Received: 5 February 2023 Revised: 7 June 2023 Accepted: 10 June 2023

DOI: 10.1111/jfpe.14406

COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW

Advances in processing, encapsulation, and analysis of food

flavor compounds

Sunlong Gan 1,2 | Min Zhang 1,3 | Arun S. Mujumdar 4 | Lihui Zhang 1 | Yaping Liu 5

1
State Key Laboratory of Food Science and
Resources, School of Food Science and Abstract
Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi,
In recent years, the market for edible flavor has become larger and the demand for
Jiangsu, China
2
China General Chamber of Commerce Key edible flavor has become more diverse. Customers are paying more attention to natu-
Laboratory on Fresh Food Processing & ral, healthy, and functional flavors. This article reviews some new technologies about
Preservation, Jiangnan University, Wuxi,
Jiangsu, China
flavors in recent years, including processing technology, encapsulation, and detection
3
Jiangsu Province International Joint of flavors. The synthetic technologies of flavor include thermal reaction technology,
Laboratory on Fresh Food Smart Processing
enzymatic hydrolysis technology, and microbial fermentation technology. The encap-
and Quality Monitoring, Jiangnan University,
Wuxi, Jiangsu, China sulation technology includes nano-emulsion and filled soluble hydrogel, as well as the
4
Department of Bioresource Engineering, new carrier materials used in packaging, such as β-cyclodextrin, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline
Macdonald Campus, McGill University,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
(2AP), yeast cell, and jackfruit seed starch (JM) are also hot spots in recent years.
5
Guangdong Galore Food Co., Ltd., Finally, the detection of flavor components and the monitoring of characteristic fla-
Zhongshan, Guangdong, China vor substances and harmful flavor substances are very important for flavor quality
Correspondence control. There are many detection techniques, such as chromatographic analysis
Min Zhang, School of Food Science and techniques, solid-phase microextraction, electronic nose and electronic tongue, sen-
Technology, Jiangnan University, 214122
Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China. sor arrays, and fluorescence detection with DNA barcoding techniques and (quantita-
Email: [email protected] tive) conformational relationships.
Funding information
National Key Research and Development KEYWORDS
Program of China, Grant/Award Number: carrier material, edible essence, encapsulation, essence synthesis, flavor substance detection
2022YFD2100601; 111 Project, Grant/Award
Number: BP0719028; Jiangsu Province Key
Laboratory Project of Advanced Food
Manufacturing Equipment and Technology,
Grant/Award Number: FMZ202003

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N (Braga et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2005). The molecular weight of food
flavor is generally low, which mainly exists in food in the form of aro-
Flavor has been widely used in many industries, such as food, feed, cos- matic components, including both natural substances and synthetic che-
metics, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries, and has increased in micals (Leffingwell, 2015). It is mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen,
recent years. At present, the use of flavor accounts for more than 1/4 oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur, usually with specific functional groups.
of the world's food additives. The market of research and statistics has Food flavor has developed rapidly in recent years. It is mainly
reached to billions of dollars, and also shows a good growth momentum used for meat products, frozen foods, rice flour products, and puffed

Abbreviations: [13C5]-TTCA, [13C5]-2-methylthiazole-4-carboxylic acid; 2AP, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline; CM, chitosan; CMC, carboxymethyl cellulose; CRL, Candida rugosa lipase; ESI, electrospray
ionization; FDA, Fisher discriminant analysis; GA, Arabia gum; GC-FID, gas chromatograph flame ionization detection; GC–MS, gas chromatography and hyphenated technology; GHS,
glutathione; HIS, hyperspectral imaging; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography technology; HPLC-Q-TOF, high-performance liquid chromatography and quadrupole time-of-flight mass
spectrometry; HS-SPME-GC–MS/O, headspace-solid phase microextraction-gas chromatography–mass spectrometry/olfactory; ILS, ionic liquid; JM, jackfruit seed starch; LC/QTOF-MS, liquid
chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry; LMWP, low molecular weight peptides; MSPE, magnetic solid phase extraction; MVDA, multivariate data analysis; PEG,
polyethylene glycol; PGSS, particles in a gas-saturated solution; PKO, palm kernel oil; (Q)SAR, (quantitative) structure–activity relationship; SDS, sodium dodecyl sulfate; SPME, solid-phase
microextraction; TDA, taste dilution analysis; TLL, Thermomyces lanuginosus; β-CD, β-cyclodextrin.

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snack foods (Chai et al., 2018). Food flavors can be divided into syn- ingredients can be added before the reaction to participate in the
thetic flavors, reaction flavors, and blended flavors according to their reaction or after the reaction. The essence of this thermal reaction is
production methods (Huang et al., 2011). Synthetic flavors are made by the Maillard reaction (Kai-Yu & Bing-Huei, 2020; Liu et al., 2020). The
chemical synthesis of flavoring compounds, which are flavorings made amino acid source of thermal reaction has developed from a single
by the personal design of the perfumery, according to the design pro- amino acid to a variety of amino acids, hydrolyzed vegetable protein,
portions of the main fragrance, the auxiliary fragrance, the fragrance, hydrolyzed animal protein, and yeast (Siewe et al., 2020). In the early
the incense, and the definite fragrance (Dias et al., 2018). Reaction fla- 1980s, the thermal reaction was mainly carried out with amino acids,
voring is formed by a series of amino carbonyl reactions (heating brow- reducing sugars, and the products became to food flavor. A key break-
ning reaction or Maillard reaction) and it is two reaction products through has been made in the production technology of food flavors
produced by amino acids and peptides (especially sulfur compounds; Li based on meat protein due to the adoption of enzyme engineering
et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2019). The blended flavor is a blend of syn- technology (Li et al., 2017; Qiu et al., 2019). Animal proteins such as
thetic flavors. At present, the synthesis technology of flavor is mainly chicken, pork, beef, fish, and shrimp are decomposed into peptides,
divided into thermal reaction technology, enzymatic hydrolysis technol- amino acids, and other flavor precursors under the action of protease.
ogy, and microbial fermentation technology, in which enzymatic hydro- Through the reaction with hydrolyzed plant protein, yeast, various
lysis technology and microbial fermentation technology are considered monomer amino acids, reducing sugar, spices, and so on, the food fla-
as possible means to improve the efficiency of flavor synthesis (Asmat vor was produced. And then mixed with spices, the flavor intensity
et al., 2019; Tao & Zhang, 2007). Because of their high efficiency, low was greatly improved (Hong et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2019). At present,
energy consumption, high purity, and less pollution, many studies have food flavor production technology also adds a small amount of animal
been carried out on biocatalysis and many enzymes and fungi have fat to the thermal reaction (Kai-Yu & Bing-Huei, 2020). However, due
been used to study the synthesis of fragrances. In addition, the encap- to the limitations of reaction time and technology, it is difficult to fully
sulation technology is also very important, which can prevent the loss convert lipids into characteristic flavor substances (Qingqing
of aromatic compounds in the flavor and prolong the shelf life (Shishir et al., 2018; Shi et al., 2017). After controlled oxidation, fat could pro-
et al., 2018). The embedding technology of flavor is mainly divided into duce a large number of C6–C10 aliphatic aldehydes, ketones, and car-
nanotechnology and microcapsule technology. At the same time, the boxylic acids. The oxidation products could be directly used in thermal
study of embedding carrier materials is also very important for the reaction flavors or thermal reaction raw materials, which has a signifi-
embedding of flavors, which should require the safety, stability, and cant effect on improving the characteristic flavor of food flavor. The
nonreaction with flavor (Breternitz et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2011). Fla- thermal reaction is one of the most important reactions in the produc-
vor ingredients such as high-quality flavor and flavor base materials are tion of salty flavor (Madruga & Mottram, 1995). Food flavor is essen-
of great significance to improve the quality of food and promote the tially a mixture of substances, mainly based on the aroma of food.
development of the food industry (Fan et al., 2020; Saifullah The main reactions in the thermal reaction are the degradation of
et al., 2019). Flavor analysis largely depends on the measurement of reducing sugar and thiamine, the degradation of peptide and amino
volatile and nonvolatile compounds in food, which may directly or indi- acid, the oxidative degradation of fat, and the Maillard reaction
rectly affect the taste and odor characteristics of food (Yu, Seow, (Newton et al., 2012; van Boekel, 2006). Most of the aroma compo-
et al., 2018). So far, more than 10,000 volatile compounds have been nents are formed in the Maillard reaction, and the products include
identified from various foods, but only a few volatile compounds have alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, furans, aromatic compounds, and deriva-
aroma activity and affect the overall aroma characteristics of food tives such as pyrrole, pyridine, pyrazine, thiophene, thiazole, and sul-
(Song & Liu, 2018; Wu et al., 2012). The detection of flavor compounds fide (Chao-Zhi et al., 2018). In recent years, there have been many
allows for better analysis of flavor components and further exploration studies on the preparation of food flavor by thermal reaction. Siewe
of flavor substance formulation, shelf-life evaluation, and safety (Xu, et al. (2020) produced natural fish flavoring using an ultrasound-
Wang, et al., 2019). assisted heating process. Ultrasonic treatment significantly acceler-
In the current review, the processing technology, encapsulation ated the Maillard reaction rate, increased the flavor and taste of fish
technology, and encapsulation materials of edible flavors were samples and roasts, and reduced the bitterness of fish flavoring. A
reviewed. In addition, we also introduced the main flavoring sub- recent study also showed that ultrasonic treatment promoted more
stances in salty flavor and their detection methods. color and volatile compounds than thermal magnetic resonance (Fan
et al., 2005; Yu, Low, & Zhou, 2018). Zou et al. (2018) observed that
ultrasound increased the type and content of aroma compounds
2 | T H E SY N T H E S I S T E C H N O L O G Y F O R in beef.
FLAVOR

2.1 | Thermal reaction technology 2.2 | Enzymatic hydrolysis technology

The thermal reaction flavor was produced by the heating reaction of Enzymatic hydrolysis technology is a commonly used technology in
two or more precursors under certain conditions. Other spices or the process of preparing food flavor. It can decompose the proteins
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GAN ET AL. 3 of 20

in meat by enzyme biocatalysis into small molecules, such as amino reducing sugar to soy protein hydrolysates could also be used as
acids (Wang et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2005). These small molecules are potential precursors of beef-like flavor (Song et al., 2010; Yi-Fang &
the flavor substances in meat and play an important role in the flavor Cadwallader, 2002). Speranza et al. found a direct enzymatic
of meat (Vasilescu et al., 2019). In addition, enzymatic hydrolysis method for the synthesis of β-glutamyl-S-allylcysteine, β-glutamyl-
should be carried out under suitable conditions (Yan et al., 2017). The S-methylcysteine, and β-glutamyl methionine using glutathione as
conditions of enzymatic hydrolysis are mild, and the protein will not γ-glutamyl donor and commercial β-glutamyl transpeptidase (EC2.3.2.2)
produce undesirable denaturation, which is often used in the produc- as catalyst (Speranza & Morelli, 2012; Wang et al., 2009). A new
tion of flavor (Hong et al., 2016). At present, many studies have found acid-resistant and cold-adapted keratinase (TtcutB) was purified and
that some new enzymes have a significant effect on the synthesis of identified by Xu et al. The enzyme could synthesize butyl butyrate
specific spices, and the catalytic effect of the enzyme is ideal after the from n-butanol and butyric acid with high esterification efficiency
immobilization of the enzyme. Table 1 showed the types of enzymes (Xu et al., 2015).
and synthetic flavors. Sadighi et al. (2017) found that lipase could be successfully immo-
Guo et al. (2010) dealt with a double enzyme (Neutral Protease bilized on PEI grafted MCM-41 by electrostatic, dipole–dipole and
As1.398 and f Flavourzyme) two-step hydrolysis method to hydrolyze hydrogen bond interaction, thus improving the ability of lipase to syn-
Brassica sp. to produce meat-like condiments. In another study, enzy- thesize apple flavor, and could also adsorb TLL on MCM-41@PEI-M
matic hydrolysate of mushroom (A. bisporus) protein was used to pro- through divalent metal ions (Co2+, Cu2+, Pd2+) to improve the immo-
duce beef-like flavorings, which were rich in thiol-containing bilization ability of lipase A new lipase, LipC12. It was also found that
compounds (Feng et al., 2019; Lotfy et al., 2015). In addition, adding Ibead-CELipC12 has good stability in hydrophobic solvents and can be
an appropriate amount of sulfur sources (cysteine and thiamine) and used for biocatalytic reactions in the medium containing these

TABLE 1 Types of enzymes and their synthetic essence.

References Enzyme Syntheses flavor

Guo et al. (2010) A double-enzyme (As1.398 and Flavourzyme) Hydrolyse Brassica sp. proteins, and the
hydrolysates were used to generate meat-
like flavorings.
Speranza and Morelli γ-glutamyl transpeptidase (EC 2.3.2.2) γ-glutamyl-S-allylcysteine, γ-glutamyl-S-
(2012) methylcysteine and γ-glutamylmethionine
Madalozzo et al. (2016) A metagenomic lipase, Ibead-CELipC12 Produce perfume esters such as butyl
octanoate
Xu et al. (2015) A new acid-resistant and cold-adapted keratinase (TtcutB) Synthesize butyl butyrate from n-butanol and
butyric acid
Sadighi et al. (2017); Lipase that immobilized on PEI grafted MCM-41 Synthesize apple flavor
Madalozzo et al. (2016)
Xie et al. (2021) Immobilized lipase Synthesized perfume esters, namely methyl
butyrate and octyl acetate
Uppada et al. (2017) Immobilized Lactobacillus plantarum lipase Synthesize different short-chain fatty acid
esters, like 4-hydroxybenzyl acetate
Gumel and Annuar (2016) Lipase produced by Theromyces lanuginosus (Lecitase Ultra™) Synthesize methyl butyrate and methyl
benzoate
Vasilescu et al. (2019) Immobilized Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipase on silica gel coated Synthesize ethyl valerate
magnetite grafted polyethyleneimine
de Oliveira et al. (2019) Immobilized Rhizopus oryzae lipase with chitosan Synthesize methyl butyrate and ethyl
butyrate
Cong et al. (2019) A new lipase named An-lipase from Aspergillus niger F0215 Synthesize spice ester, ethyl lactate, butyl
butyrate, and ethyl octanoate
Corradini et al. (2016) Prepared by physical adsorption of lipase from Thermomyces Synthesize n-propyl acetate
lanuginosus (TLL) on mesoporous hydrophobic supports—poly-
hydroxybutyrate (PHB) and poly-methacrylate (PMA) particles.
Asmat et al. (2019) The surface-modified MWCNTs were used as a carrier for the Synthesis of ethyl butyrate and isoamyl
immobilization of Candida rugosa lipase (CRL) via covalent binding acetate have characteristic pineapple and
using glutaraldehyde. banana flavor
Raghavendra et al. (2014) Immobilized Candida rugulosa lipase (CRL) Synthesize amyl valerate
Padilha et al. (2017) Immobilized lipase of Burkholderia cepacia with globular alginate Synthesize isoamyl acetate
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
4 of 20 GAN ET AL.

solvents to produce perfume esters such as butyl octanoate. In addi- protease could be secreted to degrade the protein in raw materials,
tion, it could convert olive oil into MLM-type lipids containing 23% which can be decomposed into flavor substances such as amino acids
caprylic acid at sn-1 and sn-3 sites in a solvent-free medium (Fan, (Fadel et al., 2015). Acids (mainly lactic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid,
Zhang, & Mujumdar, 2019; Madalozzo et al., 2016). In the absence of etc.) are produced in the process of lactic acid fermentation. Acids can
solvent, Xie et al. (2021) synthesized perfume esters, namely methyl not only give a special flavor to products but also react with small
butyrate and octyl acetate, by transesterification catalyzed by immobi- molecular substances such as alcohols, ketones, and aldehydes pro-
lized lipase. Uppada et al. (2017) could be esterified by immobilized duced in the process of fermentation to produce flavor substances
Lactobacillus plantarum lipase, which could synthesize different short- (Sonmezdag et al., 2019). Therefore, microbial fermentation technol-
chain fatty acid esters to a certain extent, and showed a wide applica- ogy is used to degrade protein and fat in raw materials to produce
tion prospect in the food industry, in which the obtained 4-hydroxy free amino acids and fatty acids and react with acids, alcohols, and
benzyl acetate can also be used as an anti-tanning agent in cosmetics. other substances produced in the fermentation process under high-
Gumel and Annuar (2016) used lipase produced by Theromyces lanugi- temperature conditions to form special meat flavor.
nosus (Lecitase Ultra™) to catalyze the synthesis of flavor esters, Aspergillus oryzae is the main strain used in condiment production
namely methyl butyrate and methyl benzoate in a microfluidic system. (soy sauce, soybean paste, etc.) at present. It has the advantages of
Vasilescu et al. (2019) immobilized Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipase on fast growth, a rich enzyme system, and no toxin production. It can
silica gel-coated magnetite grafted polyethyleneimine to synthesize secrete a variety of hydrolases, such as protease, amylase, lipase, and
ethyl valerate. de Oliveira et al. (2019) in the presence of surfactant cellulase. The protease secreted by Aspergillus oryzae is mainly neutral
sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), two fruit flavor substances, methyl protease (endopeptidase), which is conducive to protein degradation
butyrate, and ethyl butyrate, were synthesized by immobilization of and improves the utilization rate of raw materials. However, due to
Rhizopus oryzae lipase with chitosan. Cong et al. (2019) identified a the insufficient secretion of acid protease with exoenzyme activity, it
new lipase named An-lipase with attractive flavor ester synthesis abil- is not conducive to the release of free amino acids, thus affecting the
ity in the soybean–solvent system from Aspergillus niger (A. niger) and formation of product characteristic flavor. Therefore, improving
found that the enzyme had significant esterification efficiency for the the activity of acid protease in the fermentation process is important
synthesis of spice ester, ethyl lactate, butyl butyrate, and ethyl for improving the flavor quality of products quantity is of great signifi-
octanoate in soybean oil solvent system. Corradini et al. (2016) found cance. The ability of Aspergillus niger to secrete acid protease is much
that PMA and PHB particles were used as carriers to immobilize Ther- higher than that of Aspergillus oryzae, which is the main extracellular
momyces lanuginosus (TLL) for further application in the synthesis of protease. Meanwhile, the growth conditions and enzyme production
n-propyl acetate. Asmat et al. (2019) found that the immobilization of peak of Aspergillus Niger are similar to that of Aspergillus oryzae. There-
Candida rugosa lipase (CRL) was immobilized on PDA-grafted magnetic fore, the activity of acid protease in koji-making could be improved by
cobalt multi-walled carbon nanotubes (PDA@Co-MWCNT). The lipase mixing Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus oryzae. Fadel et al. (2018)
could be immobilized and stabilized with a high yield, and the lipase applied Corynbacterium glutamicum 1220T to produce a safe nutty-like
could catalyze the synthesis of ethyl butyrate and isoamyl acetate flavor from enzymatic soybean meal hydrolysate (E-SH; Figure 1). Fur-
with pineapple and banana aromas. Raghavendra et al. (2014) studied thermore, Corynebacterium glutamate is also used to biologically pro-
the synthesis of immobilized Candida rugulosa lipase (CRL) in organic duce beef-like flavor from cysteine-rich enzymatic hydrolysates of
solvents, and Candida rugulosa lipase could be used to synthesize amyl mushroom and soybean meal as a precursor to beef flavor (Fadel
valerate in both free and immobilized forms. Padilha et al. (2017) et al., 2016).
immobilized the lipase of Burkholderia cepacia with globular alginate
and found that the lipase significantly increased the yield of isoamyl
acetate. 3 | FL A V O R E N C A P S U L A T I O N

The encapsulation of flavors has played a positive role in maintaining

2.3 | Microbial fermentation technology the stability of flavor quality and enhancing the application of flavor in
food and health products (Shishir et al., 2018). There are many
Fermentation of salty flavor is a combination of fermentation or enzy- researches and applications on the microencapsulation of spices, such
matic hydrolysis of proteins in meat raw materials into amino acids as converting mussel meat into flavoring agents, spray drying and
and small peptides and other flavor substances, and then the prepara- microencapsulating mussel protein hydrolysates, and adding carrier
tion of meat flavor process by the Maillard reaction. The fermentation reagents (maltodextrin and modified starch) to produce flavoring
method can improve the degree of hydrolysis and amino acid content agents for mussel meat (Breternitz et al., 2017). Microencapsulation
of meat protein. The prepared meat flavor has the characteristics of a and nanoencapsulation are the two main methods in encapsulation
thick aroma and a long fragrance retention time. It can greatly reduce technology, According to the range of diameter, capsules can be
the use of enzymes, amino acids, and liquid flavors, thereby greatly divided into microcapsules (1–1000 μm in diameter) and nanocapsules
reducing production costs and improving the safety of products (less than 1 μm in diameter; He et al., 2018). Microencapsulation can
(Cohen et al., 2017). In the process of microbial fermentation, keep the flavor components stable and reduce the chemical changes
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GAN ET AL. 5 of 20

FIGURE 1 Nutty-like flavor production by Corynbacterium glutamicum 1220T from enzymatic soybean hydrolysate (Fadel et al., 2018).

of the essence, and microencapsulation could also maintain the chemi- material, the coffee oil was successfully embedded in the processing of
cal stability of the flavor in the process of production, storage, or trans- particles in a gas-saturated solution (PGSS). In addition, the response
portation. In addition, microencapsulation can also effectively control surface method is also applied to determine the parameters and process
the release of the essence in the human body during intake (Kim conditions that affect the packaging rate (Getachew & Chun, 2016). In
et al., 2019). Compared with microcapsules, nanocapsules can carry recent years, many studies have investigated nano-entrapment technol-
more quantities, have a higher packaging rate, have better characteris- ogy, and discussed its related mechanism and characteristics. At the
tics of maintaining the stability of flavor substances, and controllable same time, the choice of capsule carrier materials has attracted more
the curve of essence release (Saifullah et al., 2019). Encapsulation pro- and more attention, such as β-cyclodextrin, a complex of 2-acetyl-
vides a controlled release and the method of liquid spices can be con- 1-pyrroline (2AP), and zinc halide, protein films, yeast cells, and natural
verted to solid powder (Koupantsis & Paraskevopoulou, 2017). materials such as starch. For example, cyclodextrin is characterized by
Encapsulation research generally includes two aspects, one is pack- the ability to form complexes with hydrophobic compounds, which is a
aging technology and another is packaging materials. Many encapsula- very promising carrier material. It can preserve flavor components in
tion technologies could be used to encapsulate flavor compounds, such food and improve its stability (Saffarionpour, 2019a, 2019b).
as emulsions, spray drying, extrusion, electrospinning, and coagulation
(Jia et al., 2016). Among these technologies, spray drying, freeze-drying,
and complex coacervation technologies are the most prominent. The 3.1 | Nanoemulsion
complex coacervation method is the best method for microencapsula-
tion because it does not require complicated equipment and can obtain At present, there are more and more industrial applications of nano-
high retention and encapsulation rates (Hernandez-Fernandez technology, such as in the food industry and pharmaceutical industry,
et al., 2020; Jain et al., 2016). Complex coacervation is formed by cov- while the applications in the food industry include wrapping bioactive
ered droplets or particles of active substances, which usually occurs compounds, such as nanoemulsion technology (Faridi Esfanjani &
when polyelectrolytes with opposite charges interact in an aqueous Jafari, 2016). In the presence of surfactants, emulsion polymerization
medium (Brito de Souza et al., 2020). The hydrocolloids of many foods is carried out using vigorous oscillation or mechanical agitation, so
are negatively charged, and protein or chitosan is the only positively that the insoluble monomers and monomers are dispersed into the
charged food polymer. Compared with chitosan, protein is more popular solvent, and most of them are solubilized into the surfactant micelles
among people, so protein is usually used for embedding in complex (Faridi Esfanjani & Jafari, 2016). The polymerization reaction is initi-
aggregation (Reineccius, 2019). There are also many reports on packag- ated by high-energy radiation or initiator. The monomers dissolved in
ing materials, such as using polyethylene glycol (PEG) as the wall the micelles polymerize rapidly, while the monomers still dispersed
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
6 of 20 GAN ET AL.

in the solvent continue to replenish the micelles until all monomers release its wrapped flavor (Kwan & Davidov-Pardo, 2018). Microgels
are converted to polymers, and the resulting polymer molecules may help control flavor release in foods and drinks during cooking,
are wrapped around the core of the capsule to form a nano-capsule such as desserts, seasonings or meat products. However, the specific
(Mao et al., 2017). The emulsion consists of two incompatible phases, effects of microgels on food properties such as flavor and taste and
which are called dispersed phase and continuous phase respectively, its mechanism need to be further studied, and whether the industrial
in which functional food components can be added to the dispersed production of microgels can meet the interests of investors also needs
droplets, thus isolated from the external environment through the to be further explored (Wang, Doi, & McClements, 2019).
continuous phase (Mao et al., 2017). There are two methods for
the preparation of nano-emulsion, one is the high-energy method of
forming nano-emulsion by shear force, and the other is the low- 3.3 | Encapsulation carrier material
energy method considering the chemical potential and mass transfer
effect of components (Saffarionpour, 2019a, 2019b). Compared with There are many embedding methods, but to determine a suitable
nano-emulsions, traditional flavor emulsions usually need to use embedding method needs to take into account the application of the
weighing agents such as ester glue, and then weigh the oil phase. carrier material and the product itself, comprehensively considering
Although these weighing agents have the effect of reducing the rate the influence of both, and on this basis to choose the most suitable
of droplet creaming, which is severely restricted due to the toxic. embedding method. At present, the main packaging materials are pro-
However, there is no need for weighing agents in nanoemulsions, teins and carbohydrates. The choice of packaging materials will ulti-
because they have good stability to milk fat, so they are safer and mately affect the nature of the product, as well as its stability relative
cleaner (Zhang et al., 2016). to the external environment in the process of production, storage, and
Different contents of lipids in the emulsion system will change consumption (Dias et al., 2017). The advantages and applications of
the properties of substances such as texture, density, and taste, so several packaging materials in this paper are shown in Table 2.
changing the content of lipids in the emulsion will make the release
degree of flavor substances different. The retention rate of lipophilic
flavor compounds in the emulsion increased with the increase in the 3.3.1 | β-Cyclodextrin
quality of lipids contained in the emulsion (Tamaru et al., 2018). Sev-
eral natural amphiphilic materials, such as proteins, phospholipids, and Food-grade natural polymers are excellent capsule materials because
glycolipids, are commonly used as emulsifiers in food and cosmetics. of their nontoxicity, good biocompatibility, and gel formation (Xu
Among them, polysaccharides are generally used as emulsion stabi- et al., 2016). Cyclodextrin (CD) is produced by the enzymatic degrada-
lizers in industry because of their good hydrophilicity and thickening. tion of starch. β-CD is a kind of cyclic oligosaccharide, which is usually
Sulfated polysaccharide from algae has become a very promising 6–8 glucose residues in length, and the bond type in the middle is 1–4
application material because of its biological activity and its character- glycosidic bond (Pinho et al., 2014). Cyclodextrin is characterized by
istics which can be obtained from renewable resources. Among these its hydrophilic appearance and hydrophobic inner cavity, so it can be
polysaccharides, ulvan lactuca has become a promising material used to wrap hydrophobic molecules (Lee et al., 2020). Nanoencapsu-
because of its unique physical, chemical, and biological characteristics lation by β-cyclodextrin can produce satisfactory sensory properties
and the possibility of separating it from abundant algae biomass and produce an optically transparent solution (Katouzian &
through the development of sustainable technology. Recent studies Jafari, 2016). Flavor-cyclodextrin inclusion complex can enhance the
have found that ulvan can be used as a stabilizer and emulsifier in the stability of flavor substances, and reduce their degradation or chemi-
food and cosmetics industry (Morelli et al., 2019). cal reactions, thus prolonging their shelf life. The modification of
cyclodextrin can make cyclodextrin more suitable for industrial appli-
cations, because it can increase the interaction between flavor mole-
3.2 | Filled soluble hydrogels cules and cyclodextrin, and enhance the properties of cyclodextrin,
such as improving the entrapment efficiency (Saffarionpour, 2019a,
Filling soluble hydrogel is another technology for embedding and 2019b). Turmeric extract wrapped in CD can cover up the smell of fish
releasing flavor substances, but there is little research on it at present. oil and stabilize the properties of fish oil. At the same time, according
In hydrogels, biopolymers with opposite charge properties form a net- to related reports, using cyclodextrin as capsule wall material to
work structure with each other and then embed the emulsion contain- encapsulate turmeric extract could improve the sensory score of tur-
ing flavor. The density of a hydrogel increases with electrostatic meric extract in color and appearance (Laokuldilok et al., 2016).
gravitational force. If the density of the hydrogel is low, it may dis- Babaoglu et al. (2017) investigated the release behavior of clove
perse in the liquid system. The strength of these attractions can be essential oil-hydroxypropyl β-CD inclusion complexes, the release of
controlled by changing the pH, since the charge of the protein inclusion complexes was slow and continuous. In another study, β-CD
depends on the pH. The hydrogel is composed of many kinds of bio- improved the stability of black pepper essential oil, protected the
polymers, such as sodium alginate, casein, and β-lactoglobulin. If the active compounds from environmental conditions, and improved
hydrogel comes into contact with the mouth, the hydrogel may water solubility to enhance function as an additive (Jaruporn
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GAN ET AL. 7 of 20

TABLE 2 Capsule packaging materials and their advantages and applications.

Materials References Advantages and applications

β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) Lee et al. (2020) The concentration of β-cyclodextrin CD will affect the strength and tissue
properties of Yuba film, which can improve its color, texture, and flavor.
Katouzian and Jafari (2016) The nanocapsules prepared from β-cyclodextrin have good sensory
properties and can produce optically transparent solution.
Saffarionpour (2019a, 2019b) The formation of flavor-cyclodextrin inclusion complex can improve the
stability of flavor, prolong the shelf life of the product and reduce the
storage cost.
Laokuldilok et al. (2016) The sensory scores of the color and appearance of turmeric extract with
cyclodextrin as wall material will be improved.
2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline (2AP) Yin and Cadwallader (2019) Zinc halide was used to complex 2AP molecules to form a free-flow powder,
and the stability of 2AP in the microcapsules was significantly improved.
Hausch et al. (2018) 2AP could form amylose inclusion complex. Compared with pure 2AP, starch
complexation can prolong the shelf life of 2AP.
Surojanametakul et al. (2019) The rice starch aggregates wraps 2AP (a strong flavor compound) and
chlorophyll could prolong shelf life and control flavor release
Yeast cells Sultana et al. (2017) Yeast cells were used as raw materials to prepare flavors by spray drying. D-
limonene (logP4.8) and ethyl caproate (logP2.8) were used as model spices.
Jackfruit seed starch (JM) Zhu et al. (2018) Vanilla essential oil was microencapsulated by ultrasonic method, the results
showed that the yield of Jackfruit seed starch (JM) was the lowest, but the
entrapment efficiency was the highest.
Glutathione (GHS) Tallian et al. (2019) Nanocapsules with antioxidant properties can be prepared by combining
GSH with human serum albumin (HSA) and silk fibroin (SF).
Complex coacervation of milk Koupantsis et al. (2014) Complex coacervation of milk protein and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)
protein and carboxymethyl could be used for the entrapment of flavor substances, namely b-pinene
cellulose (CMC)
Chitosan and pectin Gong et al. (2020) The emulsified microcapsules can encapsulate hydrophobic cinnamaldehyde
in the presence of cavitation and free radicals.
Sodium alginate Ghayempour and Mortazavi The peppermint essential oil was embedded by coaxial jet electrospray, and
(2014) sodium alginate was used for wall material. The entrapment efficiency of
this method is 96.4%.
Arabia gum (GA) Sangolkar et al. (2019) The peppermint essence (core material) is embedded in Arabia gum (GA), and
the encapsulation efficiency is increased to 87%
Calcium alginate and calcium Petzold et al. (2014) The results show that the bearing capacity of liquid smoke capsules is more
alginate-chitosan film than 96%.
Starch-based ingredients Wang et al. (2015) The most widely used starch-based ingredients in flavor encapsulation,
include cyclo-dextrins (CDs), hydrolyzed starches, and octenyl succinic
anhydride (OSA) starches.

et al., 2017). Hundre et al. (2015) used β-CD wall material to encapsu- characteristic of 2AP, a method of complexing zinc halide with 2AP
late vanillin flavor and the spray freeze-drying method successfully molecules has been developed, which could form a flowing liquid. If
microencapsulated vanillin, indicating that there was no interaction this technology is combined with packaging technology, a protective
between the wall material and core material (vanillin). layer will be formed to prevent moisture from entering, thus maintain-
ing the stability of 2AP during the shelf life of the food. Spray cooling
is a more suitable method in packaging technology because it is a gen-
3.3.2 | 2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline eral packaging technology that captures active compounds and pro-
tects their stability under mild processing conditions, and is widely
2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline (2AP) is an odor substance that can produce deli- used in the fragrance industry (Yin & Cadwallader, 2019). In addition
cious popcorn flavor (Selli et al., 2021). 2AP is not only an odor sub- to forming complexes with ZnCl2, 2AP could also form complexes
stance in rice but also an important flavor substance in many other with starch to retain flavor substances, most of which can be retained
foods, such as skim-dried milk, peanut powder, and so on. High-purity in the amylose core (Hausch et al., 2018). Surojanametakul et al.
2-acetyl-1-pyrroline is in a liquid state and degrades within a few (2019) mixed rice starch with gum and other binders to form the
minutes at room temperature. At present, according to this structure of rice starch aggregates, and then wraps 2AP (a strong
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
8 of 20 GAN ET AL.

flavor compound) and chlorophyll (natural green in fresh panda leaf embedding spices. Then stearic acid was coated on the surface of starch
extract) in the structure to prolong shelf life and control flavor release. particles and heated to obtain sago or cassava stearic starch (SSS or
TSS). Finally, the modified starch could be used for the encapsulation of
lemon oil. In addition to the study of embedded wall materials, there
3.3.3 | Yeast cells were new discoveries in the auxiliary treatment of essential oils, such as
Sangolkar et al. (2019), with the aid of ultrasound, the peppermint
Yeast cells are used as a new carrier material for packaging due to the essence (core material) was embedded in Arabia gum (GA), and the
structure and nutritional advantages. Yeast cells can be used to wrap encapsulation efficiency was increased to 87%.
a variety of food components, such as essential oils, curcumin, and so In addition to the new carrier materials mentioned above, more
on. Compared with liposomes, the advantage of yeast cells is that the materials were being discovered and studied, such as glutathione
cell wall is thick, and it can protect itself from rupture under high pres- (GHS), because GHS has the antioxidant effect of scavenging free rad-
sure and other special conditions, so yeast cells have high stability. icals, so it is more and more used in medicine, food and cosmetics
Moreover, the molecules in yeast cells can spread freely without hin- industry (Tallian et al., 2019).
drance, and the molecular weight can reach 400 KDa. Based on the Petzold et al. (2014) found that the two different embedding
above factors, compared with liposomes, yeast cells may be more suit- layers of liquid smoke were obtained by titration of calcium alginate
able for capsule packaging materials because of their high stability in and calcium alginate-chitosan film. The results showed that the bear-
the delivery of food and nutrients (Sultana et al., 2017). ing capacity of the liquid smoke capsule is more than 96%. Four com-
monly used starch-based components, cyclodextrin, hydrolyzed
starch, octenyl succinic anhydride starch, and porous starch are com-
3.3.4 | Jackfruit seed starch monly used in flavor packaging (Wang et al., 2015).

Jackfruit seed starch (JM) processes many advantages, such as high

solubility in the aqueous phase, strong water absorption, and good 4 | FL A V O R C O M P O U N D S A N D T H E I R
stability at higher temperatures. Therefore, it can be regarded as a DE T EC TI ON
potential carrier material. At the same time, these properties also
enable JM to retain the physical and chemical properties of these 4.1 | Flavor compounds
materials. Jackfruit seed starch yield was the lowest compared with
chitosan (CM) and β-cyclodextrin (βM), but its encapsulation efficiency The flavor is an important basis for consumers to judge the quality of
was the highest. In addition, the storage stability and sustained release meat products. During the production process of flavoring agents,
potential of JM were better than the other two microcapsules. This many nonvolatile compounds in meat will degrade, and then hundreds
may be due to the low crystallinity of jackfruit seed starch, good plas- of volatile compounds can be produced. These ingredients together
ticity, excellent gel properties, and better film-forming properties. In constitute a characteristic flavor (Chun et al., 2020). The Maillard reac-
addition, the peroxide value and aroma intensity measured by the tion between amino acids and reducing sugars is important in the for-
experimental results showed that JM has good storage stability and a mation of meat flavor compounds. some peptides could directly lead
good ability to release flavor substances slowly. The shelf life of JM to aromatic odors by forming specific Maillard products, such as dike-
essence could be reached 250 days, while β-CD and CM are 90 days topiperazine and so on (Jianbin et al. 2013). It affects many character-
less than it (Zhu et al., 2018). istics of food, such as color, aroma, and nutritional properties (Cui
In addition to the above packaging materials, many other sub- et al., 2019). The Maillard reaction could be used in the production of
stances are used to encapsulate spices, and their functions are being meat flavors and seafood condiments (Luan et al., 2019). In the Mail-
further explored. Koupantsis et al. (2014) found that the complex coac- lard reaction, the formation of color and flavor of food depends on
ervation of milk protein and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) could be various factors, such as water activity, pH value, and temperature
used for the entrapment of flavor substances, namely β-pinene. Gong (Wei et al., 2019).
et al. (2020) proposed to construct emulsified microcapsules by The Maillard reaction will produce a variety of volatile com-
ultrasound-assisted polymer cross-linking of two kinds of natural poly- pounds, there are many kinds of flavor compounds, such as aldehydes,
saccharides: chitosan and pectin. The experimental results showed that ketones, and so on, which will make the aroma of food attractive and
chitosan and pectin bind and encapsulate hydrophobic cinnamaldehyde pleasant. The flavor of the seasoning prepared by the Maillard reac-
in the presence of cavitation and free radicals. Ghayempour and Morta- tion is rich, but the aroma will disappear quickly after a short time (Xu,
zavi (2014) found that peppermint essential oil was embedded by coax- Jin, et al., 2019). And Maillard reaction will produce many special fla-
ial jet electrospray, and sodium alginate was used in the selection of vors, such as making thiamine into meat flavor in the process of reac-
wall material. The result showed that the essence was not degraded in tion. Therefore, the Maillard reaction is a very important reaction to
the process of encapsulation, and the entrapment efficiency of this produce flavor substances, which needs more research. At present,
method is 96.4%, which was a reliable method for producing micron most of the studies on flavor substances are about volatile aroma
capsules. There were many discoveries in the wall materials used for components. The research on flavor has mainly focused on volatile
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GAN ET AL. 9 of 20

aroma components. However, except for these flavor substances, the organic matter, analysis, and identification is very difficult, and chro-
effects of fresh and bitter substances on the processing of salty and matography alone is difficult to meet the requirements. Therefore,
meat flavors are also very significant. For example, the sweetness after the separation of organic compounds by chromatography, the
and freshness-enhanced Alapyridaine, flavor enhancer N2-yeast ribo- use of mass spectrometry, isotope analyzer, olfactory measurement,
nucleic acid 5-carboxyethyl guanosine monophosphate found in ala- and ion mobility spectrum with high identification ability can be used
nine and hexose, and (1-carboxyethyl) guanosine monophosphate in to identify organic compounds more effectively.
reducing carbohydrates (Brehm et al., 2019). The reactants of the
Maillard reaction will also have peptides, which could participate in it Gas chromatography and hyphenated technology
without degradation, resulting in the degradation of Strecker to alkyl GC–MS is a very classical detection technique, it can be used to
pyrazine. In addition, peptides can also form specific MRP to affect detect and identify characteristic flavor substances in the environ-
the flavor of the final product. such as producing diketopiperazine ment, such as food or air (Song & Liu, 2018). GC–MS technology has
with a baking aroma. Among many polypeptides, reduced glutathione high recognition efficiency, but it also has some disadvantages, such
(GSH) is a very important sulfur-containing polypeptide, which is very as low sensitivity and difficulty to-elute flavor compounds in the com-
critical in the formation of flavor substances (Zou et al., 2019). During plex matrix (Wieczorek et al., 2020). Gas chromatograph flame ioniza-
the process of thermal reaction, different degrees of hydrolysis of pro- tion detection (GC-FID) was also used in the laboratory to detect the
teins will eventually form different flavor compounds, and their pro- flavor components of flavors and spices. This technology enables
duction speed and level are also different (Xu et al., 2018). The results the quantitative analysis of volatile compounds in condiments through
showed that if a Maillard system contains two amino acids, cysteine, GC-FID without the use of reliable compounds. In addition, it also has
13
and glycine, different molar ratios of the initial intermediates [ C5]- the advantage of avoiding time-consuming calibration procedures in
2-methyl-thiazole-4 and [13C5]-2-methylthiazole-4-carboxylic acid most cases (Cachet et al., 2016).
([13C5]-TTCA) and free cysteine and glycine in the system form differ- GC-IRMS technology is used to separate individual compounds
ent degrees of volatile compounds in the model reaction. When the by gas chromatography and make them “one by one” enter the com-
ratio of the two precursors of the Maillard reaction was 1:1, the for- bustion furnace to be oxidized into carbon dioxide gas, and then into
mation rate of 13
C labeled molecules of 2-furanethiol was more than the isotope mass spectrometer to detect the δ13CPDB value. Wilde
70%, which indicated that the TTCA/glycine reaction is more benefi- et al. (2019) have studied glucose-derived biovanillin using GC-IRMS
cial to the production of meat flavor than the glycine-amino technology to distinguish synthetic vanillin from natural vanillin.
Li/cysteine reaction (Zhao et al., 2019). GC-O is both an analytical and sensory method. They are cur-
rently mainly used to study flavor compounds that cause food aromas
ski, 2019). Villiere et al. (2018) used the Innoscent
(Starowicz & Zielin
4.2 | The detection of flavor compounds system to analyze and identify the wine aroma components of Caber-
net Sauvignon grape varieties, which can effectively produce tradi-
The polarity, volatility, and chemical properties of volatile tional olfactory characteristics and identify the main odor active
compounds are different, these differences determine the differences compounds.
in extraction methods and analytical techniques because trace analysis GC-O-MS is a technique for detecting flavor substances, which
is necessary to detect small differences between samples (Fan, Liu, includes GC–MS technology and GC-O technology. The application
et al., 2019). Food flavor quality is an important basis for consumers prospect of GC-O-MS is very bright, for example, it can be combined
to consider whether to buy food or not. When consumers ingest food, with solvent-assisted flavor technology to analyze and identify the fla-
flavor compounds are released into the air and are sensed by people's vor active substances of palm kernel oil (PKO; Song & Liu, 2018). In
olfactory organs. Because there are many kinds of ingredients in food, the use of GC-O-MS instrument analysis, one injection can achieve
such as lipids, proteins, and so on, the flavor substances of food will the purpose of sniffing and MS analysis at the same time, and realize
react with many kinds of chemicals, such as chemical and structural the rapid detection of aroma substances. Currently, GC-O-MS has
interactions (Tamaru et al., 2018). The characteristics of several main gradually participated in the research of characteristic flavor com-
detection techniques in this article are shown in Table 3. pounds in food, such as the identification of characteristic flavor
compounds in soybean milk (Zhang et al., 2018), coffee (Bhumiratana
et al., 2011), and pork (Wang et al., 2016).
4.2.1 | Chromatographic analysis technology GC-IMS is characterized by strong separation ability and fast
response, therefore, it is more and more well-known in the fields of
The chromatographic analysis is a method of separation and analysis drug testing and environmental protection because of its unique
according to the difference in distribution coefficient between a sta- advantages. Wang et al. (2020) found that GC-IMS technology has a
tionary phase and mobile phase. According to the aggregation state of very obvious advantage in the identification of edible oil, which can
molecules, the mobile phase could be divided into gas chromatogra- be used to distinguish the grade of edible oil and olive oil.
phy, liquid chromatography, and supercritical fluid chromatography. IMS is an analytical technique that can be used to detect trace
Because of the complex composition and chemical structure of gas components. (Li et al., 2019). Combining a gas chromatography
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
10 of 20 GAN ET AL.

TABLE 3 Detection techniques and their characteristics.

Main technologies Characteristics

GC–MS Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) technique is very useful, but it also has limitations,
such as low sensitivity and difficult elution in complex substrates (Wieczorek et al., 2020).
GC-IRMS GC-IRMS technique can be used to analyze the δ 13CPDB values of individual compound molecules in
trace mixed samples (Wilde et al., 2019).
GC-O GC-O method is an effective method to identify odorant active compounds in products and to
ski, 2019; Villiere et al., 2018).
estimate their individual odor potential (Starowicz & Zielin
GC-O-MS The characteristic of GC-O-MS technology is can be determined by the odor of volatile compounds
(aroma-active compounds) in a single injection (Song & Liu, 2018).
GC-IMS GC-IMS technology has the advantages of fast detection speed, convenient operation, and light
equipment (Wang et al., 2020).
SPME SPME sampling method is a green, healthy (nontoxic solvent), and low-cost technology (Krokou
et al., 2020).
LC HPLC technology has the characteristics of high speed, high efficiency, and a wide range of
applications (Xiao et al., 2017)
IMS IMS is characterized by ultra-high sensitivity and ultra-high analysis speed, and can be operated under
atmospheric pressure (Li et al., 2019).
Electronic nose and electronic tongue Electronic tongue can simulate human taste for food analysis (Galvagni et al., 2020), and it can
effectively carry out signal acquisition and data analysis through sensors (Lu et al., 2016).
Sensor array The ion sensor array can be used to characterize the flavor and reduce the detection time (Wang, Doi,
& McClements, 2019). And it can detect the quality and distinguish the flavor properties of complex
samples at low cost (Xu, Cui, et al., 2019).
Fluorescence detection There is a fast and visible phenylmercaptan flavor colorimetric fluorescent probe (Duran et al., 2015),
which can detect low concentration of phenylmercaptan (Wang, Wang, et al., 2019).
DNA barcode technology DNA barcode technology is applied to the molecular identification of medicinal plant species (Li
et al., 2015). Zhang et al. general bar code was established by screening DNA.
(Quantitative) structure–activity The new QSAR model StarDropNIHS834_67 predicted the Ames mutagenicity of 406 food flavors
relationship [(Q) SAR] with a sensitivity of 79.5%, a specificity of 96.4% and an accuracy of 94.6% (Honma et al., 2020).
Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) technology In these spectra, pixels not only represent the spatial information of flavor substances, but also express
information through continuous spectral forms (Tschannerl et al., 2019).
Fisher discriminant analysis (FDA) It can efficiently analyze flavor substances in milk, fruit juice, or other beverages
RNA deep sequencing It can detect the distribution of transcriptome in liver tissues of sheep with different mutton odors and
flavors.
Machine learning technology It can be used to correlate other types of complex data and help to improve and control product
quality (Chen et al., 2018).
Hyperspectral imaging technique The unseasoned and unseasoned olive oil was analyzed by hyperspectral imaging technique in the
range of 400–1000 nm (Romaniello & Baiano, 2018).
Taste dilution analysis (TDA) and It can identify the compound AS1 in soy sauce (Zhao et al., 2018).
multivariate data analysis (MVDA)

(GC) column with IMS can distinguish wine or olive oil. The specially germination to change flavor attributes (Xu, Jin, et al., 2019). In
equipped IMS system can also be used to distinguish between per- addition, there is a method that combines DHS with GC–MS to detect
fume mixtures and adulteration (Schmidt et al., 2019). The advantage flavor substances in yak milk (Jia, Zhang, et al., 2019). In addition,
of GC-IMS technology could directly detect the components of flavor SPME-GC–MS can be used to identify flavor substances in Hippophae
substances in the original samples, so it is very common in the food rhamnoides. Thirty-seven compounds were analyzed and identified
industry such as food quality control (Yu et al., 2020). from Hippophae rhamnoides by this technique, including aldehydes,
In addition to the above technologies, gas chromatography could ketones, esters, heterocyclic compounds, and so on. This technique
also be combined with other technologies to determine flavor com- could be used to identify flavor substances and more accurately ana-
pounds, infer food quality, control the parameters in the process of lyze the degree of change of these flavor substances (Yang
production and storage, and ensure product quality. For example, et al., 2018). GC
GC–MS technology could analyze the medium to
headspace-solid phase microextraction–gas chromatography–mass the highly complex volatile mixture in detail. Because the GC
GC
spectrometry/olfactory detection technology (HS-SPME–GC–MS/O) technology has two different series of chromatographic columns, its
is used to evaluate the ability of chickpea, lentil, and yellow pea seed ability to separate flavor compounds is also stronger than the general
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GAN ET AL. 11 of 20

chromatographic analysis technology. In addition, it is also convenient Q-TOF) successfully identified the tetrapeptide DRAR in sesame-
for analyte identification and sample fingerprint analysis. The flavored liquor from Jingzhi sesame-flavored liquor (SFTB; Huang,
GC
GC-QTOF method is characterized by high sensitivity, high Huo, et al., 2019). Nowadays, there are many studies on the station-
accuracy, and good separation effect (Huang, Zheng, et al., 2019). The ary phase of gas chromatography, but in these studies, room tempera-
combination of GC–GC and TOF-MS can not only improve the recog- ture ionic liquid (ILS) has great advantages because of its good
nition and recognition ability of mass spectrometry but also detect selectivity, low vapor pressure, low pressure, and good thermal stabil-
thousands of peaks and provide more data, making it a suitable analy- ity. Finally, ILS is relatively well-compatible with modern column tech-
sis platform (Adebo et al., 2018). GC
GC-TOF-MS technology can nology (Mazzucotelli et al., 2019). It has been reported that headspace
be used to separate and determine flavor substances in chicken soup GC–MS fingerprints (volatiles) and HPLC-based map analysis methods
more efficiently (Zeng et al., 2019). (pungent) were used to identify 20 local varieties (Capsicum annuum,
C. baccatum, and C. chinense; Morales-Soriano et al., 2018). It has also
Liquid chromatography technology been reported that these enantiomers were analyzed by gas chroma-
The mobile phase of liquid chromatography technology (LC) is liquid, tography and finally explained the mechanism of mushroom produc-
while high-performance liquid chromatography technology (HPLC) tion (R)-1-octene-3-ol by linoleic acid (Engel, 2020). Table 4 showed
adopts high-pressure infusion system based on liquid chromatogra- the parameters for UPLC-MS/MS analysis of residual pesticides in
phy, which has the characteristics of high efficiency, high speed, and spices and herbs in ESI mode.
high sensitivity. Recently, a new technology has attracted more
and more attention, which is magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE).
The adsorbent of this technology is Fe3O4@GO nanocomposites and 4.2.2 | Solid-phase microextraction
then combined with HPLC technology to analyze and identify flavor
substances in food. Because the magnetic nanocomposite material The SPME sampling method is a green, healthy (without toxic sol-
itself retains the hydrophilic part, it showed excellent dispersibility in vents), and low-cost technology, mainly used to extract volatile flavor
an aqueous solution and is used as an adsorbent for MSPE to purify substances from food. The sampling method includes all correspond-
and enrich the flavors and flavors in food before HPLC analysis (Xiao ing analysis steps (sampling, extraction, enrichment), thereby reducing
et al., 2017). Figure 2 shows the result of Characterized GO and analysis time, cost, and detection limit (Krokou et al., 2020). Figure 3
Fe3O4@GO with TEM (a), FT-IR (b), XRD (c), and VSM (d). Liquid chro- is a schematic diagram of SPME technology.
matography technology could also be combined with many other SAFE can quickly and carefully separate flavor substances from
technologies to make up for some of its shortcomings such as low solvent extracts of food, cooking oil, or pulp (Zhou et al., 2019). If
sensitivity. For example, liquid chromatography/quadrupole time- SAFE is applied to the model solution of the selected aromatic com-
of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/QTOF-MS) successfully detected pound, a higher yield of solvent extract and fat matrix (50% fat) will
44 low molecular weight peptides (LMWP) in chicken breasts and be obtained than the previously used technique (Hwang et al., 2018).
thigh muscles stored at 4 C for 6 days. High-performance liquid chro- HS-SPME technology is often used to extract volatile flavor com-
matography and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC- pounds from fruits (Vivian Goh et al., 2019). The different ratios of

F I G U R E 2 (a) Cinnamaldehyde encapsulation schematic detailing capsule formation via ultrasonication-induced polymeric cross-linking of
pectin and chitosan poly-saccharides. (b) FTIR measurements of chitosan, pectin, chitosan–pectin physical mixture, and UCM, detailing spectral
changes corroborating the formation of amide bonds during ultrasonication (Gong et al., 2020).
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
12 of 20 GAN ET AL.

TABLE 4 Experimental parameters and UPLC–MS/MS conditions of 22 pesticides and piperine in ESI mode (Zhu et al., 2021).

Compound Molecular formula MW CV (V) Quantification ion transition CE1 (eV) Diagnostic ion transition CE2 (eV)
Bifenazate C17H20N2O3 300.35 10 301.19 ! 170.42 13 301.19 ! 198.09 8
Tebuconazole C16H22ClN3O 307.82 5 308.15 ! 70.08 21 308.15 ! 125.14 29
Boscalid C18H12Cl2N2O 343.21 10 342.96 ! 139.99 19 342.96 ! 306.98 19
Dimethomorph C21H22ClNO4 387.86 7 388.17 ! 165.05 31 388.17 ! 301.07 17
Metrafenone C19H21BrO5 409.27 31 409.03 ! 209.09 15 409.03 ! 226.99 19
Acetamiprid C10H11ClN4 222.67 10 223.08 ! 56.08 15 223.08 ! 125.98 18
Cyprodinil C14H15N3 225.29 9 226.13 ! 93.04 27 226.13 ! 115.95 20
Quinoxyfen C15H8Cl2FNO 308.13 11 308.98 ! 197.99 29 308.98 ! 273.16 25
Fenbuconazole C19H17ClN4 336.82 11 337.10 ! 70.03 19 337.10 ! 194.02 15
Spirotetramat C21H27NO5 373.446 5 374.21 ! 155.02 37 374.21 ! 216.08 38
Difenoconazole C19H17Cl2N3O3 406.26 2 406.14 ! 251.07 20 406.14 ! 337.01 12
Trifloxystrobin C20H19F3N2O4 408.37 10 409.15 ! 186.07 18 409.15 ! 206.09 13
Mandipropamid C23H22ClNO4 411.88 15 412.14 ! 328.21 12 412.14 ! 356.13 9
Dichlorvos C₄H₇Cl₂O₄P 220.98 10 220.99 ! 109.08 15 220.99 ! 145.05 12
Thiamethoxam C8H10ClN5O3S 291.71 43 292.02 ! 131.91 28 292.02 ! 211.08 12
Picoxystrobin C18H16F3NO4 367.32 11 368.08 ! 144.86 17 368.08 ! 205.11 7
Prochloraz C15H16Cl3N3O2 376.67 12 376.05 ! 244.01 16 376.05 ! 308.03 11
Fluxapyroxad C18H12F5N3O 381.30 10 382.15 ! 342.12 18 382.15 ! 362.16 11
Ethion C9H22O4P2S4 384.48 4 385.15 ! 142.94 26 385.15 ! 199.01 7
Pyraclostrobin C19H18ClN3O4 387.82 15 388.11 ! 163.05 23 388.11 ! 194.09 10
Azoxystrobin C22H17N3O5 403.39 6 404.12 ! 344.07 25 404.12 ! 371.89 10
Chlorantraniliprole C18H14BrCl2N5O2 483.152 11 483.95 ! 176.99 42 483.95 ! 283.93 20
Piperine C17H19NO3 286.07 16 286.07 ! 134.09 24 286.07 ! 201.00 18

Abbreviations: CE, collision energy; CV, cone voltage.

carvone to limonene can be detected obviously when aromatic olive application of these two devices in the detection and analysis of fruit
oil is detected and identified by HS-SPME-GC/MS (Assami flavor substances is gradually increasing, including vegetables and edi-
et al., 2015; Zou et al., 2016). ble oil. It is also reported that these two devices are used to analyze
the flavor characteristics of fish soup cooked in different parts of fish
(Hu et al., 2020).
4.2.3 | Electronic nose and electronic tongue

Since the quality of food condiments is usually evaluated by a sensory 4.2.4 | Sensor array
team of trained personnel, the accuracy of sensory analysis may be
affected by subjective factors to a large extent. Therefore, the devel- The sensor array is a common form of integration, which could com-
opment and application of electronic nose technology is very neces- bine different analytical elements. At present, it has been proved that
sary. The detection speed of electronic nose technology is fast, low it can be effectively used to evaluate the quality and flavor character-
cost, and less external interference factors, so the results are more istics of food (Wang, Doi, & McClements, 2019).
accurate. The electronic nose is a sensor array in which many different The application prospect of an ion sensor array is very bright, and
sensors could interact with different chemical classes to distinguish it could be used in many aspects, such as characterizing flavor sub-
different volatile compounds (Galvagni et al., 2020). In addition to the stances and shortening the time needed for detection. The sensor
electronic nose, there is also an electronic tongue device, which could array contains several different electrodes, which can be used to
efficiently carry out signal acquisition and data analysis through some detect the flavor components of complex samples at a lower cost. The
particularly sensitive sensors combined with multivariate analysis sensor array is currently used in a wide range of applications to ana-
methods. As a result, chemical substances can be analyzed and identi- lyze and identify flavor profiles in meat, as well as to detect sodium
fied more quickly and accurately. At the same time, the electronic ton- chloride levels in ground meat, flavor components in Texas chicken
gue instrument can be used to identify the sensory characteristics of stew during cooking, and fish quality with sensory characteristics. It
food more accurately and objectively (Lu et al., 2016). At present, the can also be used to evaluate the flavor characteristics of food, such as
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GAN ET AL. 13 of 20

F I G U R E 3 HS-SPME-MS
experimental process for
controlling the quality and
verifying the authenticity of
flavoring essences (Hou
et al., 2016).

the quality of drinks and the taste of aged vinegar (Xu, Cui, Duran et al. (2015) found that using β-CD as a surface coating agent,
et al., 2019). The principle of colorimetric sensor array (CSA) technol- water-soluble, and stable semiconductor CdSe/ZnS quantum dots
ogy is that the volatile compounds in the array react with chemical were synthesized by sonochemical method to develop fluorescence
reactive dyes to produce color changes, which can be used to detect sensors, which could effectively determine vanillin. In addition, fluo-
and distinguish chemical vapors. It has been reported that there is a rescence detection could also be used to identify thiophenol, which
simple method based on CSA technology that can be used to analyze was based on the nucleophilic substitution reaction mechanism. So
and identify the spicy (WOF) of cooked chicken protein (Kim far, many thiophenol fluorescent probes have been reported, but most
et al., 2016). of them are designed and used for biological imaging. The fluorescent
In addition to the detection technology of flavor substances, probe of phenyl mercaptan flavor has not been reported. Most thio-
other advances have been made in the study of flavor substances, phenol probes still have some shortcomings, for example, due to low
such as (Quantitative) structure–activity relationship [(Q)SAR] is a sensitivity, slow fluorescence response, no obvious color change, and
promising method, which could predict the potential adverse effects other reasons, they may not be able to detect low concentrations of
of chemicals based on the structure of flavor compounds without tox- thiophenol, and the response speed is slow. Therefore, there is a high
icological studies. At present, in the further research and application demand for a colorimetric fluorescent probe that can detect phenyl
of this tool, many scientists have done a lot of research and discussion mercaptan flavor quickly and sensitively. Phenylmercaptan is a kind of
on predicting the mutagenicity of AMES. Nowadays, (Q) SAR tools are seasoning used in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and chemical
mainly used in food and related industries, such as evaluating the industries. A rapid and visible colorimetric fluorescent probe for the
mutagenicity of candidate drugs (Honma et al., 2020). detection of phenyl mercaptan flavor was developed. It provides rapid
and quantitative detection of low concentrations of phenyl mercap-
tan, and the lowest detection limit was 10 nm. The test paper contain-
4.2.5 | Fluorescence detection ing the probe changes its color (from colorless to pink, visible to the
naked eye) according to the concentration of phenyl mercaptan
Fluorescence detection has aroused people's interest because of its (Wang, Wu, et al., 2019). Wang et al. (2018) found that the fluores-
simplicity, high sensitivity, short response time, and easy observation. cent probe could effectively recognize cysteine.
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
14 of 20 GAN ET AL.

4.2.6 | DNA barcode technology 4.2.7 | Quantitative structure–activity relationship

For a long time, there has been a serious adulteration phenomenon in The bacterial reverse mutagenesis test (Ames test) is an important
natural spices and their derivatives, which is because the economic ben- mutagenic test, but it requires about 2 g samples to study. At the
efits of spices are high. At the same time, with the development of the same time, because the number of flavors produced in industrial pro-
economy, the demand for spices is also increasing, which leads to the duction is very small, testing often becomes impossible. In addition,
occurrence of inferior quality, adulteration, and other behaviors. In addi- the special smell of some flavors will also bring some difficulties to the
tion, some spices are easily misused unwittingly because of their similar conditions of laboratory testing. Therefore, an effective screening tool
appearance. Therefore, the identification of spices becomes more and is needed to evaluate the mutagenicity of spices quickly and accu-
more important. With the further development of analytical technology rately without the Ames test. (Q) SAR is a promising method to pre-
based on molecular biology, DNA barcode technology is gradually dict the potential adverse effects of chemical substances according to
applied to the molecular identification of medicinal plant species (Li the structure of chemical substances without toxicological studies
et al., 2015). Figure 4 showed a schematic timeline of the history and (Honma et al., 2020). Therefore, the (Q) SAR tool could be used to
possible development of plant barcodes. Zhang et al. (2019) general bar evaluate the mutagenicity of food flavor compounds, identify poten-
code was established by screening DNA, and its ITS2 and PSBA-trnH tial mutagenic chemicals, and verify their mutagenicity by actual Ames
sequences were used to analyze 16 kinds of representative spices. The tests. Honma et al. (2020) evaluate the mutagenicity of food flavor
analysis of the NJ phylogenetic tree showed that except nutmeg had no chemicals by (Q) SAR tools, and identify potentially mutagenic chemi-
standard ITS2 sequence, the other 15 species were clustered together cals. Kasamatsu et al. (2021) have developed a new Ames database
and showed good monophyletism, indicating that they could be distin- containing 406 food flavor chemicals. Using this database and other
guished clearly according to the ITS2 sequence. DNA bar code elimi- Ames data sets similar to flavor compounds in structure, a new QSAR
nates the limitation of traditional morphological identification methods model for predicting Ames mutagenicity was also developed. The new
which depend on long-term experience. QSAR model StarDropNIHS834_67 predicted the Ames mutagenicity

F I G U R E 4 Schematic timeline of plant barcoding history and possible developments. CO1, cytochrome c oxidase 1; cp, chloroplast; ITS,
internal transcribed spacer (Li et al., 2015).
 17454530, 2023, 10, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.14406 by Tao Feng - University Of Shanghai For Science & Technology , Wiley Online Library on [19/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
GAN ET AL. 15 of 20

of 406 food flavors with a sensitivity of 79.5%, a specificity of 96.4%, preserving flavor. At the same time, in the selection of packaging
and an accuracy of 94.6%. Food flavors that show mutagenicity in the materials, according to the considerations of safety and practicality,
(Q) SARS or Ames test, even in small amounts, may pose a cancer risk the selection of packaging materials is mainly protein and carbohy-
to the human body. Further evaluation of mutagenicity in vivo is drates. As the adulteration of flavor has been serious, and to distin-
needed. guish the safety of flavor, the research on the determination of flavor
In addition to the above flavor analysis methods, there are many has been the focus. More and more technologies are used for the sep-
other methods for the analysis of flavor compounds. Hyperspectral aration and detection of flavor compounds, such as fluorescence
imaging (HSI) technology, is the combination of spectral and spatial detection and DNA bar code technology. At present, these technolo-
information technology. The intensity in the continuous spectral range gies are still under research in flavor detection, and more applications
can be captured in a very narrow frequency band. In these spectra, need to be further explored.
pixels not only represent the spatial information of flavor substances
but also express information through continuous spectral forms. Due to ACKNOWLEDG MENTS
the progress in imaging technology in recent decades, HSI has been We acknowledge the financial support from the National Key R&D
gradually applied to areas such as food quality monitoring, medical Program of China (Contract No. 2022YFD2100601), the 111 Project
applications, and so on (Tschannerl et al., 2019). The changes in flavor (BP0719028), the Jiangsu Province (China) “Collaborative Innovation
substances during ginger drying were analyzed by low-frequency NMR, Center for Food Safety and Quality Control” Industry Development
electronic nose, and GC–MS techniques, and the prediction model of Program, the Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory Project of Advanced
ginger drying flavor was established (Sun et al., 2019). A new type of Food Manufacturing Equipment and Technology (No. FMZ202003),
probe can be established by determining 2pyr4-dinitrobenzene sulfo- all of which enabled us to carry out this study.
nate as the reaction group. This probe has been used to detect phenyl
mercaptan flavor, and it has the characteristics of a low detection limit CONFLIC T OF INTER E ST STATEMENT
(Wang, Wang, et al., 2019). Fisher discriminant analysis (FDA) has a The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
wide application prospect in the food industry. It can efficiently analyze
flavor substances in milk, fruit juice, or other beverages (Jia, Wang, DATA AVAILABILITY STAT EMEN T
et al., 2019). The distribution of transcriptome in liver tissues of sheep The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
with different mutton odors and flavors was studied by RNA deep corresponding author upon reasonable request.
sequencing (Gunawan et al., 2018). Sghaier et al. (2016) used machine
learning technology and data obtained from GC/MS technology to OR CID
establish a sensory prediction model of fish smell. In addition, machine Min Zhang https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8107-5212
learning technology can also be used to correlate other types of com-
plex data, such as in areas such as food texture, grain characteristics, or RE FE RE NCE S
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