxide extinguishers.
Class D fires involve burning metals. You may use sand or asbestos to
extinguish them.

32
 You must always be familiar with the common warming signs eg Toxic, Oxidant,
Irritant, Explosive, Flammable.

 Reflection
How can accidents be reduced, or avoided completely in a chemistry laboratory?
Are dangerous chemicals found only in chemistry laboratories?

2.3 Common Chemistry Laboratory Reagents

objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to :

a) common bench reagents;

b) reagents for side shelves;
c) common indicators e.g. POP, MO and litmus solutions;
d) standard solutions of dilute acids and alkalis.

Estimated time: 5 hours

This topic is concerned with the preparation of different reagents found in the chemistry
laboratory. Most of these reagents are those used in qualitative and quantitative
analysis.

Commercial reagents are obtained from the market either in the solid state or in very
concentrated solutions, e.g. 18M sulphuric acid. You must be able to take the right
quantities to make solutions of particular concentration. Activities in this topic are
aimed at equipping you with the skills of making standard solutions of different
substances.

Some chemicals such as commercial concentrated brands of sulphuric acids,

hydrochloric acid and nitric acid are corrosive. Solid sodium hydroxide pellets are also
corrosive. You will learn particular skills to handle these chemicals.

33
Activity 17 120 minutes


Arrange with your fellow students into three groups, a, b, and c.
In your respective groups, collect three different Winchester bottles which contain
commercial concentrated sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid
respectively. You should then take data found on the labels of the bottles
concerning their:
i) Molecular mass;
ii) Specific gravity or density in gcm-3 ;
iii) Percentage composition.
Using the data obtained on the labels of the Winchester bottles, students should
calculate the amount of acid in the commercial samples in:
a) grams per litre, and in
b) moles per litre.

The students should proceed to prepare a 0.125M sulphuric acid sulphuric acid for
a class of 150 students where each student will be allowed to have only 250cm3 of
the solution for practical work starting form the commercial concentrated acid in a
Winchester bottle.

The following worked examples will help you to make dilute solutions of the three
mineral acids when you are provided with the commercial concentrated acids.

Example 2.1
You have read on a Winchester bottle that the commercial grade concentrated sulphuric
acid has density or specific gravity of 1.84g/cm3, its molar mass is 98.07g/mol and its
percentage composition by mass is 96%.
Calculate the amount of sulphuric acid in the commercial simple in
(i) g/dm3 and
(ii) mol/dm3.

Solution 2.1
a) Data:
Percentage composition = 96%
Molar mass =98.07g/mole
Density =1.84g/cm3

34
 i) 96% means that 96g of H2SO4 is dissolved in 100g of solution.
From the given density of the conc. acid we may conclude that 1cm3 of sample
weight 1.84g. One litre = 1000cm3.
1000cm3 of the sample would weigh = 1840g.

If 100g of H2SO4 solution contain 96g of H2SO4

1840g (1dm3) of H2SO4 solution contain X g of H2SO4

1840 g  96 g
X= = 1766.4g/dm3
100 g
Amount of sulphuric acid = 1766.4g/dm3

ii) Concentration of the sample is 1766g/dm3 of H2SO4

Molecular mass of H2SO4 is 98g/mol,
Amount of sulphuric acid in mol/dm3 is given by
1766 .4 g / dm3
= 18.01 mol/dm3
98.07 g / mol

The molarity of the sample is 18.01M or 18.01mol/dm3

Example 2.2

You have probably read on a Winchester bottle that the percentage composition of
concentrated commercial nitric acid is 70, its density or specific gravity is 1.42g/cm and
its molar mass is 63.01g/mol.
a) find the molarity of the concentrated acid
b) if you have to prepare enough 0.5M dilute acid for 100 students where each
student is allowed exactly 250cm3 of the dilute acid;
i) How much of the concentrated acid would you need?
ii) How much distilled water would you need?

35
Solution 2.2
a) Data : Molar mass = 63.01g/mol
Percentage composition = 70%
Density = 1.42g/cm3
1 cm3 of the conc. acid contain 1.42g of pure acid. Therefore, 1000cm3 of the
conc. acid contain 1420g of pure acid.

Using the percentage composition,

70
x1420 = 994g/dm3 of pure acid.
100

If molar mass of the acid is 63.01g/mol, then 994g/dm3 = 15.78 mol/dm3

63.01g/mol
Molarity of the conc. acid is 15.78M.

b) i) Data: Number of students = 100

Volume of solution allowed = 250cm3

V2= Total volume of solution needed = 100 x 250cm3 = 25,000cm3

M2 = Molarity of concentrated acid = 15.78M
V1 = Volume of concentrated acid = unknown
M2 = Molarity of the dilute acid = 0.5M
M 2V 2 0.5M  25000 cm 3
M1V1 = M2V2 V1 = = =792.1cm3
M1 15.78M

Therefore, 792.1cm3 of the concentrated acid would be needed.

ii) Data:
V2 = total volume of solution = 25,000cm3
V1 = Volume of conc. acid used = 792.1cm3
V2 – V1 = 25,000cm3 – 792.1cm3 = 24210cm3

36
The dilution process would need 24,210cm3 of distilled water.

b) Data: M1 = 18.02M = Molarity of the concentrated acid.

V1 = unknown = Volume of the concentrated acid.
M2 = 1.0M = Molarity of the dilute acid.
V2 = 1000 cm3 = Volume of the concentrated acid.
Formula of dilution is M1V1 = M2V2
V1 = M2V2 = 1.0M x 1000cm3 = 55.5cm3
M1 18.02M

You will need 55.5cm3 of commercial sulphuric acid to prepare one litre of molar
dilute acid.

c) Data: M1 = 18.02M = Molarity of the concentrated acid.

V1 = 55.5.cm3 = Volume of the commercial sample.
M2 = 0.125M = Molarity of the dilute acid.
V2 = Unknown = Volume of the dilute acid.
Using the dilution formula, we have:
M1V1 = M2V2

V2 = M1V1 = 18.02M x 55.5cm3 = 8001cm3

M2 0.125M

The volume of water added during dilution is V2 –V1 = 8001cm3 – 55.5cm3 = 7946cm3
of water. Therefore, 7946cm3  1000cm3/dm3 = 7.946dm3.

You will need 7.946 dm3 of pure water to make the dilution.

37
Example 2.

If a commercial sample of concentrated hydrochloric acid has density

of 1.18g/cm3 and is percentage composition by mass is 36, find:
a) The molarity of the concentrated acid.
b) The volume of pure water you would need to prepare one
litre of one molar dilute acid from a sample of the concentrated acid.

Solution 2.3
a) Data: Percentage composition of conc. acid = 36%
Molar mass of pure acid = 36.5g/mol
Density of commercial acid = 1.18g/cm3
1.18g of pure acid is in 1.0cm3 f conc. acid
One litre of acid would contain 1.180g of pure acid.

Using the percentage composition we have.

1189g/dm3 x 36 = 424.8g/dm3 of pure acid.
100

424.8g/dm3 = 11.61mol/dm3
36.5g/mol
The molarity of the concentrated commercial acid is 11.61M.

b) Data: V1 = unknown =Volume of concentrated acid.

M1 = 11.61M = Molarity of concentrated acid.
V2 = 1000cm3 = Volume of dilute solution.
M2 = 1.0M = Molarity of dilute acid.

M1V1 = M2V2  V1 = M2V2 = 1000cm3 x 1.0Mol/dm3 = 86.13cm3

38
 M1 11.61 mol/dm3

V2 – V1 = 1000cm3 – 86.13cm3 = 913.9cm3

The dilution process would need 913.9cm3 of pure water and 86.13cm3 of the
concentrated commercial acid.

2.3.1 Standard Solutions

A standard solution is one which has an accurately known concentration. A primary

standard solution is one whose concentration can be obtained accurately by normal
procedures, and does not change over time.

You can prepare a primary standard solution of a base from pure sodium carbonate,
because this substance is stable to heat and does not absorb water from the air easily.
Neither is this substance corrosive.
The standard sodium carbonate solution can be used to standardize either sulphuric acid
or hydrochloric acid. By doing so, the mineral acids will have acquired a secondary
standard concentration status.

The secondary standard HCl solution can be used to standardize a sodium hydroxide
solution.
NB: a) You can not prepare a primary standard sulphuric acid solution from a
commercial sample because the concentrated acid is corrosive, hygroscopic
and has oxidizing properties.
b) You can not prepare a primary standard sodium hydroxide solution form the
solid pellets because the substance absorbs both water vapour and carbon
dioxide from the air.
c) You can not prepare a primary standard solution of nitric acid because the
concentrated acid decomposes easily in light and heat and the concentrated
acid has oxidizing properties.

39
 d) You can prepare a primary standard solution of oxalic acid and use it to
standardize alkali solutions.

 Activity 18 Allowed time 60 minutes

Prepare a solution of dilute sodium hydroxide from the solid pellets and
standardize it using standard oxalic acid solution.

The following is an example of the required procedure:

STEP ONE: Preparation of the base solution
 Place approximately 5.0g of NaOH pellets on a dry watch glass and weigh by
difference as follows:
 Mass of watch glass + NaOH pellets = 25.12g
 Mass of watch glass + residue = 20.21g
 Mass of NaOH pellets transferred to beaker 04.91g
 Transfer the pellets into a beaker and dissolve in distilled water. Transfer this
solution to a 250cm3 measuring flask.
 Add water with stirring up to the mark.

STEP TWO: Preparation of the standard acid solution

 Measure by difference approximates 9.0g of anhydrous oxalic acid (H2C2O4) as
the procedure above in step one indicates.
 Dissolve this into distilled water and make up to a litre of solution.

STEP THREE: Standardization of the base by titration

Pipette 25cm3 of the alkali and titrate against the acid using phenolphthalein indicator.

The following are the specimen results, and an example of the related calculations.

Experiment Pilot 1 2 3
Final Reading (cm3) 15.65 31.08 46.49 15.54

40
Initial reading (cm3) 0.15 15. 70 31.12. 0.15
Volume of acid (cm3) 15.50 15.38 15.37 15.39

Average = 15.38 + 15.37 + 15.39 = 46.14 = 15.38 cm3

3
Average volume of acid is 15.38cm3

STEP FOUR: Molarity of the oxalic acid solution

Molar mass of oxalic acid (C2H2)4 = 2 + 24 + 64 = 90gmol-1

-3
9g = 0.1Moldm

90g/mol

STEP FIVE: Calculating the concentration of the base in mol/dm3 and in g/dm3
Data: Va = 15.38cm3 = volume of the standard oxalic acid solution
Ma= 01.Mol/dm3 = Molarity of the oxalic acid solution
Vb = 25cm3 = Volume of the base to be standardize
Mb = Unknown

Equation: H2C2O4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) - Na2C2CO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Mole ratio: 1 = MaVa MbVb = MaVa  Mb = 2MaVa

2 MbVb Vb

Mb = 2 x 0.1mol/dm3 x 15.35cm3
25cm3

Mb = O.123mol/dm3

The standard molarity of the base is 0.123M.

41
Concentration (g/dm3) = Molarity x molar Mass
= 0.123Mol/dm3 x 40g/mol
= 4.92g/dm3 of NaOH

Activity 19 60 minutes

You and the other students in your class should individually give a detailed
description of how you would prepare a dilute solution of sodium carbonate
from the solid anhydrous sodium carbonate, and standardize it using standard
oxalic acid solution.

The following is an example of the required procedure:

STEP ONE: Preparation of the standard Na2CO3 solution

Use a small beaker to measure approximately 5.0g of sodium carbonate powder on a

rough balance. Measurement of mass by difference is recommended.

NB: If you don’t have analytical grade sodium carbonate, you may get a relatively pure
sample by heating over sand bath sodium hydrogen carbonate (at least 2500C, for two
hours, or until you get a constant mass).
Mass of beaker plus powder = 55.5g
Mass of beaker plus residue = 60.51g
Mass of powder dissolved in water = 05.01g

Molar mass of Na2CO3 = (2 x 23) + 12 + (3 x 16) = 106g/mol

Dissolve the 5.01g of Na2CO3 in distilled water to make one litre of solution
5.01g/dm3 = 0.0473mol/dm3
106g/mol

The sodium carbonate solution has a standard concentration of 0.0473M.

42
STEP TWO: Preparation of dilute H2SO4 solution.

Take 100cm3 of 2.0M H2SO4 solution and pour it into a 1000cm3 measuring flask, and
make to the mark with distilled water.

Stir the solution to mix well.

Titrate the base against the acid using methyl orange indicator, and a 25cm3 pipette.
Specimen results.
Experiment Pilot 1 2 3
Final reading (cm3) 6.47 12.41 18.41 26.34
Initial reading (cm3) 0.55 6.50 12.51 20.40
Difference (cm3) 5.92 5.91 5.90 5.94

Average = 5.92 + 5.91 + 5.90 + = 23.67 = 5.92cm3 4

Data:
Ma = unknown = Morality of the dilute acid
Va = 5.92cm3 = Volume of the dilute acid
Mb =0.0473M = The standard morality of the base solution
Vb = 25cm3 = Volume of the base solution

Equation: Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO(aq) = NaSO4(aq) + CO2 + H2(i)

MaVa = MbVb Ma = MbVb = 0.0473Mol/dm3 x 25cm3

Va 5.92cm3
Ma = 0.1997 mol/dm3 = The standard concentration of the sulphuric acid.
The standard concentration of the acid is 0.1997M.

2.3.2 Bench and Shelf Regents

a) Bench Reagents

43
 The following reagents are usually placed at the student working bench where
everyone can reach. Most of them are dilute solutions which are not very
dangerous to handle. They are the most frequently used reagents.
1. Dilute hydrochloric acid.
2. Dilute sulphuric acid.
3. Dilute nitric acid.
4. Dilute ammonium hydroxide solution.
5. Dilute sodium hydroxide.
6. Lime water.
7. Distilled water in a wash bottle.
8. Methyl orange and phenolphthalein indicators.
9. Litmus paper books.

b) Side shelve reagents

The more dangerous and less frequently used reagents should be kept on side
shelves situated conveniently around they laboratory. The following are the
side shelve reagents:
1. Concentrated hydrochloric acid.
2. Concentrated sulphuric acid.
3. Concentrated nitric acid.
4. Concentrated ammonia solution.
5. Concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.
6. Litmus solution.
7. 1.0% iodine solution.
8. Barium chloride solution.
9. Silver nitrate solution.
10. Lead acetate books.
11. Sodium carbonate solution.
12. Potassium ferocities solution
13. Potassium ferricyanide solution
14. Potassium iodide solution

44
 15. Copper(II) sulphate solution
16. Potassium dichromate
17. Acetic acid (2M)
18. Hydrogen peroxide.

As a chemistry student teacher, you must be able to prepare all the reagents in a
chemistry laboratory. Since in most cases you will need to work with molar solutions,
table 2.4 gives you the masses of solids, to be dissolved in water to get a molar
solution. Preparation of reagents is a task which will require you to be able to take
accurate measurements at least to two decimal places.

Table 2.4: Masses of Reagents for Making Molar solutions

S/N Chemical reagent Mass (g) to be dissolved in pure

water to get a molar solution.
1. Ammonium acetate 77.08
2. Ammonium chloride 53.49
3. Ammonium dichromate 252.07
4. Ammonium nitrate 80.05
5. Ammonium carbonate 76
6. Ammonium thiocyanate 76.12
7. Barium chloride BaCl2.2H20 244.28
8. Calcium chloride CaCl2.6H20 219.08
9. Calcium nitrate Ca(N03) 2 .6H2 0 236.15
10. Lead nitrate 331.20
11. Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3 )2.6H 20 256.41
12. Magnesium chloride 197.91
13. Oxalic acid (C00H) 2 .2H2 0 256.41
14. Potasium chloride 74,56
15. Potassium cyanide 65.11
16. Potassium dichromate 294.19

45
 17. Potassium hydroxide 56.11
18. Potassium iodide 166.01
19. Potassium permanganate 158.04
20. Potassium thiocyanate 97.68
21. Sodium thiosulphate 248.18
22. Sodium carbonate Na 2CO3 .10H2 0 286.14
23. Sodium carbonate anhydrous 106
24. Zinc nitrate Zn(NO3) 2 .6H2 0 297.47
25. Sodium nitrate 84.00
26. Sodium acetate 126.08

2.3.3 How to prepare Laboratory Reagents

In very many cases you will be required to prepare a new stock of different laboratory
reagents. Procedures will be as outlined in table 2.5 below. In case you face more
problems, consult commercial laboratory reagent manuals.

You will be required to perfect you skills in measuring masses of solids and volumes of
liquids up to two decimal places. Failure to do this, you will always end up preparing
solutions of wrong concentrations.

46
Table 2.5 has the procedures of how to prepare at least twenty one common
Laboratory reagents. This activity requires your students to prepare small samples
of each of those reagents. Arrange the students into small groups, and assign at
least five chemicals per group for which to prepare solutions. To accomplish this
task, make sure you and other students can use the following apparatus:

 Measuring cylinders of volumes 250cm3, 500cm3, 1000cm3.

 Measuring flasks of volumes 250cm3, 500cm3, 1000cm3.
 Chemical weighing balance.
 Weighing bottle.
 Burettes of 20cm3 and 50cm3 volumes
 Pipettes of 20cm3 and 25cm3 volumes
 Watch glass.
 Wash bottle with distilled water.

Table 2.5: Procedure for the Preparation of Laboratory Reagents

S/N Reagent Procedure
1. 2M acetic acid solution Dilute 11cm3 of glacial acetic acid in water to
form one litre of solution. (glacial acetic acid
contains 96.6% (CH3C00H).
2. 2M ammonium carbonate Dissolve 160g of (NH4)2C03 in a mixture of
solution 140cm3 of 0.1M ammonia solution and 860cm 3of
water to form one litre of solution.
3. 2M dilute ammonium Dilute 135cm3 of concentrated ammonia solution
hydroxide solution to make one litre of solution.
4. Aqua regia Mix 3 parts of concentrated hydrochloric acid
with one part of concentrated nitric acid.
5. 0.5M Iron (III) chloride Dissolve 135.2g of FeCl3.6H2 0 in water
solution containing 20cm3 of concentrated HCl. Dilute
with distilled water to make 1000cm3. Filter if
necessary.
6. 0.5m Iron(II) Sulphate Dissolve 139g of solid FeS04.7H20 in water
solution mixed with 20cm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid
and dilute with distilled water to make one litre of

47
 solution.
7. 2M HCl dilute solution Dilute 200cm3 of the commercial acid, specific
gravity 1.16 to 1000cm3 of solution with distilled
water.
8. 0.25M lead acetate solution Dissolve 95g of Pb(C2H20)2.3H20 in dilute acidic
acid and make to one litre using distilled water.
9. Lime water Dissolve 2.0g of solid Ca(OH)2 in one litre of
water. Shake very vigorously and leave to stand
for some time. Decant off the undissolved solid
to obtain lime water.
10. 0.25M Magnesium Dissolve 62g of MgS04.7H20 in water to obtain
sulphate solution one litre of solution.
11. Nessler’s Solution Dissolve 50g of potassium iodide in 50cm3 of
commercial concentrated ammonia (free of
water). Add a saturated solution of mercury
chloride (22gm 350cm3 water) until excess is
indicated by the formation of a precipitate. Add
200cm3 of 5M Na0H solution and dilute with
distilled water to one litre of solution. Shake
occasionally for several days. Allow to settle and
decant the clear liquid.
12. Nitric acid 2M HN03 Dilute 128cm3 of the commercial acid (s.g.
Solution. 1.42g/cm3) with pure water to make one litre of
solution.
13. Potassium charomate Dissolve 49g of solid in pure water to make to a
0.25M solution litre of solution
14. Potassium Fericyanid, Dissolve 55g of K3Fe(CN)600H20 solid in pure
0.167M water and make to one litre of solution.
(hexacyanoferrate(II)
solution
15. Potassium Ferrocyanide Dissolve 53g of K4Fe(CN)6.6H20 solid in water

48
 solution, 0.125M. and make to one litre of solution.
(hexacyanoferrate (III)
solution.
16. Methyl Orange Dissolve 10g of solid M.O in pure water and
make to one litre of solution. Warm the solution,
let it cool and filter.
17. Phenolphthalain (POP) Dissolve 5g of the slid P.O.P. in 500cm3 of
alcohol. With constant stirring, add pure water to
make a litre of solution.
18. Scrrened methly orange Dissolve one gram of methyl orange and 1.4g of
solution xylene in distilled water and make to one litre.
19. Silver nitrate 0.1M solution Dissolve 3.0g of silver nitrate in 200cm3 of
distilled water. Store in dark bottles or in dark
cupboards.
20. Barium chloride solution Dissolve 10g of the solid in 200cm3 of pure
water.
21. Potassium permanganate Dissolve 1.0g of potassium permanganate crystals
solution in 200cm3 of pure water. To this solution, add
50cm3 of dilute 4M sulphuric acid.

Activity 20 Allowed time 60 minutes


Arrange your students into groups of five people. Each group should prepare at least
two of the reagents in table 2.5.

49
2.3.4 Qualitative Analysis
The aim of qualitative analysis is the identification of the various constituent parts of a
substance. Particles which have positive charges (cautions) and those which have
negative charges are easy to detect by various methods.

To identify an ion from an unknown substance, you have to precipitate it as an

insoluble solid or displace it to be released as a gas.

The O-level Secondary School chemistry syllabus requires students to be able to

identify the following ions form an unknown substance.
Anions: carbonates, (CO3 2-); Sulphate (S042-); chlorides (Cl-); Nitrates (NO3-)
Hydrogen carbonate (HCO3-);

Cations: Ammonium (NH4+); Copper (II) (Cu2+)’ Lead(II) (Pb2+); Iron (II) (Fe2+); Iron
(III) , (Fe3+); Zinc (Zn2+) , Calcium (Ca2+).

Preliminary tests

Qualitative analysis usually starts with preliminary tests which help to predict the
anions and cautions present in a sample of substance. Many anions are actually
identified by these tests. The remaining tests are usually confirmatory. The following
tests a summary of such tests:
 Observing the colour of the solid. (observing the state, i.e powdery, crystalline,
amorphous)
 Dissolving the solid in water, (insoluble, suspect carbonate)
 Heating gently and then strongly. (NO2 gas is given from nitrates. CO2 gas is
given off from carbonates).
 Flame test. (Infer for calcium and sodium).
 Adding concentrated H2SO4 on the solid. (Cl2 is given from chlorides. NO2 is
given from nitrates).

50
  Add dilute HCl on the solid and warm the mixture. (Infer for carbon dioxide
from a carbonate or hydrogen carbonate).
 Add sodium hydroxide on the solid and boil the mixture. Test the gas using
HCL drop on a glass rod. (Infer for NH4+ which gives NH3 that reacts with HCl
to form white fumes of NH4Cl).

Table 2.1 Summary of Preliminary Tests

EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

1. Colour of solid The substance is coloured Fe2+ or Cu2+ present
(Blue, blue/green, green,
reddish brown solid.
Colourless, crystalline, white. Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+ absent
Ca+, Zn2+, Pb2+ and NH4+
may be present.
2. State of solid Powdery solid insoluble in C032- present
water.
3. Heat the solid gently and Brown gas (NO2) evolved, NO3- present
then strongly in a strong changes litmus paper from blue
glass test tube. Test the to red.
gases evolved. Colourless gas (CO2) evolved CO3 2- present
which changes lime water
milky.
Residue is dark brown when Pb2+ present
hot and yellow when cold.
Residue yellow when hot and Zn2+ present
white when cold (ZnO).
White sublimate which forms NH4+ present
at the upper cooler parts of the
test tube, probably of NH4Cl.

51
 Gas evolved on strong heating NH4+ present.
which form white fumes with a
drop of con. HCl on a glass
rod.
4. Solid sample mixed with Greenish – yellow gas ( Cl2 ) Cl- present
manganese (IV) oxide and with pungent smell that turns
conc. H2SO4 added and KI starch paper blue.
warmed.
5. Carry out flame test as The flame colour is persistently Na+ present
follows: yellow.
Clean a nichrome wire by The flame colour is brick red Ca2+ present
deeping it in concentrated Greyish-blue flame Pb2+ present
HCl and then placed in the Blue green or dark-green flame Cu2+ present
hottest part of a Bensen No definite colour changes Ca2+ , Pb 2+ or Cu 2+ absent
flame. Place a sample of
the solid on a watch glass,
and conc.Hcl and transfer it
with the cleared nichrome
wire into the blue Bunsen
flame.
5. Add concentrated A gas given off that forms Cl- present
sulphuric acid on a white fumes with a drop of
sample of the sold. Test ammonia held on a glass rod.
the gas given off using (The gas is HCl).
damp litmus paper and a
drop of conc. Ammonia A gas given off (Cl2) that Cl- present
paper and a drop of conc. bleaches litmus paper.
Ammonia on a glass, rod. A reddish brown gas (NO2) NO3- present
If neither Cl2 nor HCl gas evolved.
are produced, add copper
turning and boil.

52
6. Add dilute HCl on the A colourless gas that changes C032- present, HC03- present
solid sample. Warm the lime water milky. Gas evolved
mixture until no further with effervescence.
gases are evolved. Test
the gas (CO2) evolved
with lime water.
7. Add Sodium hydroxide Colourless pungent smelling NH4+ present
solution on the solid and gas that forms white fumes
boil the mixture. Test the with conc. HCL.
gas (NH3) evolved by
drop of conc. HCl on a
glass rod.

Activity 21 Allowed time 80 minutes

Working in groups of five students, carry out the following tests in solution:
 Prepare a stock solution by dissolving the solid in pure water. Apportion
the stock solution to several small test tubes for further tests.
 Observation of change may include:
- Colour changes;
- Precipitate formation;
- Precipitate dissolution in excess reagent;
- Gelatinous precipitate formed;
- Acid gas formed and tested. Basic gas formed and tested;
- Coloured gas formed and tested;
- Evolution of gas with effervescence.

 Inference: You may infer for the presence or absence of a particular ion. You
shouldn’t remain quiet on this.

53
Table 2.6: Sample Results of Tests in Solution

S/N EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

1. Dissolve a sample Solid readily soluble in water CO3 2- may be
of solid in pure absent
water to form a
stock solution
2. To a sample of Gas with chocking smell that turns NH4+ present
stock solution, add litmus paper blue on warming. The
dilute sodium gas is probably ammonia.
hydroxide solution White ppt insoluble in excess of the Ca + present
drop-by-drop until base
excess, then warm White ppt soluble in excess of the Pb2+ or Zn2+ present
the mixture, test base.
any gas evolved. Blue ppt insoluble in excess of the Cu2+ present
base. The ppt turns black on
warming.
Green ppt insoluble in excess and Fe2+ present
turn brown on the surface.
Reddish-brown ppt insoluble in Fe3+ present
excess of the base.

3. To a sample of White gelatinous ppt soluble in Zn2+ present

stock solution, add excess of the base
dilute solution of White gelatinous ppt insoluble in Pb2+ present
ammonium excess of the base confirmed
hydroxide (aqueous Place blue ppt solution in excess of Cu2+ present and
ammonia) drop-by- the base to form a deep blue confirmed
drop until excess. solution.

54
 Green ppt insoluble in excess of the Fe2+ present
base
Reddish –brown ppt in soluble in Fe3+ present
excess of the base

Table 2.7 Confirmatory Tests for Cations in Solution

S/No. EXPERIMENT OBSERVATON INFERENCE
1. Add ammonium oxalate White ppt on adding the oxalate. Ca2+ present,
solution to a sample of stock The ppt is insoluble in the acetic confirmed
solution. acid but soluble in the mineral
add acetic acid and then acid.
dilute hydrochloric acid.
2. Add ammonium thiocyanate Deep red solution is formed Fe3+ present,
or potassium thiocyanate to a confirmed.
sample of the stock solution.
3. Add potassium ferrocynide Blue ppt Fe3+ present,
(hexacyanoferrate (II) to a confirmed.
sample of the stock solution.
4. Add potassium ferrocyanide Reddish-brown gelatinous ppt Cu2+ present,
to a sample of stock solution. formed. The ppt is soluble in confirmed.
Add ammonium hydroxide aqueous ammonia, but not
and then dilute hydrochloric soluble in the mineral acid.
acid.
5. Add potassium chromate . Pb2+ present
solution to a sample of stock Yellow ppt soluble in sodium confirmed.
solution. hydroxide but insoluble in
Then add sodium hydroxide ammonia solution.
solution followed by
ammonium hydroxide
solution.

55
6. Add potassium iodide Yellow ppt soluble on heating Pb2+ present,
solution to a sample of stock but reappears on cooling. confirmed.
solution. Heat the mixture
and then cool it.
7. Add potassium ferrocyanide Bluish-white ppt insoluble in the Zn2+ present,
solution dropwaise to excess. excess of ferrocyanide solution. confirmed.
8. To a stock solution sample White gelatinous ppt soluble in Zn2+ present,
add dilute NaOH solution the excess base. confirmed
dropwise until excess.,

Table 2.8: Confirmation Tests for Anions in Solution

S/N EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
1. Add silver nitrate solution to a White ppt insoluble in dilute CI-present,
sample of stock solution, HNO3 but soluble in ammonium confirmed
followed by dilute nitric acid hydroxide solution
and then excess of ammonia
solution.
2. Add dilute HCl solution to a White ppt insoluble in dilute SO42 present
sample of stock solution, HCl confirmed
followed by BaCl2 solution
3. Add dilute HCl to a sample of Bubbles of colourless gas (CO2) CO32- present,
stock solution. Test the gas given off, which turns lime water confirmed
evolved. milky
4. To sample of the stock White ppt formed after boiling HCO3- present,
solution, MgSO4 solution is confirmed
added and the mixture is boiled
5. To a sample of stock solution The mixture will form an upper NO3- present,
add freshly prepared iron (II) and a lower layer. A brown ring confirmed.
sulphate solution followed by will form at the boundary of the
careful addition of conc. two layers.
Sulphuric acid along the side

56
 of the test tube.

Activity 22 Allowed time 40 minutes

Arrange yourselves in small groups to:

a) Discuss the meaning of the following concepts:
i) Standard solution
ii) Primary standard solution
iii) Secondary standard solution

b) Give five properties of a primary standard reagent.

c) Give the name and formula of on organic acid which can be used to prepare a
standard acid.

d) Give the name and formula of one substance which can be used to prepare a
standard base.

e) Give reasons as to why each of the following substances can not be used to
prepare primary standard solutions:
 Concentrated sulphuric acid.
 Concentrated nitric acid.
 Concentrated hydrochloric acid.
 Solid sodium hydroxide pellets.

57
Activity 23 Allowed time 80 minutes

You and your fellow students should carry out the following experiments in
small groups or in pairs. You should divide the tasks equally among Your groups.
Follow the following procedure:
a) Wash the following apparatus with soap and water, then with distilled water.
(20cm3 pipette; 50cm3 burette, two 25cm3 conical flasks white tile, two 250cm3
beakers, one 250cm3 measuring flask, one funnel, one watch glass.
b) Obtain an analytical reagent grade Na2CO3 or prepare one from NaHC03 by
heating in an oven or one a sand bath.
c) Measure exactly 10.0g of anhydrous Na2CO3 and dissolve it in pure water to
obtain 250cm3 of solution. Call it solution XY.
d) Measure roughly 5.0g of NaOH pellets by difference and dissolve it in pure
water to make 1000cm3 of solution QR.
e) Measure roughly 10cm3 of commercial 11.6M concentrated HCl and disolve it in
pure water to make up to a litre of solution. Call this solution MN.
f) Standardize the solution MN using the solution XY by volumetric methods.
g) Standardize solution QR using the secondary standard solution XY by
volumetric methods.

Activity 24 Allowed time 60 minutes

Provide your students with the soluble, partially soluble and insoluble salts
commonly found in laboratories. They should dissolve small amounts of each salt in
pure water in a test tube. They should record their results in the table 2.9.

NB: This task may be done by five groups of students. The first group should
dissolve the carbonates. The rest of the groups should dissolve the chlorides, the
nitrates, the sulphates and the hydrogencarbonates respectively.

Table2.9: Solubility of salts

Carbonates Chlorides Nitrates Sulphates Hydrogen
carbonates
Aluminium X X
Iron (III) X X

58
Lead I P I
Zinc I
Calcium I P
Copper (II) I
Iron (II) I
Sodium
Potassium
Ammonium

Use the following key

S = Soluble in water
I = Insoluble in water
P = Partially soluble in water
X = Does not exist, i.e. has never been prepared.

NB: Some parts have been filled for you just for a start.

Use the following data

a) All salts of ammonia, sodium and potassium are soluble in water.
b) Carbonates and hydrogencarbonates of iron (III) and aluminium have never been
prepared.
c) Most chlorides are soluble except that of silver.
d) Most sulphate are soluble except those of lead and barium.
e) All nitrates are soluble in water.

2.4 Reflection
Use the following questions to reflect on the topic:
How relevant is qualitative and quantitative analysis to my real life?
What challenges did I face in the practical experiments?
What improvements can be made to avoid problems in future activities?

59
What new things have I learned in this topic?
What has been the most interesting experience in this topic?
In which activities did I perform best / poorest in this lesson? Why?

Assessment

Find out whether your students can answer the following questions:
1. Why should preliminary tests be carried out on the solid sample during
qualitative analysis..
2. Explain how to prepare a sample of dilute 2M solutions of H2SO4; HNO3; and
HCl.
3. Using the think-pair-share approach, ask your students to solve the following
problem:
Exactly 15.8cm3 of 0.3MHCl solution were enough to neutralize 23cm3 of
sodium carbonate solution prepared by dissolving 29.46g of the hydrated salt,
Na2CO3.XH20, in a litre of solution.
Find the value of X, the number of molecules of crystallization of the base.
4. Using the question – answer approach, ask your students the functions of the
following in a school laboratory?
a) The fume chamber.
b) The preparation room.
c) The store or strong room.
d) The benches.
e) The shelves on the walls.
f) The cupboards.
g) The shelves on the working bench.

References
Holdernes, A. and Lambert, J. (1988). A new Certificate Chemistry, Sixth Edition;
Heinemann Educational Books; London.

60
Ndarln et al, (1993). Enjoy Chemistry, A Textbook for Begnners, Mzumbe book
Project; Morogoro.
Tanzania institute of Education (1995). Secondary School Chemistry Book One, Dar
salaam University Press; DSM.

Tanzania Institute of Education (1995). Chemistry for Secondary Schools Book Two,
Educational Publishers and Distributors; Dar es salaam.

Dawson, B.E. (1993). Practical Inorganic Chemistry, Methnen and co Ltd; London.

Massawe, J.E. (1995). O-level Chemistry Calculations made simple, Dar es Salaam
University Press; DSM.

UNIT THREE

3.0 CHEMISTRY CURRICULUM MATERIALS

The Ordinary level chemistry curriculum materials which you are going to analyse in
this unit include the chemistry syllabus, chemistry Textbooks, and chemistry teachers
Guides/Manuals. You will also learn the relationship which exists between those
chemistry curriculum materials. The knowledge which you will gain from this unit will
enable you and your Ordinary level students to teach and/or learn Ordinary level
chemistry topics more effectively and successfully.

3.1 The O-level Chemistry Syllabus

61
Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to :
a) Analyse the structure and components of the chemistry syllabus.
b) Use the chemistry syllabus in the teaching and learning process.
c) Describe syllabus.

Estimated time – 4 hours

Dear student teacher before teaching is conducted there must be good planning. This is
because good plan before a lesson lead to good teaching. Therefore before teaching
process begins, syllabus is among of the curriculum material which is consulted first.
Within the syllabus you will get to understand aims and objectives of secondary
education in Tanzania, objective and target learners of the course, General subject
competences to be developed, general subject objectives and structure and organisation
of the syllabus (content of the syllabus).For that case as a teacher you are expected to
analyse the chemistry syllabus intended to be used for teaching/learning purposes.

“What do we mean by syllabus analysis?”

“Why do you think teachers need to analyse the syllabus which they intend to
use”

A syllabus is a curriculum document issued by a recognised authority which prescribes

the course content, its guiding goals and objectives and approaches to teaching and
learning. Syllabus comprises course material that span for a certain specific period of
time to be covered. It usually takes long time depending on the length of the particular
course. A syllabus can be for one to two years, or one year to four years depending to
specific group the syllabus is designed for. ‘How long does the primary school
syllabus take to be covered? ‘How long does the advanced secondary school syllabus
take to be covered?’

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The answer to these questions lie to the period in which student stay at school before
he/she graduates in specific level.(Think about how many years did you spent at
primary school and how many years did you spend at advanced secondary school)
3.1.1 Structure of the syllabus

The reviewed Ordinary level Chemistry syllabus is divided into two main parts, i.e.
the preliminary part and the main body. The preliminary part has the following
sections:
 The cover page;
 The title page;
 The copyright page;
 Table of contents;
 Introduction covering the background of the subject;
 Aims, objectives and competences.

The second part is the main body of the syllabus which appears in six columns as
shown in the table 3.1 bellow. It is presented in a matrix format, as opposed to the
linear format which is reserved for advanced students.

The syllabus topics have been arranged in logical sequence beginning with the simple
to complex, and according to the levels, i.e. Form one, Form two, Form three and Form
four. Each major topic is sub-divided into the relevant sub-topics. While general
competences for the O-level chemistry have been outlined, there are also competences
for each specific level, to make the syllabus competence based rather than being
content based.

Table 3.1: An Example of the Main Body of the Chemistry Syllabus

Topic Objectives Teaching - Teaching and Assessment Periods

and Learning Learning

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sub-topics strategies Resources

1.0 Oxygen The student i) The teacher -Glassware -Is the

should be to guide for gas student able
1.1 able to; students to preparation to prepare
Preparation a) prepare a prepare and oxygen
and sample of oxygen by collection; using
properties oxygen in different -Hydrogen different
of oxygen the methods. peroxide; chemicals?
laboratory; -Potassium
b) (b) Students chlorate; -Is the 4
demonstrate to test the -Manganase student able
the properties of (iv)oxide; to carry out
properties oxygen -Potassium experiments
of oxygen; through permanganate to test the
experiments. properties of
oxygen?

Activity 25 Allowed time 30 minutes

You and the other students in your class should

study the table 3.1 and develop the next sub-topic
under oxygen. You can do this activity in their small
groups or in pairs..

3.1.2 Presentation Criteria

In the attempt to analyse the O-level chemistry syllabus, it is important to investigate its
presentation criteria.

64
This will involve looking at the following features of the syllabus:
 The size and bulkiness of the syllabus booklet;
 The colour and design of the cover page;
 Quality of paper used;
 Style and quality of binding;
 Choice of type face and type size;
 Format and column design;
 Scope and sequence of topics and sub-topics;
 Vertical and horizontal arrangement of syllabus contents.

3.1.3 Knowledge and Skills.

The analysis at this area mainly considers:

 General and specific objectives (e.g. clarity, relevance and coverage).
 Content selection and organization (e.g. relationship between objectives and
content), together with depth and width of the topics.
 Pattern of emphasis in relation to cognitive, psychomotor, and effective
domains.
 Quality and relevance of suggested methods, techniques, strategies, teaching
and learning resources.

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 Activity 26 Allowed time 60 minutes

Ask your students to pick any topic in the O-level syllabus and
analyze the relationship between:
 a major and a sub-topic;
 A sub-topic and it related specific objectives;
 A specific objective and the related activities of the teacher
and of the students;
 The activities of the teacher and of the students versus the
suggested T/L resources;
 The specific objectives and the assessment suggested.

3.1.4 Evaluation

In relation to evaluation the analysis will consider suggestions put forward mainly in:
 Formative evaluation.
 Summative evaluation.(plus any other suggestions from national examinations)
 Any other recommendations.

Uses of syllabus
As you read above you cannot think teaching without syllabus since, it is very
important curriculum material in teaching and learning process. The following are
importance of syllabus.

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 i. Guides teacher to teach the right content to the right persons (students)
ii. Help the teacher to prepare schemes of work, lesson plans and lesson notes for
specific lesson and learners.
iii. Guides the teacher in setting internal examinations (that is Terminal, annul and
tests) at school.
iv. Guides the national examination council in setting school examinations.

Activity 27 Allowed time 60 minutes


Obtain a copy of the Ordinary level chemistry syllabus, and use it to:
i) Comment on its structure and organization.
ii) Suggest any component(s) that you think should be included in the Chemistry
syllabus.

Activity 28: Allowed time 60 minutes

Discuss the significance of each of the following characteristics of the O-level

chemistry syllabus:
i) The cover of the syllabus;
ii) The preliminary pages;
iii) Vertical and horizontal features of the syllabus;
iv)Content selection and objectives
v) Scope and sequence of the topics.
vi) Time of coverage.
vii) Content selection and organization.
viii)Teaching/learning strategies
ix)Teaching/learning resources.
x) Assessment
xi) Quality of binding

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Summary
In analyzing the Ordinary level chemistry syllabus, you need to investigate if each
syllabus component is well presented. For example, the total coverage and sequencing
of topics to be covered and the amount of knowledge to be presented by the students
during the course to relate to the students level of education, ability and their prior
experiences.

However you need to remember that Syllabus as curriculum document comprises topics
and subtopics to be covered. It shows content for each subtopic and depth depending on
the level of the learners. Course work within the syllabus is covered in a specified
period.

Structure of syllabus include topics, subtopics, specific objectives, teaching and

learning strategies, teaching and learning resources/aids, Assessment
Syllabus guide teacher to choose right content to teach, prepare scheme of work, setting
examinations and in selecting appropriate teaching and learning strategies.
Syllabus may change when it no longer satisfies the needs of the society and when there
is higher advancement in science and technology.

Reflection:

Where in real life is qualitative analysis applied?

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3.2 Chemistry Textbooks.

Objectives:

By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to:
a) Outline the structures and organization of quality chemistry textbooks.
b) Analyse the quality of chemistry textbooks and
c) Explain the uses of chemistry textbooks.

Estimated time: 3 Hours.

Textbooks are among of the curriculum textual materials for teachers and students. In
this unit you are going to gain knowledge about quality of chemistry textbook.
What are other textual curriculum materials do you know? A textbook is usually
developed to suit the teaching of a particular syllabus.

The most important quality or property of a good textbook is that it should cover all the
topics found in the related syllabus. If possible the topics and sub-topics should be
arranged just as they appear in the syllabus of the subject in question. The instructional
objectives in the textbook should be the same as those in the syllabus.

Some textbooks are written for use in particular countries and do not have local
examples or experiences that match local environments. However, students are advised
to read many books so as to get up to date with chemistry knowledge and competences.

Chemistry textbook or chemistry course book is a book written in line with the syllabus
for students. It includes all necessary content, acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes of
the curriculum, illustrations and activities the students will do to help them.

3.2.1 Structure and Organization of Chemistry Textbook.

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A suitable chemistry textbook should have appropriate content and organization. The
content should fit the sequence for the syllabus of the course.
The content should:
 Have up to date information.
 Be appropriate for the level of learners targeted.
 Be relevant to learners of different backgrounds.
 Should realize the objectives stated in the syllabus.
 Should include experiments and accompanying materials that evaluate cognitive
level of learners such as stress investigations.
 Suggest safe activities for learners to handle.
 Address the needs of the learners.

3.2.2 Instructional approach.

Together with how the textbook look like the quality of the chemistry text book is also
observed in instructional approach.
 Chemistry book should be written in the way science book is written, where by
instructional approach stress inquiry.
 The content should be presented as the variety of cognitive level (knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation) and the
approach should be suitable to wide range of the students ability differs.
 Diagrams, photographs, chart, graphs should be clear well executed and all
illustrations should lie to the content of the text for a learner to get
meaning/Concept.
 Further activities are indicated that a learner is advised to do, this includes
questions, assessment, project and the related activities. Activities suggested are
useful for wide range for students) to review and challenge him/her to think
beyond.

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Activity 29 Allowed time 30 minutes

Outline the differences in terms of structure and organization

between the chemistry textbooks and any other chemistry reference
books. Discuss the results in a classroom plenary.

Summary
In analysing the quality of chemistry textbooks, you need to investigate if the textbook
consists of all the important sections.
 You should not overlook the preliminary pages.
 Find out if the syllabus has well stated general and specific aims, objectives and
competences.
 You have to consider the presentation of the subject content, knowledge and
skills presented as well as the student activities provided. For example you
have to analyse the amount of subject content presented by the author in relation
to the education level of the students, their ability and prior experiences.
 The chemistry textbooks used in schools must correlate well with the subject
syllabus.

Reflection:

Which criteria should be used for selecting a good chemistry textbook?

3.3 The Teacher’s Guide

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Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to :
a) Outline the structure and organization of chemistry teacher’s guide;
b) Describe the qualities of chemistry teacher’s guide;
c) Explain the uses of a chemistry teacher’s guide.

Estimated time 3 hours

The teacher’s guide is specifically teacher and not for students. These books are written
in line with the syllabus to guide the teacher in implementation of students’ course
book. The teacher’s guide book enables them to follow sequence of the content within
the student’s book. It guides and provides procedures for dealing with the activities
and concepts that are within students’ book together with providing required procedures
of assessing students.
Teachers manual on the other hand can be used by teachers as well as students.

Activity 30 Allowed time 30 minutes

.Working in your small groups, discuss the ways in which a teacher’s guide differs
from a teacher’s manual in terms of structure and organization.

Summary
Chemistry teacher’s guides can only help you where to begin a lesson and end it.
Chemistry teachers’ manual can only help you on the steps/procedures to follow in
performing different teaching and learning activities example in doing experiments.

Teachers guide always, has similar topics to those in the textbooks and the chemistry
syllabus while.

72
Teachers manual usually show the steps/procedures to follow in doing different
activities such as experiments which are suggested by the chemistry syllabus.

Reflection:
 Is a teacher’s guide necessary in the teaching and learning of chemistry?
 What are the advantages of using textbooks in the classroom while teaching
chemistry?

Assessment
Find out whether your students can answer the following questions:

1. Which are the most important characteristics of a good textbook?.

2. What are the differences between a textbook, a teacher’s guide and a manual?

References
MOEC. (1997). Chemistry syllabus for Secondary schools form 1-4, Tanzania Institute
of
Education; Dar es Salaam.

MOEC. (2005).In-service Training Manual for chemistry teachers’ Education I I

project,
Ministry of Education and Culture; Dar es Salaam.

TIE. (1997). Chemistry for secondary schools book 1 and 2,

73
Dar es salaam University press; Dar es Salaam.

TIE. (1998). O-level Secondary school Chemistry practical manual, Tanzania Institute
of education; Dar es Salaam.

TIE.(2000). Curriculum and Teaching Module for Diploma course, Ministry of

Education and culture; Dar es Salaam.

MOEVT. (2007). Induction course for licensed secondary school Teachers, module 1,
Teaching and learning, Ministry of Education and vocational Training; Dar es Salaam.

UNIT FOUR
4.0 Preparation for Teaching
As a teacher, you must also be a planner. You must prepare your lessons before
going to teach them. Preparations will increase your confidence as you teach.
You are expected to have short and long term plans for your teaching, i.e. daily,
weekly, monthly and for the whole term. In this unit, you will learn on how to

74
 prepare and use chemistry Scheme of Work, chemistry Lesson Plan, chemistry
subject Logbook and teaching and learning materials. You will also learn to
prepare micro-teaching lesson and to apply Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) in the teaching and learning of chemistry.

4.1 The Chemistry Scheme of Work

Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to :
i)prepare a chemistry scheme of work.
i) explain the importance of a scheme of work in the teaching of chemistry
ii) establish the relationship between of our scheme of work and the O-level
chemistry syllabus.

Estimated Time: 3.0 Hours

The scheme of work is a very useful tool for your chemistry teaching. It is actually a
plan of your work in teaching chemistry within a week, a month or a term.

Some teacher wrongly claim that they are knowledgeable, skilful and experienced
enough to continue teaching without any scheme of work. Such teacher’s end up doing
their work haphazardly or in trial and error manner and they finally fail and embrace
both the learners and the school authority. You are strongly advised to prepare your
chemistry scheme of work always before the school term starts.

“From the above introduction, what do you think should be included in the
chemistry Scheme of Work?”
Activity 31 Allowed time 20 minutes

Ask your students to discuss in pairs the major elements of the Scheme of Work.
They should present their work in a classroom plenary session.

75
The scheme of work may include the following items/elements, However, the format of
scheme of work varies from are country to another, levels of education and from one
institution to another.
a) Learning competences
b) Learning objectives,
c) The order of presentation of the topics
d) Teaching aids (resources)
e) Methods and timing of assessments
f) Teacher and learners’ activities.
g) Number periods per topic
h) Reference to be used
i) Class details, e.g stream, year, term and name of school.
j) NB: The model or format of schemes of work we use in Tanzania are those
recommended by the Inspectorate Department of the Ministry of Education and
Vocational training (MOEVT).
Activity 32: Allowed Time 30 minutes

Using the MoEVT Scheme of Work format, and the ‘O’-level chemistry
syllabus, ask your students to prepare a chemistry scheme of work to cover the
first term for form two students.

 Summary
 A scheme of work is a plan for teaching your chemistry lessons for one term of
six months. While the scheme helps you to plan for future teaching, it also
reminds you the topics you have already covered.
 You should not claim that you have enough knowledge and experience to leave
out the preparation of a chemistry scheme of work.

76
  You must prepare a fresh scheme of work for chemistry every term and every
year. This is because as time changes, teaching requirements and demands also
change.
 You should pick your topics for chemistry scheme of work from the chemistry
syllabus and not from elsewhere. Make sure your scheme addresses the
objectives stated in the syllabus.

 Reflection
Why is the Scheme of Work so important in the planning and actual teaching and
learning of chemistry?

4.2. Preparation of the Chemistry Lesson Plan

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to:
i. explain the meaning and significance of a chemistry lesson plan.

ii. explain the relationship between a syllabus, a scheme of work and a lesson plan
for chemistry.
iii. explain the differences between a lesson plan and a scheme of work.
iv. Prepare a chemistry lesson plan which has maximum learner involvement in
activities.

Estimated Time: 2.0 Hours

Lesson plan development is one of the preparations for teaching a chemistry lesson.
Through the lesson plan you may see clearly what the teacher and the learners will be
doing at every stage of lesson development.

77
 The lesson plan has three main parts, the introduction, lesson development and lesson
culmination. “ How can you differentiate a dull lesson from an active one?”

In the preparation of a lesson plan, the following factors have to be considered:

 The developmental level of the learners. This will determine what they can do
and what they can not;
 The instructional objectives ;
 The complexity and level of difficulty of the subject matter and the planned
learning activities;
 The teaching –learning materials required and their availability;
 Assessment and reflection should feature in all the three major stages of the
lesson plan;
 The competences to be achieved.

The introductory part of a lesson plan must include motivation. The learners must
know why the lesson is important, and how it relates to their daily life. The
introduction must also relate to the previous lessons. It is during the introductory stage
that you must find out what the learners already know about the lesson.

There is no single best way to prepare a lesson plan. Individual teachers plan lessons in
different ways and different subjects require slightly different kinds of lesson plans.

You can always modify your lesson plan to suit a given the topic or even intelligence
level of your students. The essential point to remember, however, is that a daily lesson
plan should be a flexible instrument that can be used by the classroom teacher.

Activity 33 Allowed time 80 Minutes

 Ask your students to work in groups to prepare a competence based Chemistry

lesson plan. They should use it to discuss the main features of a lesson plan.

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  Reflection
Why is the lesson plan so important in the teaching and learning of chemistry? Should
experienced teachers also prepare lesson plans? They claim they know and remember
everything.

 Summary

1. A lesson plan is a summary of all the important steps in the development of a

lesson.
2. A chemistry lesson plan has three main stages, i.e lesson introduction,
development and culmination. Time must be allocated for each of the stages.
3. During introduction, you will have to find out what knowledge, skills and
competences the learners already know. It is at this stage that you will have to
establish how important the topic or lesson it to the future life of the learners.
4. At every major step of the lesson, assessment, reflection and evaluation must be
effected.
5. A chemistry lesson plan must give room for maximum learner involvement
through activities.
6. A lesson plan must show how each of the planned specific objectives will be
realized.
7. A lesson plan must specify clearly the learning activities of the teachers and of the
students.

4.3 Microteaching of Some Topics in O-level Chemistry

Objectives:
By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to:
i) explain the meaning and significance of microteaching in teacher training;
ii) prepare a scheme of work, lesson plan and lesson notes for use in
microteaching;

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 iii) effect the microteaching of a chemistry topic to your peers;
iv) evaluate a microteaching lesson.

Estimated Time: 18 Hours

There are three major types of teaching practices, i.e microteaching, single lesson
teaching practice, and block teaching practice (BTP). this unit shall deal mainly with
the microteaching of a chemistry topic.

While BTP and single lesson teaching practice take place outside your college,
microteaching is usually organized within your college where you take your teacher
training

Organizing a Microteaching Session

In a microteaching lesson, student teachers teach each other and evaluate each other in
turn. When one student teacher has a turn to teach, the others assume the role of
students and carry out the planned learning activities. The peers have also the task of
evaluating the one who is teaching them. Therefore, all the student teachers will play
the role of a teacher and evaluator.

In a microteaching lesson, you won’t be required to teach the whole period of say 80
minutes alone. You will share this time with your peers. For example, each student
teacher may be assigned only 10 minutes. This means that in an eighty minutes period,
8 students will get turns to teach, where each will teach a specified part of the lesson for
only 10 minutes.

As you teach, your peer student teachers will be evaluating you and taking notes for
discussion after the period. As they evaluate you, they should also be doing the
planned activities within the lesson.

The following is a procedure for organizing a microteaching session:

80
  All student teachers in your class prepares a scheme of work, lesson plan and
lesson notes as if he/she would teach the whole lesson alone.
 All student teachers prepare the necessary teaching-learning materials enough
for the whole class.
 The student-teachers who are to teach within the estimated time are identified.
They agree on the portions of the lesson that each shall teach as well as the time
schedule.
 After the teaching session a discussion will follow. Every student teacher who
participated in the microteaching will be told his/her strengths and weaknesses,
and be given suggestions on how to rectify them.

Activity 34 Allow 60 minutes

Stay with the other student teachers in groups of six. Choose any chemistry topic
which is likely to have several learning activities. Organize a microteaching session
along with evaluation. After the session, you should answer the following question:
a) What problems did you face during your teaching?
b) What were the strengths and weaknesses of the lesson?
c) What suggestions did your peers give you to improve your performance in
teaching?

 Reflection
Why is microteaching so important in the teaching and learning of chemistry?

 Summary
 Microteaching is one of the teaching practices you must do in your teacher
training. this will go hand in hand with BTP and single lesson teaching
practice.

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  This type of teaching practice does not require you to go out of college. You
will have to do it in collaboration with your peers.
 In microteaching, you will be required to prepare fully for teaching a particular
topic, but you won’t teach the whole period. You may teach for, say 10
minutes, and leave the rest of the period for others to teach.
 As you teach, your peers will act as your learners, but will at the same time
evaluate your performance. You will do the same to them, each by turn.
 At the end of the lesson/period, you will hold discussions on the weaknesses
and strengths of each of the actors. This may be culminated by reflection and
evaluation.

4.4 Preparation of Chemistry Logbook

Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to :
i) Explain the meaning and significance of a chemistry logbook;
ii) explain the advantages and limitations of the chemistry logbook;
iii) prepare and fill an example of a chemistry logbook.

Estimated Time: 60 Minutes

You are expected to keep up-to-date with your own chemistry log book in which you
will write your records about your progress in chemistry teaching. Your log book will
show which topics of chemistry you have covered, which you are yet to start etc. Such
data will be useful for your future planning and schemes of work.

Your chemistry logbook is an administrative tool. Your head of department and your
headmaster will use your chemistry logbook to know and face your progress in
chemistry teaching.

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 Your chemistry logbook will be useful when you want to construct a chemistry test.
You will simply consult it to know which topics you have already covered and should
appear in your test.

The chemistry logbook will represent you in your absence. It is a useful tool in case of
a teacher turnover. Your head of department will use the chemistry logbook to assign
work to a new chemistry teacher in case of your absence.

Activity 35 Allow 40 minutes


Pick any three topics of form one from the syllabus and use them to construct an
example of a chemistry logbook suing the sketch in table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1 Sketch of subject logbook.

SCHOOL/INSTUITON
CONCEPT COVERED
DATE COMPLETED

COMMENTS FROM
SIGNATURETHE
CLASS/STREAM

DATE STATERD

DEPARTMENT

THE HEAD OF
MAIN TOPIC

SIGNATURE
SUBTOPOC

TEACHERS

HEAD OF
MONTH

WEEK

 Reflection

What setbacks are you likely to encounter if you don’t use a logbook in the teaching of
chemistry?

 Summary

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  All your records about your chemistry teaching must be kept in your subject
logbook.
 Your chemistry logbook will show which topics you have completed and which
you have not yet.
 The chemistry logbook is an administrative tool which helps your head of
department as well as your head of institution to know the progress of your
chemistry teaching. They will compare such data with your commitments in
your chemistry scheme of work. You will also need this data yourself in future
planning for teaching.

4.5 Preparation of Teaching and Learning Resources

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

i) explain the importance of using teaching learning materials in the teaching

of chemistry;
ii) differentiate teaching aids from teaching materials;
iii) differentiate materials preparation from materials improvisation;
iv) use teaching aids and materials in the teaching of chemistry;
v) take proper care of chemistry teaching and learning materials.
vi) prepare different teaching/learning materials for use in chemistry teaching.

Estimated Time: 5 Hours

A teaching/learning aid is anything which can be used to help the process of concept
making. Examples of teaching/learning aids used in chemistry are: models of atoms
and molecules, the periods table, pictures, charts, diagrams etc. Such aids are used in
most cases to teach abstract concepts.

In construct, a teaching/learning material is anything which can be used to facilitate

teaching activities e.g. apparatus, chemicals, equipments, projectors, stationeries,
manila cards, containers, reagent bottles, tools, heat sources, stores, electrical or gas

84
 systems etc. Other material resources are used in the fabrication and improvisation of
chemistry T/L materials.

Chemistry is an active science subject. It can only be taught effectively through your
activities and those of the learners. Teaching by activities usually needs a lot of
teaching/learning aids and materials.

There are situations where the required teaching/learning aid or materials are not easily
available in the school or in the open market. In such a case you have to prepare or
improvise them.

One of the most important skills your students must develop during their teacher
training is the fabrication and improvisation of teaching/ learning aids and materials.
This is because most schools are poorly stocked with such resources. New schools in
rural areas are worse in this aspect.

Activity 36 Allowed time 80 minutes


Lead your students to carry out the following activities in groups of at least than 5
people.
1. Prepare a pan balance, beam balance and spring balance form improvised
materials.
2. Use styrofoam from packaging boxes to prepare models of atoms of atomic
number one to twenty.
3. Use manila sheet to prepare a simplified version of the Periodic Table.
4. Improvise a kerosene burner from collected tins or bottles.
5. Cut plastic and glass bottles to prepare beakers, funnels etc.
6. Use blow pipe and candle flame to bend delivery tubes.
7. Prepare simple Periodic Table by using soda bottle tops.
8. Prepare a boiling flask from an electric bulb.
9. Identify simple improvised materials which can be used to carry out the
following processes:
a) Evaporation
b) filtration
c) Decantation 85
 Summary
 Secondary education is rapidly expanding in Tanzania. In the near future, we shall
have secondary schools up to ward level. These schools will have a high demand
for teaching/learning materials.
 Many schools in Tanzania do not have working laboratories. You will have to
teach chemistry actively in such schools. You must develop skills in the making
and improvisation of chemistry teaching aids and materials.

 Your learners must participate in your initiatives to collect, make and improvise
teaching/learning aids and materials. Otherwise the task will be too much for you.
 You are advised not to depend too much on imported commercial apparatus for
teaching chemistry. You will be embarrassed if they are not available in your
school, and you still have to teach chemistry practically as well as the teaching
methodology
 As a tutor, you have to develop your own skills of making and improvising
teaching/leaning aids and materials, and use them to teach chemistry actively. You
don’t have to do this alone. Involve your student to do this task, sometimes as
project work.

 Reflection

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Some people are very much against the preparation and use of improvised materials for
teaching / learning of chemistry, claiming that such materials are not standard. Would
you support such an attitude?

 Assessment

Find out whether your students can answer the following questions:

1. i) Why is it so important to know in advance the materials which you will need
to teach some particular topics?
ii) What problems do you think you will face if you don’t prepare the
chemistry scheme of work before a term starts?
iii) Why is it advantageous to prepare a scheme of work for one term and
not for the whole year?
iv) If you prepared a chemistry scheme of work this year, why do you think
it is important to prepare another one next year for the same units?

2. What are the major elements of a lesson plan and a scheme of work?

References

Arbor, A., Kajack, J.S. and Logman, J.W. (1992). Research Materials – to the science
Teacher: microcomputer based laboratory in the science classroom
Retrieved 3rd February, 2007. Website:
http://www.narst.org/publications/research/microcomputer.htm.

Conric, M. (1998). Computer Based Education: More than First a Package; The
Australia electronic, Journal of Nursing Education, 4(1) 29-30.

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Thomas, G., and Mcrobbie, C.J.(2000). Epistemological and contextual Issues in the
Use of Microcomputer-Based Laboratories In yea 11 Chemistry Classroom;
Journals of computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 19(2) 137-
160.
Kasambira K.P. (1993).Lesson planning and Classroom Managemen.. Longman
Group Ltd ; England.
UNIT FIVE
5.0 Assessment In Chemistry

Student assessment is generally a work of teacher in his/her teaching activities.

Student assessment can be done by:
 Normal work (including both written and practical work)
 Special written tasks (including tests)
 Self assessment/Reflection
 Projects
While the teacher may be:
 Observing, but not interacting with the students (including watching and
listening) and interaction with (as well as watching and listening)
 Using a check-list
 Marking tests
 Reading or marking class work
 Gathering general impression

5.1 Test Construction

Objectives:
By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to :
a) Select objectives for setting up a chemistry test.
b) Construct a table of specification for constructing a chemistry test
c) Construct a test that measure intended objectives in accordance with a prepared
table of specifications.

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 Estimated time 2 hours

To make sure that you construct a chemistry test which measure a representative
sample of instruction and relevant tasks, you need to consider and select the objectives
of your test area of coverage and to prepare a table of specification and use it to
formulate the test items/questions.

5.1.1 Selection of objectives for a chemistry test.

Objectives describes the types of performance the students are expected to

demonstrates. The objectives should be stated in terms of what you expect the
students/learners to be able to do at the end of the instructional process.

Instructional objectives direct attention to students and the types of performance they
are expected to exhibit as a result of the instruction. They are usually derived from the
major categories of cognitive domain.

When constructing a chemistry test, you should consider the objectives or learning
outcomes addressed by each question item.

Table 5.1.Action verbs for the construction of test objectives.

Cognitive General objectives Action Verbs to Test Specific

domain Learning Outcomes

89
Knowledge Know common terms Defines, describes, identifies, label,
Know specific facts lists, matches, names, outlines,
Knows methods and procedures reproduces, selects, States
Know basic concepts and
principles
Comprehension Understands facts and Principles. Converts,defends,distinguishes,estim
Interprets charts and graphs. ates,explain,extends,generalizes,gives
Justify methods and procedures. examles,infers,paraphrases,predicts,
Estimates consequences implied rewrites, summarises
in data.
Application Apply principle to new situations Changes computes, demonstrates,
Apply theories to practical discover manipulates, modifies,
situations operates predicts, prepares
Solve mathematical problems procedures, relates, shows, solves,
Constructs charts and graphs uses
Demonstrates correct use of
procedures

Analysis Recognises a stated assumptions Breaks down, differentiates,

Distinguishes between facts and discriminates, distinguishes,
inferences Identifies, illustrates, Outlines, point
Evaluate the relevancy of data outs, relates, selects separates,
Analyse the organizational subdivides
structure of work
Synthesis Proposes a plan for experiments Categorizes, combines, compiles,
Integrates learning from composes, creates, devices,
different areas. designs,explains,generates,modifies,o
Write creative short story rganizes,plans,rarranges,reconstructs,
Give well organized work relates,reoganizes.revises,rewrites,
summarizes

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Evaluation Judges the value of a work Appraises, compares, concludes,
Judge the consistency of written contrasts, criticizes, describes
material. discriminates, explains, Interprets,
justifies, supports, summarizes

An example of chemistry questions that measure knowledge of student on the topic fuel
and energy.
Define the term exothermic reaction. (the word ‘define’ represent specific learning
outcome that student will be able to define the term exothermic reaction from the
content.

5.1.2 Construction of table of specifications

A table of specifications mainly ensures that the test the test you intend to construct will
have enough content validity. It specifies the topics and sub-topics which are to be
covered in the test. This is the vertical aspect of the table. The horizontal treatment
specifies the domains which are to be covered in the test.

The other aspect to consider in the horizontal treatment is the weighting of each
selected topic in the test. The common practice is that the topic which is especially
important or which took most of the instructional time is assigned the highest weighting
in terms of the number of questions. The number of questions is then converted to
percentages.

Example of outlined content in chemistry subject for the test to be constructed on Acids
and Bases topic;
A) Properties of acids and bases.

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 Identifies natural sources of acids
Sources of acids and bases
Characteristics of acids and bases
Testing acids and bases
B) Indicators
Meaning of indicator
Preparing indicators
Testing acidity and alkalinity
C) Neutralization
Types of neutralizing agents
Provide application of neutralization
Effects of artificial and natural acids

The content outlined in A), B) and C) indicates where the test to be constructed lie

Preparing the two way Chart

The two way chart represents table of specifications that has Objectives in one part and
instructional content in another part. The table indicates both total number of
Items/questions per ability/skill and percentage of test items allocated to each objective
and each area of content. Percentages are useful in determining the amount of emphasis
to be given in each area.

Table 5.2. An example of table of specification prepared for a test of 20 questions

from one topic.

SKILLS TO BE TESTED

OBJECTIVES Know Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluatio Total no. Percentag
ledge n of items e weight

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 /questions of
or (topic) items/ques
CONTENT tions
or(topic)
1.Properties of 35%
acids and bases 2 3 1 1 7

2.Indicators 35%
1 2 2 1 1 7

3.Neutralization 30%
1 1 2 1 1 6

Total no of
items/questions 4 5 6 2 1 2 20
(topic) per ability/
skill
Percentage weight 20% 25% 30% 10% 5% 10% 100%
of items/questions
or Topic per
ability/ skill

Activity 37: Allowed time 30 minutes

 Using the given example given in table 5.2, construct your own table of
specifications using any Form Four topic to cover 15 question items.

 Summary

93
An achievement test should have maximum content validity. Such validity can be
achieved by making sure that the test measures what it is supposed to measure. The test
should cover most of the content and objectives which were taught.

To make sure that a classroom test will measure a representative sample of instructions
relevant to task, teachers should prepare a table of specifications and use it when
constricting tests.

To prepare table of specification you should start with preparing instructional

objectives, outline the instructional content (Topics to be covered in your test) then
prepare two way chart that has both vertical and horizontal dimensions.

Reflection
 As a chemistry teacher, you are expected to be able to construct a test. Is this
always true? Are all teachers good test makers?
 Why is it necessary to use a table of specifications in constructing a chemistry
test?

5.2 Test Moderation

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to:
b) set criteria for moderating tests/examinations;
c) explain the meaning and significance of moderating a test/examination;
d) set a test/examination, pre-test it and moderate it.

Estimated Time: 3 Hours

A test is usually moderated to verify its validity and reliability. A well set test should
be:

94
 i) testing the achievement of knowledge and skills outlined by the specific
objectives covered.
ii) within the limits of cognitive ability of the learners, not too simple, or too
difficult.
ii) valid, i.e. measuring the expected academic achievements.
iii) discriminative, separating accurately the high and low achievers.

In a good test, all the test items must have the above four characteristics above.
If a test item is out of syllabus, out of what was taught, too simple or too difficult,
irrelevant to the learners’ environment, it should be removed from the test and replaced
by a better item. An item is equally useless if all the high achievers, the moderate and
the low achievers will get it correct, or will get it wrong. It must be removed from the
test and replaced by another item which is more discriminating.

Activity 38 Allowed Time 80 minutes

Arrange yourself into small groups of students. Pick some chemistry past
papers together with their marking schemes. Use the test scripts to find out the
following:
a) The items which most or all of the students (high, moderate and low
achievers) got right.
b) The items which most or all of the students got wrong.
c) The items which only the moderate and most intelligent student got
rights, and the low achievers got wrong.
d) Find out through discussion why some items:
i) were done right by most or all students;
ii) were done wrong by most or all students;
iii) were done right by low achievers and done wrong by high
achievers.

95
“Why do we have to moderate a test or examination?”
In a good test/examination, a few highest achievers will pass, a few lowest achievers
will fail and most candidates will get moderate scores. A test is not good if most of the
students fail or most pass. The properties of a good test should also be manifested by
all the items it contains.

A test becomes good or standard when it has been validated by pre-testing and
moderating.

Moderation of a test follows the following procedures:

i) Use a table of specifications to construct a test.

ii) Administer the test to students who have an equivalent academic level to the
ones you intend to test.
iii) Mark and score the test.
iv) Carry out item analysis for item/discrimination and item difficulty.
v) Replace all poor items with good ones.

Determination of Item difficulty (I.d)

“What is the significance of finding out the I.d. of test items in a test or
examination”?

Item difficult or difficult index (I.d) refers to the proportion of a group of examinees
who answer an item correctly. To know difficult of a test item you should find,
percentage of the a students who got item right. This is the method used to determine
easy items in a test (The question which was scored by many students). As you
construct test it should neither be too hard nor too easy to be scored and you should
base on the cognitive and development level of the pupils/students.

96
Procedure for Computing Item Difficulty
Consider 30 scripts of chemistry scores.
Step 1: Arrange all 30 test paper scripts from the highest score to the lowest score.

Step 2: Select approximately one third (⅓) of the scripts with the highest scores and call
this the upper group. (⅓ of 30 scripts are 10 scripts) Set the middle scripts aside
(Let say 10 scripts)
Step 3: For each item, count the number of students in the upper group who selected
each alternative. Make the same count for the lower group.
Step 4: Record the count of step 3 in columns to the left of the alternatives to which
each count refers.

Table5.2 Example of recorded alternatives of test item.

Item 1 A B C D E
alternatives
Upper group 0 6* 3 1 0
Lower group 3 2 2 3 0

* = Correct answer.
Step 5: Estimate item difficulty by determining the percentage of the students who
answered the item correctly. Sum up the number of students in the upper and the
lower group.
Call this T.A. = Total number of students in the upper and lower groups.

Upper group = 0 + 6 +3 +1 + 0 = 10
Lower group = 3 + 2 + 2 + 3+0 = 10
Therefore, T.A = Upper group + lower group
= 10 +10
T.A = 20

97
Sum the number of students who selected correct answer from upper group and lower
group.(G.R)
G.R = 6 + 2
=8
Therefore, calculate the difficult index /item difficult by the following formula.
Item difficult (I.d)= Number of students who got item right/ total number of students
who attempted the item.
G .R
I.d = ×100%
T .A

Where I.d = item difficult /difficult index (percent of students who answered item
Correctly).
G.R = Number of students who got item right.
T.A = Total number of students who attempted item.
Since G.R = 8, T.A = 20.

8
I.d =  100% = 40%
20

The Item difficult is 40%

As you calculate various item difficult index and obtain certain percent it will be easy
for you to identify in which group does the item you have calculated fall.

0 ─ 29% the item is very difficult.

30% ─ 39% the Item is difficult.
40% ─ 60% the item is average.
Above 60% the item is easy.

Activity 39 Allowed time 4 Hours

98

a) Every student teacher should make a table of specifications and use it to
construct a test of 10 objective items (multiple choice, True/false and matching
type). Make the marking scheme.
b) Your tutor will take one of the tests and administer it to you. The one who
constructed the test should not do it, mark it or score it.
c) Mark and score the test using its marking scheme. Arrange scores from highest
to lowest.
d) If your class has 40 or less students, take 10 scripts of highest scores and 10
scripts of lowest scores. If your class has more than 40 students, take 25% of
scripts of the highest score, and 25% of scripts of the lowest score.
e) For every question item in the test, work out the item difficulty by using the
following formula:
GR
I .d  x100
TA

Key I.d. = Item difficulty

G.R = Number of candidates who got the item right.
T.A. = Total number of candidates who attempted the item.
f) Calculate the I.d. of an item where 22 out of 30 candidates who attempted it got
By doingitthe above activity you will have moderated your test by identifying the easiest
right.
g) mostCalculate
and difficult the I.d.and
items for replacing
all the items in the
them testbetter
with you did.
ones.Which
The questions
next step will you
in item
analysis for the moderation of a test is the determination of item index of
h) replace?The rule is that if the question items will be discriminating, the test is
discrimination.
discriminating. A final examination must be highly discriminating so that the scores
can be used for placement, selection, promotion etc.

Determination of item Discrimination (I.D)

The discriminating power of a test refers to the degree to which it discriminates

between students with high and low achievement. Discrimination index is used when
you want to know the test items which differentiate very well between the more capable
and less capable examinee. An item discriminates in a positive direction if more
students in the upper group than in the lower group get the item right. This refers to the

99
extent to which a test item is responded correctly by students possessing more of the
quality being measured and incorrectly by students possessing less of the quality. The
discrimination index shows the power of the test to discriminate candidates with high
and low achievement in the class.

Item discriminating power can be obtained by subtracting the number of pupils in the
lower group (lower achievers, AL) from the number of students in the upper group
(higher achievers, AH) who got the item right, and dividing by one half of the total
1
number of pupils included in the item analysis ( T ).
2
The following is the formula for the item discrimination index, D.

D = AH – AL
1
T
2
The discriminating index of an item is reported as a decimal fraction. The maximum
positive discriminating index is indicated by 1.00 which means that all students in item
analysis from the upper group scored the item correctly and no student from lower
group scored the item correctly.

An item with discriminating index of 0.4 and above is regarded as a good item.
D  0.4 good ite

100
Activity 40 Allowed Time 60 Minutes

Work in small groups complete the table of item analysis below by filling in the blank
spaces
a) Find out the test items in the table which had the highest I.d. values. How will you
correct them?
a) Which items in the table have the lowest D values? Do you have any items which
have negative D values? How will you correct them?
b) Explain what negative D values mean.

Table Analysis of Test Items

Number Did Not Items Item
of Group Responses to Items Respond to difficulty Discriminat
Question the Item Index (I.d.)% ion Index D
Item
A B C D
1 H 0 20 1 0 0 0.38
L 1 12 7 1 0
2. H 20 0 1 0 0 0.19
L 16 1 1 3 0
3. H 2 3 11 2 3 0.43
L 4 8 2 3 4
4 H 3 2 3 11 3 0.9 -0.95
L 2 4 5 6 4
5 H 1 0 20 0 0 0.16
L 1 3 7 6 4
6. H 0 9 1 11 0 0.14
L 2 12 1 3 3

101
“How would you judge a question item which”
i) Has been answered rightly by many low achievers?
ii) Has been answered wrongly by many high achievers?

Summary
 A test usually is moderated to increase its validity
 A good test should be able to discriminate high achievers from low achievers.
 A test and all its items should not be too difficult or too simple.
 A test is moderated by carrying out an item analysis to find out the index of
item difficulty and the index of item discrimination.
 The difficulty of a test item is indicated by the percentage of pupils who get the
item right. I the index is too large, the item is too easy, it should be replaced by
another one of moderate difficulty.

 The discriminating power of a test item refers to the degree to which it

discriminates between students with high and low achievement. If a test item
has high index of discrimination. Most of the high and moderate achievers will
get it right, and the low achievers will get it wrong.
 The index of item difficulty ranges from one to hundred percent.
 The index of item discrimination increases from negative values to One.

102
 Reflection

If you, as a chemistry teacher, can construct a test, is it still necessary to do carry out
item analysis? Is it not a waste of time and effort?

5.3 Marking of a tests/examinations

Objectives:
By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to:
a) revise and improve marking scheme;
b) use a marking scheme to score a test;
c) Compose a marking scheme.

Test or examination marking is among the tasks you will find quite demanding. You
will have to prepare your marking scheme alongside your test construction. Scores must
be distributed according to the weighting of the questions. Marking scheme prepared in
advance helps the teacher to mark tests and examinations more objectively.

 Summary
Marking of test/examinations is among of the teachers responsibilities. The marks serve
various functions in schools, such as to provide information that are helpful to pupils,
parents and school personnel.

The purpose of having marking scheme is to minimize the degree of subjectivity in

scoring test and examination. Make sure the answers in the marking scheme are correct
and logical. The most important or the most difficult items should be awarded more
credit than the simpler ones.

103
Reflection

Is it really necessary to use a marking scheme if you can remember all the answers in a
test? What are the main features of a marking scheme?

5.4 Standardization of Test Scores

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to facilitate your students to :
a) Describe the techniques of standardizing chemistry tests.
b) Standardize chemistry scores.

Estimated time: 5hours

Raw score obtained in the class usually do not indicate student relative position in the
class. Such scores are either positively or negatively skewed. Different test used in the
classroom should be standardized to be educationally meaningful. Teachers use
various techniques to standardize examinations or test scores for the purpose of
interpreting the results. Experience has shown that many teachers do not analyse the
examination results after marking and scoring.
“What is the advantage of standardizing test scores?”

5.4.1 Standardization of test scores.

Test scores are standardized so as to achieve a normal distribution of the scores. In a

normal distribution, a few scores will occupy low and high positions, while the majority
of the scores will be clustered at the middle.
The following terms are important in the process of standardizing test scores: The
mean, mode, range, variance and standard deviation.

104
There are some statistical measures which are used to standardize test scores. The most
commonly used statically techniques are:
 Measures of central tendency: there are the mean, median and mode.
 Measures of variability: these are the range, standard deviation and variance.
 Measures of relative position, percentile, z-scores and t-test.
 Measures of relationship, i.e. correlation coefficient (r).

Activity 41 Allowed time 30 minutes

Look up individually from various books of

educational measurement and evaluation the meaning of
the following terms: mean; mode; range; variance;
standard deviation.

i) Mean

Mean is calculated by adding a series of scores and then dividing the total by the
number of scores.

Mean = Sum of all scores

Number of scores

Example 5.1
Ten students attempted chemistry test and their scores were as follows;
50, 30, 34, 44, 48, 60, 65, 70,7 4 and 52. Find the average (Mean) of the scores.

Solution

Step 1:
List all scores and add up them.

105
50 + 30 + 34 + 44 + 48 + 60 + 65 + 70 +7 4 + 52 = 527

Step 2:
Divide the total scores by the number of students attempted the test.

527
= 52.7 ≈ 53
10

An average is useful in comparing the students performance in a test according to

average obtained in the respective class from the given example the average is 53.
Students scored above the mean are those who got marks above 53 and a those who
scored exactly 53 are around the mean. On other hand students scored bellow 53 are
bellow the mean.
Therefore from the test above, “How many students are above the mean and how
many are bellow the mean?”

To answer this question count the scores above the mean and the scores bellow the
mean.
Score above the mean (53) are 60, 65, 70 and 74. While scores bellow the mean are 50,
30, 34, 44, 48 and 52. Therefore the scores above the mean are 4 and the scores bellow
the mean are 6.
The scores indicate that only 4 students among 10 are above the average.

Mode
Mode represents scores that are occurring most frequently in a distribution.
Observe the following scores of ten students in form two chemistry test; 43, 42, 41, 40,
41, 39, 57, 41, 55, 60. “Which score has appeared most frequently?”
It is clear 41 occur most frequently than any other score, therefore 41 is the mode.
Mode is used to indicate distribution of scores in which students have obtained in a test.
In a given test or examination there may be more than one mode. If there are two set of

106
frequently occurring scores is known as bimodal. If there are more than two occurring
scores is known as multimodal.

When test is well constructed Mode can be near by mean, thus mode it can be used as a
mean in that situation.

Range
Range is the difference between the highest scores and lowest score in a given set of all
scores of students. It is calculated by subtracting the lowest scores from the highest
score.
Dear student Teacher “What is the range of these scores?” 95, 70, 25, 45, 82, 15.

Range = (highest score-lowest score)

Range = 95 - 15
= 85.
What can you say about the range obtained above. In actual fact as indicated there is
very big difference in students scores, it mean in that class there are student are weak
student and capable ones. When the range is small it means that the students ability is
very close.

Median
Median is another measure of showing an average of examines. It is determined by
arranging the scores in ascending order or descending order and counting up to the total
midpoint of the set of scores. If the number of is even the median will be the halfway
between the two mid most scores. When the number is odd, the median is the middle
score. Therefore the Median is the point that divides scores into equal halves.
Now, “how will you get the median of the following scores”.
i) 50, 52, 57, 55, 59, 61,62.
ii) 21, 23, 25, 28, 30, 24.

107
Solution
i) The number of these scores is odd, arrange all score beginning with small as follows;
50, 52, 55, 57, 59, 61, 62. Count the middle score is 57. Therefore the median is 57.

ii) The number of this scores is even, arrange from smallest to largest, 21, 23, 25, 28,
30, 42.
Median is obtained by taking two middle scores, add them up and divide by two.
25  28 53
= = 26.5 ≈ 27
2 2
For this case median is another way of obtaining average in a class of many
students.

Variance
Variance is the spread or dispersion of observations or scores in a distribution. It is the
square of standard deviation. On the other hand, variance is the total mean of all
differences obtained from the average that been squared. For example, find the
variance of the following scores; 70, 65, 45, 85, and 30.

Solution
a) Find the total mean of all numbers.
70  65  45  85  30
=
5
295
=
5
= 59.

The mean is 59.

b) Find the difference of each scores and the mean.

108
 85 -59 = 26
70 -59 = 11
65 -59 = 14
45 -59 = -14
30 -59 = -29

c) Square the differences of scores and the mean obtained in b) above

26 x 26 = 676
11 x 11 = 121
14 x 14 = 196
-14 x -14 = 196
-29 x -29 = 841
d) Add up all squares obtained.
= 676 +121 + 196 + 196 + 841.
= 2030

Find the mean of all squared differences so as to get variance.

Mathematically;

(X - X)2
S2=
N

d2
= N

2030
5
= 406
Variance is 406.
Variance help to get standard deviation.

109
Standard deviation (SD)
Standard deviation measure the extent to which scores tend to deviate from the mean.
Standard deviation is the square root of the variance. To get standard deviation you
calculate the square root of variance.

From the above obtained variance is 406

Therefore standard deviation SD = 406

When the standard deviation is so large it means that the scores of students are very
different and have deviated from the mean. Deviation shows how the given score is far
from the mean. Mode and mean indicates the direction on how the scores have been
distributed in the given test.

What does range and standard deviation indicate? Range and standard deviation
indicates how scores have been distributed. However when you want to compare
various test scores the meaning can be different.

Consider the following example, 88% scored in chemistry test can have different
meaning in 88% scored by the same student in biology test.
The scores should be standardized to provide meaning.

Procedures of Standardizing test Scores

Consider scores of students at a certain chemistry subject was as follows;
56, 54, 52, 50, 65, 67, 72, 81, 84 and 86.

Step 1:
Find the mean by summing the entire scores then divide to the number of examinees
.
In order to calculate the mean scores the following formula is used.

110
X =
X
N
Where, X = Mean,  = Sum of, x = raw scores and N = Number of examinees.

86  84  81  72  67  65  50  52  54  56
X =
10
667
X =
10

X = 66.7 ≈67.

Step 2:
Find the difference of each score and the mean.

X 86 84 81 72 67 65 56 54 52 50

(X – X ) 19 17 14 5 0 -2 -11 -13 -15 -17

Step 3:
Find the squares of difference between each score and mean. ( that is (X – X r)2

(X - X ) 19 17 14 5 0 -2 -11 -13 -15 -17

(X – X )2 361 289 196 25 0 4 121 169 225 289

Step 4:

Add up all differences of the squares;

111
(X- X )2 = 361 + 289 + 196 +25 + 0 + 4 + 121 + 169 + 225 + 289

= 1679

Step 5:
Find the total mean of the squared numbers of difference between scored and mean,
that is variance (S2).

2
(X  X)
S2 =
N
1679
S2 =
10
S2 = 169.7

Step 6:
Find the standard deviation (SD)
2
(X  X)
SD =
N
SD = 167.9

SD ≈ 13.

Step 7:
After obtaining standard deviation change every score of examinee in order to get the
standard score.
Use the following formula.

112
 XX
Standard score (z) =
SD
Step 8:
After obtaining standard score (z) you have to find t- score.
t- Score is a widely used standard score in which the mean is 50 and standard deviation
is 10. At times t- score is used synonymously with standard score, although in fact, it is
only one kind of score. Therefore t-score is the score of the student that has been
standardized.

The formula for t - score is t= 50 + (10 × z)

whereby 50 is the national average and 10 is the national standard deviation.

Therefore standard t - score of each student in the chemistry test given is as indicated in
the table bellow;

Raw score Standard z-score Standardized t-score

XX t= 50 +10z
=
SD
86 86  67 50 + 10 ×1.5 = 65
= 1.5
13
84 84  67 50 + 10 ×1.4 = 64
= 1.4
13
81 81  67 50 + 10 ×1.1 = 61
= 1.1
13
72 72  67 50 + 10 ×0.4 = 54
0.4
13
67 67  67 50 + 10 ×0 = 50
= 0
13
65 65  67 50 + 10 ×0.2 = 48
= -0.2
13

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 56 56  67 50 + 10 ×-0.8 = 42
= -0.8
13
54 54  67 50 + 10 ×-1 = 40
= -1
13
52 52  67 50 + 10 ×-1.2 = 38
= -1.2
13
50 50  67 50 + 10 ×-1.3 = 37
= -1.3
13
From the table above the standardized scores (t-scores) is better than z- scores because
t- scores are positive while z-score can be negative or positive, Even though z-scores
enable you to calculate standardized t-Scores.
For this case having followed the steps above you can now standardize scores of the
students you teach in a given chemistry test.
Activity 42: Allowed time 60 minutes

ii) Ask your teacher to give you the scores of the last chemistry monthly test.
Standardize these scores to get z-scores and t-scores.

Summary
 Mode represents scores that are occurring most frequently in a distribution.
 The mean is the average score in a test.

 Examinations and tests in schools should be standardized to obtain reliable and

valid test scores.
 Range is the difference between the highest scores and lowest score in a given
set of all scores of students.
 Standard deviation measures the extent to which scores tend to deviate from the
mean. Standard deviation is the square root of the variance

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  Two types of standard scores are known; that is: the z- score and the t-score.
The z-score is not very useful because it has negative values. T-score is the
common standard score which is used to standardize the scores in our tests and
examinations.
 Measures of central tendency: there are the mean, median and mode.
 Measures of variability: these are the range, standard deviation and variance.
 Measures of relative position,, percentile, z-scores and t-test.
 Raw scores produce a skewed distribution, either positively or negatively.
 Standard scores produce normal distribution, which is realistic and natural.

Reflection
Why should you, as a chemistry teacher, take the trouble to standardize test scores? Are
row scores not enough?

 Assessment

Find out whether your students can answer the following questions:
1. Which are the three measures of central tendency?
2. How do the measures of central tendency differ from measures of
variability?
3. Give a description of the normal distribution curve.
4. In what ways are standard scores better than raw scores?
5. Standardize the following raw chemistry scores: 85; 93; 48; 73; 59; 65; 38;
78; 91; 43; 65; 74; 54; 73; 57.
6. What is the difference between the index of item difficulty and the index of item
discrimination?

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References

Njabili, A.F. (1999). Practical Guide for Classroom Measurement and Testing, The
Basic Essentials 3rd Edition. Mture publishers; Dar es salaam.

Ogunninyi, M. B. (1994). Educational Measurements and Evaluations, Longman

Group LTd; Singapore.

Ashworth, A.E. (1982). Testing for Continuous Assessment, A Handbook for Teachers
in Schools and College, Evans Brothers LTD; London.

Ebel, R. L., and Frisbe, D. A. (1991). Essentials of Educations and Measurements, 5th
Edition. Prentice Hall; New Jersey.

Gronlund. N.E and Linn.R.L. (1985). Measurement and evaluation in teaching, sixth
edition, Macmillan Publishing Company; New York.

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 GLOSSARY
Anion = A negatively charged ion.
Bench regent = A reagent usually placed at the bench where the
student
works.
Cation = A positively charged ion.
Cut –out = an electric system which will cut out electricity to the
house when there is an electric fault.
Confirmatory test = This is an analytical test to confirm the presence of an
anion in an unknown sample of substance.
Drainage = Pathway of waste liquids in a laboratory which starts at
the sink towards the septic system.
First Aid Kit = A kit which contains the medicine and other items for
rendering first Aid in case of an accident.
Extinguisher = An apparatus for putting out fire
Fume chamber = A chamber fitted with a system for sucking out fumes
from the laboratory.
Ignition temperature = The temperature below which fire can not start.
Precipitate = A solid formed when an aqueous anion and an aqueous
caution unit in solution.
Preliminary test = An analytical test used to predict the presence of a
particular ion from an unknown sample of substance.
Brainstorm = Is a group creativity technique designed to generate a
large number of ideas for the solution.
Laboratory = A building or room in which a scientist works, with
apparatus for examination and testing materials.
Concrete concept = A particular clear/definite idea.
Explosive = Something that can blow up or bust out
Oxidizing = Something that combine with oxygen, so as to
produce a new chemical substance.
Flammable = Easily to make active (excite)

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Toxic = Poisonous substance
Irritant = chemical substance that cause pain and sore cause unpleasant state
Corrosive = chemical substance that can weaken or destroy by it’s action.
Scope = the area within the limit and of questions, subject or topic
(content)
Score = the number of point won especially is examination
Strategies = Plans for wining success in a particular activity.
Illustration = A visual representation (picture or diagram) that is used to
make
some subject more pleasing or easier to understand.
Bulkiness = Of large size, for its weight, massiveness
Feedback = The portion of output so returned or the portion of information
about the result of process or activity.
Reflection = Mental concentration, careful consideration of a though or an
opinion resulting from a given consideration.
Cognitive Domain = Concerned with the area of subject matter, knowledge and
mental skills.
Affective domain = Deals with feelings attitudes and values
Psychomotor domain = Concerned with the learned of physical skills,
manipulative skills/ability and co-ordination.

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