14.

4 Network structures

By Waqqad
Introduction to Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks
• Definition:
• A peer-to-peer (P2P) network consists of
computers, known as peers, that connect to
each other directly without requiring a central
server to manage communications.
• Network Configurations:
• A P2P network can range from a small setup of
two computers in a home environment to a
large-scale system with hundreds of devices
connected over the internet.
• Primary Purpose:
• The main reason P2P networks are established
is to enable sharing of data, resources, and
files between users on the network.
Introduction to Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks

• Decentralized Structure:
• Unlike client-server models, P2P networks operate
without centralized control, meaning each peer is
independently responsible for data management.
• Equal Responsibility:
• Each peer in a P2P network has the same level of
responsibility and capability, allowing any peer to both
provide and request services.
• Self-Sufficient Communication:
• Peers communicate directly with one another, reducing
the need for centralized infrastructure, which can
simplify network management.
Features of Peer-to-Peer Networks
• Individual Data Storage:
• Data is stored locally on each peer’s device, and each
peer controls how and with whom their data is shared
within the network.
• Peripheral Resource Sharing:
• In addition to data, peers can also share devices such
as printers or external storage with other peers in the
network.
• Privacy and Access Control:
• Each user can designate files and resources as public
(accessible by other peers) or private (restricted to
themselves), managing the accessibility of their data.
Features of Peer-to-Peer Networks

• Dual Role of Peers:

• In a P2P setup, each device can function both as a client
(requesting data) and as a server (providing data),
eliminating the need for dedicated server resources.
• Cost Efficiency:
• P2P networks are generally more affordable than client-
server networks as they don’t require costly central
servers or specialized network management
infrastructure.
• Network Flexibility:
• Peers can join and leave the network freely, which
provides flexibility in network configuration and usage
based on current needs.
Peer-to-Peer File Sharing

• Digital Media File Sharing: P2P networks are

commonly used for sharing media files, including
audio, video, and document files, through direct
exchange between users.
• Dedicated P2P Software: Specialized software,
such as BitTorrent, is used to facilitate file
sharing by connecting users who possess
desired files with those looking to download
them.
• Dynamic Data Transmission: Files are often
broken into small pieces and distributed across
different peers, which are then reassembled at
the receiving peer to reconstruct the complete
file.
 Peer-to-Peer File Sharing
• Efficient File Transfer:
• P2P networks are highly efficient for transferring
large files across networks, particularly when
distributing large media content to multiple users
simultaneously.
• Controversial Use Cases:
• While P2P technology is versatile, it has been
criticized and regulated in some cases due to its use
in illegal file sharing, especially regarding
copyrighted media.
• Legal and Ethical Issues:
• Many P2P networks have faced scrutiny and legal
challenges as unauthorized sharing of copyrighted
files violates intellectual property laws, raising
ethical and legal concerns for users.
Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Networks

• Low Setup Cost: Peer-to-peer networks are

relatively cheap to set up as they do not require
expensive servers or extensive infrastructure.
• Ease of Setup: Minimal technical knowledge is
needed to establish a P2P network, making it
accessible for a range of users.
• Resource Sharing: Users can easily share data
and resources, such as files or printers,
directly between devices on the network.
Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Networks

• Reduced Network Traffic: P2P networks often

experience less congestion than client-server
models due to their decentralized nature.
• User Control: Each peer has full control over
the data stored on their own device, providing
flexibility in managing data access and privacy.
• Resilience to Individual Failure: If a peer
device fails, it has minimal impact on the
network as a whole, only affecting the data
temporarily unavailable from the failed device
Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Networks

• Performance Impact:
• Accessing a peer’s resources can slow down their
device, as resource-sharing may affect system
performance.
• Lack of Centralized Backup:
• Data is not centrally backed up, so if a peer’s data is
lost, it cannot be recovered by other users unless a copy
exists elsewhere.
• Disorganized Data Sharing:
• Without a central organization, shared public files may
be difficult to navigate, lacking consistent structure.
Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Networks

• Individual Security Responsibility:

• Each peer must manage their own security,
increasing the risk of virus transmission if users
are not vigilant.
• Scalability Limitations:
• P2P networks can become inefficient and
challenging to manage as the number of
connected peers increases.
• Data Integrity Risks:
• There is no centralized control over data accuracy
or reliability, making data management less
structured than client-server networks.
Client-Server Network

• Centralized Control:
• The server serves as a central point of control,
managing resources and functions for all connected
client devices.
• Dedicated Server Role:
• Servers in a client-server network perform dedicated
functions, such as data storage, resource sharing, or
running applications for clients.
• Request-Response Communication:
• Clients request services from the server, which
responds by performing the task or providing the
requested resource.
Client-Server Network
• Enhanced Security:
• Centralized control allows for streamlined security
management, reducing the risk of unauthorized
access across the network.
• Efficient Resource Management:
• Servers optimize resources by storing data,
applications, and services in one location, making
access and management easier.
• Scalability:
• Client-server networks can easily scale as more client
devices can be added to the network by connecting to
the existing server.
Server Types
File Server
• Data Storage & Management:
• Centralizes data storage, saving
space on individual client devices.
• Universal Access:
• Allows users to access their files
and shared files from any client
computer in the network.
File Server

• Central Backup:
• Enables easy and centralized backup of all
stored data to prevent data loss.
• Collaboration:
• Facilitates sharing and collaboration among
users by providing a single access point for
files.
Web Server
• Web Page Hosting:
• Stores, processes, and transmits
web pages to client devices.
• Content Management:
• Ensures fast and reliable access
to website content for users.
Web Server
• Network Distribution:
• Can distribute content to a wide
user base across the internet.
• Security Measures:
• Often has built-in security
protocols to protect web data
Mail Server
• Email Storage:
• Stores incoming emails for users
until downloaded upon request.
• Email Routing:
• Forwards outgoing messages to
their correct destinations.
Mail Server
• Security Scans:
• Scans emails for viruses, malware,
spam, and inappropriate content.
• Centralized Communication:
• Enables efficient communication
management across a network.
Application
Server
• Software Installation & Execution:
• Hosts and runs desktop and web
applications for client devices.
• Resource Optimization:
• Reduces load on individual devices
by centralizing application
processing.
Application
Server
• Universal Access:
• Provides application access to
multiple clients within the network.
• Scalability:
• Allows easy scaling of applications
to meet user demands.
Print Server
• Print Job Management:
• Manages print requests from clients,
sending them to designated printers.
• Print Queue:
• Queues jobs in high-demand situations,
ensuring order in printing tasks.
Print Server
• Printer Selection:
• Allows jobs to be directed to
specific, nearest, or next available
printers.
• Resource Sharing:
• Enables multiple users to share
printers across the network.
FTP Server
• File Transfer Management:
• Manages data transfer using file
transfer protocol (FTP).
• Activity Logging:
• Keeps records of all FTP activities
for security and management.
FTP Server
• Internet File Transfers:
• Commonly used for transferring
files over the internet.
• User Access Control:
• Regulates access to file resources
and maintains data integrity.
Proxy Server
• Client Intermediary:
• Acts as a bridge between client
requests and other servers.
• Security Enhancement:
• Provides an extra security layer by
concealing client identities.
Proxy Server
• Firewall Capabilities:
• Can act as a firewall, filtering
incoming and outgoing traffic.
• Performance Optimization:
• Often caches frequently accessed
resources to improve speed.
Virtual Server
• Virtualization:
• Runs on virtualized hardware, allowing
multiple virtual servers on one physical
machine.
• Adaptability:
• Can be configured to perform the
functions of any physical server type.
Virtual Server
• Cost-Effective:
• Allows organizations to optimize
resources and reduce physical
hardware needs.
• Scalability:
• Can be adjusted or expanded easily to
meet increased workload demands.
Virtual Server
• Cost-Effective:
• Allows organizations to optimize
resources and reduce physical
hardware needs.
• Scalability:
• Can be adjusted or expanded easily to
meet increased workload demands.
Check Your
Understanding

Quiz Title: Peer-to-Peer (P2P) and

Client-Server network
Quiz Link:
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c5df8fa8f280b4f056
Client-Server Network: Advantages

• Centralized File Location and Backup:

• All files are stored centrally, allowing for regular
backups, ensuring data is secure without
individual responsibility.
• Centralized Security Management:
• Security is managed from a central server,
reducing the need for each user to manage
individual security measures.
• Controlled Access Levels:
• Access levels can be customized for resources
and data, ensuring only authorized users have
access to sensitive information.
Client-Server Network: Advantages

• Centralized Software and Peripheral

Updates:
• Updates can be rolled out across the
network from one central location,
maintaining consistency and reducing
reliance on users to update individually.
• Efficient Resource Management:
• Resources such as printers and storage are
easily managed and shared, improving
overall network efficiency.
Client-Server Network: Disadvantages

• High Initial Setup Cost:

• Setting up requires expensive equipment like servers,
making it a significant initial investment.
• Ongoing Maintenance Costs:
• Maintenance requires specialized knowledge and
skills, which can be costly to hire or contract.
• Single Point of Failure:
• Server failure can halt access to resources for all
users, making the entire network dependent on server
stability.
Client-Server Network: Disadvantages

• Scalability Challenges:
• Scaling up the network requires more powerful
servers and additional infrastructure,
increasing costs.
• Complexity of Configuration:
• Setting up and managing a client-server
network requires careful planning and
knowledge, making it more complex than peer-
to-peer setups.
Server Farm

• Definition:
• A server farm is a large group of networked servers
working together to provide massive computing power
beyond a single server's capability.
• Processing Power:
• Collectively, server farms have immense processing
power, allowing them to handle very large and complex
tasks simultaneously.
• Cooling Requirements:
• Due to the high energy output and processing demand,
server farms need significant cooling systems to
prevent overheating.
Server Farm

• Task Execution:

• Multiple servers in a farm can collaborate to execute large tasks

efficiently, with each server managing parts of the workload.

• High Server Count:

• Server farms can include thousands of servers, maximizing

capacity and redundancy.

• Example:

• Google’s server farm, one of the largest globally, contains over

10,000 servers to manage vast amounts of data and processes.
Local Area Network (LAN)

• Definition:
• A LAN is a network connecting computers and devices
within a small geographic area, like a home, school, or
small business.
• Scale:
• LANs range from a simple setup (e.g., two computers
at home) to more complex networks with hundreds of
devices in a business.
• Purpose:
• Primarily created to enable efficient data and resource
sharing, such as files, printers, and other peripherals.
Local Area Network (LAN)
• Components:
• LANs may include switches, routers, servers,
computers, and peripheral devices.
• Speed:
• Typically offers high data transfer speeds due
to the short distances between devices.
• Control:
• Managed by local administrators, allowing
direct control over network security, access,
and configuration.
Wide Area
Network (WAN)
• Definition:
• A WAN connects computers and devices across a large
geographic area, spanning cities, regions, or even
countries.
• Largest Example:
• The internet is the largest WAN, interconnecting millions
of networks worldwide.
• Purpose:
• Used by organizations with multiple branches (e.g.,
banks, government agencies) to facilitate
Wide Area Network (WAN)

• Structure:
• Typically consists of multiple LANs
connected across various locations to form a
unified WAN.
• Data Transmission:
• Uses leased telecommunication lines or
satellite links, leading to typically lower
speeds compared to LANs.
• Management:
• WANs are often managed by telecom
providers, requiring more complex
infrastructure and security measures.
LAN Factors
• Data Transfer Rate:
• LANs support higher data transfer
speeds, often up to 1 Gb per second.
• Data Transmission Errors:
• Fewer errors typically occur because
data is transmitted over shorter
distances.
• Method of Connection:
• LANs are commonly connected using
copper wire, fiber optic cables, or radio
waves, sometimes combining all three.
LAN Factors
• Security:
• Easier to secure due to the smaller
number of devices, with security
responsibility largely managed by the
network’s owners.
• Ownership:
• The network components and devices are
generally owned by the individual or
organization, allowing full control and
maintenance.
WAN Factors

• Data Transfer Rate:

• WANs generally have lower data transfer speeds,
often less than 200 Mb per second.
• Data Transmission Errors:
• Higher likelihood of errors due to data transmission
over longer distances.
• Method of Connection:
• WANs use a variety of connections, including copper
wires, fiber optic cables, radio waves, microwaves,
leased lines, and satellites.
WAN Factors
• Security:
• More challenging to secure due to a larger
number of devices; organizations often
depend on the security measures of
external providers.
• Ownership:
• Parts of the WAN are typically owned by
third parties, meaning that organizations
must rely on external parties for control
and maintenance.
Virtual Private Network (VPN)

• Purpose of a VPN:
• Allows individuals or organizations to access
sensitive data remotely with enhanced security.
• Security Advantage:
• Helps protect against potential interception by
hackers during data transmission.
• VPN Client Software:
• Users open VPN client software to create and access
the VPN.
Virtual Private Network (VPN)

• Data Encryption:
• Encrypts data before sending it
across the internet to secure its
content.
• Data Transmission Path:
• Data is first routed to a VPN server
before reaching its final destination.
How a VPN Secures Data

• Anonymity Through VPN Server:

• When data arrives at the destination, it appears to be
sent from the VPN server, masking the original
sender.
• Protection Against Packet Interception:
• Without a VPN, packet inspection reveals both the
sender and receiver.
• Minimizes Hacking Risk:
• Reduces the chance of hacker access to sensitive
data and user accounts.
How a VPN Secures Data

• Encryption Process:
• Ensures that even if data is intercepted, it
remains unreadable to unauthorized
users.
• VPN Client and Server Communication:
• Secure communication established only
between VPN client software and VPN
server.
VPN Security Benefits

• Data Encryption:
• Encrypts data so intercepted data packets are
unreadable and meaningless.
• Hidden Final Destination:
• If intercepted between user and VPN server, hackers
cannot trace data to the final destination.
• Masked Sender Identity:
• When intercepted between VPN and destination, the
hacker cannot identify the original sender.
VPN Security Benefits

• Enhanced Privacy:
• Maintains user privacy by preventing
exposure of user identity and location.
• Remote Secure Access:
• Allows secure access to sensitive data
from any remote location, even over
public networks.
Advantages of VPN

• Data Encryption:
• Data is encrypted before it is sent, enhancing security
and protecting against interception.
• Sender Anonymity:
• The VPN keeps the sender's identity private,
protecting it from the destination and any potential
hackers.
• Secure Access to Remote Data:
• VPNs provide secure access to sensitive data from
any location, ideal for remote work or travel.
Advantages of VPN

• Maintenance Responsibility:
• VPN server maintenance is managed by
the VPN provider, reducing the user’s
workload.
• Access to Geo-restricted Content:
• VPNs allow users to access content
restricted by geographic location,
offering greater internet freedom
Disadvantages of VPN

• Legal and Ethical Concerns:

• In some countries, VPN use is illegal or controversial
due to potential misuse for anonymity in criminal
activity.
• Reliance on Third-Party Security:
• VPN security depends on the provider’s effectiveness
in software and server maintenance.
• Cost Involvement:
• Many VPN services require a subscription fee, which
could be an ongoing monthly or annual cost.
Disadvantages of VPN

• Potential Slower Speeds:

• VPN encryption and rerouting may
reduce internet speeds, impacting
performance for data-heavy tasks.
• Limited Device Support:
• Some VPN providers restrict the
number of devices that can use the VPN
simultaneously.
Check Your
Understanding

Quiz Title: client-server, server

farms, LAN, WAN
Quiz Link:
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725eb49b68e76464c5e3ed1
Mobile Network

Definition:
A mobile network, also known as a cellular network,
is a wireless WAN that connects portable devices,
such as smartphones, through radio signals.
Coverage:
Mobile networks now cover a significant portion of
inhabited areas worldwide, enabling connectivity
even in remote locations.
Communication Method:
The network uses radio frequencies to transmit and
receive data between devices and base stations.
Mobile Network

• Cell Structure:
• Mobile networks are divided into small
geographic areas called cells to manage network
traffic efficiently.
• Base Stations:
• Each cell contains a radio base station
responsible for sending and receiving
communications within its area.
• Internet Access:
• Base stations are connected to public
telecommunications systems, providing internet
access to users within each cell.
Types of Cells in Mobile Networks

• Picocells:
• These cells cover a very small area, typically less than 200
meters, suitable for densely populated areas like airports or
malls.
• Microcells:
• Covering up to 2 kilometers, microcells are common in urban
areas and help improve network capacity and reduce
interference.
• Macrocells:
• These larger cells cover wide regions, providing network
service in rural or less-populated areas where fewer base
stations are needed.
Types of Cells in Mobile Networks

• Cell Size and Usage:

• The size of each cell is optimized based on
population density and geographic needs, with
smaller cells in busy areas and larger cells in
rural zones.
• Seamless Connectivity:
• As a user moves, their connection is handed over
from one cell to another without interruption.
• Public Services Link:
• Cells connect through the telecommunications
network to provide internet and other services
across wide geographic regions.
Mobile Network
Generations

By Waqqad
1G Network (First Generation)

• Introduction to 1G:
• The 1G network, launched in the 1980s,
marked the beginning of mobile networks
with analog signal transmission.
• Primary Use:
• It primarily supported basic voice calls and
text messages, but data services were not
possible.
• Call Quality Issues:
• Call quality was often poor due to frequent
noise and interference, especially in areas
with limited signal.
1G Network (First Generation)

• Limited Coverage:
• The coverage was limited, with weaker
connectivity and reliability in rural and remote
areas.
• Security Concerns:
• Security on 1G networks was minimal, making
analog signals easy to intercept and less private.
• General Reputation:
• The 1G network became known for its low call
quality, limited capacity, and lack of modern
features.
2G Network (Second Generation)

• Transition to Digital:
• 2G, introduced in the early 1990s, transitioned to
digital transmission, improving call quality and
network reliability.
• Introduction of SMS/MMS:
• It supported GSM technology, allowing data
services like SMS and MMS for the first time.
• Enhanced Security: Enhanced encryption
methods provided more secure and private
communications than
• nalog networks.
2G Network (Second Generation)

• Roaming Feature:
• Roaming was introduced, so compatible phones could
connect to different 2G networks across the globe.
• Data Transfer Speed:
• Data transfer speeds were increased to around 64 Kbps,
allowing for basic mobile browsing and email.
• Significance of 2G:
• 2G offered a notable upgrade over 1G in terms of both
security and data functionality, setting the stage for
mobile internet.
3G Network (Third Generation)

• High-Speed Data:
• Launched in the early 2000s, 3G significantly
increased data speeds to around 2 Mbps,
supporting more advanced mobile functions.
• Expanded Connectivity:
• 3G networks allowed users to browse the
internet, stream multimedia content, and
engage in video calls.
• Backward Compatibility:
• Backward compatibility ensured that 3G
could operate alongside 2G networks,
improving global roaming options.
3G Network (Third Generation)

• Increased Security:
• Improved encryption standards made 3G
connections more secure, enhancing data
privacy for users.
• Support for Mobile Apps:
• This generation supported emerging mobile
applications, allowing functionalities like GPS
and online gaming.
• Impact on Mobile Use:
• 3G networks set a new standard for mobile data,
enabling a shift toward smartphones and data-
centric usage.
4G Network (Fourth Generation)

• Introduction of High-Speed 4G:

• Introduced in the late 2000s, 4G networks offered
much faster theoretical speeds of up to 1 Gbps, ideal
for high-demand applications.
• Support for Streaming and Gaming:
• This generation became widely adopted for activities
such as HD video streaming, online gaming, and rapid
downloads/uploads.
• Broadband Replacement:
• 4G was viewed as a potential broadband
replacement, with speeds comparable to home
internet, suitable for data-intensive tasks.
4G Network (Fourth Generation)

• Improvements in VoIP and Video Calls:

• VoIP and video calling quality improved on 4G, making these

services viable alternatives to traditional calls.

• Enhanced App and Cloud Support:

• Enhanced support for mobile applications and cloud-based

services expanded user possibilities and productivity.

• Legacy of 4G:

• 4G networks laid the groundwork for a fully connected mobile

ecosystem, leading to further innovation in mobile technology.
5G Network (Fifth Generation)

• Latest Generation:
• 5G, the latest generation, offers high-speed,
reliable connections with average download
speeds expected to reach 1 Gbps.
• Fast Initial Testing:
• Initial 5G testing has shown speeds up to 1.5
Gbps, making it ideal for data-heavy tasks like
UHD streaming and augmented reality.
• Low Latency Advantage:
• With lower latency than previous generations, 5G
supports real-time applications, such as remote
medical procedures and autonomous vehicles.
5G Network (Fifth Generation)
• Enhanced Device Connectivity:
• Improved network density allows more devices to
connect simultaneously, ideal for IoT
implementations in smart cities.
• Advanced Security:
• 5G networks offer more advanced encryption and
security, adding layers of protection in data
transfer and personal information.
• Future Potential of 5G:
• Though not fully deployed yet, 5G has
transformative potential, enabling new
technologies and industries through faster, more
reliable connectivity.
Advantages of Mobile Networks

• On-the-Move Connectivity:
• Mobile networks allow users to communicate and
access the internet from virtually any location,
supporting the widespread use of smartphones and
other mobile devices.
• Energy Efficiency with Lower Power Transmitters:
• Dividing the network into cells enables the use of
low-power radio transmitters, reducing energy
consumption and costs.
• Efficient Frequency Use:
• Limited radio frequencies can be reused across
non-adjacent cells, maximizing the number of
simultaneous connections.
Advantages of Mobile Networks

• Extended Geographic Coverage:

• Mobile networks use multiple transmitters in separate
cells, covering a much larger area than a single, high-
powered transmitter would allow.
• Enhanced Signal Range:
• Using numerous low-power transmitters ensures robust
coverage across wide areas without requiring high power
levels.
• Increased Network Reliability:
• If one base station fails, it only impacts the specific cell it
serves, leaving the rest of the network unaffected and
ensuring continued service elsewhere.
 Disadvantages of Mobile Networks

• Variable Reception Quality:

• Signal reception can degrade near the edge of a cell,
resulting in weaker signals and possible interruptions in
communication.
• Frequency Interference Concerns:
• The allocation of frequencies must be carefully managed to
avoid overlap and interference between neighboring cells.
• Technology Limitations for 5G:
• The technology for full 5G implementation is still limited,
with high costs and slow adoption potentially delaying its
widespread usability.
Disadvantages of Mobile Networks

• High Infrastructure Costs:

• Setting up and maintaining a network of
numerous transmitters and base stations can be
costly for providers.
• Environmental Impact:
• The increased number of transmitters may impact
landscapes and contribute to electronic waste,
especially during technology upgrades.
• Security and Privacy Issues:
• Mobile networks are susceptible to security
breaches, and user data can be vulnerable if
proper measures are not implemented.
Check Your Understanding

Quiz Title: Understanding of mobile

networks
Quiz Link:
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