Ethics

Definition Individual Dilemmas

● Greek word “ethos” ● Organizations and businesses are run by
● Can mean custom, habits, character or people
disposition ● The ethical standards of these individuals
● Covers the following dilemmas: are an important consideration
○ How to live a good life ● Individuals can have different sets of ethical
○ Our rights and responsibilities standards, can lead to tension, putting them
○ Language of right and wrong and in a situation called “moral dilemma”
moral decisions - what is good and ● Judgment based on self-chosen principle
bad ● Moral reasoning is based on the individual’s
idea of what is right and just
Moral ● e.g. choosing to violate speed limit to save a
● Considered right/good in a particular belief life – law of life is higher than civil law

Immoral Organizational Dilemma

● Actions or behaviors that are considered ● Ethical standards are embedded in the
wrong or unacceptable according to moral policies and procedures of the organization
or ethical standards for each company, corporate, etc.
● Opposite of moral/good ● Gaps may exist between the company or
● E.g. betraying a partner’s trust by engaging organization’s policy on ethical standards
in infidelity and the conduct or beliefs of those leaders
○ A breach of contract and a violation who are in charge of the company
of the expectations of fidelity in a ● Depending on how members define
romantic partnership. themselves, the organizing dilemma may lie
between personal interests and
Nonmoral organizational welfare, or between group
● Aspects or situations that are outside the interests.
scope of moral/ethical judgment ● E.g. an employee lusts over another but
● Neither advance nor violate sexually harassing employees in an
● Matter of personal preferences, subjective organization is unethical behavior in the
● No inherent moral implication workplace
● E.g. liking or disliking pineapple on pizza
Structural Dilemma
Amoral ● Political pressures, Economic conditions,
● An orientation that is different from the Societal attitudes can influence an
moral codes, or lacks the capacity to organization’s operating standards and
distinguish between right and wrong policies
● An inability to understand world rules ● Leaders must be aware of how these
● Prefix ‘a-’ means without pressures affect the operations,
● Walang morality relationships, and how they impact people
● Despite knowing what is right and wrong, locally, nationally, or internationally.
one can’t differentiate or is indifferent ● e.g. The Philippines is highly nationalistic,
favoring locally produced goods. Political
pressures encourage protectionist policies,
Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas
imposing tariffs on imports and favoring
domestic products. Companies must adjust
Moral Dilemmas their supply chains to source more materials
● A situation where one is torn between locally, impacting its global procurement
choosing two goods or choosing between strategy and increasing costs.
the lesser of two evils
The ways to solve a dilemma:
Example Situations Refute the Paradox (Dilemma)
● The situation must be carefully analyzed
Is it right to steal from the rich in order to feed the ● In some cases, the existence of the
poor? dilemma can be logically refuted(denied)

A mother is conflicted between wanting to feed her Value Theory Approach

hungry child, but then recognizing that it would be ● Choose the alternative that offers the
wrong for her to steal greater good or the lesser evil
Find Alternative Solutions 1. Pakikiramdam (considerate of others
● In some cases, the problem can be feelings)
reconsidered, and the new alternative ● Nurtured skill to read or be with and in
solutions may arise. other’s feelings to maintain smooth
relationship
Role of Culture in Moral Behavior ○ Strengths
- Maintain and end with smooth
What is culture? relationship
● A manner of looking at reality by certain - Easily understand people
group of people, in a certain place, and in a ○ Weakness
certain time in history - Sometimes may not reveal their true
● A way of living intentions
- In critical situations where life is on the
Culture is composed of the following: line, relying on pakikiramdam is not
a. Material living sufficient
● Dress, housing and architecture
b. Way of behaving
● Customary manners and conduct 2. Pakikisama (fellowship)
c. Way of speaking ● Dealing well with others including strangers
● Language use and avoid conflicts to keep mutual good
d. Way of thinking feeling at all cost
● Thought processes ○ Strengths
e. Way of feeling - One has to be present with and make
● Shared psychology whatever to support the others
f. Way of meaning - Being loyal because they know how to
● Arts and symbols makisama and stay during easy and
g. Way of believing, valuing and meaning hard times
● Views of life and attitudes ○ Weakness
- Can be fake, one simply submit to
How does culture shape moral behavior? majority without thorough inspection
- Filipino hardly say “no” to others
Culture and Moral Behavior
● Within culture are moral codes that are 3. Pakikipagkapwa-tao (compassion)
practiced through social behavior ● Share oneself as a fellow human being or
● Moral codes are sets of rules and guidelines having a regard to the dignity and being of
that a person or group follows in order to others
live a just and good life ○ Strengths
● Moral codes are heavily dependent upon - Pakikipagkapwa tao to the poor and
culture needy
● Because each culture has its own idea of - Helping people improve their situations
what is right and wrong, good or bad is crucial for them to become “tao”
○ Weakness
Cultural Relativism - Can be abused like the 4Ps where
● Culture may vary from one location to members misuse money for vices
another, from one society to another, a - consistently borrowing of money
nation to another nation. without intention of repayment
● Problematic when ideas and practices of
right or wrong and good or bad of one 4. Hiya
ethnic group clashes or overlaps with ● Shame or fear of losing face or damaging
another even in a wider context of societies, reputation and the skill of controlling one’s
nations, and religions selfish desire
○ Strengths
- Promote morality because they are
Asian and Filipino Understanding of
afraid to do bad things that may
Moral Behavior damage their reputation
- Don't want to lose face because of the
● Filipino are Asians that are collectivists who possibility of partial judgment (so you
identify what is good and bad through can keep your face and reputation)
relationships with family, groups, etc. ○ Weakness
● A collective embodiment of local ethic - Deprive of better opportunities
values
 - Can result in an inferiority complex for ● An American psychologist, worked on
those who did not choose their rights or Stages of Moral Development
stand up fo what is right due to shyness ● Groundbreaking research in field of
developmental psychology, particularly in
5. Kagandahang-loob (kind-hearted) the area of moral reasoning
● Proving the beauty inside by sharing the ● Lasting impact on the study of ethics and
beauty within and expressing goodness human development
○ Strengths ● Theory that explores how individuals
- Mother will do everything to protect and develop their moral reasoning and ethical
save her children decision-making over the course of their
- One who has beauty of will is always lives
good no matter what happen
○ Weakness Level 1: Preconventional Morality
- Some do not deserve to be treated with
kagandahang-loob ● Stage 1, Obedience and Punishment
- People who killed intentionally innocent ○ Individuals are focused on avoiding
lives dont deserve expression of punishment
kagandahang-loob but a punishment ○ Moral decisions are guided by fear
of getting in trouble or facing
6. Utang na Loob negative consequences
● Being indebted or pagtatanaw ng utang na ○ E.g. child decide to steal a toy and
loob is the skill of willful response to others risk punishment from parents
kagandahan ng loob
○ Strengths ● Stage 2, Individualism and Exchange
- Always admirable because it shows ○ There’s more than one pov
one is grateful to what one owes and to ○ Moral decisions based on personal
whom one has owed gain and the notion of reciprocity
- Strengthen harmonious relationships ○ “You scratch my back and I'll scratch
because both people become trusting yours”
and trustworthy ○ E.g. share lunch with a friend in
○ Weakness exchange for a favor
- Can be used sometimes by
manipulative doers to control people Level 2: Conventional Morality
- “May utang na loob ka sakin ha” can be
sometimes misused and abused ● Stage 3, Good Interpersonal Relationships
○ Considering the feelings and
7. Paggalang sa Nakakatanda expectations of others
● One treats the elders just like the way one ○ Moral decisions based on desire to
treats and loves his family be seen as a good person and
○ Strengths maintain positive relationships
- Ensure that children will take good care ○ E.g. teenager whether to help a
of their parents friend in trouble to gain social
- Philippines need not spend millions to approval
build homes for the aged
○ Weakness ● Stage 4, Maintaining Social Order
- Some elders dont even know how to ○ Concerned with maintaining the
respect and have done the worst thing border social order and adhering to
that dont need respect laws and rules
- Being an elder no longer presupposes ○ Moral decisions based on societal
moral authority and maturity expectations and the importance of
following established norms
8. Pagmamahal sa Pamilya ○ E.g. whether to report coworker for
● Doing everything for the love of family unethical behavior to uphold
○ Strengths workplace integrity
- Have harmonious, close ties with family
○ Weakness Level 3: Postconventional Morality
- Missed opportunities
- Sacrifice self-happiness ● Stage 5, Social Contract and Individual
Rights
Stages of Moral Development ○ Recognize the importance of
societal rules but also understand
Lawrence Kohlberg
 that some rules may be unjust or
need to be changed for greater good
○ Moral decisions based on principles
of justice, fairness, and individual
rights
○ E.g. whether to participate in a
peaceful protest against an unjust
law ● In order to achieve excellence, must
achieve both excellences in thoughts and
● Stage 6, Universal Principles character
● Examples
○ Highest stage of moral development
○ Deep sense of personal values and ○ Doubt – Trust – Naive
○ Frugal – Generous – Extravagent
principles
○ Cowardice – Bravery – Recklessness
○ Make moral decisions based on
universal ethical framework and act
in accordance with their deeply help
beliefs even if it means defying
societal norms Feelings and Moral Decision-Making
○ E.g. engage in civil disobedience to
uphold a fundamental moral Feelings
principle, such as human rights ● Conscious experience brought by emotional
experience and physical sensations
The Moral Agent: Developing Virtue ● E.g. feeling hungry (physical) or pain
(emotional or physical)
as a Habit ● Reaction from one of your five senses

Moral Character Emotions

● Refers to the existence or lack of virtues ● Can be conscious or subconscious
such as integrity, courage, fortitude, ● Can be impacted by culture where you
honesty, and loyalty come from, your beliefs, and traumatic
● Person has character = good person experiences

Definition of Character Following your intuition can be a great way to tune

● “Character” from Greek word ‘charakter’, in to your true desires. But even when you think
means marked impressed upon a coin your decisions are based on logic, and common
● Later became to mean a distinct mark, one sense, they are often steered by emotions.
thing was distinguished from other
● Then chiefly to mean the assemblage of How are decisions affected by Emotion?
qualities that distinguish one person from ● Emotions are created when the brain
another interprets what’s going on around us
● E.g. person’s idiosyncratic (unusual) through our memories and beliefs, triggers
mannerisms, social gesture or habit of how we feel and behave
dress, we might say “he has personality or ● All our decisions are influenced by emotions
that he’s quite a character” ● E.g. Public speaking: if you have a memory
that you performed well or poorly, these
Aristotle on Character memories trigger feelings of excitement or
● Use of the word “character”, however, has nervousness
different linguistic history
● Aristotle tells us there are two of human Emotivism
excellences: ● Theory by Charles L. Stevenson
○ Excellences of thought ● States that moral judgment expressed
○ Excellences of character (action) based on positive or negative feelings about
■ Excellence; an outstanding the issue, no reason involved
feature or quality ● If you feel positive or negative about the
● “Moral Character” in philosophical sense, issue, then it dictates your moral judgment
refers to having or lacking moral virtue ● Boo-Yay theory of Ethics
● If one lacks virtue, may have moral vices or ○ “X is right”= “Hooray for X”
marked by a condition somewhere in ○ “X is immoral” = “Boo for X”
between virtue and vice
What’s the point of Emotivism?
● According to Aristotle, whatever we do, aim ● They are used as means to influence
for golden mean other’s behavior
● Live everyday, reaching golden mean
 ● Moral sentences are used to express the ● Persons are morally responsible for their
speaker’s attitude action because they have the capacity to
● E.g. someone says “stealing is immoral” its reason, make moral judgments, and choose
a statement only between different courses of action
● Emotivism interprets that it is boo for ● e.g. decides to help a neighbor in need out
stealing, thus attempt to stop you from of kindness and empathy = morally
doing such an act praiseworthy, its a virtuous choice
● More of a command, equivalent to-dont do
that! Acts of Man (AM)
● Involuntary Actions, occur without conscious
Analyzing Emotivism intent or deliberate decision-making
● Fails to notice that humans have not only ● often by natural instincts, reflexes, bodily
feelings but also reason functions, or strong emotions
● Reason is vital in ethics ● individuals do not have direct control over
● In fact, moral truths are truth of reason; that them
is, a moral judgment is true if it is espoused ● e.g. shivering due to cold is an automatic
(supported) by better reason than the physiological response to a stimulus and is
alternative not consciously chosen

Feelings can help in Making the Right Decisions

● There are situations in which our feelings
and likings are relevant to the rightness of Lack of Moral Significance of AM
our decisions and actions ● Morally neutral because they lack the
● E.g. selecting a course to take, job to deliberate intention and free will
assume, person to marry ● Since they are not the result of ethical
choices, they are not subject to moral
Human Acts and Acts of Man evaluation
● e.g. sneezing due to allergy is a
Introduction physiological response = doesn't carry
● Concepts of Human Acts and Acts of Man moral implications
are often discussed in the context of moral
philosophy, particularly within the framework Absence of Moral Responsibility of AM
of Thomistic philosophy developed by Saint ● Not morally responsible for AM because
Thomas Aquinas they don't exercise conscious control over
● These concepts help to differentiate them
between actions that have moral ● moral responsibility requires the ability to
significance and those that do not make ethical judgments and choices
● e.g. someone’s stomach growl loudly during
Human Acts (HA) a formal event, they are not morally
● Voluntary Actions, deliberately chosen and responsible for the noise, as it is an
willed by an individual involuntary bodily function
● Result of conscious decision-making and
free will Human Acts Acts of Man
● Performed deliberately and intentionally
● Conscious decision-making process where ● Voluntary Actions ● Involuntary Actions
● Intention ● Natural instincts
a person assesses various options and
● Free will ● No conscious control
selects one based one their own free will
● Element of conscious choice is what
distinguishes them from acts of man
● e.g. choosing to donate money to a Freedom and Responsibility
charitable organization because you believe
in their cause and wish to help Reason #1
● Human beings are limited and imperfect
Moral Significance of HA
● Morally significant because they involve Reason #2
choices that can be evaluated in terms of ● Limitations are part of Human life
right or wrong, good or evil
● Subject to moral praise or blame Responsibility
● e.g. decide to steal = morally wrong, ● State or fact of having a duty to deal with
violates honesty and respect for others something or of having control over
someone
Moral Responsibility of HA
Is Responsibility a limitation of freedom or proof ● This freedom comes with responsibility for
that there is freedom? the consequences of one’s actions

Jean Paul Sartre Reason #1

● Because a human person is free, he/she is ● A person is in-charge of his/her own life,
not responsible not only for himself/herself responsible for him/herself
but also for others and ultimately for 1. He/she has to live his/her own life,
humanity proxy is not allowed
● “Humans are condemned (cursed) to be 2. A person has to think for everything
free” in his/her own life
● Existentialism, existence preceded essence; 3. It is your life and it is your
Individuals are thrown into an existence responsibility to live it
without a predetermined essence or 4. Other people can give you pieces of
purpose and must freely choose their own advice and suggestions but it is you
path who are going to make a choice
● Since individuals are free to make their own 5. We are thrown into different limiting
choices, they are fully responsible for these conditions, but we are free to
choices and their consequences transform them
● e.g. it is not your fault you were born poor or
in a broken family, but it’s your responsibility
to change your condition

Reason #2
● A person is also responsible for others
1. A person is free but he/she does not
exist alone, he/she co-exist with
4. others and his/her actions surely
affects others
2. his /her actions should not only be
self-regarding but also others-
3. 1. regarding
3. Whenever a person decides and
acts, he/she takes into consideration
2. his/her family, friends, relatives, and
other people
4. Hence, to be free is to be
● Each person have freedom
responsible not only for oneself, but
● Your freedom stops the moment another’s
also for others and ultimately for
right begins
humanity
Moral Responsibility
“When we say that man chooses himself, we do
● Despite its emphasis on individual freedom,
mean that every one of us must choose himself; but
existentialism doesn't advocate for a self-
by that we also mean that in choosing for himself,
centered or amoral existence
he chooses for all men.” – Jean Paul Sartre
● Instead, it posits that with freedom comes
responsibility not only for one’s own actions
but also for others Reason and Impartiality

Freedom and Choice Reason and Impartiality

● e.g. A business owner has the freedom to ● Fundamental concepts in ethics that play a
choose how to run their business, his crucial role in moral decision making and
decision impacts not only the company’s the evaluation of ethical principles
profitability but also the environment and by
extension the community and future Reason
generations ● Use of rational thinking, critical analysis,
● If business owner chooses eco-friendly and logical arguments to make ethical
practices, they are acknowledging their judgments and decisions
responsibility to the environment and ● Involves assessing the consequences of
society actions, considering moral principles, and
● This freedom is central to existentialist evaluating the ethical implications of one’s
thought, emphasizing the individual’s choices
capacity to make choices
Impartiality
 ● Principle of treating all individuals or parties
equally and without bias
● In ethics, it means making moral judgments
and decisions based on objective criteria
and without favoritism or prejudice

Utilitarianism
● An ethical theory that relies heavily on
reason and impartiality
● Asserts that the morally right action is the
one that maximizes overall happiness or
minimizes suffering for the greatest number
of people
● To apply utilitarian reasoning impartially,
one must consider the well-being of all
individuals affected by a decision and weigh
the consequences objectively.
● e.g. Medical ethics
○ professionals are expected to make
decisions based on reason and
impartiality

○ When allocating medical resources

like organ transplants, physicians
must consider medical criteria and
ethical principles rather than
personal biases

Ethical Dilemmas
● When faced with ethical dilemmas,
individuals often rely on reason and
impartiality to navigate difficult choices
● e.g. a person discovers that a close friend
has committed a crime, they may need to
report the friend to law enforcement despite
their emotional attachment, guided by a
commitment to justice and fairness

Case: The Trolley Problem

A trolley is headed towards five people tied to a

track, and you have the option to divert the trolley
onto another track where it will hit only one person.
You must decide whether to take action and divert
the trolley or allow it to continue its course.
● Reason:
○ Utilitarian reasoning may lead you to
divert the trolley, as it minimizes the
harm by sacrificing one life to save
five
○ Deontological reasoning, might lead
you to believe that intentionally
causing harm si morally wrong,
regardless of the consequences
● Impartiality:
○ Regardless of personal feelings or
relationships, an impartial decision
maker would not show favoritism
towards any of the individuals
involved
○ Instead they would choose the
greater good and act accordingly