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Plastic
Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main
ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be molded, extruded or pressed into
solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as
being lightweight, durable, flexible, nontoxic, and inexpensive to produce, has led to their
widespread use.[1][2] Most plastics are derived from natural gas and petroleum, and a small
fraction from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives.[3]

Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion metric tons of plastic are estimated to have been made; more
than half of this has been produced since 2004. In 2023, preliminary figures indicate that over 400
million metric tons of plastic were produced worldwide.[4] If global trends on plastic demand
continue, it is estimated that annual global plastic production will reach over 1.3 billion tons by Household items made of various types of
2060.[4] Major applications include packaging (40%) and building/construction (20%).[1] plastics

The success and dominance of plastics since the early 20th century has caused widespread
environmental concerns,[5] due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused, or is
incapable of reuse, either being captured in landfills or persisting in the environment as plastic pollution and microplastics. Plastic pollution can
be found in all the world's major water bodies, for example, creating garbage patches in all of the world's oceans and contaminating terrestrial
ecosystems. Of all the plastic discarded so far, some 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled.[6]

In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping, plumbing
or vinyl siding.[7] Other uses include automobiles (up to 20% plastic[7]), furniture, and toys.[7] In the developing world, the applications of plastic
may differ; 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging.[7] Worldwide, about 50 kg of plastic is produced annually per person, with
production doubling every ten years.

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The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in 1907, by Leo Baekeland,[8] who coined the term "plastics".[9] Dozens
of different types of plastics are produced today, such as polyethylene, which is widely used in product packaging, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
used in construction and pipes because of its strength and durability. Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics,
including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger, who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry," and Herman Mark, known as "the father of
polymer physics".[10]

Etymology
The word plastic derives from the Greek πλαστικός (plastikos), meaning "capable of being shaped or molded;" in turn, it is from πλαστός
(plastos) meaning "molded."[11] As a noun, the word most commonly refers to the solid products of petrochemical-derived manufacturing.[12]

The noun plasticity refers specifically here to the deformability of the materials used in the manufacture of plastics. Plasticity allows molding,
extrusion or compression into a variety of shapes: films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles and boxes, among many others. Plasticity also has a technical
definition in materials science outside the scope of this article; it refers to the non-reversible change in form of solid substances.

Structure
Most plastics contain organic polymers.[13] The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, with or without the
attachment of oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. These chains comprise many repeating units formed from monomers. Each polymer chain
consists of several thousand repeating units. The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the main path, linking together a large number of
repeat units. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups called side chains hang from this backbone; they are usually
attached to the monomers before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain. The structure of these side chains
influences the properties of the polymer.

Classifications
Plastics are usually classified by the chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains. Important groups classified in this way include
the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics. Plastics can be classified by the chemical process used in their
synthesis, such as condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking.[14] They can also be classified by their physical properties, including hardness,
density, tensile strength, thermal resistance, and glass transition temperature. Plastics can additionally be classified by their resistance and

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reactions to various substances and processes, such as exposure to organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation.[15] Other classifications of
plastics are based on qualities relevant to manufacturing or product design for a particular purpose. Examples include thermoplastics,
thermosets, conductive polymers, biodegradable plastics, engineering plastics and elastomers.

Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers

One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical processes used to make them are
reversible or not.

Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and thus can be molded
repeatedly. Examples include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride
(PVC).[16]

Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after they have solidified, they stay
solid.[17] If reheated, thermosets decompose rather than melt. In the thermosetting process, an irreversible chemical
reaction occurs. The vulcanization of rubber is an example of this process. Before heating in the presence of sulfur,
natural rubber (polyisoprene) is a sticky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the product is dry and rigid.

A plastic handle from a

kitchen utensil, deformed by
heat and partially melted

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Elastomers consist of wide-meshed

Thermosets consist of closely cross- cross-linked polymers. The wide
linked polymers. Cross-links are mesh allows the material to stretch
shown as red dots in the figure. under tensile load.
Thermoplastics consist of non-crosslinked
polymers, often with a semi-crystalline structure
(shown in red). They have a glass transition
temperature and are fusible.

Commodity, Engineering and High-performance plastics

Commodity plastics
Around 70% of global production is concentrated in six major polymer types, the so-called commodity plastics. Unlike most other plastics these
can often be identified by their resin identification code (RIC):

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE)

High-density polyethylene (HDPE or PE-HD)

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC or V)

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE or PE-LD),

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Polypropylene (PP)

Polystyrene (PS)

Polyurethanes (PUR) and PP&A fibers[18] are often also included as major commodity classes, although
they usually lack RICs, as they are chemically quite diverse groups. These materials are inexpensive,
versatile and easy to work with, making them the preferred choice for the mass production everyday
objects. Their biggest single application is in packaging, with some 146-million tonnes being used this way
in 2015, equivalent to 36% of global production. Due to their dominance; many of the properties and
problems commonly associated with plastics, such as pollution stemming from their poor
biodegradability, are ultimately attributable to commodity plastics.

A huge number of plastics exist beyond the commodity plastics, with many having exceptional properties.

Chemical structures and uses of some

common plastics

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Global plastic production by polymer type (2015)[19]

Percentage
Production of all Thermal
Polymer Polymer type
(Mt) plastics character
(%)
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) 64 15.7 Polyolefin Thermoplastic

High-density polyethylene (HDPE) 52 12.8 Polyolefin Thermoplastic

polypropylene (PP) 68 16.7 Polyolefin Thermoplastic

Polystyrene (PS) 25 6.1 Unsaturated polyolefin Thermoplastic

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 38 9.3 Halogenated Thermoplastic

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 33 8.1 Condensation Thermoplastic

Polyurethane (PUR) 27 6.6 Condensation Thermoset[20]

PP&A Fibers[18] 59 14.5 Condensation Thermoplastic

All Others 16 3.9 Various Varies

Additives 25 6.1 - -

Total 407 100 - -

Engineering plastics
Engineering plastics are more robust and are used to make products such as vehicle parts, building and construction materials, and some
machine parts. In some cases they are polymer blends formed by mixing different plastics together (ABS, HIPS etc.). Engineering plastics can
replace metals in vehicles, lowering their weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6–8%. Roughly 50% of the volume of modern cars is made of
plastic, but this only accounts for 12–17% of the vehicle weight.[21]

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS): electronic equipment cases (e.g. computer monitors, printers, keyboards) and drainage pipe
High impact polystyrene (HIPS): refrigerator liners, food packaging and vending cups
Polycarbonate (PC): compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic lights, and lenses
Polycarbonate + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC + ABS): a blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic used in car interior and
exterior parts, and in mobile phone bodies
Polyethylene + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PE + ABS): a slippery blend of PE and ABS used in low-duty dry bearings

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Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) (acrylic): contact lenses (of the original "hard" variety), glazing (best known in this form by its various trade
names around the world; e.g. Perspex, Plexiglas, and Oroglas), fluorescent-light diffusers, and rear light covers for vehicles. It also forms the
basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints, when suspended in water with the use of other agents.
Silicones (polysiloxanes): heat-resistant resins used mainly as sealants but also used for high-temperature cooking utensils and as a base
resin for industrial paints
Urea-formaldehyde (UF): one of the aminoplasts used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics: used as a wood adhesive (for plywood,
chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings

High-performance plastics
High-performance plastics are usually expensive, with their use limited to specialized applications which make use of their superior properties.

Aramids: best known for their use in making body armor, this class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers are also used in aerospace
and military applications, includes Kevlar and Nomex, and Twaron.
Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylenes
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK): strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic; its biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant
applications and aerospace moldings. It is one of the most expensive commercial polymers.
Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem): a high-temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize
Polyimide: a high-temperature plastic used in materials such as Kapton tape
Polysulfone: high-temperature melt-processable resin used in membranes, filtration media, water heater dip tubes and other high-temperature
applications
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), or Teflon: heat-resistant, low-friction coatings used in non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and
water slides
Polyamide-imide (PAI): High-performance engineering plastic extensively used in high performance gears, switches, transmission and other
automotive components, and aerospace parts.[22]

Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics

Many plastics are completely amorphous (without a highly ordered molecular structure),[23] including thermosets, polystyrene, and methyl
methacrylate (PMMA). Crystalline plastics exhibit a pattern of more regularly spaced atoms, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK). However, some plastics are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in

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molecular structure, giving them both a melting point and one or more glass transitions (the temperature above which the extent of localized
molecular flexibility is substantially increased). These so-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride,
polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes.

Conductive polymers
Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While a conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented
polyacetylene,[24] has been achieved, it does not approach that of most metals. For example, copper has a conductivity of several hundred
kS/cm.[25]

Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics

Biodegradable plastics
Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade (break down) upon exposure to sunlight or ultra-violet radiation; water or dampness; bacteria;
enzymes; or wind abrasion. Attack by insects, such as waxworms and mealworms, can also be considered as forms of biodegradation. Aerobic
degradation requires that the plastic be exposed at the surface, whereas anaerobic degradation would be effective in landfill or composting
systems. Some companies produce biodegradable additives to enhance biodegradation. Although starch powder can be added as a filler to allow
some plastics to degrade more easily, such treatment does not lead to complete breakdown. Some researchers have genetically engineered
bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB); however, these were still relatively costly as of
2021.[26]

Bioplastics
While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials like cellulose and
starch.[27] Due both to the finite limits of fossil fuel reserves and to rising levels of greenhouse gases caused primarily by the burning of those
fuels, the development of bioplastics is a growing field.[28][29] Global production capacity for bio-based plastics is estimated at 327,000 tonnes
per year. In contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world's leading petrochemical-derived polyolefins, was
estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015.[30]

Plastic industry

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The plastic industry includes the global production, compounding, conversion and sale of plastic products. Although the Middle East and Russia
produce most of the required petrochemical raw materials, the production of plastic is concentrated in the global East and West. The plastic
industry comprises a huge number of companies and can be divided into several sectors:

Production
Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2-billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made, with more than half this having been produced since 2004.
Since the birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s, global production has increased enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021; this
is up from 381-million metric tonnes in 2015 (excluding additives).[6][19] From the 1950s, rapid growth occurred in the use of plastics for
packaging, in building and construction, and in other sectors.[6] If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual
global plastic production will exceed 1.1-billion tonnes annually.[6]

Polypropylene plants

A Slovnaft facility in Bratislava, A SOCAR Polymer polypropylene

Slovakia plant in Sumgayit, Azerbaijan

Annual global plastic production 1950–2015.[19] Vertical lines denote the 1973–1975 recession and
the financial crisis of 2007–2008 which caused brief lowering of plastic production.

Plastics are produced in chemical plants by the polymerization of their starting materials (monomers); which are almost always petrochemical in
nature. Such facilities are normally large and are visually similar to oil refineries, with sprawling pipework running throughout. The large size of
these plants allows them to exploit economies of scale. Despite this, plastic production is not particularly monopolized, with about 100 companies
accounting for 90% of global production.[31] This includes a mixture of private and state-owned enterprises. Roughly half of all production takes
place in East Asia, with China being the largest single producer. Major international producers include:

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Dow Chemical Global plastic production (2020)[32]

LyondellBasell Region Global production
ExxonMobil
China 31%
SABIC
BASF Japan 3%

Sibur Rest of Asia 17%

Shin-Etsu Chemical NAFTA 19%
Indorama Ventures
Latin America 4%
Sinopec
Europe 16%
Braskem
CIS 3%
Historically, Europe and North America have dominated global plastics production. However, since
2010 Asia has emerged as a significant producer, with China accounting for 31% of total plastic resin Middle East & Africa 7%
production in 2020.[32] Regional differences in the volume of plastics production are driven by user
demand, the price of fossil fuel feedstocks, and investments made in the petrochemical industry. For example, since 2010 over US$200 billion
has been invested in the United States in new plastic and chemical plants, stimulated by the low cost of raw materials. In the European Union
(EU), too, heavy investments have been made in the plastics industry, which employs over 1.6-million people with a turnover of more than 360
billion euros per year. In China in 2016 there were over 15,000 plastic manufacturing companies, generating more than US$366 billion in
revenue.[6]

In 2017, the global plastics market was dominated by thermoplastics– polymers that can be melted and recast. Thermoplastics include
polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS) and synthetic fibers, which
together represent 86% of all plastics.[6]

Compounding
Plastic is not sold as a pure unadulterated substance, but is instead mixed with various chemicals and other materials, which are collectively
known as additives. These are added during the compounding stage and include substances such as stabilizers, plasticizers and dyes, which are
intended to improve the lifespan, workability or appearance of the final item. In some cases, this can involve mixing different types of plastic
together to form a polymer blend, such as high impact polystyrene. Large companies may do their own compounding prior to production, but
some producers have it done by a third party. Companies that specialize in this work are known as Compounders.

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The compounding of thermosetting plastic is relatively straightforward; as it

remains liquid until it is cured into its final form. For thermosoftening
materials, which are used to make the majority of products, it is necessary to
melt the plastic in order to mix-in the additives. This involves heating it to
anywhere between 150–320 °C (300–610 °F). Molten plastic is viscous and
exhibits laminar flow, leading to poor mixing. Compounding is therefore
done using extrusion equipment, which is able to supply the necessary heat
and mixing to give a properly dispersed product.

The concentrations of most additives are usually quite low, however high
levels can be added to create Masterbatch products. The additives in these
are concentrated but still properly dispersed in the host resin. Masterbatch
granules can be mixed with cheaper bulk polymer and will release their
additives during processing to give a homogeneous final product. This can be Plastic compounding scheme for a thermosoftening material
cheaper than working with a fully compounded material and is particularly
common for the introduction of color.

Converting
Companies that produce finished goods are known as converters (sometimes
processors). The vast majority of plastics produced worldwide are thermosoftening
and must be heated until molten in order to be molded. Various sorts of extrusion
equipment exist which can then form the plastic into almost any shape.

Film blowing - Plastic films (carrier bags, sheeting)

Blow molding - Small thin-walled hollow objects in large quantities (drinks bottles, Short video on injection molding Blow molding a plastic drinks
toys) (9 min 37 s) bottle
Rotational molding - Large thick-walled hollow objects (IBC tanks)
Injection molding - Solid objects (phone cases, keyboards)
Spinning - Produces fibers (nylon, spandex etc.)
For thermosetting materials the process is slightly different, as the plastics are liquid to begin with and but must be cured to give solid products,
but much of the equipment is broadly similar.

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The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging made from LDPE (e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film),
containers made from HDPE (e.g. milk bottles, shampoo bottles, ice cream tubs), and PET (e.g. bottles for water and other drinks). Together
these products account for around 36% of plastics use in the world. Most of them (e.g. disposable cups, plates, cutlery, takeaway containers,
carrier bags) are used for only a short period, many for less than a day. The use of plastics in building and construction, textiles, transportation
and electrical equipment also accounts for a substantial share of the plastics market. Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer
life spans. They may be in use for periods ranging from around five years (e.g. textiles and electrical equipment) to more than 20 years (e.g.
construction materials, industrial machinery).[6]

Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities, with some form of plastic having made its way into most people's lives. North
America (i.e. the North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA region) accounts for 21% of global plastic consumption, closely followed by
China (20%) and Western Europe (18%). In North America and Europe, there is high per capita plastic consumption (94 kg and
85 kg/capita/year, respectively). In China, there is lower per capita consumption (58 kg/capita/year), but high consumption nationally because of
its large population.[6]

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Gallery

Clear plastic bags

Water bottles made of Disposable suits can (shown) are made of
PET High density polythene be made from non- Plastic mailing low density polythene A Ziploc bag made of
(HDPE) is used for woven HDPE fabric. envelopes made of (LDPE); blown-film LDPE
making sturdy HDPE shopping bags with
containers; transparent handles are now made
containers may be of HDPE.
made of PET.

Metalized
polypropylene film is a Stools made of HDPE
Food wrap made of commonly used snack Kinder Joy shell made A polypropylene chair Expanded polystyrene
LDPE pack material.[33] of polypropylene foam ("Thermocol")

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Extruded polystyrene
foam ("Styrofoam") Thermocol take-away Egg tray made of A piece of packaging A kitchen sponge made Non-stick cookware
food container PETE foam made of LDPE of polyurethane foam with Teflon coating

PVC pipes PVC blister pack

iPhone 5c, a To withstand the
smartphone with a extreme water
polycarbonate pressure, this 10-meter
"unibody" shell deep Monterey Bay
Aquarium tank has
windows made of
acrylic glass up to
33 cm thick.

Applications
The largest application for plastics is as packaging materials, but they are used in a wide range of other sectors, including: construction (pipes,
gutters, door and windows), textiles (stretchable fabrics, fleece), consumer goods (toys, tableware, toothbrushes), transportation (headlights,
bumpers, body panels, wing mirrors), electronics (phones, computers, televisions) and as machine parts.[19] In optics, plastics are used to
manufacture aspheric lenses.[34]

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Additives
Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to change their performance or appearance, making it possible to alter the properties of plastics to
better suit their intended applications.[35][36] Additives are therefore one of the reasons why plastic is used so widely.[37] Plastics are composed of
chains of polymers. Many different chemicals are used as plastic additives. A randomly chosen plastic product generally contains around 20
additives. The identities and concentrations of additives are generally not listed on products.[6]

In the EU, over 400 additives are used in high volumes.[38][6] In a global market analysis, 5,500 additives were found.[39] At a minimum, all
plastic contains some polymer stabilizers which permit them to be melt-processed (molded) without suffering polymer degradation. Other
additives are optional and can be added as required, with loadings varying significantly between applications. The amount of additives contained
in plastics varies depending on the additives' function. For example, additives in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can constitute up to 80% of the total
volume.[6] Pure unadulterated plastic (barefoot resin) is never sold, even by the primary producers.

Leaching
Additives may be weakly bound to the polymers or react in the polymer matrix. Although additives are blended into plastic they remain
chemically distinct from it, and can gradually leach back out during normal use, when in landfills, or following improper disposal in the
environment.[40] Additives may also degrade to form other toxic molecules. Plastic fragmentation into microplastics and nanoplastics can allow
chemical additives to move in the environment far from the point of use. Once released, some additives and derivatives may persist in the
environment and bioaccumulate in organisms. They can have adverse effects on human health and biota. A recent review by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) revealed that out of 3,377 chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging and 906 likely
associated with it, 68 were ranked by ECHA as "highest for human health hazards" and 68 as "highest for environmental hazards".[6]

Recycling
As additives change the properties of plastics they have to be considered during recycling. Presently, almost all recycling is performed by simply
remelting and reforming used plastic into new items. Additives present risks in recycled products, as they are difficult to remove. When plastic
products are recycled, it is highly likely that the additives will be integrated into the new products. Waste plastic, even if it is all of the same
polymer type, will contain varying types and amounts of additives. Mixing these together can give a material with inconsistent properties, which
can be unappealing to industry. For example, mixing different colored plastics with different plastic colorants together can produce a discolored
or brown material and for this reason plastic is usually sorted by both polymer type and color before recycling.[6]

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Absence of transparency and reporting across the value chain often results in lack of knowledge concerning the chemical profile of the final
products. For example, products containing brominated flame retardants have been incorporated into new plastic products. Flame retardants are
a group of chemicals used in electronic and electrical equipment, textiles, furniture and construction materials which should not be present in
food packaging or child care products. A recent study found brominated dioxins as unintentional contaminants in toys made from recycled plastic
electronic waste that contained brominated flame retardants. Brominated dioxins have been found to exhibit toxicity similar to that of
chlorinated dioxins. They can have negative developmental effects and negative effects on the nervous system and interfere with mechanisms of
the endocrine system.[6]

Health effects
Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to their additives, as some compounds can be persistent, bioaccumulating and
potentially harmful.[41][42][35] The now banned flame retardants OctaBDE and PentaBDE are an example of this, while the health effects of
phthalates are an ongoing area of public concern. Additives can also be problematic if waste is burned, especially when burning is uncontrolled or
takes place in low- technology incinerators, as is common in many developing countries. Incomplete combustion can cause emissions of
hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash which can contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins.[6]

A number of additives identified as hazardous to humans and/or the environment are regulated internationally. The Stockholm Convention on
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the
environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful
impacts on human health or on the environment.[6]

Other additives proven to be harmful such as cadmium, chromium, lead and mercury (regulated under the Minamata Convention on Mercury),
which have previously been used in plastic production, are banned in many jurisdictions. However they are still routinely found in some plastic
packaging including food packaging. The use of the additive bisphenol A (BPA) in plastic baby bottles is banned in many parts of the world, but is
not restricted in some low-income countries.[6]

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In 2023, plasticosis, a new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds. The birds identified as having the disease have scarred
digestive tracts from ingesting plastic waste.[43] "When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive tract. Over time,
the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival."[44]

Types of additive

Typical Share of global

Additive concentration additive
when present Description Example compounds Comment production (by
type
(%)[35] weight)[19]
Plastics can be brittle, 80–90% of world production is used in
Phthalates are the dominant class,
adding some plasticizer PVC, much of the rest is used in cellulose
safer alternatives include adipate
Plasticizers 10–70 makes them more durable, acetate. For most products loadings are 34%
esters (DEHA, DOA) and citrate
adding lots makes them between 10 and 35%, high loadings are
esters (ATBC and TEC)
flexible used for plastisols

Being petrochemicals, most Non-chlorinated organophosphates are

Flame Brominated flame retardants,
1–30 plastics burn readily, flame ecologically safer, though often less 13%
retardants chlorinated paraffins
retardants can prevent this efficient
Traditionally derivatives of lead,
cadmium & tin. Safer modern
Heat Prevents heat related
0.3-5 alternatives include barium/zinc Almost exclusively used in PVC. 5%
stabilizers degradation
mixtures and calcium stearate,
along with various synergists

Bulking agents. Can change Calcium carbonate "chalk", talc,

Most opaque plastic contains fillers. High
Fillers 0–50 appearance and mechanical glass beads, carbon black. Also 28%
levels can also protect against UV rays.
properties, can lower price reinforcing fillers like carbon-fiber

Improved toughness and Typically some other elastomeric

Impact
10–40 polymer, e.g. rubbers, styrene Chlorinated polyethylene is used for PVC 5%
modifiers resistance to damage[45] copolymers
The most widely used type of additives,
Protects against degradation Phenols, phosphite esters, certain
Antioxidants 0.05–3 all plastics will contain polymer stabilizers 6%
during processing thioethers
of some sort

Colorants 0.001-10 Imparts color Numerous dyes or pigments 2%

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Very common. All examples form a

Assist in forming/molding the Hazardous PFASs. Paraffin wax,
coating between the plastic and machine
plastic, includes processing wax esters, metal stearates (i.e.
Lubricants 0.1-3 parts during production. Reduces 2%
aids (or flow aids), release zinc stearate), long-chain fatty acid
pressure and power usage in the
agents, slip additives amides (oleamide, erucamide)
extruder. Reduces imperfections.
Light Normally only used for items intended for
0.05–3 Protects against UV damage HALS, UV blockers and quenchers 1%
stabilizers outdoor use

Antimicrobials, antistatics, blowing

Other Various agents, nucleating agents, 4%
clarifying agents

Toxicity
Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water, and because they have a large molecular weight, they are biochemically inert.
Plastic products contain a variety of additives, however, some of which can be toxic.[46] For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are
often added to brittle plastics like PVC to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these
compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the EU has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-
ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the US has limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in
children's toys and child-care articles through the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food
containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens (cancer-causing substances).[47] Other
chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols.[42]

While a finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of its parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small
amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the World Health
Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinyl chloride, the precursor to PVC, as a human
carcinogen.[47]

Bisphenol A (BPA)
Some plastic products degrade to chemicals with estrogenic activity.[48] The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an
estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food.[47] Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the
lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase the body weight of lab animals' offspring.[49] A more recent animal study
suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease.[50] As of January
2010, the Los Angeles Times reported that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is spending $30 million to investigate indications of
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BPA's link to cancer.[51]

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic compounds
present in new car smell. The EU has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the US government banned certain types of
phthalates commonly used in plastic.[52]

Environmental effects
Because the chemical structure of most plastics renders them durable, they are resistant to many natural degradation processes. Much of this
material may persist for centuries or longer, given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as amber.

There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste
have been discarded since the 1950s.[53] Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3-billion tons of plastic, of which 6.3-billion tons is
waste, with only 9% getting recycled.[54]

It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81% polymer resin, 13% polymer fibers and 32% additives. In 2018 more than 343 million tons of
plastic waste were generated, 90% of which was composed of post-consumer plastic waste (industrial, agricultural, commercial and municipal
plastic waste). The rest was pre-consumer waste from resin production and manufacturing of plastic products (e.g. materials rejected due to
unsuitable color, hardness, or processing characteristics).[6]

The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic into the sea than all other
countries combined.[55] The rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges, Pearl, Amur, Niger, and Mekong "transport 88% to 95% of the
global [plastics] load into the sea."[56][57]

The presence of plastics, particularly microplastics, within the food chain is increasing. In the 1960s microplastics were observed in the guts of
seabirds, and since then have been found in increasing concentrations.[58] The long-term effects of plastics in the food chain are poorly
understood. In 2009 it was estimated that 10% of modern waste was plastic,[59] although estimates vary according to region.[58] Meanwhile, 50%
to 80% of debris in marine areas is plastic.[58] Plastic is often used in agriculture. There is more plastic in the soil than in the oceans. The
presence of plastic in the environment hurts ecosystems and human health.[60]

Research on the environmental impacts has typically focused on the disposal phase. However, the production of plastics is also responsible for
substantial environmental, health and socioeconomic impacts.[61]

Prior to the Montreal Protocol, CFCs had been commonly used in the manufacture of the plastic polystyrene, the production of which had
contributed to depletion of the ozone layer.

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Efforts to minimize environmental impact of plastics may include lowering of plastics production and use, waste- and recycling-policies, and the
proactive development and deployment of alternatives to plastics such as for sustainable packaging.

Microplastics
Microplastics are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5 mm (0.20 in) in length,[62] according
to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)[63][64] and the European
Chemicals Agency.[65] US EPA researchers define microplastics, or MPs, as plastic particles ranging
in size from 5 millimeters (mm), which is about the size of a pencil eraser, to 1 nanometer (nm). For
comparison, a strand of human hair is about 80,000 nanometers wide.[66]

They cause pollution by entering natural ecosystems from a variety of sources, including cosmetics,
clothing, construction, renovation, food packaging, and industrial processes.[62][67] The term
microplastics is used to differentiate from larger, non-microscopic plastic waste. Two classifications
of microplastics are currently recognized. Primary microplastics include any plastic fragments or
particles that are already 5.0 mm in size or less before entering the environment.[67] These include
microfibers from clothing, microbeads, plastic glitter[68] and plastic pellets (also known as Microplastics in sediments from four rivers in
nurdles).[69][70][71] Secondary microplastics arise from the degradation (breakdown) of larger Germany. Note the diverse shapes indicated by
plastic products through natural weathering processes after entering the environment.[67] Such white arrowheads. (The white bars represent 1
mm for scale.)
sources of secondary microplastics include water and soda bottles, fishing nets, plastic bags,
microwave containers, tea bags and tire wear.[72][71][73][74]

Both types are recognized to persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and
marine ecosystems, where they cause water pollution.[75] 35% of all ocean microplastics come from
textiles/clothing, primarily due to the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often
during the washing process.[76] Microplastics also accumulate in the air and terrestrial ecosystems.
Airborne microplastics have been detected in the atmosphere, as well as indoors and outdoors.
Because plastics degrade slowly (often over hundreds to thousands of years),[77][78] microplastics 0:13
have a high probability of ingestion, incorporation into, and accumulation in the bodies and tissues
of many organisms.[62] The toxic chemicals that come from both the ocean and runoff can also Photodegraded Plastic Straw. A light touch
biomagnify up the food chain.[79][80] In terrestrial ecosystems, microplastics have been breaks larger straw into microplastics.
demonstrated to reduce the viability of soil ecosystems.[81][82] As of 2023, the cycle and movement

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of microplastics in the environment was not fully known.[67]

Microplastics in surface sample ocean surveys might have been underestimated as
deep layer ocean sediment surveys in China found that plastics are present in deposition layers far older than the invention of plastics.

Microplastics are likely to degrade into smaller nanoplastics through chemical weathering processes, mechanical breakdown, and even through
the digestive processes of animals. Nanoplastics, or NPs, are a subset of microplastics and they are smaller than 1 µm (1 micrometer or 1000 nm).
Nanoplastics cannot be seen by the human eye.[66]

Decomposition of plastics
Plastics degrade by a variety of processes, the most significant of which is usually photo-oxidation. Their chemical structure determines their fate.
Polymers' marine degradation takes much longer as a result of the saline environment and cooling effect of the sea, contributing to the
persistence of plastic debris in certain environments.[58] Recent studies have shown, however, that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than
had been previously thought, due to exposure to the sun, rain, and other environmental conditions, resulting in the release of toxic chemicals
such as bisphenol A. However, due to the increased volume of plastics in the ocean, decomposition has slowed down.[83] The Marine Conservancy
has predicted the decomposition rates of several plastic products: It is estimated that a foam plastic cup will take 50 years, a plastic beverage
holder will take 400 years, a disposable diaper will take 450 years, and fishing line will take 600 years to degrade.[84]

Microbial species capable of degrading plastics are known to science, some of which are potentially useful for disposal of certain classes of plastic
waste.

In 1975, a team of Japanese scientists studying ponds containing waste water from a nylon factory discovered a strain of Flavobacterium that
digests certain byproducts of nylon 6 manufacture, such as the linear dimer of 6-aminohexanoate.[85] Nylon 4 (polybutyrolactam) can be
degraded by the ND-10 and ND-11 strands of Pseudomonas sp. found in sludge, resulting in GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) as a byproduct.[86]
Several species of soil fungi can consume polyurethane,[87] including two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis. They can
consume polyurethane both aerobically and anaerobically (such as at the bottom of landfills).[88]
Methanogenic microbial consortia degrade styrene, using it as a carbon source.[89] Pseudomonas putida can convert styrene oil into various
biodegradable plastic|biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates.[90][91]
Microbial communities isolated from soil samples mixed with starch have been shown to be capable of degrading polypropylene.[92]
The fungus Aspergillus fumigatus effectively degrades plasticized PVC.[93]: 45–46 Phanerochaete chrysosporium has been grown on PVC in a
mineral salt agar.[93]: 76 P. chrysosporium, Lentinus tigrinus, A. niger, and A. sydowii can also effectively degrade PVC.[93]: 122
Phenol-formaldehyde, commonly known as Bakelite, is degraded by the white rot fungus P. chrysosporium.[94]
Acinetobacter has been found to partially degrade low-molecular-weight polyethylene oligomers.[86] When used in combination,
Pseudomonas fluorescens and Sphingomonas can degrade over 40% of the weight of plastic bags in less than three months.[95] The
thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis (strain 707) was isolated from a soil sample and found capable of using low-density
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polyethylene as a sole carbon source when incubated at 50 °C. Pre-exposure of the plastic to ultraviolet radiation broke chemical bonds and
aided biodegradation; the longer the period of UV exposure, the greater the promotion of the degradation.[96]
Hazardous molds have been found aboard space stations that degrade rubber into a digestible form.[97]
Several species of yeasts, bacteria, algae and lichens have been found growing on synthetic polymer artifacts in museums and at
archaeological sites.[98]
In the plastic-polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea, bacteria have been found that consume various types of plastic; however, it is unknown to
what extent these bacteria effectively clean up poisons rather than simply release them into the marine microbial ecosystem.
Plastic-eating microbes also have been found in landfills.[99]
Nocardia can degrade PET with an esterase enzyme.[100]
The fungus Geotrichum candidum, found in Belize, has been found to consume the polycarbonate plastic found in CDs.[101][102]
Futuro houses are made of fiberglass-reinforced polyesters, polyester-polyurethane, and PMMA. One such house was found to be harmfully
degraded by Cyanobacteria and Archaea.[103][104]

Recycling
Plastic recycling is the processing of plastic waste into other products.[105][106][107] Recycling can reduce
dependence on landfill, conserve resources and protect the environment from plastic pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions.[108][109][110] Recycling rates lag behind those of other recoverable materials, such
as aluminium, glass and paper. From the start of plastic production through to 2015, the world produced
around 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste, only 9% of which has been recycled and only ~1% has been recycled
more than once.[111] Of the remaining waste, 12% was incinerated and 79% was either sent to landfills or lost
Manual material triage for recycling
to the environment as pollution.[111]

Almost all plastic is non-biodegradable and without recycling, spreads across the environment[112][113] where it causes plastic pollution. For
example, as of 2015, approximately 8 million tonnes of waste plastic enters the oceans annually, damaging oceanic ecosystems and forming ocean
garbage patches.[114]

Almost all recycling is mechanical and involves the melting and reforming of plastic into other items. This can cause polymer degradation at the
molecular level, and requires that waste be sorted by colour and polymer type before processing, which is often complicated and expensive. Errors
can lead to material with inconsistent properties, rendering it unappealing to industry.[115] Though filtration in mechanical recycling reduces
microplastic release, even the most efficient filtration systems cannot prevent the release of microplastics into wastewater.[116][117]

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In feedstock recycling, waste plastic is converted into its starting chemicals, which Plastic recycling
can then become fresh plastic. This involves higher energy and capital costs.
Alternatively, plastic can be burned in place of fossil fuels in energy recovery facilities,
or biochemically converted into other useful chemicals for industry.[118] In some
countries, burning is the dominant form of plastic waste disposal, particularly where
landfill diversion policies are in place.

Plastic recycling is low in the waste hierarchy, meaning that reduction and reuse are
more favourable and long-term solutions for sustainability.

It has been advocated since the early 1970s,[119] but due to economic and technical
challenges, did not impact the management of plastic waste to any significant extent
until the late 1980s. The plastics industry has been criticised for lobbying for
expansion of recycling programmes, even while research showed that most plastic
could not be economically recycled.[120][121][122][123] This has resulted in occasions
where plastic waste dropped into recycling bins has not been recycled, and been
treated as general waste.[124]

Pyrolysis Clockwise from top left:

By heating to above 500 °C in the absence of oxygen (pyrolysis), plastics can be Sorting plastic waste at a single-stream recycling
broken down into simpler hydrocarbons. These can be reused as starting materials centre
for new plastics.[125] They can also be used as fuels.[126] Baled colour-sorted used bottles
Recovered HDPE ready for recycling
Greenhouse gas emissions A watering can made from recycled bottles

According to the OECD, plastic contributed greenhouse gases in the equivalent of 1.8
billion tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere in 2019, 3.4% of global emissions.[127] They say that by 2060, plastic could emit 4.3 billion
tons of greenhouse gas emissions a year. The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from fossil gas or
petroleum, thus the production of plastics creates further fugitive emissions of methane when the fossil gas or petroleum is produced. Also, much
of the energy used in plastic production is not sustainable energy, for example high temperature from burning fossil gas. However, plastics can
also limit methane emissions, for example packaging to reduce food waste.[128]

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A study from 2024 found that compared to glass and aluminum, plastic may actually have less of a negative effect on the environment and
therefore might be the best option for must food packaging and other common uses.[129] The study found that, "replacing plastics with
alternatives is worse for greenhouse gas emissions in most cases." and that the study involving European researchers found, "15 of the 16
applications a plastic product incurs fewer greenhouse gas emissions than their alternatives."[129]

Production of plastics
Production of plastics from crude oil requires 7.9 to 13.7 kWh/lb (taking into account the average efficiency of US utility stations of 35%).
Producing silicon and semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even more energy consuming: 29.2 to 29.8 kWh/lb for silicon, and
about 381 kWh/lb for semiconductors.[130] This is much higher than the energy needed to produce many other materials. For example, to
produce iron (from iron ore) requires 2.5-3.2 kWh/lb of energy; glass (from sand, etc.) 2.3–4.4 kWh/lb; steel (from iron) 2.5–6.4 kWh/lb; and
paper (from timber) 3.2–6.4 kWh/lb.[131]

Incineration of plastics
Quickly burning plastics at very high temperatures breaks down many toxic components, such as dioxins and furans. This approach is widely
used in municipal solid waste incineration. Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally treat the flue gas to decrease pollutants further,
which is needed because uncontrolled incineration of plastic produces carcinogenic polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins.[132] Open-air burning of
plastic occurs at lower temperatures and normally releases such toxic fumes.

In the European Union, municipal waste incineration is regulated by the Industrial Emissions Directive,[133] which stipulates a minimum
temperature of 850 °C for at least two seconds.[134]

Facilitation of natural degradation

The bacterium Blaptica dubia is claimed to help degradation of commercial polysterene. This biodegradation seems to occur in some plastic
degrading bacteria inhabiting the gut of cockroaches. The biodegradation products have been found in their feces too.[135]

History
The development of plastics has evolved from the use of naturally plastic materials (e.g., gums and shellac) to the use of the chemical modification
of those materials (e.g., natural rubber, cellulose, collagen, and milk proteins), and finally to completely synthetic plastics (e.g., bakelite, epoxy,
and PVC). Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which are organic polymers. In around 1600 BC,
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Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines.[7]

Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages.
Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk proteins with lye. In the nineteenth century, as chemistry
developed during the Industrial Revolution, many materials were reported. The development of plastics accelerated with Charles Goodyear's 1839
discovery of vulcanization to harden natural rubber.

Parkesine, invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855 and patented the following year,[136] is considered the first
man-made plastic. It was manufactured from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with
nitric acid as a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be
dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when
heated.[137] By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory. Parkesine was
unveiled at the 1862 International Exhibition in London and garnered for Parkes the bronze medal.[138]

In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize casein (milk proteins) by
immersion in formaldehyde, producing material marketed as galalith.[139] In 1897, mass-printing press owner
Wilhelm Krische of Hanover, Germany, was commissioned to develop an alternative to blackboards.[139] The
resultant horn-like plastic made from casein was developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist
Plaque commemorating Parkes at (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846–1940). Although unsuitable for the intended purpose, other uses would be
the Birmingham Science Museum discovered.[139]

The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland,[8] who
coined the term plastics.[9] Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger,
who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry," and Herman Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics."[10] After World War I,
improvements in chemistry led to an explosion of new forms of plastics, with mass production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s.[59] Among the
earliest examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene (first produced by BASF in the 1930s)[7] and polyvinyl chloride (first created in
1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s).[7] In 1923, Durite Plastics, Inc., was the first manufacturer of phenol-furfural resins.[140] In
1933, polyethylene was discovered by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) researchers Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett.[7]

The discovery of polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) is credited to employees of the Calico Printers' Association in the UK in 1941; it was licensed
to DuPont for the US and ICI otherwise, and as one of the few plastics appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting in
widespread use for bottles in Europe.[7] In 1954 polypropylene was discovered by Giulio Natta and began to be manufactured in 1957.[7] Also in
1954 expanded polystyrene (used for building insulation, packaging, and cups) was invented by Dow Chemical.[7] Since the 1960s, plastic

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production has surged with the advent of polycarbonate and HDPE, widely used in various products[141]. In the 1980s and 1990s, plastic recycling
and the development of biodegradable plastics began to flourish to mitigate environmental impacts.[142][143] From 2000 to the present,
bioplastics from renewable sources and awareness of microplastics have spurred extensive research and policies to control plastic pollution.[144]

Policy

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Work is currently underway to develop a global treaty on plastic pollution. On March 2, 2022, UN Member States voted at the resumed fifth UN
Environment Assembly (UNEA-5.2) to establish an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) with the mandate of advancing a legally-
binding international agreement on plastics.[145] The resolution is entitled "End plastic pollution: Towards an international legally binding
instrument." The mandate specifies that the INC must begin its work by the end of 2022 with the goal of "completing a draft global legally binding
agreement by the end of 2024."[146]

See also
American Recyclable Plastic Bag Alliance – Manufacturers and Refill (scheme) – British environmental campaign
recyclers' lobby group Roll-to-roll processing – countinous printing method that prints
Corn construction – Use of corn (maize) in construction directly onto a roll of fabric or other materials
Light activated resin – Resin that cures when exposed to light of Self-healing plastic – Substances that can repair themselves
appropriate wavelengths Thermal cleaning – Industrial cleaning techniques
Organic light emitting diode – Diode that emits light from an organic Thermoforming – Manufacturing process for molding plastic with
compound heat
Plastic film – Thin continuous polymeric material Timeline of materials technology – Tools
Plastic pollution – Accumulation of plastic in natural ecosystems
Plastic in the sense of malleable
Plastics engineering – Engineering field studying polymer materials
Plasticulture – Use of plastic materials in agriculture Plastic arts – Art that involves physical manipulation
Plastisphere – Plastic debris suspended in water and organisms Plastic ratio – Number, approximately 1.3247
which live in it

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