CONTENTS

UNIT Overview of C Language 1-32

I
1.1 Introduction to ANSI C 1
1.2 Overview of Compilers and Interpreters 2
1.3 Basic structure of C Programs 3
1.4 Executing the program 5
1.5 C Tokens 10
1.6 Variables 14
1.7 Data Types 17
1.8 Symbolic Constant 21
1.9 Operators 23
1.10 Evaluation of Expression 29
1.11 Type Conversions 30

Unit II Decision making and Looping 33-46

2.1 Simple If Statement 33
2.2 If Else Statement 34
2.3 Nested If Statement 36
2.4 Switch Statement 37
2.5 Looping Statements 41
2.6 While Statement 41
2.7 Do While Statement 43
2.8 For Statement 45

Unit Array, character Array, strings, 47-69

III
3.1 Subscript variables 47
3.2 Type of Array 47
3.3 One Dimensional Array 48
3.4 Two Dimensional Array 51
3.5 Multi-Dimensional Array 54
3.6 String Handling 55
3.7 String Handling Functions 61
3.8 Table of Strings 68
Unit Function, Structures and Unions 70-113
IV
4.1 Introduction To Function 70
4.2 Function Prototype or Declaration 71

V
 4.3 Part of user-Defined Function 72
4.4 Function Returning Nothing 74
4.5 Function Calls 75
4.6 Functions Category 76
4.7 Recursion 82
4.8 Passing Arrays to Function 86
4.9 Pass two-Dimensional Array to a Function 88
4.10 Scope of the variables 89
4.11 Structures 96
4.12 Accessing structure Members 101
4.13 Coping and Comparing Structure Variables 103
4.14 Arras of Structures 104
4.15 Memory Allocation Structure Format 105
4.16 Nested Structures 106
4.17 Structures and Function 108
4.18 Unions 110

Unit v Pointers and File Management 114-141

5.1 Introduction to pointer 114
5.2 Features of Pointers 114
5.3 Pointer Variables Declaration 115
5.4 Initialization of pointer Variables 116
5.5 Pointer Arithmetic 117
5.6 Pointers and Arrays 118
5.7 Pointers and Two Dimensional Arrays 120
5.8 Pointers and Character Strings 121
5.9 Pointers to Functions 122
5.10 Pointers and Structures 124
5.11 File 126
5.12 Dynamic Memory Allocation 142

VI
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO C:
C is a popular general purpose, high-level programming language
that was originally developed by Dennis M. Ritchie to develop the
UNIX operating system at Bell Labs. C was orininally first
implemented on the DEC PDP-11 computer in 1972.
The UNIX operating system and virtually all Unix applications are
written in the C language. C has now become a widely used
professional language for various reasons.
The history and development of C is illustrated.

R. SIVARASAN 1
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

ANSI C STANDARD:
For many years there was no standard version of „C‟ language. Due
to this reason, portability feature of „C‟ language was not provided from
one computer to another computer. To overcome this discrepancy a
committee was set up in the summer of 1983 to create a standard C version
tha is popularly known a ANSI(American National standard Institute)
STANDARD. The ANSI C standard was adopted in December of 1989
and the first copy of c language was introduced in the market in 1990.
Today all compilers of C support to ANSI standard.

1.2 OVERVIEW OF COMPILERS AND INTERPRETERS

A program is a set of instructions for performing a particular task.
These instructions are just like English words. The computer interprets the
instructions as a l's and 0's. A program can be written in assembly
language as well as high level language. This written program is called as
source program. The source program is to be converted to the machine
language, which is called as object program. Either an interpreter or a
compiler will do this activity.

a) Interpreters
 An Interpreter reads only one line of a source program at a time
and converts it to object codes. In case of any errors, the same will
be indicated instantly.
 The program written with an interpreter can easily be read and
understood by the other users as well. So security is not provided.
Anyone can modify the source code.
 Hence it is easier than compilers. But the disadvantage is that it
consumes more time for converting a source program to an object
program.

b) Compilers
 A compiler reads the entire program and converts it to the object
code.
 It provides errors not of one line but errors of the entire program.
Only error free programs are executed. It consumes little time for
converting a source program to an object program.

R. SIVARASAN 2
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

 When the program length for any application is large, compilers

are preferred.

1.3 BASIC STRUCTURE OF C PROGRAM,S.

Every С program contains a number of several building blocks
known as functions. Each function of it performs task independently. A
function is subroutine that may consist of one or more statements. A С
program comprises of the following sections.

R. SIVARASAN 3
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Include Header File Section:

С program depends upon some header files for function
definitionthat are used in program. Each header file by default is
extended with . h. The file should be included I #include directive as
given below.
Example:
# include <stdio.h> or # include "stdio.h."

In this example <stdio.h> file is included i.e. all the definitions and prototypes
of function defined £je are available in the current program. This file is
also compiled with original program.
Global Declaration:
This section declares some variables that are used in more than
one function. these variable are known as global variables. These variables
must be declared outside of all the
Function Main:
Every program written in С language must contain main ()
function. Empty – parenthesis after main are necessary. The function
main () is the starting point of every 'C' program. Mi: n of the program
always begins with the function main (). Except the main () function,
other sections may not be necessary. The program execution starts with
the opening brace ( { ) К with the closing brace ( } ). Between these two
braces the programmer should declare the and the executable part.
Declaration Part:
The declaration part declares the entire variables that are used in
executable part. The initialization of variables is also done in this section.
The initialization means providing to the variables.

Executable Part:
This part contains the statements following the declaration of the
variables. This part contains a set of statements or a single statement.
These statements are enclosed between
-
User-defined function:
The functions defined by the user are called user-defined functions.
These functions are generally defined after the main () function. They

R. SIVARASAN 4
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

can also be defined before main ( ) function. This portion is not

compulsory.
Comments:
Comments are not necessary in the program. However, to understand
the flow of programs the programmer can include comments in the
program. Comments are to be inserted by the programmer. It is useful for
documentation. The clarity of the program can be followed if it is
documented.
Comment are nothing but some kind of statements which are placed
between the delimiters /* & */. The Compiler does not execute comments.
Thus, we can say that comments are not the part of executable program.

Basic Rule for writing C Programming:

1. In separate statement each instruction should be written. Therefore,

complete C program consist of set of instructions.
2. The statements in program must be written in sequencial order to get
desired output. Unless any logic problem can be arise.
3. All statement should written in small case letters.
4. C has no particular rules for position at which statement is to be typed.
5. In C program every statement must end with ; (semicolon).It act as a
terminator.
6. Comment in the program should be enclosed within /* .. */ .Look
example below the first line is comment.
For ex. /*This my first program*

7. Main :
main() is a collection of the set of statements. Statements are
always enclosed belongs to main() within pairs of {} (opening and
closing braces).For ex.
void main()
{
1st statement;
2nd statement;
}

R. SIVARASAN 5
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

8. Declaration:
Any variable used in the program must be declared before
using it. For ex,
int a,b,c; /*declaration*/
a=a+b; /*usage*/
9. For input use scanf("%d,%f",&a,&c); function i.e syntax is scanf("<
string1>,< string2>,...",&variable1 ,&variable2..);
10. For output use printf("%d,%f",&a,&c); function i.e syntax is
printf("<string1>,< string2>",variable1,variable2); , & is used in scanf
function is must because it is "Address of operator". It gives the
location number used by variable.
11. Linking:
#include<stdio.h> stands for standard input output,
#include<conio.h> stands for control input output. These are most
commonly used for Linking.

1.4 EXECUTING THE PROGRAM:

The following steps are essential in executing a program in c.

1) Creation of Program
Programs should be written in C editor. The file name can be
consist of letters, digits program include extension C.

Syntax: Hello_World . c

2) Compilation and Linking of a Program

The source program statements should be translated into object
programs which is suitable for execution by the computer.
Linking
The translation id done after correcting each statement. If there
is no error compilation proceeds and translated program is stored in
another file with the same file name with extension “. obj”.

Syntax: gcc Hello_World.c

R. SIVARASAN 6
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

3) Executing the Program

After the compilation the executable object code will be loaded
in the computer‟s main memory and the program is executed.
Syntax: . / a . out

Windows system

Step 1: Locate the TC.exe file and open it. You will find it at
location C:\TC\BIN\.

Step 2: File > New (as shown in above picture) and then write your C
program

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("hello World!");
return 0;
}

R. SIVARASAN 7
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Step 3: Save the program using F2 (OR file > Save), remember the
extension should be “.c”. In the below screenshot I have given the name as
helloworld.c.

Step 4: Compile the program using Alt + F9 OR Compile > Compile (as
shown in the below screenshot).

R. SIVARASAN 8
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Step 5: Press Ctrl + F9 to Run (or select Run > Run in menu bar ) the C
program.

Step 6: Alt+F5 to view the output of the program at the output screen.

R. SIVARASAN 9
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

1.5 C TOKENS:
 A tokens is an individual words and punctuation marks are
called token.
 More than on token can appear in a single line separated by
white spaces.
 White space may be blank, carriage return or tab

C TOKENS

Keywords
Constant Operator
Int s s
Float
If
Else -12.04 + - * /
Goto
Break , ect
1000
-20 < >=
Identifiers Strings Special
Symbols
A0 “month”
BASICPAY “Daya” { }
[ ]
Basicpay “ABC”
# &
Total_pay

1.5.1 KEYWORDS:
 All keywords have fixed meanings and these meanings
cannot be changed.
 Its serve as basic building blocks for program statements
 Keywords should be written in lowercase.

auto float signed for sizeof break friend

static case goto switch catch if template
char inline class this int const long
throw continue new try default operator typedef
void if else short double public virtual
enum return volatile while extem register union

R. SIVARASAN 10
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

1.5.2 IDENTIFIERS:
Identifiers are names given to variables, functions, arrays and other
user defined objects. These are user defined names.

Rules:
1) Identifiers are formed with alphabets, digits and a special character
underscore (_).
2) The first character must be an alphabet (or underscore).
3) Only first 31 characters are significant.
4) Cannot use a keyword.
5) Must not contain white space.

Example:

Valid identifiers: Basic, pay, CB02, TOTAL, B21, _TOTALPAY

Invalid identifiers:

Variable Reason For Invalidity

AB. Special character period ( . ) not allowed
9CB The first character must be an alphabet
Auto Reserve word

1.5.3 CONSTANTS:
 C Constants are also like normal variables. But, only difference
is, their values can not be modified by the program once they are
defined.
 Constants refer to fixed values. They are also called as literals
 Constants may be belonging to any of the data type.

R. SIVARASAN 11
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

CONSTANTS

NUMERIC CHARACTER
CONSTANT CONSTANTS

INTEGER REAL SINGLE STRING

CHARACTE
R

1.5.3..1 Integer Constants:

 An integer constant must have at least one digit.

 It must not have a decimal point.
 It can either be positive or negative.
 No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.
 If no sign precedes an integer constant, it is assumed to be positive.
 The allowable range for integer constants is -32768 to 32767.

INTEGER CONSTANT

Decimal Octal Hexadecimal

Type Of Integer Constants:

Decimal integers

Combination of Digits 0 through 9, preceded by an optional - or

+ sign.
Total digits decimal constant contain 10 digits only

R. SIVARASAN 12
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Valid example 142 -423 0 +432

Invalid example 50,000 $300 2 500

Octal integers:

Combination of Digits 0 Through 7

Total digits octal constant contain 8 digits only

Valid example 321 44 0 0543

Invalid example 932 2198 8

Hexadecimal integers:

Combination of Digits 0 Through 9, preceded by 0x (or) 0X

Combination of alphabet A To F (A through F represent the no 10

through 15

Total digits Hexadecimal constant contain 16 digits.

Valid example 0X3F44 0x92 0xc12

1.5.3.2 Real constants:

The numbers containing fractional parts like 2.425. Such numbers
are called Real or Floating point constants. A real number may also be
expressed in exponential.

Valid example:
0.01342 +9.249 -0.0008 Normal Type of real constants

0.24e3 5.91E+5 -3.16E-3 Exponential Type of real

Constants.

R. SIVARASAN 13
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

1.5.3.3 Single Character Constants:

A single character enclosed within a pair of single quote marks is
called Single character constants. Character constants have integer values
known as ASCII values.

Note: character constant „65‟ is not the same as the number 65

Printf(“%d”,‟A‟); print the number 65 , the ASCII value of

the letter A
Printf(“%c”, „65‟); print the alphabet character A

1.5.3.4 String Constants:

A sequence of characters enclosed in double quotes is called String
Constants. The characters may be letters, numbers, special characters and
blank space.

VALID EXAMPLE: “WELCOME” “A+B” “326”

“A/B=” “A”

INVALID EXAMPLE: „HELLO‟ „A&B‟ X

NOTE: character constant [E.g. „A‟] is not equivalent to the single

character string constant [E.g “A”].

Backslash Character Constants:

Backslash Character Output functions

„\0‟ Null
„\?‟ Question mark
„\\‟ Backslash
„\‟‟ Single quote
„\a‟ Audible alert
„\b‟ Back space
„\n‟ Ne line
„\t‟ Horizontal tab

R. SIVARASAN 14
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

„\r‟ Carriage return

„\f‟ Form feed

1.6 Variables:
A variable is a data name that may be used to store a data
value. Constant that remain unchanged during the execution of a program,
a variable may take different value at different times during execution.
Variable name can be chosen by the programmer in a
meaningful way so as to reflect its function or nature in the program.

Rules for naming C variable:

1. Variable name must begin with letter or underscore.
2. Variables are case sensitive
3. They can be constructed with digits, letters.
4. No special symbols are allowed other than underscore.
5. It should not be a keyword

Valid variable name: E_name sum mark TOTAL Average

john
Invalid variable name: 123 (average) @name 1st

1.6.1 Declaring & Initializing Variable:

 Variables should be declared in the C program before to use.

 Memory space is not allocated for a variable while declaration. It
happens only on variable definition.
 Variable initialization means assigning a value to the variable.

S.No Type Syntax Example

Variable data_type
1 int x, y, z; char flat, ch;
declaration variable_name;
Variable data_type int x = 50, y = 30; char
2
initialization variable_name = value; flag = „x‟, ch=‟l‟;

R. SIVARASAN 15
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

1.6.2 Types of Variables

1. Local variable
2. Global variable
3. Environment variable

1. Local Variable:
 The scope of local variables will be within the function only.
 These variables are declared within the function and can‟t be
accessed outside the function.
 In the below example, m and n variables are having scope within
the main function only. These are not visible to test function.
 Like wise, a and b variables are having scope within the test
function only. These are not visible to main function.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void test();
int main()
{
int m = 22, n = 44; /* m, n are local variables of main function
m and n variables are having scope within
this main function only.These are not visible
to test funtion.
If you try to access a and b in this function,
you will get 'a' undeclared and 'b' undeclared
error */
printf("\n values : m = %d and n = %d", m, n);
test();
}

2. Global Variable:
 The scope of global variables will be throughout the program.
These variables can be accessed from anywhere in the program.
 This variable is defined outside the main function. So that, this
variable is visible to main function and all other sub functions.

R. SIVARASAN 16
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example
#include<stdio.h>
void test();
int m = 22, n = 44;
int a = 50, b = 80;
int main()
{
printf("All variables are accessed from main function");
printf("\nvalues: m=%d:n=%d:a=%d:b=%d", m,n,a,b);
test();
}
3. Environment Variables:
 Environment variable is a variable that will be available for all C
applications and C programs.
 We can access these variables from anywhere in a C program
without declaring and initializing in an application or C program.
 The inbuilt functions which are used to access modify and set these
environment variables are called environment functions.

1.7 DATA TYPES:

C data type can be classified as
1. Basic data type
2. User defined data type
3. Derived data type

1.7.1 Basic Data Type

These data types are already defined in the language. They are
1. Char
2. Int
3. Float
4. Double
The following keywords are prefixed with the basic data types to
produce new data types. These keywords are otherwise called as
modifiers.

R. SIVARASAN 17
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

1. Signed
2. Unsigned
3. Long
4. Short
Note: These are used only with the basic data types int and char. Long can
be used with double.
Type Storage size Value range
Char(or)
1 byte -128 to 127 or 0 to 255
signed
unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255
-32,768 to 32,767 or -
int 2 or 4 bytes
2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
unsigned int 2 or 4 bytes 0 to 65,535 or 0 to 4,294,967,295
short 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned short 2 bytes 0 to 65,535
long 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
unsigned long 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295
float 4 byte 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38
double 8 byte 2.3E-308 to 1.7E+308
long double 10 byte 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932

Special basic data type:

Void is a special basic data type. The compile will not allocate any
memory special for this data type. This data type is used to
1) Define the functions.
2) Define the parameter passing
3) Define Pointers to void

1) Function returns as void

There are various functions in C which do not return any value or
you can say they return void. A function with no return value has the
return type as void.
For example, void exit (int status);

R. SIVARASAN 18
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

2) Function arguments as void

There are various functions in C which do not accept any
parameter. A function with no parameter can accept a void.
For example, int rand(void);

3) Pointers to void
A pointer of type void * represents the address of an object, but not
its type.
For example, a memory allocation function void *malloc( size_t size );
returns a pointer to void which can be casted to any data type.
1.7.2 USER DEFINED DATA TYPES:
User defined data types are data types defined by the user. They are
1) Enumeration
2) Structure

1) Enumeration
This allows us to define our own data type with predefined values.

Syntax
enum userdefined_name{ value1, value2, …….. value n };
Where
enum keyword
userdefined_name valid c name
value1 value2 value n list of constants and are clled
members internally these are
treated as integers. That is
value 1 = 0, value 2 = 1……
value n = n-1.
Example:
To define a variable which can take values as Jan, Feb, Mar,… Dec

Definition
enum month{ Jan,Feb,Mar,Apr,……..Dec};
internally Jan=0, Feb=1, Mar=2,……. Dec=11 will be stored.

R. SIVARASAN 19
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

2) Structure:
A structure is defined as data type to represent different type of
data with a single name. The data items in a structure are called members
of the structure
Defining a structure:
A structure definition contains a keyword struct and user defined
tag-field followed by the members of the structure within braces.

Syntax:
struct tag-field
{
datatype member1;
datatype member2;
---------
----------------
datatype member n;
}

Example:
Consider student information consisting of number, age,
sex. The structure definition can be done as follows
struct student
{
int number;
int age;
char sex;
};
Three members namely number, age and sex of different data types. The
name of the structure is student.

1.7.3 Derived Data Types:

Derived data types are data type derived from existing data
type such as basic data types or user defined data types. They are

R. SIVARASAN 20
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

1) Arrays
2) Pointer
3) Function
Array: An array is a fixed size sequenced collection of element of the
same data type

Pointer: pointer is a memory variable that stores a memory address.

Function: a self-contained block or sub program of one or more

statements that performs a special task when called.

1.8 symbolic constant :

 A symbolic constant is an "variable" whose value does not
change during the entire lifetime of the program...
 Some constants in Mathematics:
Name of the constant Value of the constant
Pi 3.1415926535...
e (Natural log) 2.718281828...
 Some constants in Phisics:
Name of the constant Value of the constant
Gravitational Constant 6.67300 × 10-11 (m3 kg-1 s-2)
c (speed of light) 299,792,458 (m/sec)

Why use symbolic constants ?

 It is generally a bad idea to write a constant out in a computer
program each time that the constant is used:
o It is prone to error
o It is not convenient
 Consider the following program that computes the area of 2 circles:
public class Circle1
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{

R. SIVARASAN 21
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

double r1 = 3.4; // Radious of first cicle

double r2 = 5.4; // Radious of second cicle

double area1; // Area of circle 1

double area2; // Area of circle 1

area1 = 3.1415926535 * r1 * r1;

area2 = 3.1415926535 * r2 * r2;
} }

o You can easily mistype a digit of Pi...

o You have to remember the digits of Pi...
 So it is more convenient to give a name to a constant.
This name assigned to a constant is then called a symbolic
constant

R. SIVARASAN 22
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

1.9 OPERATORS:
An operator is a symbol that tells the computer to perform
certain mathematical or logical manipulations.

TYPE OF OPERATORS:

S.NO OPERATORS NAME OPERATORS SYMBOL

1 Arithmetic Operators + - * / %
2 Relational Operators < <= > >= == !=
3 Logical Operators && || !
4 Assignment Operators += -= *= /= %=
5 Increment and
++ - -
Decrement Operators
6 Conditional Operators ? :
7 Bitwise Operators & | ^ << >>
8 Special Operators sizeof() & * ,

1.9.1ARITHMETIC OPERATORS:

Symbol Meaning
+ Addition or Unary plus
- Subtraction or Unary minus
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulo Division

Syntax: Operand symbol Operand

Where: Operand A to Z (English alphabet character OR numbers)

Example: A+B C–D A/C 5*5

R. SIVARASAN 23
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Types of arithmetic operators:

1) Integer Arithmetic always yields an Integer value.

[ Ex: c=4 d=6 result of expression a* b = 24 ]

2) Real Arithmetic Use only real operands is called real

arithmetic. Values either in
decimal or exponential notation.
[ Ex: z = 20.5 / 4.5 = 4.555556 ]

3) Mixed – Mode one operands is integer and other is real,

the expression is called a mixed mode
arithmetic expression
[ Ex: 22 / 6.4 = 3.43 ] [ 15 / 10.0 = 1.5 ]

1.9.2 RELATIONAL OPERATORS:

Two quantities and depending on their relation, take certain
decisions. These comparisons can be done with the help of Relational
operators.
Symbol Meaning
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than
== Equal to
!= Not equal to

Syntax: Operand symbol Operand

Example: Relational expression

C > D OR 15 > 5

R. SIVARASAN 24
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Result: The value of a relational expression is either One [or] Zero.

One It is one if the specified relation is True
Zero It is Zero if the specified relation is False.

1.9.3 LOGICAL OPERATORS:

We want to test more than on condition and make decisions use
logical operators.

Symbol Meaning
&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
! Logical NOT

Syntax
Expression 1 Logical operators Expression 2

Operator Description Example

Called Logical AND operator. If both
&& the operands are non-zero, then the (A && B) is false.
condition becomes true.
Called Logical OR Operator. If any of
|| the two operands is non-zero, then the (A || B) is true.
condition becomes true.
Called Logical NOT Operator. It is
used to reverse the logical state of its
! operand. If a condition is true, then !(A && B) is true.
Logical NOT operator will make it
false.

1.9.4 ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS:

Assignment operators are used to assign the result of an expression
to variable.

Syntax : v op = exp; [or] v = v op (exp);

R. SIVARASAN 25
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Operator Description Example

Simple assignment operator. Assigns
C = A + B will assign
= values from right side operands to left
the value of A + B to C
side operand
Add AND assignment operator. It adds
C += A is equivalent to
+= the right operand to the left operand and
C=C+A
assign the result to the left operand.
Subtract AND assignment operator. It
subtracts the right operand from the left C -= A is equivalent to C
-=
operand and assigns the result to the left = C - A
operand.
Multiply AND assignment operator. It
multiplies the right operand with the left C *= A is equivalent to
*=
operand and assigns the result to the left C = C * A
operand.
Divide AND assignment operator. It
divides the left operand with the right C /= A is equivalent to C
/=
operand and assigns the result to the left = C / A
operand.
Modulus AND assignment operator. It
C %= A is equivalent to
%= takes modulus using two operands and
C=C%A
assigns the result to the left operand.

1.9.5 INCREMENT AND DECREMENT OPERATORS:

The increment operator is written as ++ and the decrement operator
is written as --.The increment operator increases the value of its operand by
1. The operand must have an arithmetic or pointer data type, and must
refer to a modifiable data object. Similarly, the decrement operator
decreases the value of its modifiable arithmetic operand by 1.

Syntax:
OP V ; [OR] V OP;

R. SIVARASAN 26
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:
int x;
int y;
// Increment operators
x = 1;
y = ++x; // x is now 2, y is also 2
y = x++; // x is now 3, y is 2
// Decrement operators
x = 3;
y = x--; // x is now 2, y is 3
y = --x; // x is now 1, y is also 1

1.9.6 CONDITIONAL OPERATOR:

A ternary operator pair “ ? : “ is available in c to construct
conditional expressions.

Syntax:
Exp1 ? Exp2 : Exp3 ;

Where Exp1, Exp2 , and Exp3 are Expressions.

The operator ? : works as follows: Exp1 is evaluated first. If is is

nonzero(True), then the Exp2 is evaluated and becomes the value of the
expression. If Exp2 is false, Exp3 is evaluated and its value becomes the
value of the expression.

Operator Description Example

If Condition is true ? then

?: Conditional Expression.
value X : otherwise value Y

Example:
a=4 b=7;
X=(a>b) ? a : b ;

R. SIVARASAN 27
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

1.9.7 BITWISE OPERATORS

Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation. The
truth tables for &, |, and ^ is as follows –

p q p&q p|q p^q

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 1

Assume A = 60 and B = 13 in binary format, they will be as follows −

A = 0011 1100
B = 0000 1101
-----------------
A&B = 0000 1100
A|B = 0011 1101
A^B = 0011 0001
~A = 1100 0011

The following table lists the bitwise operators supported by C. Assume variable
'A' holds 60 and variable 'B' holds 13, then –

1.9.8 SPECIAL OPERATORS:

Operat
Description Example
or
sizeof(a), where a is
sizeof() Returns the size of a variable.
integer, will return 4.

R. SIVARASAN 28
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

&a; returns the actual

& Returns the address of a variable.
address of the variable.
* Pointer to a variable. *a;
Comma (link the related
, V=(a=2,b=7,a/b);
expression together

1.10 EVALUATION OF EXPRESSION:

Expressions are evaluated using an assignment statement of the form:

Syntax:
Variable = expression ;

The statement is encountered, the expression is evaluated first and the

result the replaces the previous value of the variable on the left hand side.

Priority
This represents the evaluation of expression starts from "what"
operator.

Associativity
It represents which operator should be evaluated first if an
expression is containing more than one operator with same priority.
Operator Priority Associativity

{}, (), [] 1 Left to right

++, --, ! 2 Right to left

*, /, % 3 Left to right

+, - 4 Left to right

<, <=, >, >=, ==, != 5 Left to right

&& 6 Left to right

|| 7 Left to right

R. SIVARASAN 29
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

?: 8 Right to left

=, +=, -=, *=, /=, %= 9 Right to left

Example 1:

Rules
1) First, parenthesized sub expression from left to right are evaluated.
2) If parentheses are nested, the evaluation begins with the innermost
sub-expression.
3) Arithmetic expressions are evaluated from left to right using the
rules of precedence.
4) the expressions within parentheses assume highest priority

1.11 TYPE CONVERSIONS:

Type casting is a way to convert a variable from one data type to
another data type. For example, if you want to store a 'long' value into a
simple integer then you can type cast 'long' to 'int'. You can convert the
values from one type to another explicitly using the cast operator as
follows

There are two types of type casting

1.11.1. Implicit Conversion
 Implicit conversions do not required any operator for converted .
 They are automatically performed when a value is copied to a
compatible type in program.

R. SIVARASAN 30
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

 Here, the value of a has been promoted from int to double and we
have not had to specify any type-casting operator.This is known as
a standard conversion.
 The usual arithmetic conversions are implicitly performed to cast
their values to a common type. The compiler first performs integer
promotion; if the operands still have different types, then they are
converted to the type that appears highest in the following
hierarchy –

Example :-
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()

R. SIVARASAN 31
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

{
int i=20;
double p;
clrscr();

p=i; // implicit conversion

printf(“implicit value is %d”, p);

getch();
}

Output:-

implicit value is 20.

1.11.2 Explicit Conversion:

 In c language , Many conversions, specially those that
imply a different interpretation of the value, require an
explicit conversion. We have already seen two notations for
explicit type conversion.
 They are not automatically performed when a value is
copied to a compatible type in program.
Example :-
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=20;
short p;
clrscr();

p = (short) i; // Explicit conversion

R. SIVARASAN 32
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

printf(“Explicit value is %d”, p);

getch();
}
Output :-

Explicit value is 20.

R. SIVARASAN 33
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

2 DECISION MAKING STATEMENTS:

Decision making statements are used to skip or to execute a group
of statements based on the result of some condition. The decision making
statements are,
1) simple if statement
2) if.......else statement
3) nested if statement
4) switch statement
Rules
1) The brackets around the test condition are must
2) The test condition must be relational or logical expression
3) Statement block is called body of the if statement and it contains
one or more statements.
5) The opening and closing brackets { } are must if the statement
block contains more than one statement. Else optional.

2.1 SIMPLE IF STATEMENT:

Simple if statement is used to execute or skip one statement or
group of statements for a particular condition. The general form is

Syntax:
if(test condition)
{
statement block;
}
next statement;

When this statement is executed, the computer first evaluates the

value of the test condition. If the value is true, statement block and next
statement are executed sequentially. If the value is false, statement block
is skipped and execution starts from next statement

R. SIVARASAN 34
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Flow Diagram:

If
Test
Statement block
Condition False

True

Next statement

EXAMPLE
int main()
{
int m=40,n=40;
if (m == n)
{
printf("m and n are equal");
}
}

OUTPUT:
m and n are equal

2.2 IF ELSE STATEMENT:

if ........ else statement is used to execute one group of statements if
the test condition is true or other group if the test condition is false. The
general form is

R. SIVARASAN 35
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Syntax:
if(test condition)
{
statement block-1;
}
else
{
statement block-2;
}
next statement;

When this statement is executed, the computer first evaluates the

value of the test condition. If the value is true, statement block-1 is
executed and the control is transferred to next statements‟ the value is
false, statement block-2 is executed and the control is transferred to next
statement.

Flow Diagram:

false If True
Statement block Test Statement
-1 Condition block

-2

Next statement

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int m=40,n=20;
if (m == n)
{
R. SIVARASAN 36
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

printf("m and n are equal");

}
else
{
printf("m and n are not equal");
}
}
OUTPUT:

m and n are not equal

2.3 NESTED IF STATEMENT

 In “nested if” control statement, if condition 1 is false, then
condition 2 is checked and statements are executed if it is true.
 If condition 2 also gets failure, then else part is executed.
Syntax:
if(condition 1)
{
// statement(s);
}
else if(condition 2)
{
//statement(s);
}
.
.
.
.
else if (condition N)
{
//statement(s);
}
else
{
//statement(s);
}

R. SIVARASAN 37
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

The execution of a nested if-else statement, as soon as a condition

is encountered which evaluates to true, the statements associated with that
particular if-block will be executed and the remainder of the nested if-else
statements will be bypassed. If neither of the conditions are true, either the
last else-block is executed or if the else-block is absent, the control gets
transferred to the next instruction present immediately after the else-if
ladder.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int m=40,n=20;
if (m>n) {
printf("m is greater than n");
}
else if(m<n) {
printf("m is less than n");
}
else {
printf("m is equal to n");
}
}
OUTPUT:
m is greater than n

2.4 SWITCH STATEMENT:

Switch statement is an extension of if else statement. This permits

any number of branches. The general form is

R. SIVARASAN 38
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Syntax:

switch(expression)

{
case label-1:
statement block-1;
break;
case label-2:
statement block-2;
break;

case label-n:

statement block-n;
break;
default
default statement;
break;
}
next statement
When this statement is executed the computer first evaluates the
value of the expression in the keyword switch. This value is successively
compared with the case label-1,label-2 label-n. If a case label matches
with the value, the statement block associated with the case label is
executed. Then the control is transferred to the next statement.

If none of the case matches with the value, the default statement
block is executed.

R. SIVARASAN 39
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Flow Diagram:

If
Test
condition

Label 1
Next statement
Label n -1
Label 2
Statement block - 2

Label n
Statement block - n
Default
Default Statement
block

Next Statement

EXAMPLE:
#include<stdio.h>

int main( )
{
int day;
printf("\n Enter the number of the day:");
scanf("%d", &day);
switch(day)
{
case 1:
printf("Sunday");
break;
case 2:
printf("Monday");

R. SIVARASAN 40
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

break;
case 3:
printf("Tuesday");
break;
case 4:
printf("Wednesday");
break;
case 5:
printf("Thursday");
break;
case 6:
printf("Friday");
break;
case 7:
printf("Saturday");
break;
default:
printf("Invalid choice");
}
return 0;

Output:

Enter the number of the day 5

Thursday

R. SIVARASAN 41
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

2.5 LOOPING STATEMENTS:

Looping statements are used to execute a group of statements
repeatedly until some condition is satisfied. The looping statements are

1) While statement
2) Do . . . . while statement
3) For statement

Rules:
1. The test condition should be any relational or logical expression
enclosed within brackets.
2. If the body of the loop contains more than one statement, the { }
brackets are must.

Loop
S.no Name Syntax Description

Where,
exp1 – variable initialization
for (exp1; exp2; ( Example: i=0, j=2, k=3 )
1 for expr3) exp2 – condition checking
{ statements; } ( Example: i>5, j<3, k=3 )
exp3 – increment/decrement
( Example: ++i, j–, ++k )

where,
while (condition)
2 while condition might be a>5,
{ statements; }
i<10

do { statements;
do } where,
3
while while condition might be a>5,
(condition); i<10

R. SIVARASAN 42
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

2.6 WHILE STATEMENT:

 The while is an entry- controlled loop statement.

 The test condition is evaluated and if the condition is true, then the
body of the loop is executed.
 if the condition is false, then the body of the loop will be skip.
The is a simple looping statement. The general form is.

Syntax:
while ( test condition )
{
body of the loop ;
}
next statement ;

The computer first evaluates the test condition. If the vale is false,
the control is transferred to next statement. If the value is true, then the
body of the loop is executed reputedly until the test condition becomes
false. When the test condition becomes false the control is transferred to
next statement.

Flow Diagram

Test
False
Statement block
Condition

True

Body of the loop

R. SIVARASAN 43
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i=3;

while(i<10)
{
printf("%d\n",i);
i++;
}
}
OUTPUT:
3456789

2.7 DO . . . . . . WHILE STATEMENT:

In do..while loop control statement, while loop is executed
irrespective of the condition for first time. Then 2nd time onwards, loop is
executed until condition becomes false.

Syntax:
do
{
body of the loop;
}
while ( test condition ) ;
next statement ;

When this statement is executed the body of the loop is executed

first. Then the test condition is evaluated. If the value is false the control is
transferred to the next statement. If the value is true the body of the loop is
executed repeatedly until the test condition becomes false. When the test
condition becomes false the control is transferred to the next statement.

R. SIVARASAN 44
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Flow Diagram:

Body of the loop

True
Test
Condition

False

Next of the loop

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i=1;
do
{
Printf(“Display the values “);
printf("Value of i is %d\n", i);
i++;
}while(i<=4 && i >=2);

R. SIVARASAN 45
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

OUTPUT:
Display the values
Value of i is 1
Value of i is 2
Value of i is 3
Value of i is 4

2.8 FOR STATEMENT:

For statement is used to execute a statement or a group of
statements repeatedly for a know number of times. The general form is

Syntax:
For ( initial condition ; test condition ; increment or decrement )
{
Body of the loop ;
}
Next statement ;

Where
1) Initial condition is used to set initial values to control variables.
2) Test condition is used to check the control variable. According to
this the loop is executed or not
3) Increment or decrement is used to change the value of the control
variable.

When the for statement is executed the value of the control

variable is initialized and tested with the test condition. If the value of the
test condition is true. The body of the loop will be executed and the control
is transferred to the for statement. Then the value of the control variable
is incremented or decremented. When the test condition becomes false the
control is transferred to the next statement. The body of the loop is
executed repeatedly as long as the test value is true.

R. SIVARASAN 46
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

FLOW DIAGRAM:

Initialization of control variable

False
Test
Condition Next of the loop

True

Body of the loop

Increment or decrement
of control variable

Example:
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int i;

for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
printf("%d ",i);
}

}
OUTPUT:
0123456789

R. SIVARASAN 47
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

ARRAY:
array is defined as a group of related data items that share a
common name with different index values. The index value starts from 0
to n-1.

array_name[subscript];

where subscript - an integer from 0 to n.

Rules:
1) array_name must be valid C-variable name.
2) name of the array should be unique.
3) the elements in the array should be of same type
4) the subscript is always an integer
5) the subscript value cannot be negative.
6) The subscript must be given within square brackets after the
array name.
7) if there are more than one subscript each should be given in
separate square brackets.

3.1 SUBSCRIPT VARIABLES.

The variables which are used too represent the individual data in
the memory are called subscripted variables.

Syntax:
array_name[subscript];

Example: a[7];

3.2 TYPE OF ARRAY:

The array can be classified as,
1. one dimensional array
2. two dimensional array
3. multi dimensional array

R. SIVARASAN 48
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

3.3 ONE DIMENSIONAL ARRAY:

An array name with only one subscript is known as on dimensional
array.

Syntax: array_name[subscript]

Example:
1) a[3]
where:
a and name of the arrays.
3 is subscript data element or size of the array

2) grade[20]
grade name of the arrays.
20 is subscript data element
or size of the array

3.3.1 DECLARATION OF ONE DIMENSIONAL ARRAY:

array must be declared before it is used like other variables.

Syntax:
datatype array_name[size];

Where
datatype int float char etc.
array_name variable name.
Size number of contiguous location in the
memory to be reserved.
Example:
1) int mark[50];
This declares an integer type array named as mark having
50 memory location to store 50 integer data

R. SIVARASAN 49
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

2) char name[8]
This declares the name as a character array (string) variable that
can hold a maximum of 8 characters. Suppose we read the following string
constant into the string variable name.
“WELCOME”
each character of the string is treated as an element of the array
name and is stored in the memory

'W'
'E'
'L'
'C'
'O'
'M'
'E'
'\0'

3.3.2 INITIALIZATION OF ONE DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS:

after an array is declared, its elements must be initialized.
Otherwise, the will contain “garbage”.

Syntax:
static datatype array_name[size]={ list of values};
Where
static key word
datatype type of data found in the array such as int,
float, char etc.
array_name variable name.
Size number of contiguous locations in the
memory to be reserved.
List of values initial values to be given to the array. This
should be separated by commas.

R. SIVARASAN 50
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:
1) static float salary [ ] = {4.50,10.25,27.47,7.58};

this declares salary as a real array and the size of the array is
automatically allocated by counting the number of values. Here computer
counts the value as four and assigns the size as 4.

salary[0] salary[1] salary[2] salary[3]

4.50 10.25 27.47 7.58

2) static int age [6]={25,15,18,35};

if the size of the array is grater than the number of values in the list,
then the unused locations are filled with zeros as given below,

age[0] Age[1] Age[2] Age[3] Age[4] age[5]

25 15 18 35 0 0

Example:
write a program to find the smallest number and its position in a
given one dimensional array.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int I, j, n, small, pos;
int a[50];
printf(“Give the vlaue of n”);
scanf('%d”,&n);
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
sccanf(“%d”,a[i]);
small=a[0];
pos=0;
R. SIVARASAN 51
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

for (i=1; i<n; i++)

{
if (a[i] <= small)
{
small = a[i];
pos= I;
}
}
printf(“The smallest element is :%d /n”, small);
printf(“The position is :%d /n”, pos);
}

3.4 TWO DIMENSIONAL ARRAY:

an array with two subscripts is know as two dimensional array,

Syntax:
array_name[subscript 1][subscript 2]

where
subscript 1 row number
subscript 2 column number

Example:
A[2][2]

3.4.1 DECLARATION OF 2-D ARRAY:

Like one dimensional arrays two dimensional arrays must be
declared before it is used like other variables.

Syntax:
datatype array_name[row size][column size];

R. SIVARASAN 52
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Where
datatype int, char, float etc.
array_name variable name.
Row size maximum number of rows in the table.
Column size maximum number of column in the table.
Rules:
1) array_name must be valid C-variable name.
2) name of the array should be unique.
3) the elements in the array should be of same type
4) the subscript is always an integer
5) the size of the array is got by multiplying the row size and
column size.
5) the subscript value cannot be negative.
6) The subscript must be given within square brackets after the
array name.

Example
int mark [3][2];

Column 0 Column 1
Row 0 Mark[0][0] Mark [0][1]
Row 1 Mark [1][0] Mark [1][1]
Row 2 Mark [2][0] Mark [2][1]

The row number and column number mark[0][0] …... mark[2][1] are
called address of the locations.

3.4.2 ARRAY INITIALIZATION:

Like one dimensional arrays we can assign initialization values to

2-D arrays when they are declared.

Syntax:

static datatype array_name [row size][column size]={list of

values};

R. SIVARASAN 53
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

where
static key word
datatype type of data found in the array such as int,
float, char etc.
array_name variable name.
Size number of contiguous locations in the
memory to be reserved.
List of values initial values to be given to the array. This
should be separated by commas.

Example:
static int mark[3][3]={8,2,9,28,34,43,15,20,5};

Mark[0][0] Mark[0][1] mark[0][2]

8 2 9
mark[1][0] Mark[1][1] mark[1][2]
28 34 43
mark[2][0] mark[2][1] mark[2][2]
15 20 5

This declares mark as an integer array having 3 row and 3 column.

The total number of locations are 9 and these locations the values in the
right hand side are stored as given below.

static int mark[2][2]={ {8,2},{7,10} };

This declares mark as an integer array having 4 location and

assigns value

Mark[0][0] Mark[0][1]
8 2
mark[1][0] Mark[1][1]
7 10

R. SIVARASAN 54
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:
write a program to read a n x m matrix.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a[20][20] , I , j , m , n;
scanf(“%d %d”, &n,&m);
for ( i=0; i<n; i++ )
for(j=0 ; j< m; j++)
scanf(“ %d”, &a[i][j] );
}

3.5 MULTI-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS:

an array with three or more subscripts is know as multi -
dimensional array,

Syntax:
array_name[subscript 1][subscript 2]............. [subscript m];

where:
subscript 1 row number
subscript 2 column number

3.6 STRING HANDLING

a sequence of characters enclosed within double quotes are called
string.
When a string is stored in the computer memory computer
automatically places a null character '\0' as the last character or terminator.
The size of the string should be maximum number of characters in
the string plus one.

R. SIVARASAN 55
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

3.6.1 DECLARING STRINGG VARIABLE:

a string variable should be declared as a character type array and is
used to store string.

Syntax:
char variable_name[size];
where
char datatype
variable_name variable name.
Size maximum number of characters in
the string including '\0'

Example:
char class[15] ;

the declares class as a string variable having maximum of 15

character including last character '\0'.

3.6.2 INITIALIZING STRING VARIABLE:

Character array can be initialized as that of integer or floating point
arrays.

Syntax:
static dataype variable_name[size]= string ;

Example:
static char state[15] = “ TAMIL NADU”;
This declares state as a string variable having 15 characters
and is stored as shown below.
S S S S S S S S S S S S
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]
T A M I L N A D U \0 \0

R. SIVARASAN 56
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

3.6.3 READING STRINGS:

strings can be read into the memory by means of any one functions
namely
1) scanf
2) getchar
3) gets

scanf function:
scanf function with the format specification %s is used to read a
string of characters. The most familiar input function scanf function.

Syntax:
scanf ( “%s”,variable_name);

where variable_name valid variable name

the problem with scanf function is the reading stops when it finds a
white space character in the input string.
A white space includes blanks, tabs, carriage returns, form feeds,
and w lines.

Example:
char name[15];
scanf (“%s”, name);

Example:
Write a C program to illustrate how to read string from terminal.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char name[20];
printf("Enter name: ");
scanf("%s",name);
printf("Your name is %s.",name);
return 0;

R. SIVARASAN 57
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Input string → “Dennis Ritchie”

[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

D e n n i s \0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Output
Enter name: Dennis Ritchie
Your name is Dennis.

Here, program will ignore Ritchie because, scanf() function takes only
string before the white space.

GETCHAR FUNCTION
the function is used to read a string chracter.

Syntax: variable_name = getchar ( );

this function repeatedly string of characters can be read into the

memory. The reading is terminated when a new line character '\n' is
entered.
Note: that the getchar function has no parameters.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char name[30],ch;
int i=0;
printf("Enter name: ");
while(ch!='\n') // terminates if user hit enter
{
ch=getchar();

R. SIVARASAN 58
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

name[i]=ch;
i++;
}
name[i]='\0'; // inserting null character at end
printf("Name: %s",name);
return 0;
}

GETS FUNCTIONS:
This function is used to read a string of text containing
characters until a new line character(whitespaces) „\n‟ is entered. The
library function gets available in the <stdio.h> header file.

Syntax: gets ( variable_name );

Example:
char str[10];
Gets(str);
Printf(“ % s ” , str );

[OR ]

char str[40];
gets( :”%s”,gets(str));
Input: “SIVA”
Output:
S I V A \0 ? ? ? ? ?
Example:
int main(){
char str[30];
printf("Enter string: ");
gets(str); //Function to read string from user.

R. SIVARASAN 59
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

printf("string: ");
puts(str); //Function to display string.
return 0;
}

Input : “Raj kumar”

Output:
R A J K U M A R \0

3.6.4 WRITING STRING:

Strings can be displayed on the terminal by means of any one
functions namely
2.1.1 prinf
2.1.2 putchar
2.1.3 puts
printf function:
prinf function with format specification %s is used to display
strings on the terminal.

Syntax:
Printf( “ %s “, variable_name ) ;

Where
variable_name array name or string .

We can also specify the precision with which the array is

displayed. For instance, the specification.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
Void main
{
char str[15] = “ dennis ritchie

R. SIVARASAN 60
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

printf(“%s\n”, str);
printf(“ %15.6s “, str);
printf(“ %15.9s”, str);
}

Output:
dennis ritchie
dennis
dennis rit

putchar function:
like getchar() function , there is analogous function putchar for
writing characters one at a time to the terminal. It takes the form as shown
below

Syntax: putchar(variable_name);

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
Int main()
{
Char str[10];
Printf(“Enter a string or character\n”);
s=getchar();
str[10] =s;
printf(“given string or character is: “);
putchar(str);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter a string or character
program
piven string or character is: program

R. SIVARASAN 61
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

puts function:
pts function is a function which is used to display string on the
terminal.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
Void main()
{
char str[] = “ PROGRAMMING IN C\n”;
Puts(str);
Puts(“programming in c”);
}

Output:
PROGRAMMING IN C
Programming in c

3.7 STRING HANDLING FUNCTIONS:

C library has a number of string handing function to carry out
string manipulations. these functions are defined in the header file
<string.h>. the most commonly used string handling functions.

String 1= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2
V E R Y \0

String 2 = 0 1 2 3 4 5
G O O D \0

0 1 2 3 4 5
String 3= B A D \0

3.7.1 C – strcat() function:

strcat( ) function in C language concatenates two given strings.
It concatenates source string at the end of destination string.

Syntax: strcat ( destination string , source string) ;

R. SIVARASAN 62
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

When this function is executed the contents of the string 2 is joined

with string 1 and the character „/0‟ is placed at the end of the new string
string1. String2 remains unchanged. The size of string1 should have
enough space to keep the new string.

Example:
The result is

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2
V E R Y G O O D \0

Program:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main( )
{
char source[ ] = " fresh2refresh" ;
char target[ ]= " C tutorial" ;

printf ( "\nSource string = %s", source ) ;

printf ( "\nTarget string = %s", target ) ;

strcat ( target, source ) ;

printf ( "\nTarget string after strcat( ) = %s", target

);
}

OUTPUT:

Source string = fresh2refresh

Target string = C tutorial
Target string after strcat( ) = C tutorial fresh2refresh

R. SIVARASAN 63
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

3.7.2 Strcpy() function:

This function is used to copy the content of one string into
another string. The function strcpy() works like a string assignment
operator.

Syntax: strcpy ( string 1, string 2);

Where string 2= character array name or string constant.
When this function is exected the contents of string 2 is copied
into string 1. String 2 remains unchanged. The size of string 1 should have
enough space to receive the contents of string 2.

String 1 = 0 1 2 3 4 5
G O O D \0

String 2 = 0 1 2 3 4 5

Result
string 1 = 0 1 2 3 4 5
G O O D \0

String 2 0 1 2 3 4 5
G O O D \0

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main( )
{
char source[ ] = "fresh2refresh" ;
char target[20]= "" ;
printf ( "\nsource string = %s", source ) ;

R. SIVARASAN 64
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

printf ( "\ntarget string = %s", target ) ;

strcpy ( target, source ) ;
printf ( "\ntarget string after strcpy( ) = %s", target ) ;
return 0;
}
OUTPUT:

source string = fresh2refresh

target string = target string after strcpy( ) = fresh2refresh

3.7.3 Strcmp ( ) function:

This strcmp ( ) fuction is used to compare two strings
identified by the arguments and have a value 0 if they are equal. If they are
not, it have the numeric difference between the first no matching
characters in the strings.

Syntax: strcmp ( string 1 , string 2 );

Note:
Returns 0 if str1 is same as str2.
Returns <0 if strl < str2.
Returns >0 if str1 > str2

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main( )
{
char str1[ ] = "fresh" ;
char str2[ ] = "refresh" ;
int i, j, k ;
i = strcmp ( str1, "fresh" ) ;
j = strcmp ( str1, str2 ) ;
k = strcmp ( str1, "f" ) ;
R. SIVARASAN 65
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

printf ( "\n %d %d %d", i, j, k ) ;

return 0;
}
OUTPUT:
0 -1 1

3.7.4 Strlen ( ) function:

This function is used to find out the number of characters in the
given string.

Syntax: n= strlen ( string );

Where n is an integer variable which receives the length of

the given string.
String character array name or string variable or constant.

3.7.5 Strrev ( ) function :

This function is used to reverse a string. strrev( ) function is non
standard function which may not available in standard library in C.

Syntax: n = strrev ( string ) ;

Where n string variable to hold the reversed string.

String string variable or constant, which contains the string
to be reversed.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>

int main()
{
char str[15] = "Hello";

printf("String before strrev( ) : %s\n",str);

R. SIVARASAN 66
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

printf("String after strrev( ) : %s", strrev(str));

return 0;
}

Output :
String before strrev( ) : Hello
String after strrev( ) : olleH

3.7.6 strupr ( ) function :

This strupr ( ) function is used to convert a string in lower case to upper
case.

Syntax: n=strupr ( string ) ;

Where n string variable to hold the converted uppercase

string.
String string variable or constant, which contains the
lower case string.

Example :
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
char str[ ] = "Modify This String To Upper";
printf("%s\n", strupr(str));
return 0;
}
Output:
MODIFY THIS STRING TO UPPER

R. SIVARASAN 67
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

3.7.7 strlwr( ) function:

This strlwr ( ) function is used to convert a string in uppercase to
lower case.

Syntax: n= strlwr( string ) ;

Where n string variable to hold the converted lower case

string.
String string variable or constant, which contains the
uppercase string.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
char str[ ] = "MODIFY This String To LOwer";
printf("%s\n",strlwr (str));
return 0;
}
Output: modify this string to lower

3.7.8 Other string function:

String
fuction Syntax Description example
strncat ( ) Strncat( s1, s2, n); Appends a strncat ( str2, str1, 3 ); –
portion of string First 3 characters of str1
to another is concatenated at the end
of str2.
strncpy ( ) Strncpy ( s1, s2, 5); Copies given strncpy ( str1, str2, 4) – It
number of copies first 4 characters of
characters of one str2 into str1.
string to another

R. SIVARASAN 68
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

strstr ( ) Strstr (s1 , s2 ); Returns pointer Strstr searches the string

to first s1 to see whether the
occurrence of string s2 is contained in
str2 in str1 s1. If YES return position
otherwise, it returns a
NULL

C– Strchr( s1, „single Returns strchr (string,'i');

strchr( ) char‟); pointer to first
occurrence of
char in str1

3.8 Table of strings:

Table of strings means lists of character strings, such as a list of the
name of the employees in a department ,list of the name of companies in a
cooperate. List of places, etc. this can be represented as a two dimensional
array of characters. Each row of the table represents a separate string.

Syntax:
char variable_name [row size] [column size];

Where char data type

variable_name c variable name
row size number of entries in the list or table
Column size maximum number of characters in
each row.
Example:
Char name[ ][ ] ={“RAJ”,”JOSEPH”,”JESTIN”,”SUDHAKAR”,”SIVA”};

R A J
J O S E P H
J E S T I N
S U D H A K A R
S I V A

R. SIVARASAN 69
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

FUNCTION
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
A function is a block of code that performs a specific task.
Function is classified as one of the derived data types in c. There are two
type of functions in c. they are
1) Library Function
2) User Defined Function

Function

User defined
Library functions
functions

Library functions:
Which are not required to be written by the programmer. But these
are available in separate files and the programmer has to include it in the
appropriate places. Function prototype and data definitions of these
functions are written in their respective header file.

Example:
<strdio.h> header file printf , scanf , etc

If you want to use printf(), function, the header

file <stdio.h> should be included.
A list of the most common libraries and a brief description of the
most useful function they contain follows.

1) <Stdio.h> Input Output Function

2) <string.h> String Functions
3) <math.h> Mathematics Functions
4) <stdlib.h> Miscellaneous Functions

R. SIVARASAN 70
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

User defined functions:

Function functions which are defined by the user at the time of
writing program. Functions are made for code reusability and for saving
time and space.
One or more functions out of this one function should be main in
the all c programs. When the c compiler is compile the program main
function only exestuation begins. All other functions will be controlled by
the function main.

4.2 FUNCTION PROTOTYPE OR DECLARATION:

The variable and an array, a function must also be declared before

its called. A function declaration tells the compiler about a function name
and how to call the function. The actual body of the function can be
defined separately.

Syntax:

Function _type function_name( list of arguments );

This is very similar to the function header line except the

terminating semicolon.
 The parameter or list of argument list must be separated by
commas.
 The parameter names do not need to be the same in the prototype
declaration and the function definition.
 Use of parameter name in the declaration is optional.
 If the function has no formal parameters, the list is written as
(void).

Example:
1) int addNumbers(int a, int b); // function prototype

Parameter names are not important in function declaration only

their type is required, so the following is also a valid declaration
2) int addNumbers (int, int);

R. SIVARASAN 71
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

FUNCTION DEFINITION:

Main Function Level 0

Function 1 Function 2 Function 3 Level 1

Function 4 Function 5 Level 2

Function 6 Function 7 Level 3

4.3 PART OF USER – DEFINED FUNCTION:

A function that is declare, calling and define by the user is called
user define function. Every user define function has three parts as
1) Function Definition.
2) Function Call
3) Function Declaration.

Definition of functions:
Function definition also known as function implementation. A
function should be defined before it is used. A function has two parts
1) Function Header
2) Function Body
Syntax:
function_type function_name( list of arguments ) Function
{ Header
local variable declaration;
executable statement-1;
executable statement-2;
............ Function
........... Body
return ( expression);
}

R. SIVARASAN 72
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Where
function _type Represents the data type of the value returned by the
function. if the return type is not explicitly
specified, c will assume that it is an void type.

function_name valid c identifier and therefore must follow the same

rules of formation as other variable name.

List of arguments the variables that will receive the data sent by the
calling program.

Local variable
declaration declaration and statements necessary for performing
the required task. The body enclosed in braces.

return returns the value evaluated by the function.

Rules:
1. function header should not terminate with semicolon.
2. List of arguments and argument declaration are optional.
3. If the function has no list of arguments and empty
parentheses is a must.
4. The expression in the return statement is optional.
5. The parentheses around the expression in the return
statement is optional.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int addNumbers(int a, int b); // function prototype
int main()
{
int n1,n2,sum;
printf("Enters two numbers: ");
R. SIVARASAN 73
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

scanf("%d %d",&n1,&n2);
sum = addNumbers(n1, n2); // function call
printf("sum = %d",sum);
return 0;
}
int addNumbers(int a,int b) // function definition
{
int result;
result = a+b;
return result; // return statement
}

4.4 FUNCTION RETURNING NOTHING:

If the function is not to return any value, we can declare the
function of type void, which tells c not save any temporary space for a
value to be sent by the function.

Syntax:
Void function_name(list of arguments)

Example of function:
int factorial(int x)
{
int r=1;
if(x==1) return 1;
else r=x*factorial(x-1);
return r;
}
Factorial is the name of the function. It has one formal parameters
x. the statement body has another variable of the formal parameters x. the
return statement returns the value of r to other function.
R. SIVARASAN 74
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

4.5 FUNCTION CALLS:

Function can be called by simply using the function name followed
by a list of actual arguments or parameters enclosed within parentheses.

Syntax:
function_name ( list of arguments );

Where
Function_name already defined function name.

List of argument The value will send the data though

function definition section.

Rules:
1. Function_name should be the name used in the function definition
called function.
2. Data type of the arguments should match with the already defined
function called function arguments.
3. The called function returns only one value per call.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
int sum(int , int); //Prototype or Declaration
int main()
{
int x, y, result;
printf("Enter value of x and y: ");
scanf("%d %d", &x, &y);
result=sum(x, y); //calling of function-sum
printf("Sum of %d + %d = %d", x, y, result);
return 0;
}
//Definition of function sum
R. SIVARASAN 75
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

int sum(int a, int b)

{
int res;
res = a + b;
return ( res );
}
Output:
Enter value of x and y:
15
10
Sum of 15 + 10 = 25
Note:
 if actual parameters >formal parameters, the extra actual arguments
will be discarded.
 If the actual parameters < formal parameters, the unmatched formal
arguments will be initialized to some garbage.

Advantage of function:
 It provides modularity to the program.
 Easy code Reusability. You just have to call the function by its
name to use it.
 In case of large programs with thousands of code lines, debugging
and editing becomes easier if you use functions.

R. SIVARASAN 76
4.6 FUNCTIONS CATEGORY:
We have seen different ways of calling function. A Function is
depending on whether arguments are present or not and whether a values is
returned or not there are four types of functions.

Function with no arguments and no return values.

Function with no arguments but return values.

Function
Function with arguments and no return values.

Function with arguments and return values.

4.6.1 Function with no arguments and no return values.

This does not receive any arguments (data) from the calling
function and does not return any value to the calling function. There is no
data transfer between the calling function and the called function.

Syntax:
Function does not return a value

Void function_name ( );

` Nothing specified in brackets -

Function does not take any argument

Example:

Void function 1( ) Void function 2( )

{ {
………………….. …………………..
No argument
Function 2 () . …………………
………………. ………………….
..…………………
………………….. No return value Return ;
……………….. ……………… }
Control
}
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Program:
#include<stdio.h>
void area(); // Prototype Declaration
void main()
{
area();
}
void area()
{
float area_circle;
float rad;
printf("\nEnter the radius : ");
scanf("%f",&rad);
area_circle = 3.14 * rad * rad ;
printf("Area of Circle = %f",area_circle);
}

Output:
Enter the radius : 3
Area of Circle = 28.260000

4.6.2 Function with no arguments but return values.

The called Function does not receive any data from the calling
Function. It is also a one-way data communication between the calling
Function and the called Function.

R. SIVARASAN 78
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Void function 1( ) Void function 2( )

Control
{ {
………………….. …………………..
Function 2 () . …………………
. ………………… return value ………………….
…………………… ……………… Return(exp) ;
Control }
}

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
float sum;
float total();
clrscr();
sum = total();
printf(" Sum = %f\n" , sum);
}
float total()
{
float a, b;
a = 2.0 ;
b = 10.0 ;
return(a+b);
}
Output:
sum = 12.000000

R. SIVARASAN 79
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

4.6.3 Function with arguments and no return values:

 Function accepts argument but it does not return a value back to the
calling Program.
 It is Single (One-way) Type Communication.
 Generally Output is printed in the Called function

Void function 1( ) Void function 2(x,y )

{ {
Control
………………….. …………………..
Function 2 (a,b) . …………………
. ………………… Pass arguments ………………….
…………………… ……………….. Return ;
}
} Control

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
//----------------------------------------
void area(float radi); //Prototype Declaration
//----------------------------------------
void main()
{
float radi;
printf("nEnter the radius : ");
scanf("%f",&radi);
area(radi);
getch();
}

R. SIVARASAN 80
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

//----------------------------------------
void area(float radi)
{
float ar;
ar = 3.14 * radi * radi ;
printf("Area of Circle = %f", ar);
}
Output:
Enter the radius : 6
Area of Circle = 113.040000

4.6.4 Function with arguments and one return values:

 This functions receive arguments(data) from the calling function
and return the computed value back to the calling function.
 It is two ways Communication the arguments pass and result will
be receive the calling function.

Example:.

Void function 1( ) Control Void function 2(x,y )

{ {
………………….. …………………..
Pass argument a
. …………………
Function 2 (a,b)
………………. ………………….
..…………………
………………….. return value Return (exp);
……………….. …………………. }

} Control

R. SIVARASAN 81
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int i , n , value ;
printf ( “enter the value of n \n “ ) ;
scanf ( “ % d “ , &n ) ;
for ( i = 0 ; i < = n ; i + + )
{
value = square ( i ) ;
printf ( “ % d “ , i , value ) ;
}
}
square (m)
int m ;
{
int temp ;
temp = m * m ;
return ( temp ) ;
}
Output:
Enter n value
4
0 1 4 9 16

R. SIVARASAN 82
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

4.7 RECURSION:
1. A recursion function is one that calls itself again and again.
2. The normal function will be called by other functions by its name.
But the recursive function will be called by itself as long as the
condition is satisfied.
3. Recursion is a special case of this process.

Syntax:
return_type recursive_func ([argument list])
{
statements;
... ... ...
recursive_func ([actual argument]);
... ... ...
}

The general form to represent to flow diagram is

Recursive Function

Statement

True
Condition

False
Remaining Statements

Stop

R. SIVARASAN 83
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

4.7.1 Type of recursion:

1) Direct Recursion
2) Indirect Recursion
Direct Recursion:
A function is said to be direct recursive if it calls itself directly
Function contain without argument
void recursion_name( )
{
……………….
………………..
recursion_name( ) ;
…………………
}
int main ( )
{
…………………………
recursion_name ( );
………………..
}
Example:
Main( )
{
Printf(“ this is direct recursion function example \n”);

Main( );
// function call itself
}

Indirect Recursion :
A function is said to be indirect recursive if it calls another function
and this new function calls the first calling function again.

R. SIVARASAN 84
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Function contain without argument

int recursion_name 1( )
{
……………….
………………..
recursion_name 2( );
…………………
}
int recursion_name2 ( )
{
…………………………
recursion_name 1 ( ) ;
}

Example:
The following example calculates the factorial of a given number
using a recursive function.
#include<stdio.h>
int factorial(int n)
{
if(n==0)
return 1;
else
return (n * factorial(n-1));
}

int main()
{
int num,f;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d",&num);
f=factorial(num);

R. SIVARASAN 85
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

printf("Factorial of %d = %d",num,f);
return 0;
}

Explanation:
let us assume num=3.
Since the value of num is not equal to 0 the statement,
Fact=n * factorial(n-1)

1st calling: Fact = 3 * factorial ( 2 )

nd
2 calling: Fact= 3 * 2 * factorial ( 1 )
rd
3 calling Fact= 3 * 2 * 1 * factorial ( 0 )
th
4 calling Fact= 3 * 2 * 1 * 1
Factorial of 3 = 6

4.7.2 Disadvantages of Recursion

 Recursive programs are generally slower than non recursive
programs because it needs to make a function call so the program
must save all its current state and retrieve them again later. This
consumes more time making recursive programs slower.
 A Recursive program requires more memory to hold intermediate
states in a stack. Non recursive programs don't have any
intermediate states, hence they don't require any extra memory.

4.8 PASSING ARRAYS TO FUNCTION:

It is also possible to entire array can be passed to a function like
variables.
The calling function uses the array name and the size of the array as
actual arguments(arguments in the function definition). The called function
uses the array name and size of the array as formal arguments(dummy
arguments).

R. SIVARASAN 86
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Function call

Syntax:
function_name ( array_name, size_of_the_array );

Function definition

Syntax:
data_type function_name (array_name, size_of_the_array )
formal argument declaration;

Rules:
1. The function name in the function call and in function definition
should be same.
2. Type of the actual and formal arguments should be same.
3. The array name in the formal argument is declared with empty
brackets.
4. The function prototype must show that the argument is an array.

Example:
1) pass a single element of an array to function
#include <stdio.h>
void display(int a)
{
printf("%d",a);
}
int main(){
int big[]={6.20.33,14};
display(big[3]); //Passing array element c[3] only.
return 0;
}
Output: 14

R. SIVARASAN 87
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

2) write a program to arrange n number in ascending order using

function:

#include < stdio .h >

main( )
{
int c [ 50 ], n, i ;
prinf( “enter n numbers n \n “ );
scanf ( “ %d “ , & n ) ;
for( i = 0 ; i < n ; i + + )
scanf ( “ % d “ , & a [ i ] );
sort ( c , n );
for ( i = 0; i < n; i + + )
printf( “ after sort element is “ ) ;
prinf ( “ % d “ , a [ i ] ) ;
}
sor ( x, m )
int x [ ] , m ;
{
int i, j , temp ;
for ( i = 0 ; i < m – 1 ; i + + )
for ( j = i + 1 ; j < m ; j + + )
if ( x [ i ] > x [ j ] )
{
temp = x [ i ] ;
x [ i ] = x [ j ];
x [ j ] = temp;
} }

R. SIVARASAN 88
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Output:
Enter n numbers
53 56 24 63 28 14 36 91
After sort element is
14 24 28 36 53 56 63 91

4.9 PASS TWO-DIMENSIONAL ARRAY TO A FUNCTION

pass two-dimensional array to a function as an argument, starting
address of memory area reserved is passed as in one dimensional array

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
void display(int array_name[2][2]);
int main()
{
int array_name[2][2],i,j;
printf("Enter 4 numbers:\n");
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j){
scanf("%d",&c[i][j]);
}
display(array_name); /* passing multi-dimensional array
to function */
return 0;
}
void display(int array_name[2][2]){
/* Instead to above line, void display(int array_name[][2]){
is also valid */
int i,j;

R. SIVARASAN 89
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

printf("Displaying:\n");
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j)
printf("%d",array_name[i][j]);
}

Input: 5 3 15 2

Output: 5 3
15 2

4.10 SCOPE OF THE VARIABLES:

 Variable is known among the set of functions in a program.
 Life time of variable means the period which a variable retains a
given value during the execution of the program.
 The variable is also known as a identifier, the identifier have a data
type, they also have a storage class.
 The variable visibility refers to the accessibility of a variable from
the memory.

1) Automatic variables
2) External variables.
3) Static variables.
4) Register variables.

Automatic variables or local variable:

The variables declared inside a function are called automatic
variables. These are called automatic because, their memory spaces are
automatically allocated when the function is called and destroyed
automatically when the function is exited. Automatic variables also called
private variable because the function variable also declared local or
internal variable.
Scope of the automatic variable is it is known only within the
function. life time is it is destroyed when we come out of the function.
R. SIVARASAN 90
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Syntax:
auto data_type variable 1, variable 2, ………………
variable n;

where
auto keyword to define automatic variable.
Data_type valid c data type such as int, float, ect.
Variable 1 to variable n valid identifier name

Structure of local variable:

void main ( )
{
auto int p=5; // local variable declaration
and initialization

………………..
++p; // call the local variable

…………………
}
function1( )
{
float x = 3.1; // local variable declaration
and initialization
float y = 2.0; // local variable declaration
and initialization
……………….
……………..
x = x + y; // call the local variable
…………..
}

R. SIVARASAN 91
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
Void main ()
{
int p, q; /* local variable p and q declaration */
int r; /* local variable r declaration*/
p = 10; /* actual initialization to variable */
q = 20;
r = (p *p) / (q*q)
printf ("value of p= %d, q = %d \n", p, q);
printf(“ the result of expression \n r=%d”, r);
}

Output:
P = 10 q = 20
The result of expression
R = 0.25
Global variables or External variables:

 The variables which are declared outside the function are called
external variables, usually on top of the program.
 The variable is not declared internally or a specific function, these
are common to all the function in the program.
 The variable are alive and active throughout the program.
 When the variable definition will automatically allocate storage
space.
 The referred by the variable is same name and same data type.
 It also called as global variable, because the accessing limited is
entire programming.

R. SIVARASAN 92
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Syntax:

extern data_type variable 1, variable 2, variable 3,……… variable n;

Where
Extern key word to define external variable
data_type valid c data type such as int, float,..
ect.
Variable 1 to variable n valid identifier name

Structure of global variable:

extern int p=1 ; // global variable p is

declaration and initialization part
extern float w=2.5; / * global variable w is declared
and initialization and the data
type is also declared * /
void main ( )
{
++p;
function1( )
………………..
…………………
}
function1( )
{
float x ;
……………….
……………..
x = p + w; // call the global variable
…………..
}

R. SIVARASAN 93
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
void student( void ) ; // function prototype
int stud_no ; // global variable stude_no
is declaration
main()
{
student() ; // function call
printf( "The students number is %d\n", stud_no ) ;
}
void student( void ) // function definition
{
Stud_no = 25 ;
}
Output:
The student number is 25

Static variable:
Static variables are variables which retain the values till the end of
the program. A variable can be declared static using the keyword static.

Syntax:

static data_type variable 1, variable 2, variable 3,………variable n ;

The static variable will declared as two type. They are

Static variable

Internal External

R. SIVARASAN 94
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Internal static variables:

 The variable are declared inside a function, and are
accessing limits also within a function.
 The scope of internal static variables extends up to the end
of the function.
 Static variable are similar to auto (local) variables.
External static variables:
 An external static variables are variables declared outside
the function and are available to all the functions in the
program
 External static variables are available to the functions only
within a file.
 It also act as external (global ) variable.

Register variables:
 Variable also declared inside a function or block
 The variable should be kept in one of the CPU registers,
 The variable accessing is much faster than a memory
accessing.
 The variable are stored in the registers are called register
variables.
 Scope of the variable until end of function or block

Syntax:
Register data_type variable

Example:
Void main ( )
{
Register int a = 0 ;
Auto int b = 3 ;
Auto char = „ Z ‟ ;
}

R. SIVARASAN 95
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

STRUCTURES

4.11.1 Introduction:
Array and pointers are powerful tools to represent a group of data
items of same dat typed with a single name. But c
languageprovides a data type named as structures to do this task.
Structures defined as a collection of data items of different types
using a single name.

4.11.2 Difference Between Array and Structure

S.no Array Structure

Array is collection of related data Structure is the collection of

1
item. deferent data item .

Structure elements are access

2 Array data are access using index.
using . operator.

Structures allocate dynamic

3 Array allocates static memory.
memory.

Array element access takes less Structure elements take more time
4
time than structures. than Array.

Structure is a programmer-
5 Array is a derived data type
defined data type

Individual entries in an array are Structure Individual entries are

6
called elements called members.

4.11.3 Defining a structure:

Structures defined as a collection of data items of different types
using a single name. A structure definition contains a keyword struct and a
user defined tag field followed by the members of the structure with in
braces

R. SIVARASAN 96
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Syntax:
struct structure_name
{
data_type1 member1;
data_type2 member2;
data_type3 member3;
.........................
…………………
};

Struct keyword to divine structure

Structure_ name valid c identifier for name of the structure
data_type valid data type such as int float etc.
member 1 to n different data type of data item or member
function.
RULES:
1. Structure_name is the name given to the structure.
2. Each member declaration should be terminated with
semicolon.
3. Structure definition has compound statements, it should
have its own opening and closing braces.
4. The structure closing brace is must be terminated with
semicolon.
Example:
struct employee
{
int emp_no = 210 ;
char name[15] = { “ ramkumar ” };
int salary = 20000;
};
The keyword struct declares a structure to hold the details of three
data field, namely emp_no, name, and salary. The field of three are
members or element of structure variable. Each of the member or structure
element is different data type.

R. SIVARASAN 97
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

4.11.4 Structure variable declaration:

Structure declaration means defining variables to the already
defined structure. We can define variables in two way. Don‟t use member
names as variables.

I. Variable definition along with the structure definition

Syntax:
structure structure_name
{
data_type member1;
data_type member2;
……………………….
………………………
data_type member n;
};
variable1, variable2, …………, variable n;

II. Variable definition using structure name anywhere in the program.

Syntax:

Struct structure_name variable1, variable2, variable;

Example:
Struct employee
{
Int emp_no;
Char emp_name[15];
Int salary;
};
employee1, employee2, employee3;

R. SIVARASAN 98
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

4.11.5 Typedef structures

the code short and improves readability. In the above discussion we
have seen that while using structs every time we have to use the lengthy
syntax, which makes the code confusing, lengthy, complex and less
readable. The simple solution to this issue is use of typedef. It is like an
alias of struct.

Syntax:
typedef struct
{
data_type member1;
data_type member2;
…………………
…………………..
data_type membern;
} variable;

4.11.6 Comparison with normal structure and typedef

Code without typedef Code using tyepdef

struct home_address {
typedef struct home_address{
int local_street;
int local_street;
char *town;
char *town;
char *my_city;
char *my_city;
char *my_country;
char *my_country;
};
}addr;
………………
………………
………………
……………….
struct home_address var1 = {55,
addr var1 = {55, "Dayal bagh", "Agra",
"Dayal bagh", "Agra", "India"};
"India"};

R. SIVARASAN 99
4.11.7 Structure initialization:
 The members of the structure variable can be assigned initial
values at compile time.
 The structure should be declared as static type.

Syntax:

static struct structure_name structure_variable = { value1, value2, …

value n };
Where
static storage class for structure.
struct keyword to divine structure
structure_ name valid c identifier for name of the
structure
Structure_variable member or structure variable
declared.
List of values give list of value to initialization for
member or structure Variable.
Rules:
1. We cannot initialize individual members inside the structure
template.
2. The Order of values enclosed in braces must match the order of
members in the structure definition.
3. The uninitialized member will be assigned default values as zero or
\0
4. After the list of value must be terminated with semicolon.

Example:
Structure
# include <stdio.h>
Struct employee
{
Int emp_no = 210 ;
Char name[15] = { “ ramkumar ” };
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

int salary = 20000;

};
int main ( )
{
struct employee emp ;
printf(“Emp_name= %d \n emp_name=%s \n emp_salary= %d
\n”,Emp.emp_no,
emp.name,emp.salary);
}
Output:
Emp_name= 210
emp_name = ramkumar
emp_salary = 2000

4.12 ACCESSING STRUCTURE MEMBERS

 Dot operator or member operator „. „ is used to give data to the
structure variables individual members.
 They should be linked to the structure variable in order to make
them meaningful members.
 The variable name with a period and the member name are used
like any ordinary variable.

Syntax:
Structure_variable . member_name

Example:
Write a c program to assign values to the member of a structure named
employee and to display the employe no, name, salary detail.

#include<stdio.h>

struct employee;
{

R. SIVARASAN 101
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

int emp_no;
char emp_name[15];
float salary;
};
Void main( )
{
struct employee detail;
printf(“GIVE THE EMPLOYEE DETAILS\n;);
printf(“ENTER THE EMPLOYEE NUMBER :”);
scanf(“Emp_no=%d”, & detail.emp_no);
printf(“ENTER THE EMPLOYEE NAME :”);
scanf(“Emp_name=%d”, & detail.emp_name();
printf(“ENTER THE EMPLOYEE SALARY :”);
scanf(“Emp_salary=%d”, & detail.salary);
printf(“Emp_no=%d”, detail.emp_no);
printf(“Emp_name=%d”, detail.emp_name);
printf(“Emp_salary=%d”, detail.salary);
}
Input:
GIVE THE EMPLOYEE DETAILS
ENTER THE EMPLOYEE NUMBER
1024
ENTER THE EMPLOYEE NAME
RAJ
ENTER THE EMPLOYEE SALARY
40000
OUTPUT:
Emp_no = 1024
Emp_name = RAJ
Emp_salary = 4000

R. SIVARASAN 102
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

4.13 COPING AND COMPARING STRUCTURE VARIABLES:

the structure variable can be copied into another of the same type,
it‟s possible in c structure using member access operator and assignment
operator.
The member accessing operator to access the previous structure
variable value is coping and then assignment operator is assign structure
value to left side of another member variable.

Syntax:
structure_variable2 = structure_variable1

Structure_variable1 contend is copied there after assigned to

structure_variable2.

Example:
struct employee
{
int no;
char name [20];
int salary;
};
void main( )
{
int x;
struct employee emp1 = { 9203,”jeo”,25000);
struct employee emp2 = { 9321,”mark”,15000);
struct employee emp3;
emp3 = emp1 ;
x =( (emp3.salaray == emp1.salary)&& (emp3.name ==
emp1.name) ) ? 1: 0 ;
printf(“The employee 1 details\n”);

R. SIVARASAN 103
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

printf(“%d %s %d\n”, emp1.no,emp1.name,emp1.salary);

if(x = 1)
{
printf(“The structure variable3 is copied from structure
variable1\n”);
printf(“The employee 3 details”);

printf(“%d %s %d\n”, emp3.no,emp3.name,emp3.salary);

else
printf(“ the structure variable in not copied”);
}
Output:
The employee 1 details
9203 jeo 25000
The structure variable3 is copied from structure variable1
The employee 3 details
9203 jeo 25000

4.14 ARRYAS OF STRUCTURES:

Array of structures are defined as a group of data item of different
data types stored on a consecutive memory location with a common
variable name collection an array of structures.
The declare an array of structures, each element of the array representing a
structure variable.

Syntax:
struct structure_name structure_variable[size] ;

Structure_variable array name

size no of elements in the array.

R. SIVARASAN 104
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:
Struct class student[3];
the declaration describe information about two student namely
student1 and student2.

Student1[0] Student2[1] Student3[2]

This is only one member variable and three student information to

allotted the memory The memory allocation is to create three variable
space and store three student information.
Suppose the member variable have two or three field, that time to
help the accessing member variable operator „.‟ (dot).

Struct student
{
Char name[15];
Int age;
};
Stuct student stud_bio[3];

4.15 MEMORY ALLOCATION STRUCTURE FORMAT:

Array index no
S_bio[0] S_bio[1] S_bio[2]
Array element
s_bio 0 s_bio 0 s_bio1 s_bio1 s_bio 2 s_bio 2
[0] [1] [0] [1] [0] [1]
index no

Element

Suppose if we want to describe information about 100 or 1000

students, it is highly difficult to name 1000 different variable. But with the
help of the facility available C language these 1000 students (variables)
can be called as an array structures. A single name is given to all the 1000

R. SIVARASAN 105
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

students information contain a single array name.

Example:
Struct student
{
Int stud_no;
Char stud_name[20];
Int percentage;
};
Int main ( )
{
Struct student information[4] = {{1001,”Daniel”,
90},{1002.”joseph”,70},{1003,”sharma”,60},{1004,”mark”,91}};
For(i=0;i<4;i++);
{
Print(“%d,%s,%d \n”, information.
}
}

4.16 Nested structures:

Nesting structures means structures within a structure. When a
structure is declared as a member of another structure then it is called
structure within structure or nested structure.
Syntax:
structure structure_name
{
data_type member1;
………………………
data_type membern;
structure structure_name
{

R. SIVARASAN 106
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

data_type member1;
data_type member2;
……………………….
………………………
data_type membern;
};
variable1, …… , variablen;
};
variable1, variable2, …………,
variablen;

General format to represent nested structure:

structure

Member 1

Member 2

Structure1

Member 1

Member

Example:
struct student_information
{
char name[30];
int age;
// inner structure definition
struct stud_address
{

R. SIVARASAN 107
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

char locality[30];
char city[20];
int pincode;
}address;
}student;

The outer structure struct student_information have three member

namely name, and structure address. The inner structure struct
stud_address gives the information about student address detail, and the
member variable of the inner structure having 3 member namely locality,
city and pin code.

4.17 Structures and function:

We can pass the entire structure values as actual argument to
functions. there are various methods by which the values of a structure can
be transferred from one function to another.

1) Actual argument of the function Calling function

2) Entire structure to the called function

Calling function:
 The actual arguments are then treated independently like ordinary
variables.
 This is the most elementary method and becomes unmanageable
and inefficient when the structure size is large.

Syntax:

function_name ( structure_variable_name );

where
function name name of the called function
structure _variable_name actual argument variable name of
the defined structure.

R. SIVARASAN 108
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Called function:
 The method involves passing of a copy of the entire structure to the
called function.
 The function is working on a copy of the structure, any changes to
structure members within the function are not reflected in the
original structure
 Necessary for the function to return the entire structure back to the
calling function.

Syntax:
data_type function_name(variable_name)
struct structure_name variable_name;
{
………………..
…………………..
return(expression);
}

Example:
Write a program to pass address of structure variable to user
defined function and display the contents.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct book
{
char name[28];
char author[30];
int pages;
};
void main()
{
struct book b1 = { “ PROBLEM SOLVING USING C”,”R.
SIVARAJ”,982};
show(&b1);
}

R. SIVARASAN 109
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

show (struct book *b2)

{
clrscr ();
printf(“\n %s by %s of %d page”, b2->name,b2->author,b2->pages.);
}

Output:

PROBLEM SOLVING USNG C by R.SIVARAJ of 982 pages.

4.18 UNIONS
 Union is like a structure data type in which all the members share
the same memory area.
 In the structure each member has its own memory location
whereas, members of unions have same memory location.
 The compiler allocates a memory space that is large enough to
store the largest variable type in the union.

Syntax:
Union union_tag_field
{
Data_type member1;
Data_type member2;
……………….
Data_type member;
} variable1,variable2,….. variable;
where
union keyword to define union
union_tag_field name of the union – valid name
member1 to member n different data type of data item or member
function.

R. SIVARASAN 110
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:
union item
{
int m;
float x;
char c;
}It1;
Explanation:
This declares a variable It1 of type union item.
This union contains three members each with a different data type.
However only one of them can be used at a time. This is due to the fact
that only one location is allocated for a union variable, irrespective of its
size. The compiler allocates the storage that is large enough to hold largest
variable type in the union. In the union declared above the
member x requires 4 bytes which is largest among the members in 16-bit
machine. Other members of union will share the same address.

Uses of unions:
 Unions conserve memory space.
 They are useful for applications involving number of variables,
where values need not be assigned to all elements at one time.

4.18.1 Difference between unions and structures:

R. SIVARASAN 111
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Structure C Union

Structure allocates storage Union allocates one common storage

space for all its members space for all its members.
separately. Union finds that which of its member
needs high storage space over other
members and allocates that much space

Structure occupies higher Union occupies lower memory space

memory space. over structure.

The address of each The address is same for all the members
member will be in of a union. This indicates that every
ascending order This member begins at the same offset value.
indicates that memory for
each member will start at
different offset values.

Altering the value of a Altering the value of any of the member

member will not affect will alter other member values.
other members of the
structure.

Structure example: Union example:

struct student { union student {
int mark; int mark;
char name[6];
char name[6];
double average;
}; double average;
};

For above structure, For above union, only 8 bytes of

memory allocation will be memory will be allocated since double
like below. data type will occupy maximum space
int mark – 2B
of memory over other data types.
char name[6] – 6B
double average – 8B Total memory allocation = 8 Bytes
Total memory allocation =
2+6+8 = 16 Bytes

R. SIVARASAN 112
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main ( )
{
union result
{
int marks;
{
int marks;
char grade;
};
struct res
{
char name[20];
int age;
union result perf;
};
data;
clrscr( );
printf(“size of union:%d\n”,sizeof(data.perf));
printf(“size of structure:%d\n”,sizeof(data));
}

Output:
Size of union: 2
Size of structure: 19

R. SIVARASAN 113
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

POINTERS AND FILE MANAGEMENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO POINTERS :

The variables are used to hold data values during the execution of a
program. every variable when declared occupy certain memory location. In
c it is possible to access and display the address of the memory location of
variable using & operator with variable name. The pointer variable is
needed to store the memory address of any variable. The pointer is denoted
by (*) asterisk symbol.

Variable memory
Name addresses
Ptr 53 0XA1
64 0XA2
0x101A 0XA3
62
Variable memory
Name addresses
10
A 0XA
43
B 0XB
C 2 0XC
D 5 0XD

The variable that holds memory address is called pointer variables.

A pointer variable is therefore nothing but a variable that contains an
address, which is a location of another variable. Value of pointer
variable will be stored in another memory location.

5.2 FEATURES OF POINTERS:

 Pointer increases the execution speed of the program.
 Pointers save the memory space.
 Pointers reduce the length and complexity of a program.
 Pointers enable us to access a variable that is defined outside
the function.

R. SIVARASAN 114
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

 Pointers are used to pass information back and forth between a

function and its reference point.
 Pointers are used with data structures. They are useful for
representing two-dimensional and multi-dimensional arrays.

5.3 POINTER VARIABLES DECLARATION:

A pointer is a memory variable that stores a memory address.
Pointer can have any name that is legal for other variable and it is declared
in the same fashion like other variables but it is always denoted by “*
“operator. Pointer variables must be declared before it is used in the
program like other variables.

Syntax:
data_type *pointer_variable_name ;

where
data_type Type of the variable pointed by pointer
variable such as int, float, etc.
* To identify the variable as pointer
pointer_variable_nam Valid variable name or identifier name, to
point to an data.
Rules:
1. Pointer variables should be a valid variable name.
2. Asterisk ( * ) is not the part of the variable name but it is to denote
the type of the variable as pointer.
3. Data type refers to the type of the variable pointer by the pointer
variable.
4. Initially the pointer does not point to anything byt the programmer
must assign it a value.

Example:
Int *p; // integer pointer
Float *q
Declares the variable p as a pointer variable that points to an integer data
type and another pointer variable q is to points to an float type of data..

R. SIVARASAN 115
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

5.4 INITIALIZATION OF POINTER VARIABLES:

 The process of assigning the address of a variable to a pointer
variable is known as initialization. The address of the variables can
be got with the help of the address operator “&”.
 The operator “&” immediately preceding a variable returns the
address of the variables associated with it.
 Once a pointer variable has been declared we can use the assignment
operator to initialize the variable.
Syntax:

data_type pointer_variable = & variable;

Example:
int a = 10 ;
int *ptr ; //pointer declaration
ptr = &a ; //pointer initialization
[or]
int *ptr = &a ; //initialization and declaration together
the memory address of the variable a is assigned to the pointer variable
*ptr. If 20 is the address of the variable a. ptr got the value 20.

Program:
#include<stdio.h>
void main ( )
{
int a;
int *b;
a = 50;
b = &a;
printf(“ the content of the pointer b= %d \n”,*b);
printf(“the address of the pointer b= %d \n”, b);
}
R. SIVARASAN 116
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Output:
The content of the pointer b=50;
The address of the pointer b= 25363

5.5 POINTER ARITHMETIC:

Pointer arithmetic is very important to understand, if you want to
have complete knowledge of pointer. Increase, decease, prefix, & postfix
operations can be performed with the help of the pointers. In this topic we
will study how the memory addresses change when you increment a
pointer. But in this case to use arithmetic operator have some memory size
need to store the variable, it depend open the system. Suppose the machine
has 16 bit process operation.

Pointer and arithmetic operation:

Type Size(bytes)
int or signed int 2
char 1
long 4
float 4
double 8
long double 10

Data type Initial operation Address after Required

address operations bytes
Int a=2 2004 ++ -- 2006 2002 2
char c= „s‟ 2421 ++ -- 2422 2420 1
Float 2556 ++ -- 2560 2552 4
f=5.3

Example:
Write a program to perform different arithmetic operations using
pointers.

R. SIVARASAN 117
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
Void main ( )
{
Int a=20, b=10, *p, *q;
P = &a;
Q=&b;
Clrscr( );
prinrf(“\n addition a+b =%d”,*p+b);
prinrf(“\n subtraction a-b =%d”,*p-b);
prinrf(“\n division a/b =%d”,*p/*q);
}
Output:
Addition a + b =30
Subtraction a-b = 10
Division a/b= 2

5.6 POINTERS AND ARRAYS:

An array name can be defined as a constant pointer that points to
the address of the first element in the array. The elements of the array
together with their addresses can be displayed by using array name itself.
Array elements are always stored in contiguous memory locations.
Consider the array declaration.
Syntax:
data _type array_name[pointer_address][size]

Example:
int arr[4] = { 3,6,8,10 };

Assuming that the base address of arr is 100 and each integer requires two
byte, the five element will be stored as follows

R. SIVARASAN 118
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Element arr[0] arr[1] arr[2] arr[3]

value 3 6 8 10

Address
100 102 104 106

Here variable arr will give the base address, which is a constant pointer
pointing to the element, arr[0]. Therefore arr is containing the address of
arr[0] i.e 1000.
arr is equal to &arr[0] // by default
We can declare a pointer of type int to point to the array arr.
int *p;
p = arr;
or p = &arr[0]; //both the statements are equivalent.

Program:
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
static int a[5] ={ 30,100,50,20,90};
int *p;
int i;
p=&a[0];
printf(“contents of the arra \n”);
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
printf(“%d \n “, *(p+1));
}
Output:
30
100
50
20
90

R. SIVARASAN 119
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

5.7 POINTERS AND TWO DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS:

In one dimensional array we saw that the address of the first
element is assigned to the pointer variable like that in two dimensional
array also the address of the zeroth row and zeroth column are assigned to
the pointer variable.

int arr[2][2] ={ {15,30},{50,20} };

int *x;
X=&a[0][0];

0 1
15 30 0X
50 20 1X+1

EXAMPLE:
Write a program to display array elements and their address using
pointers.
#include<stdio.h>
void mani( )
{
int i,j=1, *r;
int a[2][2] ={ {6,9},{8,9} );
clrscr();
print(“elements of an array with their address\n”);
r=&a[0][0];
for(i=0;i<4;i++,j++)
{printf(“%5d[%5u]”,*®,r);
r++;
if(j=2);
j=0;
}
}
R. SIVARASAN 120
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

}
OUTPUT:
Elements of an array with their address.
6 [2002] 9 [2004]
8 [2006] 9 [2008]

5.8 POINTERS AND CHARACTER STRINGS:

Strings are treated like character arrays and therefore, the are
declared and initialized as follows. String is an array of characters
terminated by null character „\0‟. We can represent strings using pointer.

Syntax:
data_type array_name[size] = { };

Example:
Char *str = “welcome”
To create a string for the literal and then stores its address in the pointer
variable str
The pinter str now points to the first character of the string “welcome”

w E L C O M E \0

str

Program:
Write a program to read string from keyboard and display it using
character pointer.
#include<stdio.h>
void main ( )
{
char name[15],*ch;
printf(“enter your name:”);
gets(name);

R. SIVARASAN 121
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

ch=name;
// store base address of string name
while(*ch!=‟\0‟)
{
printf(“%c”,*ch);
ch++;
}
}
Output:
Enter your name: suresh
suresh

5.9 POINTERS TO FUNCTIONS:

A function, like a variable, has a type and an address location in the
memory it is therefore, possible to declare a pointer to a function, which
can then be used as an argument in another function.

syntax:
data_type (* function_pointer_name)( );
Where
* function_pointer_name pointer to a function name

5.9.1 Pointer as function argument

We pass addresses to a function, the parameters receiving the
addresses should be pointers. The process of calling a function using
pointers to pass the addresses of variable is known as call by reference

#include<stdio.h>
Int main( )
{
Int z;
Z = 100;
Change(&z);
Printf(“%d \n”, z);
R. SIVARASAN 122
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

}
Change(int *r)
{
*p = *p+200;
}
Output:
300

5.9.2 Function returning pointers:

A function can return a single value by its name or return multiple
values through pointer parameters. A function can also return a pointer to
the calling function. In this case you must be careful, because local
variables of function doesn't live outside the function, hence if you return a
pointer connected to a local variable, that pointer be will pointing to
nothing when function ends.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
int* big(int*, int*);
void main()
{
int p=15;
int q=92;
int *z;
z=big(&p, &q);
printf("%d The biggest no",*z);
}
int* big(int *x, int *y)
{
if(*x > *y)
return x;

R. SIVARASAN 123
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

else
return y;
}

Output:
The biggest no 92

5.10 Pointers and structures:

1. Address of Pointer variable can be obtained using „&‟ operator.
2. Address of such Structure can be assigned to the Pointer variable .
3. Pointer Variable which stores the address of Structure must be
declared as Pointer to Structure .

Syntax:
struct structure_name {
member1;
member2;
.
.
};

int main()
{
struct structure_name *ptr;
}

Example:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct student
{
int id;

R. SIVARASAN 124
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

char name[25];
float percentage;
};
int main()
{
int i;
struct student record1 = {1, "Raju", 90.5};
struct student *ptr;
ptr = &record1;
printf("Records of STUDENT1: \n");
printf(" Id is: %d \n", ptr->id);
printf(" Name is: %s \n", ptr->name);
printf(" Percentage is: %f \n\n", ptr->percentage);
return 0;
}

Output:

Records of STUDENT1:
Id is: 1
Name is: Raju
Percentage is: 90.500000

R. SIVARASAN 125
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

FILE:
We used scanf and printf function to read and write data to and
from the computers though the console. If computers deal with large
amount of data as input (read) and output (output) then both methods are
not efficient. The best way is to use files to give data to the computers and
get data from the computer.

5.11.1 DEFINITION OF FILE:

File is a set of record that can be accessed through the set of library
function. The set of library function is contain a single header file
<stdio.h> like printf, scanf etc ,though header file is common input and
output library function in file.

Syntax:
File * pointer_variable ;
Where
file defined data type
pointer_variable pointer to the data type file

Example:

FILE *fp;
The statement declares the variable fp as a “pointer to data type FILE”. As
the file stated earlier, FILE is a structure that is defined in the I/O library.

5.11.2 STREAMS AND FILE TYPES:

Stream means reading and writing of dat. The streams are designed
to allow the user to access the files efficiently
The FILE object contains all the information about stream like current
position, pointer to any buffer, error and EOF(end of file).

Type of file:
There are two types of files
1) Sequential File
2) Random Access File
R. SIVARASAN 126
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

1) Sequential File:
 In this type data are kept sequentially. If we want to read the last
record of the file we need to read all the records before that record.
 It take more time
 If we desire to access the 10th record then the first 9 records should
be read sequentially for reaching to the 10th record.

2) Random Access File:

 In this type data can be read and modified randomly.
 In this type if we want to read the last records of the file , we can
read it directly
 It takes less time as compared to sequential file

5.11.3 FILE OPERATION:

1) Opening of file A fill has to be opened before

beginning of read and write operation
2) Reading or writing file File is opened using fopen ( )
3) Closing file. The file that is opened from the
fopen( ) should be closed.

File Handling Functions

Function Operation
fopen( ) Creates a new file for read / write operation
Feof( ) Test the end of file condition
Fclose( ) Closes a file associated with file pointer
READ OPERATION
fscanf( ) Reads all types of data values from a file.
getw( ) Reads an integer from the file.
Fgetc( ) Reads the character from current pointer
position and advances the pointer to next
character.
Getc ( ) Same as fgetc ( )

R. SIVARASAN 127
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

WRITE OPERATION
putc( ) Writes string to the file.
fprintf( ) Writes all types of data values to the file.
putw ( ) Writes an integer to the file
Random access file
fseek( ) Sets the pointer position anywhere in the file.
Ftell ( ) Return the current position of the pointer in the
given file

1) Opening a file
Opening of file creates a link between the operating system and the
file function. we have to specify the name of file and its‟s mode to the
operating system. The important task is carried out by the structure file that
is defined in stdio.h header file.

Syntax:

FILE *pointer_variable;
Pointer_variable = fopen(“file_name”,”mode”);

Where
pointe_variable variable which contains the address of the type FILE
file_name name of the file.

Mode may be any one of the following

R open the file for reading only
W open the file for writing only
A open the file for appending
R+ open the file for reading and writing
W+ open the file for reading and writing
A+ open the file for reading and appending

R. SIVARASAN 128
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:

FILE *fpt
Fpt = fopen(“myfiles”,”r”);
The file myfile is opened for reading. If the file does not present an error
will occur

Fopen( )performs important tasks:

1) It searches the disk for opening the file.
2) In case the file exists, it loads the file from the disk into memory if
the file is found with huge contents then it loads the file part by
part.
3) If the file in not existing this function returns a NULL.NULL is a
macro defined character in the header file “stdio.h”.
4) the indicates that it is unable to open file. There may be following
reasons for failure of
fopen ( ) functions.
1) When the file is in protected or hidden mode.
2) The file may be used by another program.
5) It locates a character pointer, which points the first character of the
file. Whenever a file is opened the character pointer points to the
first character of the file.

Test for end of file:

Feof () function is used to test the end of file condition.

Syntax:
Feof(pointer_variable)

This function returns a non – zero value if the end of file is reached, else
zeo.

Example: num = feof(fp)

R. SIVARASAN 129
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

2) Close a file:
An opened file must be closed after all operations on it have been
completed. His ensures that all outstanding information associated with the
file is flushed out from the buffers and all liks to the file are broken.

Syntax:
Fclose(file_pointer_variable) ;

Example:
...........
...........
FILE *fp1,fp2;
Fp1 = fopen(“INPUT”,”w”);
Fp2 = fopen(“OUTPUT”,”r”);
……………
Fclose(fp1);
Fclose(fp2);
This program opens two files and closes them after all operations
on them are completed once a file is closed its file pointer can be reused
for another file
.
3) READING A FILE

Fscanf ( ) Function:
fscanf ( ) The fscanf function is used to read data items to the file
whose pointer is opened in the reading mode. fscanf function performs
Input operations on files.

Syntax:

Fscanf(pointe_variable, “control_string”,list) ;

Where
pointer_variable The pointer which contains the address of the file.
control_string The format commands such as %s, %d, %f etc.
list list of variable or string to be read from the file.
R. SIVARASAN 130
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:

fscanf (fp1, “%s %d”, item & quantity);

Where “item“is an array variable of type and quantity is an int

variable. Fscanf returns the no. of items when the end of file is reached 'i'
returns the value Eof

Program:
Write a program to enter dat into the text file and read the same.
Use “w+” file mode use fscanf() to read the contents of the file.

#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
file *fp; //file pointer defining
char text[20];
int age;
fp = fopen (“text.txt”,”w+”); // open a file operation fopen(
)
clrscr ( );
printf(“name \t age \n”);
scanf(“%s %d”,text,&age);
fprintf(fp,”%s %d”,text,age); //write a file operation using
fprintf( )
printf(“name \t age \n”);
fscanf(fp,”%s %d”,text,&age); // read a file operation
using fscanf( )
printf(“%s \t %d \n”,text,age);
fclose(fp); // file close operation fclose( )
}
R. SIVARASAN 131
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Output:
Name age
Ram 25

Getw ( ) Function:
These functions return the integer value from a file and increase the
file pointer. These functions would be useful when we deal with only
integer data.

Syntax:
Number =getw (file_pointer);
Where
Number integer value
getw Reads an integer from the file
file_pointer The pointer which contains the address of the file.

Example:

FILE *fp
int num;
fp=fopen (“input”, "r”);
while (num=getw(fp)!=EOF)
printf(“%d”, num);

Where read an integer value from the file whose file pointer is fp
and assigned the reading numbers to num. The reading is terminated when
getw encounters the end of file mark EOF.

Getc ( ) Function:
This function reads a single character from the opened file and
moves the file pointer. It returns EOF, if end of file is reached. Getc( ) is
used to read a character from a file that has been opened in read mode.

R. SIVARASAN 132
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Syntax:
character_variable = getc(file_pointer);

Where
character_variable single character variable name like as
A, C, R, ect
getc reads a single character file function key

Example:
file *fp;
char c;
fp=fopen (“input”, “r”);
while(c=getc(fp)!=Eof) // read a single character
putchar ( c ); // write a single character

Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<process.h>
void main( )
{
file *f;
chara c;
clrscr ( );
f=fopen(“ mydata.txt”,”r”);
If(f==NULL)
{
printf(“\n cannot open file”);
exit(1);
}

R. SIVARASAN 133
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

while(c=getc(f)!=EOF)
pring(“%d”,c);
fclose(f);
}
Output:
Akash
Ram
Suresh
Siva

Fgetc ( ) Function:
This function is similar to getc ( ) function. it also reads a character
and increases the file pointer position. If any error or end of file is reached
it returns EOF.

Syntax:
character_variable = fgetc(file_pointer);

where
character_variable single character variable name like as
A,C,R,ect
fgetc Reads a character and increases the file
pointer position.

Example:
file *fp;
char c;
fp=fopen (“input”, “r”);
while(c=fgetc(fp)!=Eof) // read a single character
putchar ( c ); // write a single character

R. SIVARASAN 134
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Writing a file

Fprintf ( ) Function:
Fprintf ( ) this function is used for writing characters, strings,
integers, floats etc. to the file. It contains one more parameter that is file
pointer, which points the opened file.

Syntax:

Fprintf(pointe_variable, “control_string”,list) ;

Where
pointer_variable The pointer which contains the address of the file.
control_string The format commands such as %s, %d, %f etc.
list list of variable or string to be read from the file.

Example:

fprintf (fp1, "%s %d %f”, name age,7.5);

Where „name is an array variable of type and age is an int variable.

Program:
Write a program to open a myfile and write a some text using
fprintf ( ) function. open the file and verify the contents.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main( )
{
FILE *fp;
char myfile[50];
fp = fopen(“myfile.txt”,”w”);

R. SIVARASAN 135
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

clrscr ( );
printf(“enter text here:”);
gets(text);
fprintf(fp,”%s”,text);
fclose(fp);
}
Output:
Enter text here: have a good day.

Putc ( ) Function:
The function is used to write a single character into a file.if an error
occurs it returns EOF.

Syntax:

Putc (character_variable, file_pointer);

character_variable single character variable name like as

A,C,R,ect
putc write a single character file function key

Example:
FILE *fp;
Char C;
Fp=fopen(“input”, “w”);
While (c = getchar( c )!= EOF)
Putc(c, fp); //write a single character

Putw ( ) Function:
The simplest I/O integer oriented function is putw( ). „putw‟ is used
to create an integer value to a file that has been opened in write mode. The
general form statement is

R. SIVARASAN 136
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Syntax:

Putw(num,file_pointer);

Example :

FILE *fp
Int num;
Fp=fopen (“INPUT”, "w”);
Scanf(“%d”, & num);
While (num!= fp)
Putw(num,fp);
Scanf(“%d”, & num);
Where read a number through to the variable „num‟ and put the
number into the file whose file pointer is fp. The waiting is terminted when
„Putw‟ encounters the end of file mark Eof (i.e,num=0)

Fseek ( ) function:
This function is used to move the file pointer to any desired
location within the file.

Syntax:
Fseek (pointer_variable, offset, position);

Where
Pointer_variable pointer which contains address of the file
Offset this gives the number of positions to be moved from
the location given in position ot must be a long
integer.
position it is a integer number

Location of file pointer:.

R. SIVARASAN 137
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Integer Location in
Constant
Values the file

Beginning of
0 SEEK_SET
the file
Current
1 SEEK_CUR position of the
file pointer.

2 SEEK_END End of the file

Example:

Fseek(fp,10,seek_cur)

Ftell( ) function:
This function is used to return the current position of the pointer in
the given file.

Syntax:
N= ftell(pointer_variable);

Where
Ftell keyword to return the current position.

Pointer_variable pointer which contains the address of the file

n numeric variable to receive the position.

The return position is always relative to the beginning of the file

and is always a long integer.

R. SIVARASAN 138
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Example:

FILE *ptr;
Long n;
……………
…………………
N=ftell(pt);
…………….

5.11.4 COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS:

command line arguments are arguments that allow parameters to be
passed to main from operating system. There are two arguments namely

1) argc is an integer variable.

2) argv is an array of pointer to characters.

Each string in the array of pointers argv represent a parameter that is

passed to main and the value of argc gives the number of parameters to
be passed.

Syntax:

c> program_name string1, string2, ….. , string n

Where
program_name name of the executable program wit .exe
string1,string2,…. String n list of arguments.

 When this comman is executed the variable argc automatically

counts the number of arguments on the comman line and it takes
the value argc=(n+1).
 The pointer variable argv takes the value of argc i.e. n+1 as its size.
 The first location argv[0] contains the first parameter program
name, the second location contains the strng 1, the third location
contains strin 2 and so on.

R. SIVARASAN 139
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Argc = n+1
Argv[0] = program name
Argv[1] = string 1
Argv[2] = string 2
…………………..
…………………..
Argv[n] = string n

Example:
main(argc,argv)
int argc;
char *argv[ ];
…………
………….
Int this argc = 3
Argv[0] = prg
Argv[1] = file1
Argv[2] = file2

Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
Int Main(int argc,char *argv[ ])
{
Int x;
Clrscr ( );
Printf(“\n total number of argument are %d \n”,argc);
For (x=0;x<argc;x++)
Printf(“%s\t”,argv[x]);
Getch( );

R. SIVARASAN 140
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Return 0;
}

Output:
Total number of arguments are 4
C:\TC\C.EXE A B C

Explanation:
To execute this program one should create its executable file and
run it from the command prompt with required arguments. The above
program is executed using following steps.

1) Compile the program.

2) Makes its exe file(executable file).
3) Switch to the command prompt. (c:\tc>)
4) Make sure that the exe file is available in the current directory.
5) Type following bold lin

C:\TC>C.EXE HELP ME

R. SIVARASAN 141
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Dynamic Memory Allocation

 It is a process of allocating or de-allocating the memory at run

time it is called as dynamically memory allocation.
 When we are working with array or string static memory
allocation will be take place that is compile time memory
management.
 When we ate allocating the memory at compile we cannot extend
the memory at run time, if it is not sufficient.
 By using compile time memory management we cannot utilize
the memory properly
 In implementation when we need to utilize the memory more
efficiently then go for dynamic memory allocation.
 By using dynamic memory allocation whenever we want which
type we want or how much we type that time and size and that
we much create dynamically.

5.12.1 Dynamic Memory Allocation Functions in C:

Dynamic memory allocation related all predefined functions are
declared in following header files.

1. malloc()
2. calloc()
3. realloc()
4. free()

Function Syntax

malloc () malloc (number *sizeof(int));

calloc () calloc (number, sizeof(int));

realloc () realloc (pointer_name, number * sizeof(int));

free () free (pointer_name);

R. SIVARASAN 142
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Malloc() Function In C

 malloc () function is used to allocate space in memory during the

execution of the program.
 malloc () does not initialize the memory allocated during
execution. It carries garbage value.
 malloc () function returns null pointer if it couldn‟t able to allocate
requested amount of memory.

Syntax:

Mem_allocation_variable = malloc (number *sizeof(int));

Program:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
char *mem_allocation;
/* memory is allocated dynamically */
mem_allocation = malloc( 20 * sizeof(char) );
if( mem_allocation== NULL )
{
printf("Couldn't able to allocate requested memory\n");
}
else
{
strcpy( mem_allocation,"Dynamically_mem_allocation");

R. SIVARASAN 143
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

}
printf("Dynamically allocated memory content : " \
"%s\n", mem_allocation );
free(mem_allocation);
}

OUTPUT:

Dynamically allocated memory content :

Dyabanucall_mem_allocation

calloc()

 By using calloc() we can create the memory dynamically at

initial stage.
 calloc() required 2 arguments of type count, size-type.
 Count will provide number of elements; size-type is data type
size.
 calloc() will creates the memory in blocks format.
 Initial value of the memory is zero.

Syntax

ptr=(cast-type*)calloc(n,element -size);

This statement will allocate contiguous space in memory

for an array of n elements. For example:

R. SIVARASAN 144
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

ptr=(float*)calloc(25,sizeof(float));

This statement allocates contiguous space in memory for

an array of 25 elements each of size of float, i.e, 4 bytes.

Program:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
char *mem_allocation;
/* memory is allocated dynamically */
mem_allocation = calloc( 20, sizeof(char) );
if( mem_allocation== NULL )
{
printf("Couldn't able to allocate requested memory\n");
}
else
{
strcpy( mem_allocation,"fresh2refresh.com");
}
printf("Dynamically allocated memory content : " \
"%s\n", mem_allocation );
free(mem_allocation);
}

R. SIVARASAN 145
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

OUTPUT:

Dynamically allocated memory content :

fresh2refresh.com

realloc()

 By using realloc() we can create the memory dynamically at

middle stage.
 Generally by using realloc() we can reallocation the memory.
 Realloc() required 2 arguments of type void*, size_type.
 Void* will indicates previous block base address, size-type is
data type size.
 Realloc() will creates the memory in bytes format and initial
value is garbage.

Syntax

ptr=realloc(ptr,newsize);

Here, ptr is reallocated with size of newsize.

Program:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(){
int *ptr,i,n1,n2;
printf("Enter size of array: ");
R. SIVARASAN 146
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

scanf("%d",&n1);
ptr=(int*)malloc(n1*sizeof(int));
printf("Address of previously allocated memory: ");
for(i=0;i<n1;++i)
printf("%u\t",ptr+i);
printf("\nEnter new size of array: ");
scanf("%d",&n2);
ptr=realloc(ptr,n2);
for(i=0;i<n2;++i)
printf("%u\t",ptr+i);
return 0;
}

free()

 When we are working with dynamic memory allocation

memory will created in heap area of data segment.
 When we are working with dynamic memory allocation
related memory it is a permanent memory if we are not de-
allocated that's why when we are working with dynamic
memory allocation related program, then always
recommended to deleted the memory at the end of the
program.
 By using free(0 dynamic allocation memory can be de-
allocated.
 free() requires one arguments of type void*.
 By using malloc(), calloc(), realloc() we can create maximum
of 64kb data only.
 In implementation when we need to create more than 64kb data
then go for formalloc(), forcalloc() and forrealloc().

R. SIVARASAN 147
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

 By using free() we can de-allocate 64kb data only, if we need to

de-allocate more than 64kb data then go for

Syntax

free(ptr);

This statement cause the space in memory pointer by ptr

to be deallocated.
Examples of calloc() and malloc()

Write a C program to find sum of n elements entered

by user. To perform this program, allocate memory
dynamically using malloc() function.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(){
int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(int*)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); //memory allocated
using malloc
if(ptr==NULL)
{
printf("Error! memory not allocated.");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements of array: ");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)

R. SIVARASAN 148
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

{
scanf("%d",ptr+i);
sum+=*(ptr+i);
}
printf("Sum=%d",sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}

R. SIVARASAN 149
 ANSI C PROGRAMMING CONCEPT

Bibliography:

Ashok N. Kamthane., Programming With ANSI and Turbo C, Dorling

Kindersley(india) Pvt. Ltd, 2006.
Barkakati, N., Microsoft C Bible, SAMS,1990
Brian W. Kernighan., The C Programmin Language Second Edition,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jerse, 1988
Barker, L., C Tools for Scientists and Engineers, McGraw-hill,1989.
Berry, R. E. and Meekings; B.A.E., A Book on c, Macmillan, 1987.
Edwin Dayanand. I., Data Structures Using C, N.V.Publication,1999.
Hancock, L. and Krieger, M., The C primer, McGraw-Hill, 1987.
Hunt, W.J., The C Toolbox, Addison - Weslary, 1985.
Hunter,B.H., Understanding C., Sybex, 1985.
Kernighan,B.W. and Ritchie, D.M., The C Programming Language,
Prentice-Hall, 1977.
Kochan, S.G., Programming in C, Hyden, 1983.
Miller, L.H. and Quilici, E.A., C Programming Language: An Applied
Perspective, John Wiley & Sons, 1987.
Purdum, J,J., C Programming Fuide, Que Corporation, 1985.
Radcliffe, R.A., Encyclopaedia C,Sybex 1990.
Rajaram. R., Problem Solving Using C, Scitech Publications(India)
Pvt.Ltd, 2001
Schildt, H., C Made Easy, Osborne McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Wortman, L. A., and Sidebottom, T.o., The C Programming Tutor,
Prentice-Hall, 1984.

R. SIVARASAN 150