Compilation of

Daily Class Notes

Environment
 List of Lectures
1. Basics of Ecology & Environment
2. Basics of Ecology & Environment (Part-02)
3. Basics of Environment and Ecology (Part 3)
4. Basics of Ecology & Environment (Part 4)
5. Basics of Ecology & Environment (Part 5)
6. Ecosystem
7. Basic of Environment
8. Basic Of Environment part 2
9. Ecology & Ecosystem Part II
10. Ecology & Ecosystem Part III
11. Bio Geo Chemical Cycle
12. Climate Change
13. Climate Change Negotiations
14. Climate Change Negotiations (Part-II)
15. Climate Change Negotiations (Part-III)
16. International Conventions
17. Biodiversity & Conservation
18. Biodiversity and Conservation (Part 2)
19. Biodiversity and Conservation (Part 3)
20. Indian Legislation
21. Indian legislation (Part 2)
22. Sustainable Development
23. Sustainable Development (Part 2)
24. Pollution
25. Pollution (Part-2)
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture – 01
Basics of Ecology & Environment
 2

Basics of Ecology & Environment

Environment:
❖ The environment is defined as the sum total of living, and non-living components, influences and events
surrounding an organism.
❖ The term environment comes from the French word "environer" which means 'surroundings'.
❖ It is sum total of biotic and abiotic components.
Components of the Environment:

❖ Abiotic factors: Abiotic are non-living components;

such as water, soil, and atmosphere.
❖ Biotic factors: Biotic factors are living things within an
ecosystem; such as plants, animals, and bacteria.
What is Ecology?
❖ The study of the interactions between living organisms
and their biotic and abiotic environments.
❖ Therefore, it is the study of the relationship of plants
and animals to their physical and biological environment.
Levels of Organisations in Ecology:
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Organism:
❖ It is an individual living being that has the ability to act or function independently. It may be plant, animal,
bacterium, fungi, etc.
Population:
❖ It is a group of organisms usually of the
same species, occupying a defined area
during a specific time.
Community:
❖ It refers to all the populations of
different species living and interacting in a particular area or
habitat. A community may consist of different species of plants,
animals, fungi, and microorganisms, which are interdependent
and affect each other's survival and well-being.
Ecosystem:
❖ An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of
biosphere. consisting of a community of living beings and the
physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials
between them.
❖ The term "ecosystem" was first coined by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in 1935.
Functional Units of an Ecosystem:
❖ Productivity: It refers to the rate of biomass production.
❖ Energy flow: It is the sequential
process through which energy
flows from one trophic level to
another. The energy captured
from the sun flows from
producers to consumers and then
to decomposers and finally back
to the environment.
❖ Decomposition: It is the process
of breakdown of dead organic
material. The topsoil is the major site for decomposition.
❖ Nutrient cycling: In an ecosystem, nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various forms for the
utilisation by various organisms.
Biomes:
❖ Biomes may be defined as a large natural ecosystem wherein it is the total assemblage of plant and animal
communities.
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❖ Here, all the biota have the minimum

common characteristics and all the areas of
biomes are characterized by more or less
uniform environmental conditions.
❖ Climatic conditions determine the
boundaries of biomes.
❖ Climatic conditions of biomes influence the
vegetation pattern, this vegetation pattern
facilitates the specific adaptation in
flora(plants) and fauna(animals)

Types of Biomes:

Terrestrial Biomes Aquatic Biomes

Tropical rainforest Sea
Temperate forest River
Grasslands Wetlands
Deserts Mangroves
Taiga (It is the largest terrestrial biome. It comprises 11% of biome space.) Coral reefs
Tundra Estuaries
Intertidal zone
Biosphere:
❖ The biosphere is a part of the
earth where life can exist.
❖ It represents a highly
integrated and interacting
zone comprising atmosphere
(air), hydrosphere (water)
and lithosphere (land).
❖ The biosphere is
approximately 20 km thick.
❖ Most life occurs between
500m below the surface of the ocean and about 6 km above the sea level.
❖ The biosphere refers to the narrow zone of the earth in which all life forms exist.
❖ Life becomes possible in this zone. It is because this is the zone in which all the three essential things which
are required for the sustenance of life are found in the right mixture. They are land (lithosphere), air
(atmosphere), and water (hydrosphere).
 5

❖ Range of biosphere: It extends vertically into the atmosphere to about 8km, downward into the ocean to
depths of about 10.4 km, and into about 27,000 ft of the earth’s surface where maximum living organisms
have been found.
❖ Most of the organisms are found in the range of 6 km into the atmosphere and
200 m in the ocean.
Habitat:
❖ It is the place where an organism or a community of organisms lives, including
all living and nonliving factors or conditions of the surrounding environment.
❖ Microhabitat is a term for the conditions and organisms in the immediate vicinity
of a plant or animal.
Niche:
❖ A niche refers to the unique role or position of a species within an ecosystem, including the physical and
biological conditions it requires to survive and reproduce.
❖ It can be described by the specific set of environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, light, soil
type, and food availability, that a species requires to survive and thrive.
❖ The niche of an organism and its interactions are determined by where it stands in the ecological structure of
the ecosystem. (Producers, Consumers, Decomposers)
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 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture - 02
Basics of Ecology & Environment (Part-02)
 2

Basics of Ecology & Environment

Niche:
 A niche refers to the unique role or position of a species within an ecosystem, including the physical and
biological conditions it requires to survive and reproduce.
 It can be described by the specific set of environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, light,
soil type, and food availability, that a species requires to survive and thrive.
 The niche of an organism and its interactions are determined by where it stands in the ecological structure of
the ecosystem. (Producers, Consumers, Decomposers).
Niche Type:
 Based on the interactions of species, niches are of 3 types:
 Habitat Niche: It is the physical area in the habitat that a species occupies.
 Trophic Niche: Trophic level occupied by the species in the food chain /ecological chain.
 Multidimensional Niche: It consists of the concepts of the Fundamental Niche and Limiting factors.
 Fundamental Niche: Any type of environmental condition where an organism could exist without
ecological interactions.
 Realised niche: Realized niche refers to the specific ecological conditions where a population exists and
persists due to interactions and competition with other species.

Niche Overlap:
 When two organisms have similar ecological niches, there is increased competition between them for
resources. This competition can reduce the chances of survival for both species.
 Gauss Law: Competitive exclusion principle proposed by G.F. Gause, states that two species competing for
the same limited resources cannot coexist at constant population values.
 3

 Darwin's finches and galapagos islands:

Charles Darwin during his voyage on the
HMS Beagle to the Galápagos Islands
observed a variety of finch species on the
islands, each with different beak shapes
and sizes adapted to their specific diets.
This observation provided evidence for
natural selection and adaptive radiation.
 Niche overlap describes the situation in which co-occurring species share parts of their niche space with each
other.
 Niche overlap is reduced by resource partitioning.
 Resource partitioning is the process of Niche Overlap moving things around in order to satisfy the niche
size to an appropriate level.

Ecotone:
 An ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems.
 Such areas have richness in
biodiversity due to the edge effect.
Examples of Ecotones include:
 Marshlands: Dry and wet ecosystems
 Mangrove forests: Terrestrial and marine
ecosystems
 Grasslands: Desert and forest, and
 Estuaries: Saltwater and freshwater
Characteristics of Ecotone:
 It is a zone of tension
 It is linear as it shows a progressive
increase in species composition of one in
coming community and a simultaneous
decrease in species of the other outgoing
adjoining community.
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 A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms which are entirely different from that of the adjoining
communities.
Example of Ecotone:
 Coral Reefs: Marine animals that release limestone (Calcium carbonate). This limestone in the marine
environment of the sea leads to edge effect and ecotone presence.
 Wetlands: They are submerged in water. Midway between land and lakes, therefore have much higher
biodiversity.
Edge Effect:
 Edge effect refers to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two
habitats.
 Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species in the ecotone is much
greater than either community. This is called the
edge effect.
 Species adapted to survive in edge-effect areas are
called ecotypes.
Ecotype:
 An Ecotype is a population of species that differs
genetically from other populations of the same
species because local conditions have been
selected for certain unique physiological
morphological characteristics or morphological
characteristics.
 Ecotypes are adapted to survive in an ecotone.
 Ex: Royal Bengal Tiger: adapted to mangrove,
can drink salt water
 Examples: Kharai Camel (Gujarat), Indian Rhino.

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PW Web/App: https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture – 03
Basics of Environment and
Ecology (Part 3)
 2

Basics of Environment and Ecology (Part 3)

Ecotone
❖ Ecotone is a zone of junction/transition between two or more diverse ecosystems.
➢ Such areas have richness in biodiversity due to edge effects.
❖ Examples of ecotones include:
➢ Marshlands: Dry and wet ecosystems
➢ Wet Wetlands: submerged with water. Midway between land and lakes, therefore having much higher
biodiversity.
➢ Mangrove forests: Terrestrial and marine ecosystems
➢ Grasslands: Desert and forest, and
➢ Estuaries: Saltwater and
freshwater
Characteristics of Ecotone:
❖ It is a zone of tension.
❖ It is linear as it shows a progressive
increase in species composition of
one in coming community and a
simultaneous decrease in species of
the other outgoing adjoining
community.
❖ A well-developed ecotone contains
some organisms which are entirely
different from that of the adjoining
communities.
Edge Effect:
❖ Edge effect refers to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two
habitats.
❖ Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species in the ecotone is much
greater than either community. This is called the edge effect.
❖ Species adapted to survive in edge-effect areas are called ecotypes.
Ecotype:
❖ An Ecotype is a population of species that differs genetically from other populations of the same species
because local conditions have been selected for certain unique morphological characteristics. physiological or
❖ Ecotypes are adapted to survive in an ecotone.
➢ Ex: Royal Bengal Tiger: adapted to mangrove, can drink salt water.
➢ Camel (Gujarat), Examples: Kharai Camel (Gujarat), Indian Rhino
 3

Functional Units of an Ecosystem:

❖ Productivity: It refers to the rate of biomass production.
❖ Energy flow: It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic level to another. The
energy captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers and then to decomposers and finally back to
the environment.
❖ Decomposition - It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top soil is the major site for
decomposition.
❖ Nutrient cycling - In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various forms for the utilisation
by various organisms.
Tropical Level:
❖ A trophic level is the representation of energy flow in an ecosystem.
❖ It is the position it occupies in a food chain.
❖ It deals with how the members of an ecosystem are connected based on nutritional needs
❖ The trophic level interaction involves three concepts:
➢ Food Chain
➢ Food Web
➢ Ecological Pyramids
Energy in the ecosystem:
❖ Plants absorb less than 1% of the sunlight that reaches them.
❖ Photosynthetic organisms make 170 billion metric tons of food each year.
❖ 2 processes : photosynthesis and respiration.
Primary Producers (Autotrophs):
❖ Primary producers are basically green plants (and certain bacteria and algae)
 4

❖ They synthesise carbohydrates from simple inorganic raw materials like carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of sunlight by the process of photosynthesis for themselves, and supply indirectly to other non-
producers.
❖ In the terrestrial ecosystem, producers are basically herbaceous and woody plants, while in aquatic ecosystems
producers are various species of microscopic algae.
❖ Producers: Phototrophs or chemotrophs
➢ Phototrophs: organisms that perform photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll.
✓ Photosynthesis= Carbon dioxide + water + sunlight → sugar + oxygen
➢ Chemotrophs: Chemotrophs are organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of reduced compounds.
These involves certain chemical reactions to obtain their food.
✓ Example: Sulphur bacteria like Thiobascillus.
❖ Carbon dioxide + water + hydrogen sulphide + oxygen = Carbohydrates + sulphuric acid.

Consumers (Hetero-trophs):
❖ Consumers are incapable of producing their own
food (photosynthesis).
❖ They depend on organic food derived from plants,
animals or both.
❖ Consumers can be divided into two broad groups
namely micro and macro consumers.
Macro Consumers:
❖ They feed on plants or animals or both and are
categorised on the basis of their food sources.
❖ Herbivores are primary consumers which feed
mainly on plants.
➢ e.g. cow, rabbit. Secondary consumers feed on
primary consumers e.g. wolves.
❖ Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers e.g. lions which can eat wolves.
❖ Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants and animals e.g. man, monkey.
❖ Scavengers : feed on dead and decaying organisms
 5

Scavengers:
❖ Scavengers feed on carrion (dead or injured animal corpses)
❖ Scavengers will feed on these dead plants/animals and decomposers will finish the job

Micro Consumers:
❖ They are bacteria and fungi which obtain
energy and nutrients by decomposing
dead organic substances (detritus) of
plant and animal origin.
❖ They feed on small microscopic bits of
dead organic matter and convert them
into inorganic nutrients.
❖ The products of decomposition such as
inorganic nutrients which are released in
the ecosystem are reused by producers
and thus recycled.
❖ Earthworms and certain soil organisms
(such as nematodes and arthropods) are detritus feeders and help in decomposition.
 6

Decomposers and Detritivores:

Example of Aquatic Ecosystem:

❖ Producers in aquatic ecosystems are Blue-green algae
(cyanobacteria), Phytoplankton, and Diatoms.
❖ Primary consumers are Crustaceans, Zooplankton, Small
fish
❖ Secondary Consumers are Herrings, Bigger fish, Sharks
etc.
Food Chain:
❖ A sequence of organisms that feed on one another, form a
food chain.
❖ It is the process of transfer of food energy from green
plants (producers) through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten link.
 7

❖ Arrows in a food chain represent the flow of energy

through the process of eating.
❖ Linear: Unidimensional Flow of Energy
Food Web:
❖ A food web is a diagram or model that illustrates the
interdependence of various organisms in an ecosystem,
showing the flow of energy and nutrients from one
organism to another.
❖ It is a representation of the feeding relationships among
different species in an ecosystem.
❖ Non-Linear: Multi-dimensional Flow of Energy
❖ Complexity: More the number of species, greater the
interactions and more complex the food web. These food
webs are more stable.

Food Web Collapse:

❖ A food web collapse occurs when the interconnected food chain of an ecosystem breaks down or fails to
function in a sustainable manner.
❖ This can happen due to a number of factors such as changes in climate, loss of key species, pollution and
overexploitation by humans.
❖ A food web collapse can have serious consequences on the entire ecosystem, including loss of biodiversity,
reduced productivity, and even ecosystem collapse.
Ecological Pyramids:
❖ Ecological pyramids are graphical representations of the trophic levels within an ecosystem.
❖ They show the relative abundance or biomass of different groups of organisms at each trophic level in an
ecosystem, and the flow of energy and nutrients through the food chain.
 8

Law of 10%: Given By Raymond Lindeman:

❖ From one trophic level to another, only biomass will get
transferred. However, not all the energy obtained by an
organism will get converted to biomass.
❖ When all energy losses are added, only about 10% of the
energy entering one trophic level is available to the next
trophic level; because only 10% of the energy obtained is used
to make biomass.) This is known as the 10% law.
❖ Because of the 10% law, food chains have five or less links.
Because 90% of energy. is lost at each level, the amount of
energy available decreases very quickly.
❖ Most of the energy loss is in production of heat energy and movement from one place to the other.
Ecological Pyramids:
❖ Ecological
pyramids are
graphical
representations
of the trophic
levels within an
ecosystem.
❖ They show the
relative abundance or biomass of different groups of
organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem, and
the flow of energy and nutrients through the food
chain.
Pyramid of Energy:
❖ The pyramid of energy is a graphical representation of
the flow of energy through an ecosystem.
❖ It is always upright.
❖ As you move up the pyramid, there is less energy
available because some is lost in each transfer. (10%
Rule)
❖ This loss of energy is due to the laws of
thermodynamics.
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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture – 04
Basics of Ecology
&
Environment (Part 4)
 2

Environment_Basics of Ecology & Environment (Part 4)

Pyramid of Biomass:

❖ The pyramid of biomass is a graphical representation of the amount of living organic matter, or biomass,
present in each trophic level of an ecosystem.
❖ It represents the relative amount of biomass at each level, with the largest biomass at the base of the pyramid
and successively smaller biomass at each higher level.
❖ It is not always a perfect pyramid shape, as it can be affected by factors such as the size and turnover rate of
the organisms in each trophic level.
Aquatic Pyramid of Biomass:
❖ Phytoplankton (survives for 2-3 days)
❖ Zooplankton (survives for 7-8 days)
❖ Small fish (survives for 15-20 days
❖ Shark (survives for 10 years)
❖ At one particular amount of time, the biomass at the lower trophic levels are lower than that of higher trophic
levels. Hence, there is an inverted biomass pyramid.
Pyramid of Numbers:
❖ The proportional number of creatures at each level of a food chain is represented using a pyramid of
numbers.
❖ Depending on the ecology, the number pyramid can be either upright or inverted.
 3

Pyramid of Numbers (Upright):

❖ The typical grassland during the summer season has an upright shape as it has a base of many plants, with
the numbers of organisms decreasing at each
trophic level.
❖ But during the summer in a temperate forest,
the base of the pyramid consists of few trees
compared with the number of primary
consumers, mostly insects.
❖ As trees are large, they have great
photosynthetic capability and dominate other
plants in this ecosystem to obtain sunlight.
Primary producers in forests can still sustain
higher trophic levels, even in lesser numbers.
Pyramid of Numbers (Inverted):
❖ A pyramid of numbers does not always have a
regular pyramid shape as it does not take into
account the biomass of the organisms.
❖ In an ecosystem, when a few very large biomass
producers sustain a greater number of smaller
consumers, an inverted pyramid of numbers can be
observed.
❖ An inverted pyramid of numbers can also occur in an
ecosystem where the community contains parasites.
❖ In these food chains, a single producer typically supports a large number of parasites. More hyper-parasites
are supported by the parasites in turn. In this pyramid, the number of individuals at each level rises from
the lowest to the highest.
 4

Bioaccumulation:
❖ Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an
organism, in a single trophic level.
❖ Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism
absorbs a substance at a rate faster than that at
which the substance is lost or eliminated by
catabolism and excretion.
Accumulation in Food Chain (Down to Earth):
❖ Microplastics are getting into mosquitoes and
contaminating new food chains.
❖ According to a research, there was evidence of beads in all the life stages of Mosquitoes, although the
numbers went down as the animals developed.
❖ Any flying insect that spends part of its life in water can become a carrier of plastic pollution thus resulting in
Biomagnification at higher trophics.
Biomagnification:
❖ Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification or biological magnification, is the increase in
concentration of a substance, eg a pesticide in the tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food
chain.
❖ This increase can occur as a result of:
➢ Persistence where the substance cannot
be broken down by environmental
processes
➢ Food chain energetics where the
substance's concentration increases
progressively as it moves up a food
chain.
➢ Low or non-existent rate of internal
degradation or excretion of the
substance - mainly due to water-
insolubility.
Substance that Biomagnify:
❖ In order for biomagnifcation to occur, the
pollutant must be:
➢ A long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats,
non-biodegradable
❖ Examples of Substances:
➢ Chlorinated hydrocarbons (Organochlorines)
➢ Inorganic compounds like methylmercury or heavy metals
➢ Persistent organic pollutants
 5

Biomagnification in Vultures:
❖ Traces of diclofenac and its derivative compounds have been found in the carcasses of vultures across India
and its neighboring countries, and it is known that the biomagnification of diclofenac from the consumption
of infected, domestic animal carcasses contributes to vulture mortality.
Biotic Interaction:
❖ It is the interaction of different organisms in the community influencing each other.
❖ They can be intraspecific (between members of the same species) or interspecific (between members of
different species).
❖ When at least one of the interactants is harmed, the relationship is called an antagonism.
Types of Biotic Interaction:
❖ Mutualism: This is a close association between two species in which both species benefit. For Example:
Lichen (Algae and Fungi)
➢ Symbiosis:
✓ Symbiosis is a type of biotic interaction in which two or more different species live in close
association with each other.
✓ The term "symbiosis" was coined by Anton de Bary in 1879 and is derived from the Greek words
"syn" (together) and "biosis" (living).
✓ Symbiosis can take many different forms, and not all symbiotic relationships are mutualistic.
✓ Some symbiotic relationships are parasitic, in which one species benefits at the expense of the other,
while others are commensal, in which one species benefits without affecting the other.
❖ Proto-cooperation: Proto-cooperation is a type of interaction between two species that is not yet fully
mutualistic but represents the early stages of mutualism.
➢ In proto-cooperation, two or more species interact in a way that benefits both, but the relationship is not
yet fully dependent on each other..
➢ Over time, the relationship may evolve into a more symbiotic and mutualistic one.
➢ In it, interaction is temporary. Once, the interacting organisms get the advantage, they separate.
➢ Survival is not an issue.
➢ Example: Plants and pollinators.
➢ The pollinators may feed on the nectar of the plants, but they also inadvertently transfer pollen from one
plant to another, benefiting the plants' reproductive success.
❖ Amensalism: This is the ecological interaction in which an individual species harm another without obtaining
benefit. In anmensalism, the species that is negatively affected is often referred to as the "victim" species.
The negative effect can occur in several ways, such as through the release of chemicals or other substances
that are toxic or inhibitory to the victim species, or through physical interference with the victim's ability to
access resources. Example: A large tree shades a small plant, retarding the growth of the small plant. The
small plant has no effect on the large tree.
 6

❖ Commensalism: In this relationship, one of the species benefits while the other is neither harmed nor
benefited. For Example, Suckerfish attached to shark bodies, Cow dung, and dung beetles.
❖ Neutralism: Two in the association are neither benefited nor harmed by each other. For Example, Rabbits
and Deer live together.
❖ Competition: This is an interaction between two populations in which both species are harmed to some
extent. Example: Lions and hyenas in African savannas compete for food resources.
➢ Interspecific competition is a type of interaction in which two or more species compete for a limited
resource, such as food, water, or habitat. This competition occurs between different species that share the
same resource requirements. For example, lions and hyenas may compete for access to prey species, or
two species of trees may compete for sunlight and nutrients
➢ Intraspecific competition, on the other hand, is a type of interaction in which individuals of the same
species compete for resources.This competition occurs within a species, and it can be intense, especially
when resources are scarce. For example, plants may compete for water and nutrients in the soil, or animals
maycompete for mates or nesting sites.
❖ Parasitism: In this type of interaction, one species is harmed, and the other benefits. Example: The malaria
parasite (Plasmodium) harms humans by causing the disease while benefiting from the host's resources.
➢ It is a kind of harmful interaction between two species, wherein one species is the 'parasite' and the other
its 'host'.
➢ The parasite benefits at the expense of the host.
➢ A parasite derives shelter, food and protection from the host.
➢ Parasites exhibit adaptations to exploit their hosts.
➢ The parasites may be:
✓ viral parasites (plant/ animal viruses),
✓ microbial parasites (e.g., bacteria / protozoa / fungi),
✓ phyto parasites (plant parasites)
✓ zooparasites (animal parasites such as Platyhelminthes, nematodes, arthi pods).
➢ Parasites may inhibit or attach to the surface of the host (Ectoparasites - Head lice, Leech) or live
within the body of the host (endoparasites tapeworm).
❖ Predation: It is a form of interaction, where one animal kills another animal for food. Specialized predators
are those adapted to hunt only a few specific species. Lion and deer exhibit predator - prey relationship, where
the Lion is the predator and the deer is the prey. This type of interaction helps in the transfer of energy up the
trophic levels and is an essential strategy in population regulation.
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   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture – 05
Basics of Ecology
&
Environment (Part 5)
 2

Environment_Basics of Ecology & Environment (Part 5)

Biotic Interaction:
❖ It is the interaction of different organisms in the community influencing each other.
❖ Types of Biotic Interaction:
➢ Amensalism: This is a negative association between two species in which one species harms or restricts
the other species without itself being adversely affected or harmed by the presence of the other species.
✓ For Example, A small plant growing under a big tree, penicillium, and bacteria.
➢ Commensalism: In this relationship, one of the species benefits while the other is neither harmed nor
benefited.
✓ For Example, Suckerfish attached to shark bodies, Cow dung and dung beetles.
➢ Neutralism: Two in the association are neither benefited nor harmed by each other.
✓ For Example, Rabbits and Deer live together.
➢ Mutualism: This is a close association between two species in which both species benefit.
✓ For Example, Lichen (Algae and Fungi).
➢ Competition: This is an interaction between two populations in which both species are somewhat
harmed.
✓ Example: Lions and hyenas in African savannas compete for food resources.
➢ Parasitism: In this type of interaction, one species is harmed, and the other benefits.
✓ Example: The malaria parasite (Plasmodium) harms humans by causing the disease while benefiting
from the host's resources.
Example of mutualism /symbiotic relationship:
❖ Lichen:
➢ Lichen is a classic example of a mutualistic symbiotic relationship. Lichen is actually a composite
organism made up of two different organisms: a fungus and a photosynthetic partner, which is often
an alga or cyanobacterium. The interaction between these two organisms is mutually beneficial.
❖ Fungus (the mycobiont): The fungal partner provides structural support and protection to the algal partner. It
also absorbs water and minerals from the environment and creates a stable microenvironment.
❖ Alga or Cyanobacterium (the photobiont): The photosynthetic partner, either an alga or cyanobacterium,
performs photosynthesis and produces sugars as a result. These sugars are shared with the fungal partner.
❖ The mutualistic relationship benefits both partners:
➢ The fungus benefits from the sugars and other organic compounds produced through photosynthesis by
the alga or cyanobacterium. This is especially important in environments where obtaining organic
nutrients can be challenging for the fungus. The alga or cyanobacterium benefits from the structural
support and protection provided by the fungus. It also gains access to water and minerals from the
environment, which the fungal partner can efficiently absorb.
 3

Mycorrhiza:
❖ Mycorrhiza is another excellent example of a mutualistic symbiotic relationship, specifically between fungi
and plant roots. This relationship benefits both the fungi and the plants.
❖ Fungi (the mycorrhizal partner): The fungal partner in mycorrhizal associations forms a network of thread-
like structures called hyphae that extends into the soil. These hyphae can access and absorb nutrients, such
as phosphorus and nitrogen, from the soil more efficiently than plant roots alone. In return, the fungi receive
organic compounds from the plant, such as sugars, which they require for their growth and energy.
➢ Plants (the host): The plant provides the mycorrhizal fungi with sugars and other organic compounds
produced through photosynthesis. These compounds are transported to the fungi through the plant's root
system. The plant benefits because the mycorrhizal fungi enhance nutrient uptake from the soil, improving
the plant's ability to absorb essential nutrients and water.
❖ This mutualistic relationship between mycorrhizal fungi and plants has several advantages:
➢ The mycorrhizal fungi help the plant acquire nutrients that might be otherwise unavailable or difficult to
access in the soil, leading to increased plant growth and vitality.
➢ The plant provides the mycorrhizal fungi with a carbon source in the form of sugars, which fuels the
fungi's growth and enables them to perform their nutrient-absorbing function effectively.
Rhizobium:
❖ The mutualistic symbiotic relationship between Rhizobium bacteria and leguminous plants, such as beans,
clover, and peas, is an excellent example of biological nitrogen fixation. In this relationship, both partners
benefit in the following way:
➢ Rhizobium Bacteria: These nitrogen-fixing bacteria reside in specialized root nodules formed by the
plant. The bacteria are capable of converting atmospheric nitrogen (N2) gas into ammonia (NH3) through
a process called nitrogen fixation. Ammonia is a form of nitrogen that can be readily used by plants. In
exchange for this valuable source of nitrogen, the bacteria receive a safe and nutrient-rich environment
within the plant's nodules.
➢ Leguminous Plants: The plants benefit from the nitrogen fixation performed by the Rhizobium bacteria.
Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for plant growth, and atmospheric nitrogen is not directly usable by
most plants. By hosting the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules, leguminous plants gain access
to a source of nitrogen that promotes their growth and allows them to thrive in nitrogen-deficient soils.
This gives them an advantage in ecosystems with limited nitrogen availability.
Human Intestinal Flora:
❖ The mutualistic symbiotic relationship between the human intestinal flora (which includes various "good"
bacteria) and the human intestine is a well-known example of mutualism in the human body. In this
relationship, both the intestinal bacteria and the human host benefit:
➢ Intestinal Flora (Good Bacteria): The human gut is home to trillions of microorganisms, including
beneficial bacteria like Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. These bacteria play crucial roles in the
digestive process, producing enzymes and aiding in the breakdown of complex carbohydrates, as well as
fermenting non-digestible dietary fiber. Additionally, they help in preventing the overgrowth of harmful
bacteria in the gut.
 4

➢ Human Intestine: The human intestine provides a stable and nutrient-rich environment for these
beneficial bacteria. The intestinal flora helps the host by assisting in the digestion of certain foods,
promoting the absorption of nutrients (such as B vitamins and short-chain fatty acids), and supporting a
balanced immune system. Furthermore, the presence of these beneficial bacteria can help protect against
pathogenic microorganisms and maintain intestinal health.
❖ This mutualistic relationship has several key benefits:
➢ Improved Digestion: The good bacteria aid in the breakdown of complex food components, facilitating
digestion and nutrient absorption.
➢ Protection Against Pathogens: By occupying ecological niches in the intestine, beneficial bacteria help
prevent the overgrowth of harmful microbes that could cause infections or diseases.
Allelopathy:
❖ Allelopathy is a biological process where an organism produces biochemicals that affect the growth, survival,
and reproduction of other organisms. These biochemicals are known as allelochemicals and can have beneficial
or harmful effects on the target organisms and the community.
❖ Allelopathy can be direct or indirect and can have beneficial or adverse effects. It has great potential to be used
as an effective and environmentally friendly tool for weed management in field crops.
❖ An example of an allelopathic phenolic is juglone, which is produced by walnuts.
❖ Sunflowers: Sunflowers release chemicals called (allelochemicals, which can inhibit the growth of other
plants growing nearby. This chemical effect can help sunflowers outcompete other plants for resources.
❖ Eucalyptus trees: Eucalyptus trees release allelochemicals that inhibit the growth of many other plant species.
This effect can help eucalyptus trees outcompete other plants in their environment
Productivity of the Ecosystem:
❖ It is the rate of formation of biomass (Dry mass) or the rate at which Biomass increases per unit area per
unit of time or the rate at which energy is accumulated by Green plants in the form of organic substance
(Biomass or chemical energy).
❖ The unit of productivity of the ecosystem is Kcal/ m2/year(Energy per unit volume per unit time)
Types of Productivity of Ecosystem:
Primary Productivity:
❖ It is in the productivity of autotrophs or producers or green plants or the first trophic level.
❖ It is an outcome of photosynthesis in an ecosystem.
❖ Carbon dioxide (CO2) and a water molecule (H2O) in the presence of sunlight form a complex energy-
rich molecule, which is known as Glucose (C6H12O2).
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP):
❖ Gross primary production: It refers to the total amount of solar energy fixed into organic matter by primary
producers through photosynthesis.
❖ Gross Primary Productivity: The total energy accumulated in the plant during primary productivity is known
as Gross Primary Productivity.
 5

❖ A considerable portion of the solar

energy fixed by plants (GPP) is utilized by
plants in respiration (R) to get the energy
needed for their metabolism and other vital
functions.
❖ Net Primary Productivity (NPP): The
amount of energy left after being consumed
in respiration (R) is used for growth or
producing new individuals i.e.
reproduction. This is known as Net
Primary Productivity (NPP).

GPP - R = NPP
or
GPP = NPP + R

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

❖ It is the amount of biomass available for
herbivores or primary consumers or secondary trophic levels.
❖ It is energy or biomass stored in producers or plants.
❖ The energy remaining after respiration is stored as organic matter and is called net primary productivity
(NPP).
❖ The amount of biomass or organic matter accumulated by plants per unit area in a given period is called Net
primary production.
❖ The overall relationship between GPP and NPP can be written as NPP = GPP - R, where R is the energy used
up in respiration, and GPP is the gross primary productivity.
Secondary Productivity of Ecosystem:
❖ This applies to consumers of the ecosystem (food chain).
❖ Secondary Production: The production of biomass, growth, or addition of new individuals is referred to as
secondary production.
❖ Secondary productivity is the
rate of formation of new
organic matter by
heterotrophs.
❖ The amount of energy stored
in tissues of primary
consumers and available to
carnivores.
❖ The rate of biomass production
by consumers in an ecosystem.
 6

ECOSYSTEM COLLAPSE:
❖ It refers to the phenomenon when an ecosystem rapidly loses their structure and function, with dramatic
changes to their size or extent, or the species that comprise them.
❖ These losses tend to homogenise and simplify the ecosystem fewer species, fewer habitats and fewer
connections between the two.
❖ It can lead to catastrophic declines
of carrying capacity and mass
extinction, and can also pose
existential risk to human
populations.

Factors Affecting the Productivity of the Ecosystem:

❖ Sunlight (the most important factor).
❖ Water
❖ Carbon dioxide
❖ Mineral nutrition
❖ Temperature
❖ Biotic activities like grazing, predation, parasitism, etc.
❖ Impact on the human population.
 7

Classification of Ecosystem based on Productivity:

Classification of Ecosystem on the

basis of Productivity

High Intermediate Low

Productivity Productivity Productivity

1. Tropical Forest 1. Grassland 1. Snow covered wasteland

2. Temperate Forest 2. Shallow Lake 2. Desert

3. Intensive Farming 3. Farmland 3. Deep sea ocean

Ecological Successions or Biotic Successions:

❖ The process by which communities of plant and animal species in an area are replaced or changed into
another community of plant or animal species over a period of time is known as ecological succession.
OR
❖ It is the process of development of the ecosystem through a series of directional changes.
❖ It occurs when a series of communities replace one another to large-scale destruction either natural or
manmade.
 8

❖ Examples:

Bare Lichen or Weeds& Herbs & Trees

Rock Mosses Grass Shrubs

Intermediate community
Pioneer Climax
community Or community
(Species) (Species)
Seral community

Process of Ecological Successions:

❖ It is a multi-step process.
❖ It is a unidirectional process.

Primary community → Intermediate community → Climax community

(It brings first life (It is the stable and most
form in the lifeless area.) suitable community.)
❖ The entire community sequence (at the intermediate level) in a given area is called Sere(s).

Types of Sere:
Name of Sere Area of succession
Hydrosere Aquatic areas
Xerosere Dry areas
Lithosere Bare rock
Psammosere Sandy areas
Halosere Saline areas
 9

Stages of Ecological Succession:

There are five stages of Ecological Succession:
1. Nudation: It means the formation of the nude or bare area by flooding, erosion, landslide, volcano, etc.
2. Invasion: It means the arrival of different
species.
3. Competition: It means the growth of
species in limited areas resulting in
competition for food and space.
4. Reactions: It means the modification of
the environment due to the influence of
organisms such as changes in soil
structure, PH, temperature, etc.
5. Stabilization: It means the arrival of the
final stage or climax community. It
maintains the equilibrium of the
ecosystem.
Types of Ecological Successions:
❖ There are two types of succession
(i) Primary succession
(ii) Secondary succession
Primary Succession Secondary Succession
❖ In this life starts in a lifeless area where the soil is ❖ It occurs when the primary ecosystem gets
absent or destroyed. destroyed (For example. fire).
❖ It is a slower process. ❖ Soil is present here.
❖ It is faster due to the presence of soil.
 10

Other types of Ecological Successions:

❖ Succession of plants is called hydrarch or xerarch, respectively.
❖ Hydrarch succession takes place in wetter areas and the successional series progress from hydric to the mesic
conditions.
❖ As against this, xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and the series progress from xeric to mesic
conditions.
❖ Hence, both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to medium water conditions (mesic) – neither too dry
(xeric) nor too wet (hydric).
Autogenic Succession Allogenic Succession
❖ It is driven by biotic factors or living organisms of ❖ It is driven by abiotic factors or external
the community. factors.
❖ Secondary succession starts with autogenic ❖ Primary succession begins with allogenic
succession. succession and proceeds to autogenic
❖ Examples: Dead organic material in the soil changes succession.
the structure of the soil. ❖ Examples: Volcanic eruption, flood, etc.
 11

Ecological Succession:
❖ Autogenic succession: Brought about by living inhabitants of that community itself
❖ Allogenic succession: Brought about by outside forces
❖ Autotrophic succession: A Succession in which, initially the green plants dominate.
❖ Heterotrophic: Succession in which, initially heterotrophs dominate
Succession would be much faster in areas that exist in the middle of a large continent. All propagules or seeds
belonging to different seers would reach here much faster and the climax community would establish faster.
Ecological Succession:
❖ Clement's theory of succession
6 Phases:
➢ A Nudation: development of a bare site, disturbance
➢ A Migration: arrival of propagules
➢ A Ecesis: establishment of initial growth of vegetation.
➢ A Competition: as vegetation becomes well established, grows and spreads, various species compete for
space, light and nutrients.
❖ Clement's theory of succession
➢ A Reaction: autogenic changes affect the habitat resulting in the replacement of one plant community by
another.
➢ A Stabilization: stable climax community
Importance of Ecological Succession:
❖ Ecological succession is important:
➢ For growth and development of an ecosystem.
➢ It initiates the colonization of new areas and the recolonization of areas that had been destroyed due to
certain biotic and climatic factors.
➢ Ecological succession is important so that organisms can adapt to the changes and learn to survive in the
changing environment.
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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture – 06
Ecosystem
 2

Ecosystem
Biogeochemical Cycle or Nutrient Cycle:
❖ About:
➢ It means the movement of nutrients between abiotic and biotic factors of an ecosystem.
➢ Energy flows in a unilateral direction. Nutrients flow in a cyclic direction.
❖ Types of Biogeochemical Cycle: Based on the nature of reservoirs, the biogeochemical cycle can be classified
into two types:
➢ Gaseous Reservoirs: (Its examples are as follows)
✓ Water cycle or Hydrological cycle
✓ Oxygen cycle
✓ Carbon cycle
✓ Nitrogen (N2) cycle
➢ Sedimentary Reservoir: (Its examples are as follows)
✓ Phosphorus cycle
✓ Sulphur cycle
Feature Gaseous cycle Sedimentary cycle
Reservoir Atmosphere and ocean Earth's crust
Nutrient form Gas or vapour Non-gaseous
Speed Comparatively quick and fast Comparatively slow
Examples Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen cycles Phosphorus and sulfur cycle
Water Cycle:
❖ The water keeps going from one component of an
ecosystem to another component in a cyclic manner
which is called the water cycle.
Stages of Water Cycle:
❖ Evaporation/\Transpiration/Sublimation: In these,
water converts into vapour in the atmosphere.
❖ Condensation: Condensation is the opposite of
evaporation. It is a phase change process in which a
substance changes from a gaseous state to a liquid
state.
❖ Precipitation/Deposition: Precipitation is a
vital meteorological and hydrological process in
the Earth's water cycle. It refers to any form of
water, liquid or solid, that falls from the
atmosphere to the Earth's surface.
 3

❖ Infiltration: It is a critical process in the Earth's water cycle that describes the movement of water from the
surface of the Earth into the ground or
soil. It is the process by which
precipitation, such as rain or snow,
soaks into the soil or permeable rock
layers.
❖ Runoff Water: refers to water that
flows over the surface of the Earth,
typically in the form of rainwater or
snowmelt, and does not infiltrate into
the ground. Instead, it moves across the
land surface, eventually finding its way
into streams, rivers, lakes, and,
ultimately, the ocean.
❖ Plant Uptake: It refers to the process
by which plants absorb water and
nutrients from the soil or other growing
media.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

Lecture – 07
Basic of Environment
 2

Basic of Environment
Environment:
 The environment is defined as the sum total of living, and non-living components, influences, and events
surrounding an organism.
 The term environment comes from the French word "environer" which means 'surroundings'.
 It is the sum total of biotic and abiotic components.
Components of the Environment:

 Abiotic factors: Abiotic are non-living components; such as water, soil, and atmosphere.
 Biotic factors: Biotic factors are living things within an ecosystem; such as plants, animals, and bacteria.

What is Ecology?
 The study of the interactions between living organisms
and their biotic and abiotic environments.
 Therefore, it is the study of the relationship of plants and
animals to their physical and biological environment.
 3

Levels of Organisations in Ecology:

Organism:
 It is an individual living being that can act or
function independently. It may be a plant,
animal, bacterium, fungi, etc.
Population:
 It is a group of organisms usually of the same
species, occupying a defined area during a
specific time.
Community:
 It refers to all the populations of different species living and
interacting in a particular area or habitat. A community may consist
of different species of plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms,
which are interdependent and affect each other's survival and well-
being.
Ecosystem:
 An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of a biosphere. consisting of a community of
living beings and the physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials between them.
 The term "ecosystem" was first coined by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in 1935.
 4

Functional Units of an Ecosystem:

 Productivity: It refers to the rate of biomass production.
 Energy flow: It is the sequential
process through which energy
flows from one trophic level to
another. The energy captured
from the sun flows from
producers to consumers and then
to decomposers and finally back
to the environment.
 Decomposition: It is the process
of breakdown of dead organic
material. The topsoil is the major site for decomposition.
 5

 Nutrient cycling: In an ecosystem, nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various forms for the
utilisation by various organisms.
Biomes:
 Biomes may be defined as a large natural ecosystem wherein it is the total assemblage of plant and animal
communities.
 Here, all the biota have the minimum common characteristics and all the areas of biomes are characterized by
more or less uniform environmental conditions.
 Climatic conditions determine the boundaries of biomes.
 Climatic conditions of biomes influence the vegetation pattern, this vegetation pattern facilitates the specific
adaptation in flora(plants) and fauna(animals)

Biosphere:
 The biosphere is a part of the
earth where life can exist.
 It represents a highly integrated
and interacting zone
comprising the atmosphere (air),
hydrosphere (water) and
lithosphere (land).
 The biosphere is approximately
20 km thick.
 6

 Most life occurs between 500m below the surface of the

ocean and about 6 km above the sea level.
 The biosphere refers to the narrow zone of the earth in
which all life forms exist.
 Life becomes possible in this zone. It is because this is
the zone in which all the three essential things that are
required for the sustenance of life are found in the right
mixture. They are land (lithosphere), air
(atmosphere), and water (hydrosphere).
 Range of biosphere: It extends vertically into the
atmosphere to about 8km, downward into the ocean
to depths of about 10.4 km, and into about 27,000 ft of
the earth’s surface where maximum living organisms
have been found.
 Most of the organisms are found in the range of 6 km
into the atmosphere and 200 m in the ocean.
Habitat:
 It is the place where an organism or a community of
organisms lives, including all living and nonliving
factors or conditions of the surrounding environment.
 Microhabitat is a term for the conditions and organisms in the immediate vicinity of a plant or animal.

Niche:
 A niche refers to the unique role or position of a species within an ecosystem, including the physical and
biological conditions it requires to survive and reproduce.
 It can be described by the specific set of environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, light, soil
type, and food availability, that a species requires to survive and thrive.
 The niche of an organism and its interactions are determined by where it stands in the ecological structure of
the ecosystem. (Producers, Consumers, Decomposers),
 7

Niche Type:
 Based on the interactions of species, niches are of 3 types:
 Habitat Niche: It is the
physical area in the habitat
that a species occupies.
 Trophic Niche: Trophic
level occupied by the
species in the food chain
/ecological chain.
 Multidimensional
Niche: It consists of the
concepts of the Fundamental Niche and Limiting factors.
 Fundamental Niche: Any type of environmental condition where an organism could exist without ecological
interactions.
 Realised niche: Realized niche refers to the specific ecological conditions where a population exists and
persists due to interactions and competition with other species.
Niche Overlap:
 When two organisms have similar ecological niches, there is increased competition between them for
resources. This competition can reduce the chances of survival for both species.
 Gauss Law: Competitive exclusion principle proposed by G.F. Gause, states that two species competing for
the same limited resources cannot coexist at constant population values.
 Darwin's finches and Galapagos islands: Charles Darwin during his voyage on the HMS Beagle to the
Galápagos Islands observed a variety of finch species on the islands, each with different beak shapes and
sizes adapted to their specific diets. This observation provided evidence for natural selection and adaptive
radiation.
 8

 Niche overlap describes the situation in which

co-occurring species share parts of their niche
space with each other.
 Niche overlap is reduced by resource
partitioning.
 Resource partitioning is the process of
Niche Overlap moving things around in order to satisfy the niche size to an appropriate level.

#Q. Which one of the following is the best description of the term 'ecosystem'? (2015)
(a) A community of organisms interacting with one another
(b) That part of the Earth which is inhabited by living organisms
(c) A community of organisms together with the environment in which they live
(d) The flora and fauna of a geographical area
#Q. Which one of the following terms describes not only the physical space occupied by an organism, but also
its functional role in the community of organisms? (2013)
(a) Ecotone
(b) Ecological niche
(c) Habitat
(d) Home range
 9

#Q. With reference to the food chains in ecosystems, which of the following kinds of organism is / are known
as decomposer organism/organisms?
1. Virus
2. Fungi
3. Bacteria
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ecotone:
 An ecotone is a zone of junction
between two or more diverse
ecosystems.
 Such areas have richness in
biodiversity due to the edge
effect.
Examples of Ecotones include:
 Marshlands: Dry and wet
ecosystems
 Mangrove forests: Terrestrial and
marine ecosystems
 Grasslands: Desert and forest, and
 Estuaries: Saltwater and freshwater
Characteristics of Ecotone:
 It is a zone of tension
 It is linear as it shows a progressive increase in species composition of one in coming community and a
simultaneous decrease in species of the other outgoing adjoining community.
 A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms which are entirely different from that of the adjoining
communities.
Example of Ecotone:
 Coral Reefs: Marine animals that release limestone (Calcium carbonate). This limestone in the marine
environment of the sea leads to edge effect and ecotone presence.
 Wetlands: They are submerged in water. Midway between land and lakes, therefore have much higher
biodiversity.
 10

Edge Effect:
 Edge effect refers to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two
habitats.
 Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species in the ecotone is much
greater than either community. This is called the edge effect.
 Species adapted to survive in edge-effect areas are called ecotypes.
Ecotype:
 An Ecotype is a population of species
that differs genetically from other
populations of the same species
because local conditions have been
selected for certain unique
physiological morphological
characteristics or morphological
characteristics.
 Ecotypes are adapted to survive in an
ecotone.
 Ex: Royal Bengal Tiger: adapted to
mangrove, can drink salt water
 Examples: Kharai Camel (Gujarat),
Indian Rhino.
Tropical Level:
 A trophic level is the representation of energy flow in an ecosystem.
 It is the position it occupies in a food chain.
 It deals with how the members of an ecosystem are connected based on nutritional needs
 The trophic level interaction involves three concepts:
 Food Chain
 Food Web
 Ecological Pyramids
Energy in the ecosystem:
 Plants absorb less than 1% of the sunlight that reaches them.
 Photosynthetic organisms make 170 billion metric tons of food each year.
 2 processes: photosynthesis and respiration.
Primary Producers (Autotrophs):
 Primary producers are basically green plants (and certain bacteria and algae)
 They synthesise carbohydrates from simple inorganic raw materials like carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of sunlight by the process of photosynthesis for themselves, and supply indirectly to other non-
producers.
 11

 In the terrestrial ecosystem, producers are basically herbaceous and woody plants, while in aquatic ecosystems
producers are various species of microscopic algae.
 Producers: Phototrophs or chemotrophs
 Phototrophs: organisms that perform photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll.
 Photosynthesis Carbon dioxide + water + sunlight → sugar + oxygen
 Chemotrophs: Chemotrophs are organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of reduced compounds.
These involve certain chemical reactions to obtain their food.
 Example: Sulphur bacteria like Thiobascillus.
 Carbon dioxide + water + hydrogen sulphide + oxygen = Carbohydrates + sulphuric acid.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 08
Basic Of Environment part 2
 2

Basic Of Environment Part 2

Biodiversity Conservation:
❖ There are two approaches of Biodiversity Conservation:
➢ In-Situ Conservation
➢ Ex-Situ Conservation
In Situ Conservation:
❖ It refers to the conservation of species in their natural habitat i.e. ecosystem.
❖ Example: protected area network i.e.:
➢ National Park
➢ Wildlife Sanctuary
Ex- Situ Conservation:
❖ Ex- Situ refers to the conservation of species outside their natural habitat.
❖ Example: Captive Breeding Program for vultures in Pinjore (Haryana), pygmy hog (wild pig) in Assam.
❖ Vultures were threatened by the use of the painkiller “Diclofenac" in cattle which ultimately leads to kidney
failure in vultures after consuming that dead cattle.
❖ Ex- Situ is adopted when the population goes too low.
Protected Area Network (PAN):
❖ They are specifically demarcated geographical areas or long-term conservation of nature.
❖ 5% of the total geographical area of India is designated as PANs.
❖ There are:
➢ More than 100 National parks (106)
➢ More than 500 Wildlife Sanctuaries (567)
➢ 18 Biosphere Reserves.
❖ Protected Area Network (PAN) includes: (in decreasing order of stringent actions implementation):
➢ National parks
➢ Wildlife Sanctuaries
➢ Reserved Forest
➢ Protected forest
❖ The State Government declares both National parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries based upon their ecological
significance as per their provision of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
❖ Both National parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries aim at In-Situ conservation of Biodiversity by regulating
human activities and restricting human presence inside National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
National Park:
❖ In the National Park, no rights are allowed.
❖ No human activities are allowed.
❖ It has more stringent rules.
❖ No grazing or firewood collection is allowed in it.
 3

❖ No settlement is allowed in the core area of the national park.

❖ It has a definite boundary.
❖ The national park is for the protection of both plant and animal species.
Wildlife Sanctuary:
❖ Less stringent rules than National Park.
❖ Human activities are allowed only if the state government gives permission.
❖ In Wildlife Sanctuary, grazing & firewood collection by tribals are allowed.
❖ Settlement is not allowed in the Wildlife Sanctuary (Few exceptions of tribal settlements).
❖ It is for the protection of Wild Animals.
❖ The boundaries of wildlife sanctuaries are not clearly defined.
❖ In wildlife sanctuaries, hunting or fishing activities are banned/strictly controlled.
❖ It is maintained by the state government.
❖ Wildlife sanctuary can be declared even for one endangered species.
❖ Wildlife sanctuaries can be promoted to National Park.
National Parks- Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Meghalaya:
The National Parks in Assam:
❖ Kaziranga National Park: Home to the world's largest population of one-horned rhinoceroses, Kaziranga
National Park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is also a Project Tiger reserve, and is home to a variety
of other mammals, including elephants, wild boars, and deer.
➢ UNESCO World Heritage Site (Natural): Recognized for its outstanding natural beauty and
significance in biodiversity conservation.
➢ Tiger Reserve: Plays a crucial role in protecting the endangered Bengal tiger population.
➢ Important Bird Area: Provides critical habitat for a wide variety of resident and migratory birds.
➢ Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot: Encompasses diverse ecosystems teeming with life.
➢ Home to two-thirds of the world's Indian rhinoceroses: A staggering number, making it a vital
sanctuary for this threatened species.
➢ Large breeding populations of other charismatic animals: Tigers, elephants, wild water buffalo,
swamp deer, Indian and Chinese pangolins all thrive here.
➢ Vast expanse of varied landscapes: Tall elephant grass, marshland, tropical semi-evergreen forests,
Terai grasslands, and dense tropical moist broadleaf forests create a mosaic of habitats.
➢ Network of rivers: Brahmaputra, Diphlu, Mora Diphlu, and Mora Dhansiri rivers nourish the park's
ecosystems.
➢ Annual rejuvenation: The Brahmaputra's overflow revitalizes the grasslands and wetlands, creating
a dynamic and productive ecosystem.
❖ Manas National Park: Manas National Park is another UNESCO World Heritage Site and Project Tiger
reserve. It is located in the foothills of the Himalayas, and is home to a wide variety of wildlife, including
tigers, elephants, rhinos, and gibbons.
 4

❖ Orang National Park and Tiger Reserve: Orang

National Park is home to the highest density of
tigers in the world. It is also a UNESCO World
Heritage Site and Project Tiger reserve. The park
is located on the banks of the Brahmaputra River,
and is home to a variety of other mammals,
including elephants, rhinos, and deer.
❖ Nameri National Park: Nameri National Park is a
Project Tiger reserve located in the foothills of the
Eastern Himalayas. It is home to a variety of
wildlife, including tigers, elephants, rhinos, and gibbons. The park is also home to a number of bird species,
including the hornbill and the peacock.
❖ Dibru-Saikhowa National Park: Dibru-Saikhowa National Park is a biosphere reserve located in the
eastern part of Assam. It is home to a variety of wildlife, including elephants, wild boars, and deer. The park
is also home to a number of bird species, including the hornbill and the pelican.
❖ Dehing Patkai National Park: Dehing Patkai National Park is an elephant reserve located in the eastern
part of Assam. It is home to a variety of wildlife, including elephants, gibbons, and deer. The park is also
home to a number of bird species, including the hornbill and the eagle.
❖ Raimona National Park: Raimona National Park is the newest national park in Assam. It was established
in 2008 and is home to a variety of wildlife, including elephants, gibbons, and deer. The park is also home
to a number of bird species, including the hornbill and the eagle.
The National Parks in Nagaland:
❖ Ntangki National Park: Established in 1993, this park is known for its rich biodiversity, encompassing
montane forests, grasslands, and wetlands. It harbors various mammals like gibbons, macaques, and bears,
and over 200 bird species.
 5

The National Parks in Meghalaya:

❖ Nokrek National Park: Declared a biosphere reserve, this park boasts diverse landscapes with subtropical
broadleaf forests, grasslands, and rocky outcrops. It shelters endangered species like the hoolock gibbon and
the Asian elephant.
❖ Balpakram National Park: This park features semi-evergreen forests and is home to unique mammals like
the serow and the clouded leopard. It's also a haven for birdwatchers with over 240 species recorded.
The National Parks in Manipur:
❖ Keibul Lamjao National Park: The only floating
national park in the world, it's renowned for its
unique "phumdis" (floating meadows) on Loktak
Lake. It's a critical habitat for the endangered
"sangai" (brow-antlered deer) and various
waterfowl.
❖ Shirui National Park: Encompassing high altitude
meadows and subtropical broadleaf forests, this park
is known for Shirui lily, a flower that blooms only
every 12 years. It harbors diverse avifauna and
mammals like the serow and the barking deer.
The National Parks in Mizoram:
❖ Murlen National Park: Characterized by rugged terrain and evergreen forests, this park provides shelter
to various threatened species like the hoolock gibbon and the Asian elephant. It's also known for its rich
birdlife, including hornbills and pheasants.
❖ Phawngpui Blue Mountain National Park: This recently established park features scenic landscapes with
high altitude meadows, rhododendron forests, and waterfalls. It harbors diverse mammals like serows,
muntjacs, and barking deer, along with numerous bird species.
 6

The National Parks in Tripura:

❖ Bison (Rajbari) National Park: As the name suggests, this
park is known for its population of wild bison. It also harbors
other mammals like elephants, leopards, and deer, and a variety
of bird species.
❖ Clouded Leopard National Park: Home to the elusive
clouded leopard, this park protects evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests. It's also a haven for various mammals like
gibbons, macaques, and deer, and numerous bird species.
Points to note:
❖ Only three national parks in India are named after animals: Blackbuck National Park (Gujarat), Desert
National Park (Rajasthan), and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur, Rajasthan).
Greater One-Horned Rhino:
Habitat:
❖ Ideal Home: Alluvial Terai-Duar savanna grasslands interspersed with riverine forests provide the perfect
habitat for these herbivores.
❖ Global Distribution: Though historically found in Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, and India, over 85% of the
remaining population resides in India.
❖ Protected Havens: Seven key protected areas serve as their sanctuaries: Kaziranga National Park, Pobitara
Wildlife Sanctuary, Orang National Park, Manas National Park (all in Assam), Jaldapara National Park and
Gorumara National Park (West Bengal), and Dudhwa National Park (Uttar Pradesh).
❖ Assam's Pride: This state boasts 71% of the global population (around 2,652 as per 2018 census), with
Kaziranga National Park holding the highest number.
Characteristics:
❖ Asian Giant: The largest rhino species in Asia and the fourth largest land animal overall.
❖ Agile Powerhouse: Despite their size, they are excellent swimmers and can burst into short sprints of up to
55 km/hr.
❖ Solitary by Nature: Preferring to live alone, multiple rhinos might share grazing grounds or water sources.
❖ Sharp Senses: Their incredible hearing and smell compensate for their relatively poor eyesight.
❖ Family Time: They have a long gestation period of about 16 months, nurturing a single calf at a time.
Threats:
❖ Poaching Peril: Their horns, mistakenly believed to hold medicinal properties, continue to fuel illegal
poaching.
❖ Habitat Loss: Conversion of their preferred grasslands for agriculture and other development poses a major
threat.
Rhino Diversity:
❖ African Cousins: White and Black Rhinos found in Africa, with the Black Rhino being smaller.
❖ Critically Endangered: Javan Rhino with only a handful surviving in Java and Vietnam.
 7

❖ Sumatran Rarity: The smallest rhino species, with just 30-80 individuals remaining, primarily in Sumatra.
❖ Unique Feature: Unlike African and Sumatran rhinos with two horns, the Indian and Javan rhinos have
only one.
❖ Horn Misconception: Interestingly, both male and female Indian rhinos possess horns.
India Rhino Vision (IRV) 2020:
❖ Ambitious Target: Assam, in partnership with WWF India and the International Rhino Foundation,
launched IRV 2020 to establish a wild population of 3,000 Greater One-Horned Rhinos by 2020, spread
across seven protected areas.
❖ Managing Overcrowding: Kaziranga's concentrated population necessitated relocation efforts to other
suitable habitats.
❖ Success Story: The program concluded with the release of rhinos in Manas National Park, transported from
Pobitara Wildlife Sanctuary.
❖ Population Milestone: IRV 2020 is believed to have successfully achieved its goal of reaching a 3,000
strong rhino population in Assam.

Consumers (Heterotrophs):
❖ Consumers are incapable of producing their own food (photosynthesis).
❖ They depend on organic food derived from plants, animals or both.
❖ Consumers can be divided into two broad groups namely micro and macro consumers.

Macro Consumers:
❖ They feed on plants or animals or both and are categorised on the basis of their food sources.
❖ Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly on plants.
➢ e.g. cow, rabbit. Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers e.g. wolves.
❖ Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers e.g. lions which can eat wolves.
❖ Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants and animals e.g. man, monkey.
❖ Scavengers: feed on dead and decaying organisms
 8

Scavengers:
❖ Scavengers feed on carrion (dead or injured animal corpses)
❖ Scavengers will feed on these dead plants/animals and decomposers will finish the job

Micro Consumers:
❖ They are bacteria and fungi which obtain energy and nutrients by decomposing dead organic substances
(detritus) of plant and animal origin.
❖ They feed on small microscopic bits of dead organic matter and convert them into inorganic nutrients.
❖ The products of decomposition such as inorganic nutrients which are released in the ecosystem are reused by
producers and thus recycled.
❖ Earthworms and certain soil organisms (such as nematodes and arthropods) are detritus feeders and help in
decomposition.
 9

Decomposers and Detritivores:

Parameter of Comparison Detritivores Decomposers

Feeding Mechanism Consume large particles of dead Secrete enzymes to break down dead
organic matter organic matter
Examples Worms, millipedes, crabs, flies Bacteria, fungi
Digestive System Have a digestive system to break Do not have a digestive system
down food
Role in Decomposition Primary decomposers that Secondary decomposers that chemically
physically break down organic break down organic matter
matter
Mobility Generally more mobile than Generally less mobile than decomposers
decomposers
 10

Example of Aquatic Ecosystem:

❖ Producers in aquatic ecosystems are Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), Phytoplankton, and Diatoms.
❖ Primary consumers are Crustaceans, Zooplankton, Small fish
❖ Secondary Consumers are Herrings, Bigger fish, Sharks etc.
Food Chain:
❖ A sequence of organisms that feed on one another, form a food chain.
❖ It is the process of transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms with
repeated eating and being eaten link.
❖ Arrows in a food chain represent the flow of energy through the process of eating.
❖ Linear: Unidimensional Flow of Energy

Food Web:
❖ A food web is a diagram or model that illustrates the interdependence of
various organisms in an ecosystem, showing the flow of energy and
nutrients from one organism to another.
❖ It is a representation of the feeding relationships among different species in
an ecosystem.
❖ Non-Linear: Multi-dimensional Flow of Energy
❖ Complexity: More the number of species, greater the interactions and more
complex the food web. These food webs are more stable.
 11

Food Web Collapse:

❖ A food web collapse occurs when the interconnected food chain of an ecosystem breaks down or fails to
function in a sustainable manner.
❖ This can happen due to a number of factors such as changes in climate, loss of key species, pollution and
overexploitation by humans.
❖ A food web collapse can have serious consequences on the entire ecosystem, including loss of biodiversity,
reduced productivity, and even ecosystem collapse.

Ecological Pyramids:
❖ Ecological pyramids are graphical representations of the trophic levels within an ecosystem.
❖ They show the relative abundance or biomass of different groups of organisms at each trophic level in an
ecosystem, and the flow of energy and nutrients through the food chain.
Law of 10%: Given By Raymond Lindeman:
❖ From one trophic level to another, only biomass will get
transferred. However, not all the energy obtained by an
organism will get converted to biomass.
❖ When all energy losses are added, only about 10% of the
energy entering one trophic level is available to the next
trophic level; because only 10% of the energy obtained
is used to make biomass.) This is known as the 10% law.
❖ Because of the 10% law, food chains have five or less
links. Because 90% of energy. is lost at each level, the
amount of energy available decreases very quickly.
❖ Most of the energy loss is in production of heat energy
and movement from one place to the other.
Ecological Pyramids:
❖ Ecological pyramids are graphical representations of the trophic levels within an ecosystem.
❖ They show the relative abundance or biomass of different groups of organisms at each trophic level in an
ecosystem, and the flow of energy and nutrients through the food chain.
 12

Pyramid of Energy:
❖ The pyramid of energy is a graphical representation of the flow of energy through an ecosystem.
❖ It is always upright.
❖ As you move up the pyramid, there is less energy available because some is lost in each transfer. (10% Rule)
❖ This loss of energy is due to the laws of thermodynamics.

Pyramid of Biomass:
❖ The pyramid of biomass is a graphical
representation of the amount of living
organic matter, or biomass, present in
each trophic level of an ecosystem.
❖ It represents the relative amount of
biomass at each level, with the largest
biomass at the base of the pyramid and
successively smaller biomass at each
higher level.
❖ It is not always a perfect pyramid shape, as it can be affected by factors such as the size and turnover rate
of the organisms in each trophic level.
Aquatic Pyramid of Biomass:
❖ Phytoplankton (survives for 2-3 days)
❖ Zooplankton (survives for 7-8 days)
❖ Small fish (survives for 15-20 days
❖ Shark (survives for 10 years)
 13

❖ At one particular amount of time, the biomass at the lower trophic levels are lower than that of higher trophic
levels. Hence, there is an inverted biomass pyramid.

Pyramid of Numbers:
❖ The proportional number of creatures at each level of a food chain is represented using a pyramid of
numbers.
❖ Depending on the ecology, the number pyramid can be either upright or inverted.
Pyramid of Numbers (Upright):
❖ The typical grassland during the summer
season has an upright shape as it has a base of
many plants, with the numbers of organisms
decreasing at each trophic level.
❖ But during the summer in a temperate forest,
the base of the pyramid consists of few trees
compared with the number of primary
consumers, mostly insects.
❖ As trees are large, they have great
photosynthetic capability and dominate other
plants in this ecosystem to obtain sunlight.
Primary producers in forests can still sustain higher trophic levels, even in lesser numbers.
Pyramid of Numbers (Inverted):
❖ A pyramid of numbers does not always have a regular
pyramid shape as it does not take into account the biomass
of the organisms.
❖ In an ecosystem, when a few very large biomass producers
sustain a greater number of smaller consumers, an
inverted pyramid of numbers can be observed.
❖ An inverted pyramid of numbers can also occur in an
ecosystem where the community contains parasites.
 14

❖ In these food chains, a single producer typically supports a large number of parasites. More hyper-
parasites are supported by the parasites in turn. In this pyramid, the number of individuals at each level rises
from the lowest to the highest.

Bioaccumulation:
❖ Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances,
such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism, in a
single trophic level.
❖ Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a
substance at a rate faster than that at which the substance is
lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion.
Accumulation in Food Chain (Down to Earth):
❖ Microplastics are getting into mosquitoes and contaminating
new food chains.
❖ According to a research, there was evidence of beads in all the life stages of Mosquitoes, although the
numbers went down as the animals developed.
❖ Any flying insect that spends part of its life in water can become a carrier of plastic pollution thus resulting in
Biomagnification at higher trophics.
 15

Biomagnification:
❖ Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification or
biological magnification, is the increase in concentration of a
substance, eg a pesticide in the tissues of organisms at
successively higher levels in a food chain.
❖ This increase can occur as a result of:
➢ Persistence where the substance cannot be broken down
by environmental processes
➢ Food chain energetics where the substance's concentration
increases progressively as it moves up a food chain.
➢ Low or non-existent rate of internal degradation or
excretion of the substance - mainly due to water-insolubility.
Substancees that Biomagnify:
❖ In order for biomagnifcation to occur, the pollutant must be:
➢ A long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, non-biodegradable
❖ Examples of Substances:
➢ Chlorinated hydrocarbons (Organochlorines)
➢ Inorganic compounds like methylmercury or heavy metals
➢ Persistent organic pollutants
Examples of Biomagnification:
❖ DDT, an insecticide used extensively in the 20th century, biomagnified in food chains. Small insects ingested
DDT, which was then passed on to larger predators like fish and birds. Bald eagles, at the top of the food chain,
accumulated high levels of DDT in their bodies.

❖ Minamata Disease: Industrial waste containing mercury was discharged into Minamata Bay, Japan, for
decades. Mercury biomagnified in the food chain, accumulating in shellfish consumed by the local population.
 16

❖ Diclofenac, a veterinary painkiller, became widely used in India. Vultures, scavenging on livestock carcasses
containing diclofenac residues, suffered kidney failure and mass die-offs, leading to a population decline of
over 90%.
Biomagnification in Vultures:
❖ Traces of diclofenac and its derivative compounds have been
found in the carcasses of vultures across India and its
neighbouring countries, and it is known that the
biomagnification of diclofenac from the consumption of
infected, domestic animal carcasses contributes to vulture
mortality.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 09
Ecology & Ecosystem Part II
 2

Ecology & Ecosystem Part II

Andhra Pradesh Protected Areas:

Papikonda National Park:
❖ Location: Eastern Ghats, Alluri Sitharama Raju and Eluru districts, Andhra Pradesh
❖ Area: 1,012.86 sq km
❖ Significance:
➢ Biodiversity hotspot: Diverse flora (over 2,500 species) and fauna (including tigers, leopards, gaurs,
and rare birds)
➢ Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA)
➢ Crucial for water resources: Home to the Godavari River, a vital source of water for millions
➢ Cultural significance: Inhabited by indigenous communities
Sri Venkateswara National Park:
❖ Location: Eastern Ghats, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh
❖ Area: 3,535.8 sq km
❖ Significance:
➢ Home to Tirumala Hills: Sacred site for Hindus, containing the renowned Tirupati Temple
➢ Rich biodiversity: Diverse flora (over 1,400 species) and fauna (including elephants, dholes, and
langurs)
➢ Important for conservation: Protects endangered species and ecosystems
Rajiv Gandhi National Park (Orang)
❖ Location: Orang National Park, Dibru-Sadiya district, Assam
❖ Area: 78.81 sq km
➢ Note: Rajiv Gandhi National Park is located in Assam, not Andhra Pradesh. You might have confused
it with another protected area in Andhra Pradesh.
Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve:
❖ Location: Eastern Ghats, Kadapa, Nellore, Prakasam districts, Andhra Pradesh
❖ Area: 5,816 sq km
❖ Significance:
➢ Unique ecosystem: Includes dry thorn forests, scrub savannas, and sacred groves
➢ Rich biodiversity: Diverse flora (over 1,500 species) and fauna (including tigers, sloth bears, and
endemic butterflies)
➢ Cultural significance: Home to several tribal communities and sacred sites
Karnataka National Parks:
Anshi National Park:
❖ Location: Uttara Kannada District, Western Ghats
❖ Area: 339.86 sq km
 3

❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Kali River: Forms the northern boundary, vital for wildlife and local communities
➢ Ankola River: Flows through the park, supporting diverse ecosystems
➢ Sharavathi River: Tributary of Kali River, adds to the park's water resources
❖ Significance:
➢ Part of Kali Tiger Reserve, crucial habitat for tigers and diverse fauna (elephants, gaurs, hornbills)
➢ Rich flora (over 1,200 species)
➢ Home to indigenous communities
Kudremukh National Park:
❖ Location: Western Ghats, Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, and Chikmagalur districts
❖ Area: 660 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Tunga River: Originates in the park, vital for irrigation and hydroelectricity
➢ Bhadra River: Rises within the park, important for agriculture and domestic needs
➢ Netravathi River: Source lies partially within the park, supports diverse ecosystems
❖ Significance:
➢ Globally recognized biodiversity hotspot (Western Ghats)
➢ Rich flora (over 2,500 species) and fauna (tigers, elephants, gaur, hornbills)
➢ Source of major rivers, crucial for water resources and ecosystems
Nagarhole National Park (Nagarhole National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary):
❖ Location: Nilgiri Hills, Mysore and Kodagu districts
❖ Area: 981 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Kabini River: Flows through the park, supports diverse wildlife and local communities
➢ Moyar River: Tributary of the Kabini, important for wildlife habitat and irrigation
➢ Nugu River: Smaller tributary, adds to the park's water resources
❖ Significance:
➢ Project Tiger Reserve, critical habitat for tigers and other threatened species
➢ Diverse flora (over 1,000 species) and fauna (elephants, dholes, langurs, various birds)
➢ Part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Bandipur National Park:
❖ Location: Nilgiri Hills, Chamarajanagar and Mysore districts
❖ Area: 874 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Kabini River: Forms the park's southern boundary, supports wildlife and local communities
 4

➢ Moyar River: Flows through the park, part of Kabini River system
➢ Gundal River: Minor tributary, vital for wildlife habitat and local use
❖ Significance:
➢ Project Tiger Reserve, vital habitat for tigers and other threatened species
➢ Diverse flora (over 1,200 species) and fauna (elephants, gaur, dholes, birds)
➢ Part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Bannerghatta National Park:
❖ Location: Southern Deccan Plateau, Bangalore Urban and Ramanagara districts
❖ Area: 104 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Arkavathy River: Flows through the park, crucial for wildlife and local communities
➢ Vrishabhavathi River: Tributary of the Arkavathy, adds to the park's water resources
➢ Kumudvati River: Minor tributary, important for local water needs
❖ Significance:
➢ Close proximity to Bengaluru, offering urban population access to nature
➢ Diverse flora (over 1,200 species) and fauna (tigers, leopards, sloth bears, birds)
➢ Unique conservation and education initiatives
Kerala National Parks:
Periyar National Park:
❖ Location: Western Ghats, Idukki and Pathanamthitta districts
❖ Area: 925 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Periyar River: Flows through the park, forming Periyar Lake, critical for wildlife and tourism
➢ Muthirapuzha River: Tributary of Periyar, vital for maintaining water levels in the lake
➢ Mullayar River: Smaller tributary, adds to the park's water resources
❖ Significance:
➢ Project Tiger Reserve, protecting endangered tigers and diverse fauna (elephants, gaurs, sambar)
➢ Rich flora (over 2,700 species)
➢ Home to unique tribal communities
➢ Popular for boat safaris and wildlife viewing
Eravikulam National Park:
❖ Location: Western Ghats, Idukki and Ernakulam districts
❖ Area: 97 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Numerous streams and tributaries: Feed the Periyar and Cauvery rivers, crucial for the park's ecosystem
 5

❖ Significance:
➢ Home to the endangered Nilgiri Tahr, a mountain goat
➢ Diverse flora (over 1,000 species) and fauna (elephants, gaurs, Nilgiri Langurs)
➢ Scenic rolling grasslands and shola forests
➢ Famous for the rare Neelakurinji flower that blooms every 12 years
Silent Valley National Park:
❖ Location: Western Ghats, Palakkad district
❖ Area: 89.52 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Kuntipuzha River: Flows through the park, vital for its ecosystem and downstream communities
➢ Numerous smaller streams and tributaries
❖ Significance:
➢ Globally recognized biodiversity hotspot
➢ Rich evergreen rainforest ecosystem (over 2,400 plant species)
➢ Diverse fauna (endangered lion-tailed macaque, elephants, leopards)
➢ Preserved due to public activism against a hydroelectric project
Mathikettan Shola National Park:
❖ Location: Western Ghats, Idukki district
❖ Area: 7.61 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Numerous small streams and tributaries: Contribute to the Periyar River system
❖ Significance:
➢ Small but diverse shola forest ecosystem
➢ Rich flora (over 1,000 species) and fauna (Nilgiri Tahr, elephants, birds)
➢ Less crowded than larger parks, offering a tranquil experience
Anamudi Shola National Park:
❖ Location: Western Ghats, Idukki district
❖ Area: 7.5 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Numerous small streams and tributaries: Contribute to the Periyar River system
❖ Significance:
➢ Shola forest ecosystem dominated by evergreen trees
➢ Diverse flora (over 500 species) and fauna (Nilgiri Tahr, elephants, birds)
➢ Part of the larger Munnar Wildlife Division
Pambadum Shola National Park:
❖ Location: Western Ghats, Idukki district
 6

❖ Area: 33.29 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Pambadum River: Flows through the park, tributary of the Periyar River
➢ Other small streams and tributaries
❖ Significance:
➢ Montane evergreen shola forest ecosystem
➢ Rich flora (over 1,000 species) and fauna (Nilgiri Tahr, elephants, birds)
➢ Part of the larger Munnar Wildlife Division
Red Panda:

Characteristics:
❖ Seclusive by nature: Shy and preferring solitude, red pandas lead arboreal lives, spending most of their
time amongst the trees.
❖ Ecological barometer: Their presence and health serve as an indicator of the overall health of their
environment, making them critical for conservation efforts.
❖ Bamboo specialists: Their primary diet consists of bamboo leaves, supplemented by fruits, insects, and
other vegetation. To aid efficient feeding and climbing, they possess an extra "thumb" – actually a modified
wrist bone – offering increased dexterity.
❖ Winter-ready: Their long, bushy tails serve multiple purposes. They act as a counterbalance when
navigating branches, and during harsh winters, they wrap their tails around themselves for warmth and
insulation.
Habitat:
❖ Eastern Himalayan haven: Nearly half of the global red panda population resides in the Eastern
Himalayas, spanning Bhutan, Nepal, India, China, and Myanmar.
❖ Indian havens: Within India, these fascinating creatures can be found in Sikkim (where they hold the status
of the state animal), Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal, and Meghalaya.
❖ Subspecies diversity: India is home to both recognized subspecies – the Himalayan red panda (Ailurus
fulgens) and the Chinese red panda (Ailurus styani).
 7

Threats:
❖ Habitat woes: The primary threat to red pandas is habitat loss and degradation. Logging, agricultural
expansion, and infrastructure development are significantly impacting their forest homes.
❖ Human interference: Direct interactions with humans, including livestock grazing, competition for
resources, and accidental capture in traps intended for other animals, further endanger their populations.
❖ Poaching: Sadly, red pandas are sometimes poached for their fur, despite international protection.

Biotic Interaction:
❖ It is the interaction of different organisms in the community influencing each other.
❖ They can be intraspecific (between members of the same species) or interspecific (between members of
different species).
❖ When at least one of the interactants is harmed, the relationship is called an antagonism.
S.No. Type Species 1 Species 2 Outcome for Species 1 Outcome for Species 2
1 Mutualism (+) (+) Benefits Benefits
2 Commensalism (+) (0) Benefits Neutral
3 Amensalism (-) (0) Harmed Neutral
4 Competition (--) (--) Harmed Harmed
5 Predation (+) (-) Benefits Harmed
6 Parasitism (--) (+) Harmed Benefits
Types of Biotic Interaction:
❖ Mutualism: This is a close association between two species in which both species benefit. For Example:
Lichen (Algae and Fungi)
➢ Symbiosis:
✓ Symbiosis is a type of biotic interaction in
which two or more different species live in
close association with each other.
✓ The term "symbiosis" was coined by Anton
de Bary in 1879 and is derived from the
Greek words "syn" (together) and "biosis"
(living).
✓ Symbiosis can take many different forms,
and not all symbiotic relationships are
mutualistic.
✓ Some symbiotic relationships are parasitic, in which one species benefits at the expense of the other,
while others are commensal, in which one species benefits without affecting the other.
❖ Proto-cooperation: Proto-cooperation is a type of interaction between two species that is not yet fully
mutualistic but represents the early stages of mutualism.
 8

➢ In proto-cooperation, two or more species interact in a way that benefits both, but the relationship is not
yet fully dependent on each other.
➢ Over time, the relationship may evolve into a more symbiotic and mutualistic one.
➢ In it, interaction is temporary. Once, the interacting organisms get the advantage, they separate.
➢ Survival is not an issue.
➢ Example: Plants and pollinators.
➢ The pollinators may feed on the nectar of the plants, but they also inadvertently transfer pollen from one
plant to another, benefiting the plants' reproductive success.
❖ Amensalism: This is the ecological interaction in which an individual species harm another without obtaining
benefit. In anmensalism, the species that is negatively affected is often referred to as the "victim" species.
The negative effect can occur in several ways, such as through the release of chemicals or other substances
that are toxic or inhibitory to the victim species, or through physical interference with the victim's ability to
access resources. Example: A large tree shades a small plant, retarding the growth of the small plant. The
small plant has no effect on the large tree.
❖ Commensalism: In this relationship,
one of the species benefits while the
other is neither harmed nor benefited.
For Example, Suckerfish attached to
shark bodies, Cow dung, and dung
beetles.
❖ Neutralism: Two in the association are
neither benefited nor harmed by each
other. For Example, Rabbits and Deer
live together.
❖ Competition: This is an interaction
between two populations in which both species are harmed to some extent. Example: Lions and hyenas in
African savannas compete for food resources.
➢ Interspecific competition is a type of interaction in which two or more species compete for a limited
resource, such as food, water, or habitat. This competition occurs between different species that share the
same resource requirements. For example, lions and hyenas may compete for access to prey species, or
two species of trees may compete for sunlight and nutrients
➢ Intraspecific competition, on the other hand, is a type of interaction in which individuals of the same
species compete for resources. This competition occurs within a species, and it can be intense, especially
when resources are scarce. For example, plants may compete for water and nutrients in the soil, or animals
may compete for mates or nesting sites.
❖ Parasitism: In this type of interaction, one species is harmed, and the other benefits. Example: The malaria
parasite (Plasmodium) harms humans by causing the disease while benefiting from the host's resources.
➢ It is a kind of harmful interaction between two species, wherein one species is the 'parasite' and the other
its 'host'.
 9

➢ The parasite benefits at the expense of the host.

➢ A parasite derives shelter, food and protection from the host.
➢ Parasites exhibit adaptations to exploit their hosts.
➢ The parasites may be:
✓ viral parasites (plant/ animal viruses),
✓ microbial parasites (e.g., bacteria / protozoa / fungi),
✓ phyto parasites (plant parasites)
✓ zooparasites (animal parasites such as Platyhelminthes,
nematodes, arthi pods).
➢ Parasites may inhibit or attach to the surface of the host (Ectoparasites - Head lice, Leech) or live
within the body of the host (endoparasites tapeworm).
❖ Predation: It is a form of interaction, where one animal kills
another animal for food. Specialized predators are those adapted to
hunt only a few specific species.Lion and deer exhibit predator -
prey relationship, where the Lion is the predator and the deer is the
prey.This type of interaction helps in the transfer of energy up the
trophic levels and is an essential strategy in population regulation.
Examples of Biotic Interactions
1. Mutualism:
➢ Example: Ants and aphids
➢ Explanation: Ants act as "farmers" for aphids, protecting them from predators and moving them to fresh
food sources. In return, aphids secrete a sugary substance called honeydew that the ants feed on. Both
species benefit from this interaction.
➢ Example: Pollination
➢ Explanation: Bees, butterflies, and other insects feed on nectar and pollen from flowers. As they move
between flowers, they unintentionally transfer pollen, enabling plant reproduction. Both plants and
pollinators benefit from this interaction.
2. Symbiosis:
➢ Example: Mycorrhizae
➢ Explanation: Mycorrhizae are fungi that form a symbiotic relationship with plant roots. The fungi help
plants absorb nutrients from the soil more efficiently, while the plants provide the fungi with
carbohydrates produced through photosynthesis. Both partners benefit from this interaction.
➢ Example: Coral and zooxanthellae
➢ Explanation: Coral reefs are formed by coral polyps and tiny algae called zooxanthellae. The algae live
within the coral tissues and provide them with food through photosynthesis. The coral, in turn, provides
the algae with a protective environment and access to sunlight. Both organisms benefit from this
symbiosis.
 10

3. Proto-Cooperation:
➢ Example: Lions and hyenas
➢ Explanation: While often competitors, lions and hyenas might sometimes cooperate to steal prey from
another predator. This cooperation allows both species to share the food source and benefit from it,
although they might not form a lasting partnership.
➢ Example: Birds and grazing animals
➢ Explanation: Some birds follow grazing animals like cattle or bison, feeding on insects disturbed by their
movement. This benefits both the birds by providing food and the animals by removing potentially
harmful insects. However, their association is not necessarily an obligate interaction and could change
depending on circumstances.
4. Parasitism:
➢ Example: Ticks and mammals
➢ Explanation: Ticks are blood-sucking parasites that attach themselves to mammals and feed on their
blood. The host suffers from blood loss and potential disease transmission, while the tick benefits from
the nourishment.
➢ Example: Dodder and plants
➢ Explanation: Dodder is a parasitic plant that attaches itself to other plants, stealing nutrients and water.
The host plant is harmed by the loss of resources and potential tissue damage, while the dodder benefits
from the stolen resources.
5. Commensalism:
➢ Example: Barnacles and whales
➢ Explanation: Barnacles attach themselves to whales, benefiting from the whale's movement, which helps
them capture food particles. The whale is not significantly affected by the presence of barnacles.
➢ Example: Epiphytes and trees
➢ Explanation: Epiphytes are plants that grow on other plants, like trees. They benefit from the structure
of the tree for support and access to sunlight, while the tree is not significantly affected by their presence.
6. Amensalism:
➢ Example: Black walnut trees and other plants
➢ Explanation: Black walnut trees release juglone, a chemical that inhibits the growth of other plants
nearby. This allelopathic interaction harms nearby plants while benefiting the walnut tree by reducing
competition.
➢ Example: Antibiotic-producing bacteria and non-producing bacteria
➢ Explanation: Some bacteria produce antibiotics that suppress the growth of other bacteria in the same
environment. This one-sided inhibition benefits the antibiotic-producing bacteria while harming the non-
producing ones.
7. Competition:
➢ Example: Lions and hyenas
 11

➢ Explanation: Both lions and hyenas compete for the same food resources in their habitat. This
competition can be fierce, as each species tries to outcompete the other for survival and reproduction.
➢ Example: Trees in a forest
➢ Explanation: Trees in a forest compete for essential resources like light, water, and nutrients. This
competition can influence their growth, shape, and survival within the ecosystem.
8. Allelopathy:
➢ Allelopathy is a biological
process where an organism
produces biochemicals that affect
the growth, survival, and
reproduction of other organisms.
These biochemicals are known as
allelochemicals and can have
beneficial or harmful effects on
the target organisms and the
community.
➢ Allelopathy can be direct or
indirect and can have beneficial
or adverse effects. It has great
potential to be used as an effective
and environmentally friendly tool
for weed management in field crops.
➢ An example of an allelopathic phenolic is juglone, which is produced by walnuts.
➢ Sunflowers: Sunflowers release chemicals called (allelochemicals, which can inhibit the growth of other
plants growing nearby. This chemical effect can help sunflowers outcompete other plants for resources.
➢ Eucalyptus trees: Eucalyptus trees release allelochemicals that inhibit the growth of many other plant
species. This effect can help eucalyptus trees outcompete other plants in their environment
#Q. Consider the following statements: (2019)
1. Some species of turtles are herbivores.
2. Some species of fish are herbivores.
3. Some species of marine mammals are herbivores.
4. Some species of snakes are viviparous.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
 12

#Q. Which one of the following is the process involved in photosynthesis? (2014)
(a) Potential energy is released to form free energy
(b) Free energy is converted into potential energy and stored
(c) Food is oxidized to release carbon dioxide and water
(d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide and water vapour are given out
#Q. On the planet earth, most of the freshwater exists as ice caps and glaciers. Out of the remaining freshwater,
the largest proportion (2013)
(a) is found in atmosphere as moisture and clouds
(b) is found in freshwater lakes and rivers
(c) exists as groundwater
(d) exists as soil moisture

Productivity of the Ecosystem:

❖ It is the rate of formation of biomass (Dry mass) or the rate at which Biomass increases per unit area per
unit of time or the rate at which energy is accumulated by Green plants in the form of organic substance
(Biomass or chemical energy).
❖ The unit of productivity of the ecosystem is Kcal/ m2/year (Energy per unit volume per unit time)
Types of Productivity of Ecosystem:
❖ Primary Productivity:
➢ It is in the productivity of autotrophs or producers or green plants or the first trophic level.
➢ It is an outcome of photosynthesis in an ecosystem.
➢ Carbon dioxide (CO2) and a water molecule (H2O) in the presence of sunlight form a complex energy-
rich molecule, which is known as Glucose (C6H12O2).
❖ Gross Primary Productivity (GPP):
➢ Gross primary production: It refers to the total amount of solar energy fixed into organic matter by
primary producers through photosynthesis.
➢ Gross Primary Productivity: The total energy accumulated in the plant during primary productivity is
known as Gross Primary Productivity.
➢ A considerable portion of the solar energy fixed by plants (GPP) is utilized by plants in respiration
(R) to get the energy needed for their metabolism and other vital functions.
➢ Net Primary Productivity (NPP): The amount of energy left after being consumed in respiration (R) is
used for growth or producing new individuals i.e. reproduction. This is known as Net Primary
Productivity (NPP).

GPP – R = NPP
or
GPP = NPP + R
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❖ Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

➢ It is the amount of biomass available for herbivores or primary consumers or secondary trophic
levels.
➢ It is energy or biomass stored in producers or plants.
➢ The energy remaining after respiration is stored as organic matter and is called net primary
productivity (NPP).
➢ The amount of biomass or organic matter accumulated by plants per unit area in a given period is called
Net primary production.
➢ The overall relationship between GPP and NPP can be written as NPP = GPP - R, where R is the energy
used up in respiration, and GPP is the gross primary productivity.
❖ Secondary Productivity of Ecosystem:
➢ This applies to consumers of the ecosystem (food chain).
➢ Secondary Production: The production of biomass, growth, or addition of new individuals is referred to
as secondary production.
➢ Secondary productivity is the rate of formation of new organic matter by heterotrophs.
➢ The amount of energy stored in tissues of primary consumers and available to carnivores.
➢ The rate of biomass production by consumers in an ecosystem.
Ecosystem Net primary production – dry (9 m–2year–1) Area (106km)
Tropical forest 2,000 20
Temperate forest 1,300 18
Boreal forest 800 12
Savannah 700 15
Temperate grassland 500 9
Tundra & alpine 140 8
Desert scrub 70 18
Extreme desert (sand/rock/ice) 3 24
Agricultural land 650 14
Open ocean 125 332
Continental shelf 350 27
Coral reef & estuaries 2,000 2
Overall for planet earth 320 510

Ecosystem Average NPP

Swamps and Marshes 2000
Streams and Lakes 500
 14

Scrub Forest 600

Total Terrestrial Ecosystem 730
Total Marine ecosystem 155
Ecotone areas Generally higher

ECOSYSTEM COLLAPSE:
❖ It refers to the phenomenon when an ecosystem rapidly loses its structure and function, with dramatic changes
to their size or extent, or the species that
comprise them.
❖ These losses tend to homogenise and
simplify the ecosystem, fewer species, fewer
habitats and fewer connections between the
two.
❖ It can lead to catastrophic declines of carrying capacity and mass extinction, and can also pose existential risk
to human populations.
Factors Affecting the Productivity of the Ecosystem:
❖ Sunlight (the most important factor).
 15

❖ Water
❖ Carbon dioxide
❖ Mineral nutrition
❖ Temperature
❖ Biotic activities like grazing, predation, parasitism, etc.
❖ Impact on the human population.
Classification of Ecosystem-based on Productivity:

Classification of Ecosystem on the basis of Productivity

High Productivity Intermediate Productivity Low Productivity

1. Grassland 1. Snow covered

1. Tropical Forest
2. Shallow Lake wasteland
2. Temperate Forest
3. Farmland 2. Desert
3. Intensive Farming
3. Deep sea ocean

Homeostasis in Ecosystems:
Ecosystems and their Balance:
❖ Biological equilibrium: Ecosystems maintain a balance between different components like plants, animals,
and microorganisms. This balance is critical for the overall health and survival of the ecosystem.
❖ Dynamic change: Despite this balance, ecosystems are not static. They constantly adapt and change in
response to internal and external factors like climate, resource availability, and human activity.
Feedback Systems:
❖ Regulation and checks: Each element in an ecosystem plays a role in regulating the population of others. This
creates a network of feedback loops.
➢ Negative feedback: When one component increases, another component reacts to decrease it,
maintaining a stable equilibrium.
➢ Positive feedback: When one component increases, it further stimulates its own increase, potentially
leading to instability or collapse.
Equilibrium and Gaia Hypothesis:
❖ Dynamic equilibrium: This refers to a state where continuous change occurs within the ecosystem, but overall
conditions remain stable.
❖ Gaia Hypothesis: Proposed by James Lovelock, this theory suggests that Earth and its biological systems act
as a single, self-regulating entity. Living organisms interact with the environment to maintain conditions
suitable for life through negative feedback loops.
 16

❖ Misinterpretation: It's
important to understand
that the Gaia Hypothesis
doesn't imply zero human
impact. Human activities
like pollution and
resource overuse can
disrupt the Earth's natural
balance, leading to
climate change and other
environmental issues.
Cybernetics and Homeostasis:
❖ Norbert Wiener's concept: This
refers to the study of self-regulating
systems. Analogous to a thermostat
controlling room temperature,
ecosystems utilize feedback
mechanisms to maintain stability.
❖ Inspiration for ecology: A.G.
Tansley, an ecologist, drew upon
cybernetics and the Gaia Hypothesis
to introduce the concept of homeostasis in ecology in 1935.
Examples of Homeostasis:
❖ Predator-prey relationship: An increase in the prey population leads to an increase in predators, which then
reduces the prey population, creating a dynamic equilibrium.
❖ Grassland ecosystem: When deer populations rise, they consume grass, limiting its growth. This reduces the
deer's food source, leading to their decline and allowing grass to flourish again.
Key Points:
❖ Homeostasis is a crucial concept in understanding ecosystem stability.
❖ It involves complex interactions between different components and feedback mechanisms.
❖ Human activities can disrupt this balance, leading to environmental problems.
❖ Understanding and respecting these natural processes are crucial for sustainable practices and ecosystem
conservation.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 10
Ecology & Ecosystem Part III
 2

Ecology & Ecosystem Part III

Tamil Nadu National Parks:

Guindy National Park:
❖ Location: Chennai metropolitan area
❖ Area: 2.82 sq km (smallest national park in India)
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Adyar River: Flows near the park's boundary, vital for local communities
➢ Cooum River: Located further away, still contributes to the Chennai region's water resources
❖ Significance:
➢ Urban national park offering escape for city dwellers
➢ Rich biodiversity despite small size (over 400 plant species, 150 bird species)
➢ Educational and research opportunities
❖ Important Species: Blackbucks, spotted deer, sambar deer, four-horned antelope, pangolins, various
reptiles, avifauna (over 130 species)
❖ Significance: Urban wildlife haven, biodiversity conservation, educational value for urban population
Mudumalai National Park:
❖ Location: Nilgiri Hills, Nilgiri and Coimbatore districts
❖ Area: 322.33 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Moyar River: Flows through the park, crucial for wildlife and local communities
➢ Bhavani River: Tributary of the Moyar, important for irrigation and hydropower
➢ Kundah River: Smaller tributary, adds to the park's water resources
❖ Significance:
➢ Part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
➢ Project Tiger Reserve protecting diverse fauna (tigers, elephants, gaurs)
➢ Rich flora (over 2,500 species)
❖ Tribes: Paniya, Kota, Irula
❖ Important Species: Tigers, elephants, gaurs, dholes, langurs, king cobras, hornbills, diverse avifauna
❖ Significance: Project Tiger Reserve, rich biodiversity, tribal communities, wildlife safaris
Indira Gandhi National Park (Anamalai Tiger Reserve):
❖ Location: Western Ghats, Coimbatore district
❖ Area: 988.6 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Aliyar River: Flows through the park, vital for wildlife and irrigation
➢ Valparai River: Tributary of the Aliyar, contributes to the park's water resources
 3

➢ Pamba River: Smaller tributary, supports diverse ecosystems

❖ Significance:
➢ Project Tiger Reserve protecting endangered species (tigers, elephants, dholes)
➢ Diverse flora (over 2,400 species) and fauna
➢ Home to indigenous communities
❖ Tribes: Malayali Gounder, Paliyar, Kadar
❖ Important Species: Tigers, elephants, gaurs, Nilgiri tahr, dholes, lion-tailed macaques, grizzled giant
squirrels, hornbills, diverse avifauna
❖ Significance: Project Tiger Reserve, globally recognized biodiversity hotspot, rich tribal heritage, diverse
landscapes
Mukurthi National Park:
❖ Location: Nilgiri Hills, Nilgiri and Theni districts
❖ Area: 560 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Thambraparani River: Originates in the park, vital for agriculture and local communities
➢ Kallar River: Major tributary of the Thambraparani, originates within the park
➢ Suruli River: Smaller tributary, adds to the park's water resources
❖ Significance:
➢ Home to the highest peak in South India (Mukurthi peak)
➢ Diverse shola forests and grasslands
➢ Important habitat for endangered species (Nilgiri tahr, grizzled giant squirrel)
❖ Important Species: Nilgiri tahr (endemic mountain goat), Nilgiri langurs, grizzled giant squirrels, avifauna
(threatened shola skythroat bird)
❖ Significance: Protects unique shola grassland ecosystem, important habitat for Nilgiri tahr, conservation
efforts for threatened species
Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park:
❖ Location: Gulf of Mannar, southeast coast of Tamil Nadu
❖ Area: 520 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Not directly dependent on specific rivers; influenced by freshwater inputs from mainland
➢ Marine currents play a crucial role in nutrient exchange and ecosystem health
❖ Significance:
➢ First marine national park in India
➢ Diverse marine life (coral reefs, seagrasses, dolphins, dugongs)
➢ Important breeding ground for marine turtles
❖ Important Species: Dolphins, dugongs, sea turtles, coral reefs, marine plants, diverse fish species
 4

❖ Significance: Protects marine biodiversity, important breeding ground for sea turtles, livelihood source for
coastal communities
Telangana National Parks:
Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park (KBR Park):
❖ Location: Jubilee Hills and Banjara Hills, Hyderabad
❖ Area: 3.42 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers: Not applicable due to small size and urban location
❖ Tribes: Not applicable due to urban location
❖ Important Species: Spotted deer, sambar deer, blackbuck, four-horned antelope, peacocks, reptiles,
avifauna (over 150 species)
❖ Significance: Urban wildlife sanctuary, biodiversity conservation, recreational space for Hyderabad
residents
Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park:
❖ Location: Vanasthalipuram, Hyderabad
❖ Area: 3.9 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers: Not applicable due to small size and urban location
❖ Tribes: Not applicable due to urban location
❖ Important Species: Blackbuck, spotted deer, sambar deer, nilgai, chital, peacocks, reptiles, avifauna
❖ Significance: Urban wildlife sanctuary, conservation breeding programs for blackbucks, educational value
Mrugavani National Park:
❖ Location: Chilkur village, Moinabad mandal
❖ Area: 88.62 sq km
❖ Associated Rivers:
➢ Musi River: Major tributary of Krishna River, flows near the park
➢ Chilkur Balaji Lake: Important water source for the park and locals
❖ Tribes: None residing currently
❖ Important Species: Spotted deer, sambar deer, blackbuck, sloth bear, leopards, pangolins, reptiles, avifauna
(over 200 species)
❖ Significance: Diverse habitat types (forests, grasslands, wetlands), unique rock formations, conservation
initiatives for threatened species

Principles of Ecology:
Introduction:
❖ Individuals within a species, in their natural environment, engage in various activities: reproduction,
metabolism, and resource acquisition. These activities ensure their survival and optimize their performance
(autoecology).
Adaptation to the Environment:
❖ Individuals adapt to their environment in two ways:
 5

1. Acclimatization: Temporary physiological adjustment to immediate environmental changes (e.g.,

increased breathing at high altitudes).
2. Adaptation: Long-term, evolutionary changes in physiology, morphology, or behavior that improve
survival and reproduction in a specific environment.
Adaptation:
In ecology, adaptation refers to any morphological, physiological, or behavioral trait that enables an organism
to survive and reproduce in a specific environment. These adaptations arise over generations through the process
of natural selection, where individuals with more beneficial traits leave behind more offspring. Adaptations can be
categorized into three main types:
1. Morphological Adaptations:
➢ Example: In response to the need to access high foliage, the giraffe's neck elongated over time, allowing
it to reach leaves unavailable to other herbivores. This physical change is a morphological adaptation.
➢ Other Examples: Cactus spines for reduced water loss, thicker fur in cold climates, and webbed feet for
aquatic animals are all morphological adaptations.
2. Physiological Adaptations:
➢ Example: In harsh desert environments, kangaroo rats have developed the ability to meet their water
needs entirely through internal fat metabolism, minimizing water loss. This metabolic process is a
physiological adaptation.
➢ Other Examples: Hibernation in bears, tolerance to salt water in marine animals, and echolocation in
bats are all physiological adaptations.
3. Behavioral Adaptations:
➢ Example: During harsh seasons, some bird species undertake long-distance migrations to areas with
more favorable conditions. This movement behavior is an adaptation to ensure survival and reproduction.
➢ Other Examples: Camouflage for predator/prey interactions, social behavior for group defense, and
seasonal food foraging strategies are all behavioral adaptations.
Additional Concepts:
❖ Examples of Adaptations in Different Environments:
➢ Desert Plants: Thick cuticles, sunken stomata, and spines minimize water loss through transpiration.
➢ Cold-Climate Mammals: Shorter ears and limbs reduce heat loss (Allen's Rule). Elephants use large ears
for heat dissipation.
➢ Extreme Environments: Hyperthermophiles like Archaebacteria thrive in hot springs and deep-sea vents
due to adaptations in their cellular membranes.
❖ Archaebacteria vs. Other Bacteria:
➢ While all belong to the Kingdom Monera, Archaebacteria are distinguished by their ability to survive in
extreme environments like high temperatures, salt, and acidity. Their unique cellular membranes
contribute to this resilience.
 6

Law of Limiting Factors:

❖ Not all environmental factors influence adaptation equally. The Law of Limiting Factors states that the factor
closest to its minimum or maximum tolerance level will most significantly limit an organism's survival and
growth.
❖ For example, water availability might be the limiting factor for desert plants, leading to adaptations like
reduced leaf surface area and spines.
Adaptation in Different Environments:
❖ The level of adaptation required by an organism depends on the variability and harshness of its environment.
❖ Higher seasonal variation generally leads to a greater need for behavioral adaptations.
❖ In stable environments like the equatorial region, organisms may require less adaptation. However, even in
such regions, factors like rainfall and sunlight can still act as limiting factors, leading to specific adaptations.
Comparison of Climatic Regions:
❖ Compared to equatorial regions, tundra regions experience more extreme temperature fluctuations, requiring
significant adaptations for survival.
❖ Grasslands also have seasonal variations, but generally less extreme than tundras, leading to moderate
adaptation needs.
❖ Monsoonal regions experience distinct wet and dry seasons, requiring adaptations for both periods.
Difference between Hibernation and Aestivation:
Hibernation Aestivation
Hibernation is the type of winter sleep, performed by Aestivation is the type of summer sleep, performed by
the warm and cold-blooded animals. cold-blooded animals.
It is for the whole winter. It is of short duration.
the animals look out for the warmer place, metabolic Aestivation is a summer sleep, so animals search for
activities slow down, and it is the dormant stage. the moist, shady and cool place to sleep, place,
metabolic activities are not slow.
Bats, birds, mammals, insects, etc. Bees, snails, earthworms, salamanders, frogs,
earthworms, crocodiles, tortoise, etc.
Hibernation helps in maintaining the body temperature Aestivation also helps in maintaining the body
and thus avoids from any internal body damage due to temperature by avoiding the excessive water loss and
low temperatures. any internal body damaged due to high temperatures.

Feature Hibernation Aestivation

Season Winter Summer
Temperature Cold Hot
Animal Type Warm-blooded and cold-blooded Cold-blooded
Duration Longer Shorter
Place Warm place Moist, shady, and cool place
 7

Metabolic Rate Slow Not as slow as hibernation

Activity Level Very low Low
Body Temperature Lowered Maintained
Purpose Conserve energy during food scarcity Conserve water during drought
Examples Bears, bats, snakes Snails, earthworms, lungfish
Morphological Adaptations in Animals:
❖ Morphological adaptations involve changes in an animal's external appearance to better suit its environment.
These changes are often guided by the Law of Limiting Factors, which states that the factor closest to its
minimum or maximum tolerance level for an organism will most significantly limit its survival and success.
Two notable examples of morphological adaptations are Allen's Rule and Gloger's Rule.
Allen's Rule:
❖ This rule proposes that mammals in colder climates tend to have shorter extremities (limbs, ears, tails)
compared to those in warmer climates. This reduces the surface area-to-volume ratio, minimizing heat loss in
colder environments.
❖ Examples:
➢ Polar bears have shorter ears and tails compared to tropical lions.
➢ Arctic foxes have smaller ears and shorter legs than red foxes found in temperate regions.
❖ Exceptions: This rule is not universally applicable. Some cold-adapted animals, like penguins, have flippers
to aid in movement, negating the benefit of reduced surface area. People in the equatorial region often have
larger body sizes despite Allen's Rule, though their body proportions may still follow the principle of
minimizing heat loss.
Gloger's Rule:
❖ This rule suggests that animals in warmer and more humid climates tend to have darker pigmentation
compared to those in cooler and drier regions. This darker coloration is thought to aid in:
➢ Heat absorption: Darker fur absorbs more sunlight, potentially aiding in thermoregulation in warm
environments.
➢ Camouflage: Darker colors may provide better camouflage in dense forests or shaded areas.
❖ Examples:
➢ African lions are typically darker than lions found in colder regions like Eurasia.
➢ Some desert mammals, like the fennec fox, have pale fur for camouflage and heat reflection.
❖ Exceptions: This rule also has exceptions. Polar bears, despite their cold habitat, have white fur for camouflage
in snowy environments. Additionally, not all darker coloration is solely due to melanin, which is the pigment
Gloger's Rule typically refers to.
Additional Points:
❖ Both Allen's and Gloger's Rules are general principles and may not apply to all species or situations.
❖ Other factors, such as predation pressure and food availability, can also influence an animal's morphology.
❖ Understanding these rules helps us appreciate the intricate relationship between animals and their
environments and how they have adapted to survive and thrive in different conditions.
 8

Adaptation and Evolution:

Physiological Adaptations: The Power of Acclimatization
❖ Definition: Acclimatization refers to the short-term adjustments occurring within an organism's physiology to
cope with minor environmental changes.
❖ Example: Humans at high altitudes experience decreased oxygen availability. Over a few days, their bodies
adapt through mechanisms like:
➢ Increased red blood cell production: Enhances oxygen transport capacity.
➢ Decreased hemoglobin-oxygen binding affinity: Facilitates easier release of oxygen into tissues.
➢ Elevated breathing rate: Increases oxygen intake.
❖ Importance: Acclimatization allows organisms to adjust rapidly to temporary environmental challenges
without relying on long-term evolutionary changes.
Behavioral Adaptations: Navigating the Environment Through Action
❖ Desert Lizards: Lacking complex thermoregulatory mechanisms like mammals, desert lizards exhibit these
behavioral adaptations:
➢ Basking in the sun: Absorbs heat to maintain body temperature when it drops.
➢ Seeking shade: Avoids overheating during extreme ambient temperatures.
➢ Burrowing: Escapes the surface heat by seeking cooler temperatures underground.
❖ Significance: Behavioral adaptations enable organisms to actively respond to environmental fluctuations,
enhancing their survival and fitness.
Variation: The Engine of Adaptation and Speciation
❖ Sources of Variation: Genetic diversity arises from various factors:
➢ Mutations: Random changes in DNA that introduce novel genetic material.
➢ Geographical barriers: Isolation of populations leading to divergent gene pools.
➢ Genetic recombination: Sexual reproduction shuffles and combines existing genes, generating new
combinations.
❖ Human Variation: This diversity manifests in various traits like:
➢ Skin color: Adapts to sun exposure and vitamin D production.
➢ Hair type: Influences heat regulation and protection.
➢ Eye color: May relate to light sensitivity and camouflage.
➢ Blood type: Associated with disease susceptibility and immune function.
❖ Adaptive Radiation: When environments offer diverse niches, ancestral species diversify into distinct forms:
➢ Example: Darwin's finches on the Galapagos Islands, each adapted to exploit specific food sources.
Speciation: The Birth of New Species
❖ Definition: Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new species arise from an ancestral species.
❖ Allopatric Speciation: Geographic barriers play a crucial role:
➢ Populations become isolated, preventing gene flow and interbreeding.
➢ Over time, genetic drift and natural selection lead to divergent adaptations in each population.
➢ Even if the barrier is removed, reproductive isolation may persist, resulting in distinct species.
 9

Genetic Variation: The Fuel for Change

❖ Mutations: Random changes in DNA introduce novel genetic material into populations. These can be:
➢ Base substitutions: Single nucleotide changes, sometimes leading to altered protein function.
➢ Insertions/deletions: Addition or removal of DNA segments, potentially affecting gene expression or
function.
➢ Chromosomal rearrangements: Restructuring of chromosomes, altering gene order and expression
patterns.
❖ Recombination: Sexual reproduction shuffles existing alleles, creating unique combinations in each offspring.
❖ Significance: Mutation and recombination generate genetic diversity, providing the raw material for evolution.
Natural Selection: Sculpting Populations for Survival
❖ Definition: Proposed by Darwin and Wallace, natural selection is the process by which individuals with
advantageous traits have higher reproductive success, passing those traits to their offspring.
❖ Mechanism:
➢ Organisms face various environmental pressures (predation, disease, resource scarcity).
➢ Individuals with traits better suited to these pressures survive and reproduce more effectively.
➢ The alleles responsible for these beneficial traits are transmitted to the next generation at a higher
frequency.
❖ Outcome: Over generations, populations gradually adapt to their environment, becoming better equipped for
survival and reproduction.
Evolution: The Grand Tapestry of Change
❖ Definition: Evolution is the gradual change in the characteristics of a population over time, leading to the
emergence of new species.
❖ Driver: Natural selection is the primary driver of evolution, but other processes like genetic drift can also
contribute.
❖ Evidence: Numerous lines of evidence, including fossil records, comparative anatomy, and molecular biology,
support the theory of evolution.
 10

❖ Implications: Evolution explains the diversity of life on Earth and continues to shape the living world,
including the emergence of new pathogens and antibiotic resistance.

Extinction: The End of a Lineage

❖ Causes: Environmental changes, competition, and human activities (Anthropogenic Extinction) are the
primary drivers of extinction.
❖ Mechanism: When environmental pressures outpace the ability of a species to adapt, its population declines
and eventually disappears.
❖ Current Threat: The 6th Mass Extinction, primarily driven by human activities, poses a significant threat to
biodiversity.
❖ Conservation Efforts: Understanding the mechanisms of extinction is crucial for implementing effective
conservation strategies.
Q. The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the
discussion of (2018)
A. Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate
use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.
B. Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65
million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs.
C. Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their
cultivation in other parts of the world which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and
the loss of food biodiversity.
D. Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction
of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change.
 11

Ecological Successions or Biotic Successions:

❖ The process by which communities of plant and animal species in an area are replaced or changed into
another community of plant or animal species over a period of time is known as ecological succession.
OR
❖ It is the process of development of the ecosystem through a series of directional changes.
❖ It occurs when a series of communities replace one another to large-scale destruction either natural or
manmade.
❖ Examples:

Dynamic Communities:
❖ Ecological communities are not static entities but undergo continuous changes in composition and structure in
response to evolving environmental conditions.
❖ This gradual and predictable transformation in the makeup of species within a specific area is known as
ecological succession.
Colonization and Replacement:
❖ During succession, certain species arrive and establish themselves, increasing their populations, while others
dwindle or even disappear entirely.
❖ This gradual shift in species composition, driven by interactions between organisms and their environment,
defines the process of succession.
 12

Equilibrium and Climax Community:

❖ The ultimate aim of succession is to reach a climax community, a stable and self-sustaining assemblage of
species in equilibrium with the prevailing environmental conditions.
❖ The entire sequence of communities that successively replace each other in a given area is termed a sere, with
each individual transitional community being referred to as a seral community.
Primary vs. Secondary Succession:
❖ Primary succession: Initiates in previously barren environments lacking any prior biotic community, such as
newly formed lava flows, bare rock, or newly created lakes.
❖ Secondary succession: Occurs in areas where existing communities have been disturbed or destroyed, like
abandoned farmlands, burnt forests, or flooded lands.
❖ Compared to primary succession, secondary succession usually proceeds faster due to the presence of pre-
existing soil and some remnants of the previous community.
Time Dependence and Disturbance:
❖ Primary succession is generally a slow process due to the initial lack of soil and limited resources. Soil
formation itself can take years depending on climatic factors.
❖ In contrast, secondary succession progresses more rapidly due to the presence of some soil and organic matter.
❖ However, natural or human-induced disturbances can disrupt an ongoing succession, potentially reverting a
particular seral stage to an earlier one.
Moisture-Dependent Paths:
❖ Succession in wet areas, known as hydrarch succession, progresses from aquatic or marshy conditions
(hydric) towards moderate water availability (mesic).
❖ Conversely, xerarch succession in dry areas starts with minimal water availability (xeric) and gradually
transitions towards mesic conditions.
❖ Regardless of the initial moisture state, both types of succession converge towards a similar climax community
characterized by moderate water conditions.
Process of Ecological Successions:
❖ It is a multi-step process.
❖ It is a unidirectional process.

Primary community → Intermediate community → Climax community

(It brings first life (It is the stable and most
form in the lifeless area.) suitable community.)
❖ The entire community sequence (at the intermediate level) in a given area is called Sere(s).

Types of Sere:
Name of Sere Area of succession
Hydrosere Aquatic areas
Xerosere Dry areas
 13

Lithosere Bare rock

Psammosere Sandy areas
Halosere Saline areas

Stages of Ecological Succession:

❖ There are five stages of Ecological Succession:
1. Nudation: It means the formation of the nude or bare area by flooding, erosion, landslide, volcano, etc.
2. Invasion: It means the arrival of different species.
3. Competition: It means the growth of species in limited
areas resulting in competition for food and space.
4. Reactions: It means the modification of the
environment due to the influence of organisms such as
changes in soil structure, PH, temperature, etc.
5. Stabilization: It means the arrival of the final stage or
climax community. It maintains the equilibrium of the
ecosystem.
❖ Types of Ecological Successions:
➢ There are two types of succession
(i) Primary succession
(ii) Secondary succession
Primary Succession Secondary Succession
❖ In this life starts in a lifeless area where the soil is ❖ It occurs when the primary ecosystem gets
absent or destroyed. destroyed (For example. fire).
❖ It is a slower process. ❖ Soil is present here.
❖ It is faster due to the presence of soil.
 14

Primary Succession:
Definition and Occurrence:
❖ Primary succession refers to the establishment of an ecological community in a previously barren environment,
lacking any prior community.
❖ Examples of suitable sites include rock outcrops, newly formed deltas, volcanic islands, and glacial moraines.
Pioneer Species: The Hardy Initiators:
❖ The first colonizers are often hardy microbes, lichens, and mosses, collectively known as pioneer species.
❖ These pioneers are adapted to harsh conditions like minimal soil and nutrient availability.
❖ Through their growth and decay, they contribute to soil formation by:
➢ Releasing organic acids that break down the substrate, releasing nutrients.
➢ Creating pockets and crevices for accumulating organic matter and seeds.
Community Development and Competition:
❖ As pioneer species thrive and conditions improve, the habitat becomes suitable for other organisms.
❖ This leads to increased diversity and competition for resources.
❖ New niches emerge, attracting additional species as the community evolves.
Succession and Replacement:
❖ Pioneer species eventually decline as conditions change due to their own influence and the arrival of new
species.
❖ This gradual progression, with one community replacing another, is the essence of succession.
Autogenic vs. Allogenic Succession:
❖ Autogenic succession: Driven by the living organisms within the community itself, through their interactions
and modifications of the environment.
❖ Allogenic succession: Driven by external forces like fire, floods, or changes in climate.
Types of Succession:
❖ Xerarch succession: Occurs on dry land, starting with xerophytes (plants adapted to low moisture) and
progressing towards mesophytes (moderate water needs).
❖ Hydrarch succession: Begins in water bodies, with phytoplankton pioneers followed by rooted plants and
eventually land-based communities,
leading to the conversion of water to
land.
Climax Community: The Final
Destination:
❖ Regardless of the starting point (water
or land), both xerarch and hydrarch
successions tend to converge towards a
similar climax community
characterized by moderate moisture
conditions (mesic).
 15

Other types of Ecological Successions:

❖ Succession of plants is called hydrarch or xerarch, respectively.
❖ Hydrarch succession takes place in wetter areas and the successional series progress from hydric to the mesic
conditions.
❖ As against this, xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and the series progress from xeric to mesic
conditions.
❖ Hence, both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to medium water conditions (mesic) – neither too dry
(xeric) nor too wet (hydric).
Autogenic Succession Allogenic Succession
❖ It is driven by biotic factors or living organisms ❖ It is driven by abiotic factors or external factors.
of the community. ❖ Primary succession begins with allogenic
❖ Secondary succession starts with autogenic succession and proceeds to autogenic succession.
succession. ❖ Examples: Volcanic eruption, flood, etc.
❖ Examples: Dead organic material in the soil
changes the structure of the soil.
 16

Ecological Succession:
❖ Autogenic succession: Brought about by living inhabitants of that community itself
❖ Allogenic succession: Brought about by outside forces
❖ Autotrophic succession: A Succession in which, initially the green plants dominate.
❖ Heterotrophic: Succession in which, initially heterotrophs dominate
Succession would be much faster in areas that exist in the middle of a large continent. All propagules or seeds
belonging to different seers would reach here much faster and the climax community would establish faster.
Ecological Succession:
❖ Clement's theory of succession
➢ 6 Phases:
✓ A Nudation: development of a bare site, disturbance
✓ A Migration: arrival of propagules
✓ A Ecesis: establishment of initial growth of vegetation.
✓ A Competition: as vegetation becomes well established, grows and spreads, various species compete
for space, light and nutrients.
❖ Clement's theory of succession
➢ A Reaction: autogenic changes affect the habitat resulting in the replacement of one plant community by
another.
➢ A Stabilization: stable climax community
Importance of Ecological Succession:
❖ Ecological succession is important:
➢ For growth and development of an ecosystem.
➢ It initiates the colonization of new areas and the recolonization of areas that had been destroyed due to
certain biotic and climatic factors.
➢ Ecological succession is important so that organisms can adapt to the changes and learn to survive in the
changing environment.
Homeostasis in Ecosystems
Definition and Importance of Homeostasis:
❖ Homeostasis refers to the ability of a system, including an organism or an ecosystem, to maintain a stable
internal environment despite external fluctuations.
❖ This stability is crucial for survival and optimal functioning, as deviations from the setpoint (desired
conditions) can be detrimental.
Regulatory vs. Conformist Strategies:
❖ Regulators: Some organisms, like mammals and birds, possess mechanisms to actively adjust their internal
environment (e.g., body temperature) regardless of external changes. This requires energy expenditure but
allows for wider environmental tolerance.
 17

❖ Conformers: The majority of organisms, including plants and most invertebrates, passively adjust their
internal environment to match external conditions. This strategy is less energy-intensive but restricts their
geographic distribution and tolerance to extreme environments.
Factors Influencing Strategy Choice:
❖ Energy Costs: Thermoregulation, a key component of regulation, demands significant energy, especially for
small organisms with high surface area-to-volume ratios.
❖ Ecological Trade-offs: The benefits of wider tolerance achieved through regulation must be balanced against
the energy costs involved.
Alternative Strategies for Survival:
❖ Migration: Moving to more favorable environments temporarily avoids stressful conditions. This is observed
in migratory birds that escape harsh winters.
❖ Dormancy: Entering a state of suspended development (e.g., diapause in zooplankton) allows organisms to
wait for more suitable conditions.
❖ Dispersal: Seeds and other reproductive structures help plants and some animals disperse to potentially more
favorable habitats.
❖ Hibernation and Aestivation: Animals like bears and some snails undergo extended periods of reduced
activity to conserve energy and survive harsh seasons.
Examples and Adaptations:
❖ Keoladeo National Park: The arrival of migratory birds demonstrates the use of migration to avoid harsh
environments.
❖ Hibernation: Bears conserve energy during winter by entering a state of reduced metabolic activity.
❖ Seeds: Plants produce seeds that can withstand harsh conditions and germinate when favorable conditions
return.
❖ Small Animal Distribution: The energy cost of thermoregulation limits the presence of small animals in polar
regions.
Ecosystems and their Balance:
❖ Biological equilibrium: Ecosystems maintain a balance between different components like plants, animals,
and microorganisms. This balance is critical for the overall health and survival of the ecosystem.
❖ Dynamic change: Despite this balance, ecosystems are not static. They constantly adapt and change in
response to internal and external factors like climate, resource availability, and human activity.
Feedback Systems:
❖ Regulation and checks: Each element in an ecosystem plays a role in regulating the population of others. This
creates a network of feedback loops.
➢ Negative feedback: When one component increases, another component reacts to decrease it,
maintaining a stable equilibrium.
➢ Positive feedback: When one component increases, it further stimulates its own increase, potentially
leading to instability or collapse.
 18

Equilibrium and Gaia Hypothesis:

❖ Dynamic equilibrium: This
refers to a state where
continuous change occurs
within the ecosystem, but
overall conditions remain
stable.
❖ Gaia Hypothesis: Proposed by
James Lovelock, this theory
suggests that Earth and its
biological systems act as a
single, self-regulating entity. Living organisms interact with the environment to maintain conditions suitable
for life through negative feedback loops.
➢ Misinterpretation: It's important to understand that the Gaia Hypothesis doesn't imply zero human
impact. Human activities like pollution and resource overuse can disrupt the Earth's natural balance,
leading to climate change and other environmental issues.
Cybernetics and Homeostasis:
❖ Norbert Wiener's concept:
This refers to the study of self-
regulating systems. Analogous
to a thermostat controlling room
temperature, ecosystems utilize
feedback mechanisms to
maintain stability.
❖ Inspiration for ecology: A.G.
Tansley, an ecologist, drew
upon cybernetics and the Gaia
Hypothesis to introduce the concept of homeostasis in ecology in 1935.
Examples of Homeostasis:
❖ Predator-prey relationship: An increase in the prey population leads to an increase in predators, which then
reduces the prey population, creating a dynamic equilibrium.
❖ Grassland ecosystem: When deer populations rise, they consume grass, limiting its growth. This reduces the
deer's food source, leading to their decline and allowing grass to flourish again.
Key Points:
❖ Homeostasis is a crucial concept in understanding ecosystem stability.
❖ It involves complex interactions between different components and feedback mechanisms.
❖ Human activities can disrupt this balance, leading to environmental problems.
❖ Understanding and respecting these natural processes are crucial for sustainable practices and ecosystem
conservation.
 19

Ecosystem Services:
The Scarcity of Freshwater and the Significance of Technology Transfer:
❖ The agreement between India and Israel to share desalination technology highlights the increasing scarcity and
economic importance of freshwater.
❖ The 2018-19 water crisis in Chennai, where even "grey water" (partially treated wastewater) became scarce,
exemplifies the urgency of seeking sustainable solutions.
Beyond Consumption: Understanding the Diverse Benefits of Ecosystems:
❖ Ecosystem services encompass the wide range of benefits humans derive from nature, including clean water,
breathable air, food production, climate regulation, and cultural values.
❖ Often taken for granted due to their seemingly "free" provision, these services are indispensable for our well-
being, economic prosperity, and very survival.
Quantifying the Value of Nature: The Role of Ecosystem Services Valuation:
❖ The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) initiative promotes valuing and integrating
biodiversity and ecosystem services into decision-making.
❖ This involves:
➢ Identifying the vast array of benefits provided by ecosystems.
➢ Quantifying these benefits in economic terms, using methodologies like Green GDP accounting.
➢ Integrating these values into policy and development decisions.
Recognizing the Cost of Neglect: Investing in Conservation:
❖ Recognizing the economic value of ecosystem services through initiatives like TEEB allows for informed
decisions that protect and restore vital resources.
❖ Investments in desalination plants, wastewater treatment, and sustainable land management, while seemingly
costly, become crucial when compared to the long-term economic and environmental consequences of
ecosystem degradation.
India's Commitment to Sustainable Development:
❖ India's participation in initiatives like TEEB and its development of National and state-level Green GDP
accounting demonstrate its commitment to incorporating the value of natural capital into economic
assessments.
❖ Additionally, the 12th Finance Commission of India acknowledges the importance of providing incentives for
maintaining specific ecosystems like those in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal
Pradesh, and Sikkim, known for their water resources, carbon sequestration, and unique biodiversity.
Services are clubed under 4 broad categories
 20

Provisioning Services:
❖ These services directly provide material benefits essential for human well-being. Examples include:
➢ Food: From crops and livestock to fish and wild plants, ecosystems sustain our basic nutritional needs.
➢ Water: Clean freshwater for drinking, sanitation, and agriculture is a vital service provided by healthy
ecosystems.
➢ Fibers: Natural fibers like cotton, wool, and jute find diverse applications in textiles and other products.
➢ Wood and Fuels: Timber for construction and fuelwood for energy remain crucial resources derived
from ecosystems.
Supporting Services:
❖ These underpinning services form the foundation for all other ecosystem benefits. They include:
➢ Habitat Provision: Diverse ecosystems provide critical living spaces for a multitude of species, ensuring
biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.
➢ Genetic Diversity: The maintenance of genetic diversity within species allows for adaptation to changing
conditions and ensures ecosystem resilience.
➢ Nutrient Cycling: The decomposition of organic matter and the circulation of nutrients are essential for
plant growth and ecosystem productivity.
Regulating Services:
❖ These services regulate natural processes, providing stability and resilience for human and ecological systems.
Some examples include:
➢ Climate Regulation: Ecosystems, particularly forests, play a crucial role in regulating atmospheric
temperature and precipitation patterns.
➢ Air Quality: Vegetation filters pollutants and releases oxygen, contributing to clean air and human health.
➢ Soil Fertility: Healthy soils, maintained by organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling, are
essential for food production and ecosystem health.
➢ Flood Control: Ecosystems like wetlands absorb excess water, mitigating floods and protecting land and
infrastructure.
 21

Cultural Services:
❖ These non-material benefits enrich our lives and connect us to nature. Examples include:
➢ Aesthetic and Recreational Value: Beautiful landscapes, diverse species, and natural soundscapes
provide opportunities for recreation and spiritual fulfillment.
➢ Cultural Inspiration: Nature serves as a source of artistic expression, cultural identity, and traditional
knowledge for many communities.
➢ Spiritual Well-being: Interaction with nature fosters peace, mindfulness, and a sense of connection to
something larger than ourselves.
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)
Mission:
❖ TEEB, established in 2007, is a global
initiative with 98 participating
countries, including India, China,
Brazil, and South Africa. Its core
objective is to make the value of
nature visible by mainstreaming the
importance of biodiversity and
ecosystem services into decision-
making at all levels.
Approach:
❖ TEEB employs a structured approach
to valuation, focusing on:
➢ Identifying the extensive benefits provided by ecosystems and biodiversity, ranging from clean water
and air to climate regulation and cultural enrichment.
➢ Quantifying these benefits in economic terms, enabling decision-makers to understand their
significance within traditional economic frameworks.
➢ Integrating these values into decision-making processes, ensuring that the true cost of nature's services
is considered during development and environmental policies.
Recognition and Impact:
❖ The success of TEEB is reflected in the 2020 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement awarded to its key
figures, Gretchen C. Daily and Pavan Sukhdev.
❖ The initiative has significantly influenced the adoption of Green Domestic Product (GDP) accounting,
which incorporates the value of natural capital alongside traditional economic indicators.
❖ India's development of national and state-level Green GDP accounting in 2016 exemplifies the commitment
of participating nations to implement TEEB's principles.
Significance:
❖ By valuing ecosystem services through initiatives like TEEB, we can foster:
➢ More informed decision-making that balances economic development with environmental sustainability.
 22

➢ Equitable resource allocation to protect and restore vital ecosystems.

➢ Increased awareness of the economic consequences of ecosystem degradation.
Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES):
❖ Concept: PES incentivizes individuals or communities to manage ecosystems sustainably by providing
financial compensation for the services they provide, such as clean water, carbon sequestration, and
biodiversity conservation.
❖ Mechanism:
➢ Direct payments: Landowners or
communities receive financial
rewards for specific actions like
protecting forests or restoring
wetlands.
➢ Tradable credits: Environmental
services like carbon sequestration
can be quantified and traded as
credits, generating income for
stewards.
❖ Importance: PES acknowledges the
economic value of nature, encouraging
sustainable practices and resource
management.
Ecological Footprint:
❖ Concept: This metric measures human demand on nature's resources compared to its ability to regenerate
them.
❖ Demand side:
➢ Considers individual or population consumption of resources like food, timber, and energy, including the
carbon footprint from fossil fuels.
➢ Quantifies the land area required to produce these resources sustainably.
❖ Supply side:
➢ Represents the planet's biologically productive land and sea area (biocapacity) for resource production
and waste absorption.
❖ Earth Overshoot Day:
➢ Marks the date when humanity's demand exceeds Earth's annual regenerative capacity, highlighting
unsustainable resource use.
➢ Has shifted significantly earlier over time, from December 30th, 1970, to July 28th, 2022.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 11
Bio Geo Chemical Cycle
 2

Bio Geo Chemical Cycle

Biogeochemical Cycle or Nutrient Cycle:
❖ About:
➢ It means the movement of nutrients between abiotic and biotic factors of an ecosystem.
➢ Energy flows in a unilateral direction. Nutrients flow in
a cyclic direction.
❖ Types of Biogeochemical Cycle: Based on the nature of
reservoirs, the biogeochemical cycle can be classified into
two types:
➢ Gaseous Reservoirs: (Its examples are as follows)
✓ Water cycle or Hydrological cycle
✓ Oxygen cycle
✓ Carbon cycle
✓ Nitrogen (N2) cycle
➢ Sedimentary Reservoir: (Its examples are as follows)
✓ Phosphorus cycle
✓ Sulphur cycle
Feature Gaseous cycle Sedimentary cycle
Reservoir Atmosphere and ocean Earth's crust
Nutrients Gas or vapor Non-gaseous
Speed Comparatively quick and fast Comparatively slow
Examples Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen Phosphorus, sulfur
Water Cycle:
❖ The water keeps going from one component
of an ecosystem to another component in a
cyclic manner which is called the water cycle.
Stages of Water Cycle:
❖ Evaporation/\Transpiration/Sublimation:
In these, water converts into vapour in the
atmosphere.
❖ Condensation: Condensation is the opposite
of evaporation. It is a phase change process in
which a substance changes from a gaseous
state to a liquid state.
❖ Precipitation/Deposition: Precipitation is a vital meteorological and hydrological process in the Earth's water
cycle. It refers to any form of water, liquid or solid, that falls from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface.
 3

❖ Infiltration: It is a critical process in the Earth's water cycle that describes the movement of water from the
surface of the Earth into the ground or soil. It is the process by which precipitation, such as rain or snow, soaks
into the soil or permeable rock layers.
❖ Runoff Water: refers to water that flows over the surface of the Earth, typically in the form of rainwater or
snowmelt, and does not infiltrate into the ground. Instead, it moves across the land surface, eventually finding
its way into streams, rivers, lakes, and, ultimately, the ocean.
❖ Plant Uptake: It refers to the process by which plants absorb water and nutrients from the soil or other growing
media.

The Carbon Cycle:

The carbon cycle is a fundamental biogeochemical process that describes the continuous movement of carbon atoms
between various reservoirs on Earth. These reservoirs include the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere,
and pedosphere. Understanding the carbon cycle is crucial for comprehending climate change and its potential
consequences.
Key Components and Processes:
Rainforests: Play a significant role in the carbon cycle by acting as carbon sinks. Through photosynthesis, plants
in rainforests absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and convert it into organic matter, storing carbon within
the ecosystem.
Temperature: The rate of carbon exchange between different reservoirs is influenced by temperature. Warmer
temperatures generally lead to faster cycling, while colder temperatures slow down the process.
Sources of Atmospheric CO2:
❖ Burning of Fossil Fuels: The primary human-driven source of CO2 emissions. Burning coal, oil, and natural
gas releases stored carbon back into the atmosphere, contributing to its rising concentration.
❖ Natural Processes: Volcanic eruptions, respiration of living organisms, and the decomposition of organic
matter also contribute to atmospheric CO levels.
Sinks for Atmospheric CO2:
❖ Photosynthesis: As mentioned earlier, plants absorb CO2 during photosynthesis, representing a major natural
sink for this greenhouse gas.
❖ Oceans: The oceans act as a vast reservoir, absorbing approximately 33% of atmospheric CO2. However,
excess CO2 uptake leads to ocean acidification, impacting marine ecosystems.
 4

❖ Dry Ice Formation: Carbon dioxide can be stored as ice at the poles. However, climate change is reducing
this storage capacity.
Timescales:
❖ Short-Term Cycle: This involves the rapid exchange of carbon between living organisms (plants, animals)
and the atmosphere through processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition.
❖ Long-Term Cycle: This involves the slow accumulation of carbon over millions of years in geological
formations like peat, carbonates, and fossil fuels. When these materials are burned, the stored carbon is released
back into the atmosphere.
Steps of Carbon Cycle:
❖ Photosynthesis: Atmospheric Carbon is absorbed by the plant for the photosynthetic process. The
photosynthesis process leads to the formation of biomass.
❖ Carbon Accumulation: Plant biomass is consumed by the animals leading to carbon accumulation in animals.
❖ Respiration/Decomposition (In plants and animals): Respiration is a fundamental biological process that
occurs in living organisms, including plants, animals, and microorganisms. It is the process by which cells
obtain energy from organic compounds, such as glucose, by breaking them down in the presence of oxygen.
❖ Carbon Sink: A carbon sink is a natural or human-made system or process that absorbs and stores carbon
dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, helping to mitigate climate change by reducing the concentration of this
greenhouse gas. Carbon sinks are crucial in the context of the carbon cycle, which involves the exchange of
carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, soil, vegetation, and other components of the Earth's environment.
❖ Fossil Fuel Combustion: It refers to the process of burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, to
produce energy in the form of heat, electricity, or mechanical work. Fossil fuel combustion is a primary source
of energy for a wide range of applications, including electricity generation, transportation, industrial processes,
and residential heating.
Nitrogen Cycle:
❖ Air comprises 78% of nitrogen.
❖ Nitrogen gas has a nitrogen-nitrogen triple bond. Nitrogen is an inert gas.
❖ Nitrogen compound is the base of DNA, RNA, and Protein (Amino acid).
❖ The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformation of nitrogen and nitrogen-
containing compounds in nature.
 5

❖ Atmospheric nitrogen is the biggest source of nitrogen.

❖ Green plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates and
nitrites from the soil and water.
❖ Animals get nitrogen when they feed on plants.
❖ Nitrogen is an essential component of proteins and
nucleic acids in living organisms.
The Nitrogen Cycle can be Studied in Five Steps:
❖ Nitrogen Fixation: The process of conversion of nitrogen
into ammonia is called nitrogen fixation. As we can see in
the figure. above, nitrogen can be fixed in two ways:
➢ Lightening during cloud formation: Nitrogen and
oxygen combine with each other to form oxides of
nitrogen in the atmosphere by lightning. These
nitrogen oxides then dissolve in rainwater and on
reaching the earth’s surface become a part of the soil
and water.
➢ Free-living microorganisms: Microbes like blue-green algae and bacteria fix the atmospheric nitrogen
into nitrites and nitrates. These nitrogenous compounds are then released into the soil.
❖ Nitrogen Assimilation: In this, nitrates and ammonia are assimilated into specific tissues of algae and higher
plants. Plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates to prepare amino acids. This nitrogen is then taken up by
the animals in the form of proteins through the food chain.
❖ Ammonification: In this process, dead remains of the living organism and their waste products are
decomposed by microorganisms and converted into ammonia. The proteins in the body of the animals are
broken down into simpler forms like urea and ammonia. These are then removed from the body along with
urine and excreta. Dead plants and animals also return nitrogen to the soil as ammonium compounds. These
ammonium compounds are then converted to ammonia by ammonifying bacteria.
❖ Nitrification: The conversion of ammonia into nitrates is called nitrification. Nitrifying bacteria like
Nitrosobacter and Nitrosomonas found in the soil convert ammonia into nitrate. Some other bacteria present
in the soil convert ammonia into nitrites. Some of these nitrates and nitrites are again taken up by the plants
for their nutrition.

Nitrifying bacteria → Convert Ammonia to Nitrate

(Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas)

❖ Denitrification: Denitrifying bacteria like Pseudomonas and Clostridium living in the soil reduce the soil
nitrites and nitrates into nitrogen which is returned into the atmosphere.

Denitrifying bacteria → Reduce Nitrates and Nitrites to Nitrogen

(Pseudomonas, Clostridium)
 6

Methane Cycle:
 7

Methane's Impact:
❖ Potent Greenhouse Gas: While present in the atmosphere in smaller amounts than CO2, methane is a more
potent greenhouse gas, trapping 25-30 times more heat per molecule over a 100-year period.
❖ Short Atmospheric Lifetime: Despite its potency, methane's impact is limited by its relatively short lifespan
in the atmosphere (around 12 years) compared to CO2 (centuries).
❖ Ozone Formation: Methane contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone, a harmful air pollutant linked
to respiratory problems.
Natural Sources:
❖ Decomposition: Wetlands, oceans, and termite digestive processes are significant natural sources of methane
emissions.
❖ Wetlands: Methanogens, specialized microorganisms thriving in low-oxygen environments, produce methane
during organic matter decomposition in wetlands, contributing to roughly 80% of natural methane emissions.
❖ Termites: Through gut microbes, termites produce methane as part of their digestive process.
❖ Oceans: The specific sources of marine methane emissions are still under investigation, but include anaerobic
digestion in marine life and methane production in coastal sediments.
❖ Methane Hydrates: These ice-like structures trap methane under high pressure and low temperatures in the
ocean and permafrost. However, their stability is sensitive to pressure and temperature changes.
Human Sources:
❖ Significant Contribution: Human activities account for 50-65% of total methane emissions.
❖ Key Sectors: Agriculture (40%), fossil fuels (35%), and waste (20%) are the main contributors.
❖ Global Reduction Targets: The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) urges 45% reductions by
2030, recommending specific targets for different countries, like India's focus on waste reduction through
improved sewage disposal.
 8

Human Sources Details:

❖ Landfills: Anaerobic decomposition of waste generates methane, with the amount influenced by waste
composition and moisture content.
❖ Wastewater Treatment: Untreated organic matter in wastewater can produce methane emissions.
❖ Fossil Fuels: Methane leaks occur during natural gas production, storage, and transmission. Coalbed methane
is released during mining operations.
❖ Livestock: Ruminant animals like cattle produce methane as part of their digestion.
Methane Sink:
❖ Soils: The primary sink, where methanotrophic bacteria consume methane as an energy source in a process
called methane oxidation.
Phosphorus Cycle:
❖ The phosphorus cycle (unlike the carbon and nitrogen cycles) lacks an atmospheric component.
➢ Phosphorus is one of the most important nutrients in biological systems since it is a fundamental
ingredient of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), phospholipids, Biological energy ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate), and several phosphorylated compounds.
➢ Phosphorous is part of bones and teeth.
❖ The Phosphorus is present in rocks and soil, the atmosphere does not play any role in this cycle.
Steps of Phosphorus Cycle:
❖ Weathering of Rocks: Rain and weathering cause rocks to release phosphorous and other minerals over
time. This inorganic phosphate is subsequently distributed in ground soils and water.
❖ Absorption by Plants: Plants take up inorganic phosphate from the soil and then these plants are consumed
by animals. The phosphate is incorporated into organic molecules such as DNA in plants and animals. When
the plants and animals die, it decays and the organic phosphate is returned to the soil.
❖ Consumption by Animals: In the soil, organic forms of phosphate can be made available to plants by bacteria
that break down organic matter into inorganic forms of phosphorus. This process is known as mineralization.
❖ Return to the Environment by Decomposition: Phosphorus from the soil can enter streams and eventually
the seas. It can then be absorbed
into sediments over time.
Human Impact on the Phosphorous
Cycle:
❖ Use of Fertilizers in Crop
Fields:
➢ Fertilizers, particularly
those containing phosphorus
compounds, are widely used
in agriculture to enhance
crop growth and increase
agricultural productivity.
➢ Phosphorus is an essential
nutrient for plant growth, and when added as fertilizer, it becomes available for plant uptake.
 9

➢ However, excess phosphorus from fertilizers can lead to several environmental issues:
❖ Eutrophication / Algal Bloom:
➢ Eutrophication is a natural process that becomes problematic when accelerated by human activities. It
occurs when excessive nutrients, including phosphorus, enter aquatic ecosystems.
➢ Phosphorus, in the form of phosphates, is a key driver of eutrophication. When high concentrations of
phosphates are introduced into lakes, rivers, or coastal waters, they can lead to the following
consequences.
Sulphur Cycle:
❖ In the Sulphur cycle, there is a circulation of sulfur in various forms throughout nature. Sulphur is found in all
living things as a constituent of some amino acids.
❖ The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except for two of its compounds, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and
Sulphur dioxide (SO2), which add a gaseous component.
Process of the Sulphur Cycle:
❖ Atmosphere: The primary source of sulphur in the environment is sulphur dioxide. It is caused by both
human and volcanic activity. Another source is hydrogen sulphide gas, which is created mostly by
microorganisms acting on dead and decaying organic materials. When hydrogen sulphide is oxidized sulphur
dioxide is produced.
❖ Biosphere: The sulphur then enters the biosphere, either through rock weathering or through the atmosphere.
Sulphur can be found in three forms in the biosphere:
➢ Elemental Sulphur: It can be found in sulphur deposits and sulphide ores.
➢ Inorganic Sulphur: Sulphate in aerobic soils and sulphide in anaerobic soils are the two forms of
inorganic sulfur.
➢ Organic Sulphur: Organic sulphur can be found in amino acids as well as plants and animals.
❖ The presence of sulphur in the atmosphere aids in the formation of clouds by increasing the quantity and
size of cloud droplets. As a result, sulphur dissolves in rainwater and enters the biosphere as droplets of mild
sulphuric acid. Moreover, during the process of pedogenesis, chemical weathering allows sulphur to migrate
from the rocks to the soil and water. Some sulphur is converted to sulphate during the weathering process and
released into the environment.
❖ Sulphur Absorption by Living Organisms: Sulphur is absorbed by plants through their roots from the soil.
Several soil microorganisms help to produce sulphur for plant uptake. Sulphur is absorbed indirectly by
animals, including humans, via plant ingestion. Sulphur is needed in the biosynthesis of biomolecules such as
nucleotides and proteins in living organisms.
❖ Release: Sulphur in the biosphere moves through the food chain via consumers feeding on producers and
eventually reaching the decomposers. During the breakdown process, this sulphur is converted from its
sulphate form into sulphides and released back into the atmosphere. Sulphur that does not enter the food
chain accumulates in deep sea and terrestrial rocks.
Sources of the Sulphur Cycle:
❖ Natural sources of sulfur, such as volcanic eruptions and the evaporation of water, contribute to the sulfur
cycle.
 10

❖ Volcanic eruptions can release significant amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, impacting local and
global sulfur cycling.
Human Impact on the Sulfur Cycle:
❖ Use of Sulfate in Fertilizer:
Agriculture relies on the use of
sulfate-containing fertilizers to
enhance plant growth. This can lead
to increased sulfur levels in the soil
and runoff into water bodies,
affecting the natural sulfur cycle in
those ecosystems.
❖ Burning of Fossil Fuels: The
burning of fossil fuels, such as coal
and oil, releases sulfur dioxide into
the atmosphere. This significantly
increases sulfur levels in the
atmosphere, contributing to acid rain formation and negatively impacting air quality.
Oxygen Cycle:
❖ The movement of Oxygen through the Atmosphere (air), Biosphere (plants and animals), and
Lithosphere (the Earth's crust) is known as the Oxygen Cycle.
➢ 21% of Oxygen is found in the elemental form in the atmosphere.
❖ It also occurs extensively in the combined form in the Earth’s crust as well as in the air in the form of carbon
dioxide.
❖ It is found as the oxides of most metals and Silicon, and also as Carbonate, Sulphate, Nitrate, and other minerals
in the earth’s crust.
❖ It is also an essential component of most biological molecules like Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids,
And Fats (or Lipids).
Process of Oxygen Cycle:
❖ Oxygen from the atmosphere is used by
processes like combustion, respiration, and
formation of oxides of nitrogen.
❖ All aerobic organisms use free oxygen to
respire. However, animals exhale CO2 back into
the atmosphere.
❖ Plants release oxygen into the atmosphere as a
by-product of photosynthesis.
❖ Phytoplankton (floating algae or plants on
oceanic water) produce maximum oxygen on the
earth by photosynthesis (more than terrestrial
plants and trees).
❖ Some amount of oxygen is also produced when
strong sunlight is mixed with the water vapour in the atmosphere.
 11

2H2O + strong sunlight —> 2H2 + O2

❖ Oxygen gets decomposed into fossils and fossil fuels.
❖ A large amount of oxygen is stored in the Lithosphere in Earth's crust in the form of oxides, but it can't be
used in the respiratory process.
Steps of Oxygen Cycle:
❖ Respiration: All living organisms, including plants, animals, and microorganisms, carry out respiration.
During respiration, organisms use oxygen to break down organic compounds like glucose and convert them
into energy.
❖ Industrial Combustion: Combustion is the process of burning fossil fuels, such as wood, fossil fuels (coal,
oil, and natural gas), and biomass. During combustion, oxygen in the atmosphere reacts with carbon and
hydrogen in the fuels to produce carbon dioxide, water vapour, and heat.
❖ Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the primary process responsible for producing oxygen in the atmosphere.
Green plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O) to produce
glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2) as a byproduct.
❖ Photolysis: Sunlight-induced photolysis also releases some oxygen in the atmosphere.
❖ Four main processes that use atmospheric oxygen:
➢ Breathing (Respiration)
➢ Decomposition
➢ Combustion
➢ Rusting
#Q. In the case of which of the following biogeochemical cycles, the weathering of rocks is the main source
of release of nutrients to enter the cycle? (2021)
(a) Carbon cycle
(b) Nitrogen cycle
(c) Phosphorus cycle
(d) Sulphur cycle

#Q. With reference to an initiative called 'The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)', which of
the following statements is/are correct?
1. It is an initiative hosted by UNEPIMF and World Economic Forum
2. It is a global initiative that focuses on drawing attention to the economic benefits of biodiversity
3. It presents an approach that can help decision-makers recognize, demonstrate and capture the value
of ecosystems and biodiversity
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (2017)
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
 12

#Q. On the planet earth, most of the freshwater exists as ice caps and glaciers. Out of the remaining freshwater,
the largest proportion (2013)
(a) is found in atmosphere as moisture and clouds
(b) is found in freshwater lakes and rivers
(c) exists as groundwater
(d) exists as soil moisture

#Q. Which one of the following is the correct sequence of ecosystems in the order of decreasing productivity?
(2013)
(a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves
(b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes
(c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
(d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands

#Q. Which of the following adds / add nitrogen to the soil?

1. Excretion of urea by animals
2. Burning of coal by man
3. Death of vegetation
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (2013)
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

#Q. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment describes the following major categories of ecosystem services
provisioning, supporting, regulating, preserving and cultural.
Which one of the following is supporting service? (2012)
(a) Production of food and water
(b) Control of climate and disease
(c) Nutrient cycling and crop pollination
(d) Maintenance of diversity

#Q. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on the planet Earth?
1. Volcanic action
2. Respiration
3. Photosynthesis
4. Decay of organic matter
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (2014)
(a) 1 and 3only (b) 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
 13

Climate Change:
Definition:
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in Earth's temperature and weather patterns (rainfall, snowfall, wind)
directly attributable to human activities. These activities alter the composition of the atmosphere, causing
deviations from natural climate variability observed over comparable periods (hundreds of years).
Scope:
❖ Climate change encompasses global warming (rising global temperatures), but it represents a broader
spectrum of changes. This includes:
➢ Variations in temperature, rainfall, wind, and water patterns.
➢ Rising sea levels.
➢ Shrinking mountain glaciers.
➢ Accelerating cryosphere loss (melting ice caps).
➢ Ocean acidification.
❖ Global warming is only one aspect of climate change, focusing specifically on the temperature increase.
Historical Context:
❖ Earth has undergone episodic climate changes throughout its history, including periods of both global
warming and global cooling (glaciation events).
❖ The current trend, however, shows a well-documented rise in global temperatures (global warming) since the
early 20th century, with a particularly significant increase since the late 1970s.
Greenhouse Effect Analogy:
❖ A greenhouse serves as a conceptual analogy for understanding the Earth's atmosphere.
❖ In a greenhouse, incoming solar radiation (visible and adjacent portions of the infrared and ultraviolet
spectrum) penetrates the transparent roof and walls.
❖ This radiation is absorbed by the floor, soil, and contents, causing them to warm.
❖ Subsequently, these warm objects re-emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared radiation.
Greenhouse Effect Defined:
The greenhouse effect is a natural
phenomenon occurring in Earth's
atmosphere that regulates planetary
temperature. It involves the trapping of
specific gases, known as greenhouse gases
(GHGs), which absorb heat radiated from the
Earth's surface, preventing its complete
escape into space. This process contributes
to maintaining a habitable climate suitable
for life.
Mechanism:
1. Incoming Solar Radiation: The Sun's
energy reaches Earth as short-wave
radiation, readily passing through the atmosphere and warming the Earth's surface.
 14

2. Heat Emission: The warmed Earth emits long-wave infrared radiation back towards space.
3. Greenhouse Gas Absorption: Certain GHGs in the atmosphere, like water vapor, carbon dioxide, and
methane, absorb a portion of this outgoing radiation.
4. Trapped Heat: The absorbed heat warms the atmosphere and contributes to the planet's overall temperature.
Greenhouse Gas Influence:
❖ While water vapor is the most abundant GHG, contributing to roughly 95% of the natural greenhouse effect,
its concentration is largely regulated by natural processes.
❖ Human activities significantly impact the atmospheric levels of other GHGs, particularly carbon dioxide.
Increased emissions from fossil fuel burning and deforestation contribute to enhanced warming, leading to
climate change.
Importance:
The greenhouse effect plays a crucial role in maintaining
Earth's habitable temperature. Without it, the planet
would be much colder, making life as we know it
impossible. However, excessive GHG emissions from
human activities disrupt this delicate balance, leading to
global warming and its associated consequences.
Greenhouse Gases and Their Impact:
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs):
❖ Specific gases in the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
water vapor, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), possess the ability to trap outgoing infrared radiation
emitted from Earth's surface.
❖ This trapping effect, known as the greenhouse effect, is a natural phenomenon that helps maintain a habitable
temperature on Earth.
❖ Since 1880, global average temperature has risen by 1°C, primarily due to increased GHG concentrations
from human activities. This rise has significant environmental consequences, including:
➢ Deleterious environmental changes: Disruption of ecosystems, biodiversity loss, and altered weather
patterns.
➢ Extreme weather events: Increased frequency and intensity of heatwaves, droughts, floods, and storms.
➢ Cryosphere melting: Accelerated melting of glaciers and ice caps, contributing to sea level rise.
➢ Coral bleaching: Damage and death of coral reefs due to rising ocean temperatures.
Global Warming Potential (GWP):
❖ A metric used to compare the heat-trapping ability of different GHGs relative to CO2 over a specific
timeframe, typically 100 years.
❖ A higher GWP signifies a gas's greater warming potential compared to CO2 during that period.
❖ GWPs provide a standardized unit for:
➢ Combining emissions estimates of various GHGs in national inventories.
➢ Evaluating emission reduction strategies across different sectors and gas types.
❖ By understanding GWP values, policymakers can prioritize effective strategies to mitigate climate change by
reducing emissions of potent GHGs.
 15

Carbon Dioxide (CO2):

Key Roles and Properties:
❖ Meteorological Significance: CO2 plays a vital role in regulating Earth's climate system.
 16

➢ Transparent to Incoming Radiation: It allows the Sun's energy (shortwave radiation) to pass through,
heating the Earth's surface.
➢ Opaque to Outgoing Radiation: It absorbs a portion of the Earth's emitted heat (longwave radiation),
preventing its complete escape back into space.
❖ Efficient Heat Absorber: Due to its absorption properties, CO2 traps and reflects heat back towards the
surface, contributing significantly to the greenhouse effect and influencing the Earth's energy budget.
❖ Concentration Gradient: Its concentration increases closer to Earth's surface due to its higher density
compared to air.
Current Concentrations:
❖ NOAA Measurements: The Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii, a key monitoring station, recorded a peak
monthly average of 419 ppm (parts per million) in May 2021, highlighting the ongoing rise in atmospheric
CO2 concentrations.
Short-lived Climate Pollutants: Understanding Their Impact
Definition:
❖ Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) are potent climate forcers that reside in the atmosphere for shorter
periods than carbon dioxide (CO2).
❖ Despite their shorter lifetimes, they possess significantly greater warming potential per molecule,
contributing substantially to global warming.
❖ Additionally, some SLCPs function as harmful air pollutants negatively impacting human health, ecosystems,
and agricultural productivity.
Key Contributors:
❖ The most significant anthropogenic SLCPs include:
➢ Black carbon (soot)
➢ Methane (CH4)
➢ Tropospheric ozone (O3)
➢ Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
❖ Collectively, they contribute up
to 45% of current global
warming, highlighting their
critical role alongside CO2.
❖ Among these, black carbon
ranks second only to CO2 in its
warming influence.
 17

Case Study: Methane (CH4)

❖ Characteristics:
➢ Colorless and odorless gas
➢ Primary component of natural gas
➢ Powerful greenhouse gas:
✓ Lifespan in the atmosphere:
20 years (shorter than CO2)
✓ Global Warming Potential:
80 times greater than CO2
❖ Impact:
➢ Responsible for:
✓ Over 25% of global warming
✓ Roughly half of the increase
in tropospheric ozone
formation
❖ India's Role: Listed among the top
five global methane emitters,
highlighting the need for targeted
mitigation strategies.
 18

Recent Methane Assessment:

❖ The "Global Methane Assessment:
2030 Baseline Report", released by
the Climate and Clean Air Coalition
(CCAC) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP),
examines projected methane
emissions and their implications for
the Global Methane Pledge (GMP)
target.
❖ Key findings include:
➢ Atmospheric methane levels are
260% higher than pre-industrial
levels.
➢ Human-driven methane
emissions contribute nearly 45%
of current warming, with 2021 seeing the largest annual increase recorded.
Earlier Assessment and Global Methane Budget:
❖ The "Global Methane Assessment: Benefits and Costs of Mitigating Methane Emissions", also by CCAC
and UNEP, highlighted that a 45% reduction in anthropogenic methane emissions could prevent up to 0.3°C
of global warming by 2045.
❖ The Global Carbon Project identifies
agriculture and waste as the largest methane
emitters, followed by wetlands and fossil fuels.
Flooded rice cultivation represents a significant
agricultural source.
Global Methane Pledge (GMP):
❖ Launched at COP26, the GMP aims to
collectively reduce methane emissions by at
least 30% below 2020 levels by 2030.
❖ Led by the United States and European Union,
it has over 100 country participants responsible
for 45% of global human-caused methane
emissions.
❖ India has not joined due to concerns about its
impact on trade, agriculture, and the rural
economy.
International Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO):
❖ This UNEP initiative, launched in 2021 with support from the European Commission, emphasizes methane
reduction as the fastest short-term climate change mitigation strategy.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOOLOGY

Lecture – 12
Climate Change
 2

Climate Change
Ozone:
1. Stratospheric and Tropospheric Ozone:
➢ Ozone (O₃): A molecule composed of three oxygen atoms, playing a dual role in the Earth's atmosphere.
➢ Stratospheric Ozone (Good Ozone):
✓ Origin: Naturally formed in the stratosphere (upper layer) through the interaction between
molecular oxygen (O₂) and ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.
✓ Function: Acts as a protective shield, absorbing harmful UV rays from the sun, preventing them
from reaching the Earth's surface and protecting biological life.
➢ Tropospheric Ozone (Bad Ozone):
✓ Origin: Primarily formed at ground level through chemical reactions involving pollutants like
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the
presence of sunlight.
✓ Classification: Considered a pollutant and a short-lived greenhouse gas due to its detrimental
effects on human health, vegetation, and the environment.
2. Tropospheric Ozone Formation:
➢ Formation Process: The detailed chemical reactions leading to tropospheric ozone formation are
complex. However, a simplified explanation involves the following steps:
✓ Step 1: CO and VOCs react with hydroxyl radicals (OH), generating **hydroperoxy radicals (HO₂)
and peroxy radicals (RO₂) respectively.
✓ Step 2: HO₂ and NO react to form nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and regenerate OH or create alkoxy
radicals (RO).
✓ Step 3: NO₂ undergoes photolysis, a process where sunlight breaks the molecule apart, leading to
the formation of ozone (O₃).
3. Harmful Effects of Tropospheric Ozone:
➢ Health Impacts: Exposure to ground-level ozone can have several detrimental effects on human health,
including:
✓ Eye irritation: Causing itchy, watery eyes.
✓ Increased susceptibility to respiratory illnesses: Lowering resistance to colds and pneumonia.
✓ Exacerbated asthma: Presenting a significant health risk for individuals with asthma.
➢ Environmental Impacts: Elevated ozone levels can negatively impact plant life and ecosystems,
particularly during critical growth periods, by:
✓ Damaging sensitive vegetation: Disrupting plant growth and productivity.
✓ Disrupting ecosystems: Harming natural ecosystems, including forests.
4. Additional Considerations:
➢ Peak Formation: Ozone concentrations are most likely to reach unhealthy levels on hot, sunny days.
➢ Long-Range Transport: Wind can carry some ground-level ozone over long distances, causing elevated
levels even in rural areas.
 3

Photochemical Smog:
Definition and Occurrence:
❖ Photochemical smog: Also known as summer smog or Los Angeles smog, is a type of air pollution
characterized by a brownish haze and formed primarily in urban areas with high concentrations of vehicle
emissions.
❖ Formation Process:
 4

❖ Precursors: Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are released from various
sources, including vehicle exhaust, industrial processes, and fuel combustion.
❖ Sunlight-driven Reactions: In the presence of sunlight, NOx and VOCs undergo a series of complex
chemical reactions, leading to the formation of ozone (O₃), a secondary pollutant.

Impacts:
❖ Reduced Visibility: The brownish haze created by photochemical smog significantly reduces visibility,
impacting various activities and safety concerns.
❖ Health Effects: Exposure to photochemical smog can cause various respiratory problems, including
irritation of the eyes, coughing, and difficulty breathing. Individuals with pre-existing respiratory
conditions, like asthma, are particularly vulnerable.
❖ Environmental Damage: Photochemical smog can damage vegetation by disrupting their growth and
development.
❖ Temperature and Precipitation: Photochemical smog can trap heat near the ground due to a phenomenon
called temperature inversion, leading to warmer temperatures. Additionally, it can reduce precipitation
by altering cloud formation processes.
Case Studies:
❖ Elevated Pollution Levels: Cities like Los Angeles, Beijing, and Delhi are frequently affected by
photochemical smog due to a combination of factors like high traffic density, industrial activity, and specific
weather patterns.
❖ Exacerbated by Inversions: Atmospheric inversions, where warm air traps cooler air near the ground, can
worsen the effects of photochemical smog by preventing its dispersal, leading to higher concentrations of
pollutants closer to the ground.
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
Definition:
❖ Stratospheric Ozone Depletion: A gradual thinning of the ozone layer located in the Earth's stratosphere,
caused by the release of specific chemicals known as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS):
❖ Classification: The primary ODS include:
➢ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Previously used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and various industrial
applications.
 5

➢ Hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs): Transitional substitutes for CFCs, with lower ozone-depleting potential
but still considered ODS.
➢ Halons: Used in fire extinguishers, but their production and use have been phased out due to their severe
ozone-depleting effects.
❖ Commonality: All three categories of ODS contain halogen atoms, such as chlorine and bromine, which play
a crucial role in ozone depletion.

Conditions for Depletion:

❖ Low Temperature: Stratospheric ozone depletion requires extremely low temperatures, typically below -
78°C, found within polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).
❖ Sunlight Availability: The presence of sunlight is essential for the chemical reactions that deplete ozone.
This condition typically occurs during late winter or early spring in the polar regions.
The Process of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion:
❖ Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS):
The primary culprit behind ozone depletion is the release of ozone-depleting substances (ODS), primarily:
➢ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Previously widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and various
industrial applications.
➢ Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): Introduced as substitutes for CFCs with lower ozone-depleting
potential, but still classified as ODS.
➢ Hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs): Similar to HCFCs, containing both chlorine and bromine atoms,
but with a more potent ozone-depleting effect compared to HCFCs.
➢ Halons: Primarily used in fire extinguishers, their production and use have been phased out due to their
significant ozone-depleting potential.
➢ Methyl bromide: Previously employed as a fumigant for pest control, its use has been restricted due to
its ozone-depleting properties.
➢ Carbon tetrachloride: Formerly used in various applications like cleaning solvents, fire extinguishers,
and refrigerants, its use has been phased out due to environmental and health concerns, including its role
in ozone depletion.
 6

➢ Methyl chloroform: Previously used in aerosols and as a solvent for cleaning metals and circuit boards,
its production and use have been banned due to its ozone-depleting potential and other environmental and
health risks.
❖ The Journey to the Stratosphere: These ODS are released at ground level and gradually rise into the
stratosphere, the layer of the atmosphere between 15 and 50 kilometres above the Earth's surface.
❖ Activation in the Cold: For the ODS to become destructive, they need specific conditions. The extremely
low temperatures (below -78°C) found in polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play a crucial role. These clouds
provide surfaces for chemical reactions to occur.
❖ Unleashing the Destructive Force: Within PSCs, sunlight triggers chemical reactions that break down the
stable chlorine atoms present in the ODS, transforming them into highly reactive chlorine free radicals.
❖ The Chain Reaction:
➢ These free chlorine radicals initiate a catalytic cycle, where a single chlorine atom can destroy thousands
of ozone molecules. The process works like this:
➢ A chlorine radical reacts with an ozone molecule (O₃), breaking it down into an oxygen molecule (O₂)
and a chlorine monoxide molecule (ClO).
➢ The ClO molecule then reacts with another ozone molecule, again forming an O₂ and releasing a free
chlorine atom.
➢ This cycle continues until the chlorine radical is removed from the atmosphere through other reactions,
allowing it to destroy a multitude of ozone molecules in its lifetime.
❖ Regional Variations:
➢ The specific conditions needed for this destructive process to occur are most prevalent in the late winter
and early spring over the polar regions:
➢ Low temperatures: Met within the polar stratospheric clouds.
➢ Sunlight availability: Necessary for the chemical reactions to take place.
 7

Polar Specificity:
❖ Limited Depletion in Winter and Summer: Due to the absence of sunlight in winter and high temperatures
in summer, significant ozone depletion is not observed in polar regions during these seasons.
❖ Optimal Conditions in Late Winter/Early Spring: The convergence of low temperatures and sunlight
availability in late winter or early spring creates ideal conditions for ozone depletion in polar regions.
Role of Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs):
❖ Facilitating Reactions: PSCs provide surfaces for chemical reactions that convert stable chlorine from the
ODS into highly reactive free radicals. These reactive forms of chlorine are significantly more efficient at
destroying ozone molecules.

Regional Variations:
❖ Severity at the South Pole: Ozone depletion is generally more severe over the South Pole compared to the
North Pole. This difference is attributed to colder temperatures experienced in the Southern Hemisphere,
making it easier to reach the critical temperature threshold for ozone depletion.
Consequences of Ozone Depletion:
❖ Human Health: Increased exposure to ultraviolet (UV) B radiation due to ozone depletion can lead to
various health concerns, including:
➢ Eye diseases: Cataracts and other eye issues.
➢ Skin cancer: Increased risk of developing various forms of skin cancer.
❖ Ecosystem Impacts: Enhanced UV B radiation can negatively impact:
➢ Plants: Disrupting physiological processes and growth.
➢ Aquatic ecosystems: Damaging phytoplankton, a crucial component of the marine food chain.
Impact of Nanoparticles (NPs) on Ozone Depletion:
❖ Crucial Role of Hydroxyl Radical (OH): The hydroxyl radical (OH) is a highly reactive molecule known
as the primary oxidant in the lower atmosphere (troposphere and lower stratosphere).
 8

❖ OH and Ozone Depletion: The OH radical plays a vital role in the natural removal of stratospheric ozone-
depleting compounds, such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), by breaking them down through
chemical reactions.
❖ Nanoparticle Interference: However, nanoparticles (NPs), due to their high reactivity, can compete with
ozone-depleting substances for binding with OH radicals. This competition can reduce the availability of
OH radicals for their intended function, ultimately slowing down the removal of ozone-depleting
substances and contributing to the persistence of these harmful compounds in the atmosphere.
Ozone Holes: Regional Variations and Severity:
❖ Antarctic Ozone Hole: The Antarctic region is most susceptible to the formation of large and persistent
ozone holes. This vulnerability can be attributed to the presence of a strong polar vortex, a large, cold air
mass that isolates the region and allows for the creation of the necessary conditions for significant ozone
depletion.
❖ Arctic Ozone Hole: Compared to the Antarctic, the Arctic experiences smaller and less frequent ozone
holes due to several factors:
➢ Weaker Polar Vortex: The polar vortex in the Arctic is weaker and less stable than its Antarctic
counterpart, leading to less ideal conditions for extensive ozone depletion.
➢ Higher Temperatures: The Arctic region generally experiences higher temperatures compared to the
Antarctic, further limiting the formation of significant ozone holes.
The Recently Discovered Tropical Ozone Hole:
❖ Unexpected Discovery: Scientists have recently identified a large, year-round ozone hole present in the
lower stratosphere over the tropical region. While its existence is estimated to date back to the 1980s, its
detection is a relatively recent development.
❖ Unique Characteristics: This newly discovered tropical ozone hole exhibits several distinct characteristics:
➢ All-Season Presence: Unlike the predominantly springtime appearance of the Antarctic ozone hole,
the tropical hole is present throughout the year.
➢ Greater Area: The tropical ozone hole is estimated to be seven times larger in area compared to the
Antarctic one.
➢ Similar Depth: While significantly larger in area, the depth of the tropical and Antarctic ozone holes
is comparable.
Black Carbon's Impact on Climate Change:
1. Reduced Albedo: Black carbon particles settle on snow and ice surfaces, diminishing their reflectivity
(albedo) to incoming solar radiation. This phenomenon, known as the albedo effect, leads to increased
absorption of solar energy by the Earth, contributing to global warming.
2. Direct Heating: Black carbon particles have a stronger ability to absorb sunlight compared to greenhouse
gases like carbon dioxide (CO2). This absorbed energy directly heats the surrounding air, further contributing
to Earth's warming.
3. Relative Short-Lived Impact: While CO2 can persist in the atmosphere for centuries, black carbon particles
have a shorter lifespan, remaining airborne for only days to weeks before being removed through
precipitation (rain or snow). This characteristic differentiates the immediate impact of black carbon from the
long-term influence of CO2 on climate change.
 9

However, it's crucial to remember that both black carbon and CO2 contribute significantly to global
warming. Although black carbon has a shorter lifespan, its potent warming effect during its presence in the
atmosphere cannot be disregarded.
Black Carbon and COVID-19: A Preliminary Observation (Caution: Correlation does not imply causation):
The study conducted by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology suggests a potential correlation between
black carbon levels and COVID-19 cases and deaths. The specific findings indicate:
❖ Positive Correlation: A rise in black carbon concentration coincided with an increase in COVID-19
infection rates. Conversely, a decrease in black carbon levels was observed alongside a decline in
COVID-19 cases.
❖ Positive Correlation: Similarly, the study reports a positive correlation between black carbon levels and
COVID-19 death rates. Increased black carbon concentrations were associated with a higher number of
COVID-19 deaths, while a decrease in black carbon corresponded with a reduction in COVID-19 fatalities.
It's important to emphasize that this study establishes a correlation, not causation. Further research is
necessary to establish a definitive causal link between black carbon levels and the severity of COVID-19 infection
and mortality. Additionally, other factors potentially influencing these observations need to be investigated
comprehensively.

Fluorinated Gases and their Impact on Climate Change:

1. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs):
➢ Definition: PFCs are a group of human-made chemical compounds consisting solely of carbon and
fluorine atoms.
➢ Origin: They are primarily produced as by-products during:
✓ Aluminum production: PFCs are inadvertently created during the electrolytic smelting process
used to extract aluminum from its ore.
✓ Semiconductor manufacturing: PFCs serve as alternatives to Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in
certain etching and cleaning processes within the semiconductor industry.
➢ Climate Impact: PFCs are classified as greenhouse gases (GHGs) due to their ability to trap heat in the
atmosphere. They possess:
✓ Long atmospheric lifetimes: PFCs remain airborne for extended periods, typically ranging from
decades to millennia, allowing them to exert a sustained warming influence.
✓ High Global Warming Potential (GWP): Compared to carbon dioxide (CO2), PFCs have a
significantly higher warming capacity, meaning they trap substantially more heat per molecule.
This amplifies their overall contribution to global warming.
 10

2. Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6):

➢ Classification: SF6 is classified as a greenhouse gas (GHG) similar to PFCs.
➢ Applications: SF6 finds application in various industrial processes, including:
✓ Magnesium processing: Used in the extraction and refining of magnesium metal.
✓ Semiconductor manufacturing: Employed in specific etching and cleaning processes during
semiconductor production.
✓ Leak detection: Utilized as a tracer gas to identify leaks in various industrial equipment and
systems.
✓ Electrical transmission equipment: Particularly employed as an insulating gas in high-voltage
electrical equipment like circuit breakers due to its excellent insulating properties.
➢ Climate Impact: Similar to PFCs, SF6 possesses:
✓ Long atmospheric lifetime: SF6 remains airborne for extended periods, typically lasting for
centuries, contributing to its sustained warming influence.
✓ High Global Warming Potential (GWP): SF6 has a significantly higher GWP compared to CO2,
meaning it traps substantially more heat per molecule, amplifying its overall contribution to global
warming.
Nitrous Oxide (N₂O):
❖ Origin: N₂O originates from both natural and human-driven sources:
➢ Natural sources: Primarily arise from processes within the nitrogen cycle and bacterial decomposition
of organic matter.
➢ Anthropogenic sources: Include emissions from:
✓ Vehicle exhaust: Incomplete combustion in internal combustion engines releases N₂O as a
byproduct.
✓ Agricultural practices: Application of certain fertilizers and manure management contribute to N₂O
emissions.
✓ Industrial processes: Nitric acid production and other industrial activities can release N₂O.
✓ Biomass burning: The burning of plant material, including wildfires, is another source of N₂O
emissions.
❖ Climate Impact: N₂O is a potent greenhouse gas with a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of around 300
times greater than carbon dioxide (CO₂). This means that each molecule of N₂O has a significantly higher
capacity to trap heat in the atmosphere compared to a CO₂ molecule, contributing substantially to global
warming.
❖ Lifespan: N₂O has a relatively long atmospheric lifetime of approximately 100-120 years, allowing it to
exert a sustained warming influence.
Carbon Monoxide (CO):
❖ Classification: While CO can indirectly contribute to the greenhouse effect, it is considered a weak direct
GHG due to several factors:
➢ Short lifespan: CO has a relatively short atmospheric lifetime, typically lasting only weeks or months,
before being converted to CO₂ through atmospheric processes.
 11

➢ Low absorption: CO weakly absorbs infrared radiation, the primary mechanism by which gases
contribute to the greenhouse effect.
❖ Indirect Radiative Forcing: Despite being a weak direct GHG, CO can indirectly influence climate by:
➢ Elevating methane (CH₄) concentrations: CO reacts with hydroxyl radicals (OH), which are the
primary atmospheric sink for CH₄. This reduction in OH availability indirectly leads to increased CH₄
concentrations, a potent greenhouse gas.
➢ Contributing to tropospheric ozone (O₃) formation: CO interacts with other atmospheric components,
leading to the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere (troposphere). Although tropospheric ozone is
a greenhouse gas, its net radiative effect on climate is complex and remains an area of ongoing research.
❖ Recent Observation: Satellite data from NASA revealed the extensive long-range transport of CO plumes
from wildfires in California across North America and the Atlantic Ocean. This highlights the potential for
large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns to influence the distribution and impacts of CO emissions.
Water Vapor (H₂O):
❖ Dominant Greenhouse Gas: While not directly influenced by human activities, H₂O is the most significant
contributor to the natural greenhouse effect.
❖ Natural Origin: H₂O is an integral part of the natural water cycle, constantly evaporating from the Earth's
surface, forming clouds, and returning through precipitation.
❖ High Abundance: H₂O is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere due to its continuous
presence within the water cycle.
 12

Carbon Bombs:
1. Definition:
➢ Carbon Bomb: A fossil fuel extraction project (coal, oil, or gas) with the potential to emit more than
one gigaton (Gt) of carbon dioxide (CO₂) over its operational lifetime. These projects represent a
significant source of future greenhouse gas emissions and pose a challenge to achieving climate change
mitigation goals.
2. Identification and Distribution:
➢ Leave It In the Ground Initiative (LINGO): A non-profit organization dedicated to advocating against
fossil fuel extraction, identified 425 carbon bombs globally.
➢ Emission Potential: According to LINGO, the combined potential emissions from these projects
exceed the carbon budget required to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels by a
factor of two. This indicates that allowing all these projects to reach their full potential would
significantly hinder our ability to meet international climate goals.
➢ Geographic Distribution: Countries with the highest number of carbon bombs include:
✓ China
✓ United States
✓ Russia
✓ Saudi Arabia
 13

3. Examples of Carbon Bombs:

➢ Carmichael Coal Project: A large coal mine project located in Queensland, Australia, and owned by the
Adani Group.
➢ Gevra Coal Mines: Located in the state of Chhattisgarh, India, and operated by Coal India Limited, a
government-owned coal mining company.
➢ Rajmahal Coal Mines: Situated in eastern Jharkhand, India, and owned by Eastern Coalfields Limited,
another government-owned coal mining company.
4. About LINGO:
➢ Mission: The Leave It In the Ground Initiative (LINGO) advocates for a transition away from fossil fuels
and towards a 100% renewable energy future.
➢ Vision: LINGO envisions a circular economy that minimizes waste and prioritizes resource efficiency.
➢ Strategies: LINGO aims to achieve its goals through:
✓ Raising public awareness: Educating the public about the detrimental impacts of carbon bombs
and the urgency of climate action.
✓ Mobilizing citizen action: Encouraging public participation in protests and other forms of advocacy
against carbon bomb projects.
✓ Legal challenges: Using legal avenues to challenge the approval and development of carbon bomb
projects.
Carbon Sensitivity:
❖ Definition: Carbon sensitivity refers to the responsiveness of the Earth's climate system to changes in
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations. It quantifies the magnitude of temperature change that
would occur in response to a specific increase or decrease in atmospheric CO₂ levels.
❖ Expression: Typically expressed as climate sensitivity, which represents the equilibrium global mean
surface temperature change anticipated when atmospheric CO₂ concentrations double compared to pre-
industrial levels.
❖ Estimated Values: The estimated range for climate sensitivity is 1.5°C to 4.5°C, with a most likely value of
3°C. This indicates that doubling atmospheric CO₂ could lead to a global average temperature increase of 3°C,
although the actual change could be within the broader range.
Climate Feedbacks:
❖ Definition: Climate feedbacks are interacting processes within the Earth's climate system that can amplify
or dampen the effects of an initial climate forcing, such as an increase in greenhouse gas concentrations.
These feedback loops play a crucial role in determining the overall sensitivity of the climate system to external
changes.
❖ Types of Feedbacks:
➢ Positive Feedbacks: These feedbacks accentuate the initial forcing, leading to greater warming. An
example is the ice-albedo feedback. As temperatures rise, ice and snow melt, exposing darker surfaces
that absorb more solar radiation, further warming the planet and causing more ice and snow to melt,
creating a positive feedback loop.
 14

➢ Negative Feedbacks: These feedbacks counteract the initial forcing, leading to reduced warming. An
example is the carbon sequestration by plants. As atmospheric CO₂ increases, plant growth may
accelerate, leading to increased CO₂ absorption, which can partially mitigate the initial CO₂ rise.
❖ Additional Feedbacks: Other notable climate feedbacks include:
➢ Changes in cloud cover: Cloud cover can reflect or trap heat, influencing both warming and cooling.
➢ Ocean circulation: Ocean currents play a significant role in heat redistribution, impacting global
temperature patterns.
➢ Greenhouse gas release from permafrost and ocean sediments: As permafrost and ocean sediments
thaw due to warming, they can release stored greenhouse gases, further amplifying warming (positive
feedback).

The Duality of Clouds: Balancing and Complicating Climate Change

The Complex Role of Clouds:
Clouds play a dual and intricate role in regulating Earth's climate. They exhibit both cooling and warming
effects, leading to a net outcome that is complex and challenging to accurately predict.
Dual Effects of Clouds:
❖ Cooling Effect: Clouds can reflect a portion of incoming solar radiation back into space, acting as a
"negative feedback" mechanism. This phenomenon helps to mitigate the warming effect of greenhouse
gases.
➢ Low-level clouds: These clouds are particularly effective at reflecting sunlight due to their larger water
droplets, acting as "strong coolers".
❖ Warming Effect: Conversely, clouds can also trap some of the Earth's outgoing thermal radiation,
preventing it from escaping back into space. This "positive feedback" contributes to warming.
➢ High-level clouds: These clouds, often composed of ice crystals (e.g., cirrus clouds), are "strong
warmers" due to their ability to trap heat, despite reflecting less sunlight.
Impact of Climate Change on Cloud Cover:
❖ Warmer and wetter atmosphere: A warming climate is expected to lead to a wetter atmosphere, potentially
influencing cloud cover and composition.
❖ Cloud type and effectiveness: Clouds composed primarily of water droplets are generally more effective at
blocking sunlight compared to those dominated by ice crystals.
Shifted Cloud Cover and Its Implications:
❖ Shifting sun-blocking clouds: With global warming, there is a possibility of shifts in cloud distribution,
with sun-blocking clouds potentially moving from tropical regions towards the poles.
❖ Reduced effectiveness at higher latitudes: However, as these clouds move towards the poles, their
effectiveness in blocking sunlight may decrease due to the inherently less intense incoming sunlight at
those latitudes.
Challenge of Modeling Cloud Feedback:
❖ Net effect complexity: The net effect of cloud feedback on climate change is complicated and dynamic.
The interplay between different cloud types, their geographical distribution, and their response to a changing
climate makes precise modeling a significant challenge for scientists.
 15

Impacts of Global Warming:

1. Increased Frequency and Severity of Heat Waves:
➢ Definition: A heat wave is an extended period of excessively hot weather. The India Meteorological
Department (IMD) defines it as a period where the maximum temperature remains at or above 45°C
for several consecutive days, exceeding the normal maximum temperature.
➢ Recent Examples:
✓ British Columbia (2021): A deadly heat wave swept through southwestern Canada and neighboring
parts of the United States, leading to numerous casualties.
✓ Australia (2019-2020): The country experienced its hottest summer on record, with widespread
bushfires and devastating ecological impacts.
✓ California (2020): Multiple heat waves throughout the year fueled major wildfires and exacerbated
drought conditions.
✓ Siberia (2020): Unprecedented summer heat waves contributed to record-breaking temperatures and
wildfires in the region.
➢ Causes of Heat Waves:
✓ Shifting Jet Streams: Meandering Rossby waves in temperate regions can create "heat domes",
trapping warm air and leading to prolonged hot weather.
✓ Hot Local Winds: Winds like the loo in the Gangetic Plains of India can significantly amplify the
perceived heat and discomfort levels.
✓ Anthropogenic Causes: Global warming, driven by human activities, plays a significant role in
increasing the frequency and intensity of heat waves.
➢ Vulnerable Communities: Several areas are particularly susceptible to the impacts of heat waves:
✓ Coastal environments: Rising sea levels and heat stress pose a combined threat to coastal
communities.
✓ Small island nations: These nations are at risk from rising sea levels, heat waves, and extreme
weather events.
✓ Polar regions: Accelerated melting of glaciers and permafrost creates unique challenges in these
regions.
✓ High mountains: Changes in snow cover and water availability can significantly impact
communities in high mountain regions.
2. Marine Heat Waves: Rising Temperatures and Cascading Effects:
➢ Definition: Marine heat waves occur when ocean temperatures in a specific region become
exceptionally warm for an extended period and deviate significantly from average seasonal
temperatures. These events can occur in both summer and winter.
➢ Scientific Evidence:
✓ Increased Frequency: The IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing
Climate (SROCC) highlights that marine heat waves have become twice as frequent in the past
four decades and are lasting longer.
 16

✓ Human Influence: The report also finds that human activities are responsible for 84-90% of
marine heat waves observed in the last decade.
✓ Future Projections: By 2081, the frequency of marine heat waves is projected to increase by
20-50 times, posing a significant threat to marine ecosystems and coastal communities.
➢ Impacts on Marine Ecosystems:
✓ Coral Bleaching: Marine heat waves contribute significantly to large-scale coral bleaching events,
with recovery times exceeding 15 years for affected corals.
✓ Reduced Oxygen and Nutrients: These events disrupt ocean mixing, leading to reduced oxygen
and nutrient availability for marine life, impacting the entire food chain.
✓ Algal Blooms and Disruptions: Warmer ocean waters can trigger the growth of toxin-producing
algae, while simultaneously suppressing the growth of organisms at the base of the food chain,
disrupting the delicate balance of the marine ecosystem.

3. Disrupted Weather Patterns: A Tangled Web of Consequences:

➢ Impact on Global Wind Circulation and Ocean Currents: Marine heat waves have a pronounced
effect on global wind circulation and ocean currents.
✓ Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC): The IPCC report indicates that the
AMOC, a crucial system transporting warm water northward and cold water southward in the
Atlantic Ocean, has already weakened. This weakening could have cascading effects on global
climate patterns.
➢ Increased Intensity of Cyclonic Storms:
✓ Emerging Evidence: The IPCC report suggests emerging evidence of an annual increase in the
percentage of category 4 and 5 storms.
✓ Warmer Ocean Waters: These storms draw energy and intensify by feeding on the moisture
available over warm ocean waters.
 17

✓ Example: Cyclone Gudade is one such example of a storm that intensified significantly due to
warm ocean temperatures.
4. Wildfires in the Arctic:
➢ Previously Uncommon Events: Wildfires have historically occurred on the permafrost in Siberia, south
of the Arctic Circle. However, in 2020, there was a significant increase in wildfires well above the Arctic
Circle, in the tundra region, which is not typically known to support large wildfires.
➢ Unprecedented Drying: The primary reason for these wildfires is the unprecedented drying of tundra
vegetation, such as moss, grass, and dwarf shrubs.
➢ Emerging Threat: Zombie Fires: Additionally, "zombie fires" are becoming more frequent in the
previously frozen tundra north of the Arctic Circle. These are fires from a previous growing season that
can smolder underground in peat (carbon-rich organic matter) for extended periods, even during winter,
and reignite in subsequent seasons.
➢ Potential Consequences: The combined effects of wildfires and record high temperatures in the Arctic
have the potential to transform the region from a carbon sink to a carbon source, exacerbating global
climate change.
5. The Shrinking Cryosphere:
➢ Definition: The cryosphere encompasses all areas of the Earth where water is frozen for at least part of
the year, including:
✓ Continental ice sheets (Greenland and Antarctica)
✓ Ice caps and glaciers (e.g., Himalayas, Alps)
✓ Permafrost (frozen ground)
✓ Sea ice and frozen elements of lakes and rivers
➢ Threat to World Heritage Sites: A study by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
predicts that glaciers in nearly half of the world's natural World Heritage Sites, such as the Khumbu
Glacier in the Himalayas, could disappear entirely by 2100 if greenhouse gas emissions continue at their
current rate.
Impacts of a Shrinking Cryosphere:
➢ Water Scarcity and Conflict: The melting cryosphere is expected to lead to water scarcity and
potentially even conflict between nations over water resources.
➢ Loss of Coastal Ecosystems: The reduction in glaciers and sea ice will contribute to the loss of
ecologically important coastal wetlands.
➢ Displacement of Coastal Communities: Rising sea levels due to melting ice will inundate coastal areas,
displacing communities and causing significant humanitarian challenges.
➢ Submerged Islands: Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are particularly vulnerable to rising sea
levels and are likely to be among the first to experience the severe consequences of climate change.
➢ Reduced Hydropower Generation: Changes in glacier behavior and meltwater flow will likely reduce
hydropower generation, leading to increased reliance on fossil fuels.
➢ Vegetation Changes: As permafrost thaws, the tundra may transition from its current state to swamps,
and existing forests may be lost, leading to a reduction in the overall carbon sink capacity of the region.
 18

➢ Opening of the Northern Sea Route: The Northern Sea Route (NSR), a shipping route connecting the
North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans via the Arctic Ocean, is becoming increasingly navigable due
to reduced sea ice cover. Models predict that the NSR could be ice-free in summer by 2050, potentially
impacting global shipping patterns.

➢ Coastal Flooding and Land Loss: Rising sea levels will also lead to increased coastal flooding and the
loss of arable land in coastal regions.

The Greenland Ice Sheet and its Rapid Melting:

➢ Global Significance: The Greenland ice sheet is the world's second-largest ice sheet and contains
enough water that, if completely melted, could raise global sea levels by 7.2 meters.
➢ Accelerated Warming: The Arctic ice sheet, including Greenland, is warming three to four times faster
than the rest of the world, contributing almost 1 millimeter to global sea level rise annually.
 19

➢ Major Contributor to Sea Level Rise: The melting of the Greenland ice sheet is currently the main
driver of global sea level rise. Over the past two decades, Greenland has lost more than 5,100 billion
tons of ice, which is enough water to raise sea levels by 0.5 meters globally.
6. Arctic Amplification:
➢ The Arctic is experiencing warming at a rate four times faster than the global average, due to a
phenomenon known as Arctic amplification (AA).
➢ AA refers to the enhanced warming of near-surface air temperatures in the Arctic compared to lower
latitudes. This is primarily caused by:
✓ Changes in albedo: As polar ice melts, the Earth's surface becomes less reflective (lower albedo),
leading to increased absorption of solar radiation and further warming.
➢ The consequences of Arctic amplification include:
✓ Global sea level rise, partly due to the melting of the Greenland ice sheet and the addition of "zombie
ice" (ice that is no longer actively replenished by glaciers).
✓ Release of greenhouse gases from thawing permafrost, which can further accelerate global
warming.
✓ Impacts on mid-latitude climate and the occurrence of extreme weather events due to the
weakening of the tropospheric jet stream.

The Naming of Tropical Cyclones:

The naming of tropical cyclones follows a structured, internationally coordinated process established by the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
1. Regional Responsibility:
➢ Five regional tropical cyclone bodies, each covering a specific basin, are responsible for assigning
names:
✓ North Atlantic Ocean: National Hurricane Center (NHC)
✓ Eastern North Pacific Ocean: Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center (EPHC)
✓ North Indian Ocean: India Meteorological Department (IMD)
✓ South Indian Ocean: Mauritius Meteorological Service (MMS)
✓ South-West Pacific Ocean: Fiji Meteorological Service (FMS)
2. Predetermined Lists:
➢ Each region maintains pre-designated lists of names (in alphabetical order) that rotate every six years.
➢ Lists typically comprise 21 gender-neutral names, alternating between male and female names.
➢ Names are chosen to be easily remembered and pronounced by diverse populations within the region.
➢ Offensive, culturally insensitive, or politically charged names are avoided.
➢ Naming Criteria:
➢ Tropical cyclones are only named when they reach sustained wind speeds of at least 62 km/h (39 mph)
on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale.
➢ The first storm of the season receives the first name on the list, and subsequent storms use names in
sequential order.
➢ If more than 21 storms occur in a single season, additional names are drawn from a supplemental list.
 20

4. Retirement of Names:
➢ In cases of particularly destructive or memorable storms, the WMO may retire the name to prevent
future confusion or distress.
➢ A retired name is replaced by a new one at the next meeting of the relevant regional tropical cyclone
body.
5. International Cooperation:
➢ The WMO promotes coordination and consistency in tropical cyclone naming procedures across
regions.
➢ This standardized approach facilitates international communication, disaster preparedness, and public
awareness during storms.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment & Ecology

Lecture – 13
Climate Change Negotiations
 2

Climate Change Negotiations

International Conventions :
Convention:
❖ A formal agreement intended for a large number of participating countries.
❖ Generally open to participation by the international community at large.
❖ Often used for instruments negotiated under the auspices of international organizations.
❖ Examples: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
(UNCBD).
Protocol:
❖ An agreement stemming from a previous framework treaty, offering specific obligations that build upon the
general objectives of the original convention.
❖ Aims to streamline and accelerate the treaty-making process.
❖ Commonly used in the field of international environmental law.
❖ Example: The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, established based on the
1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer.
Signing and Ratification:
Signing:
❖ Negotiations leading to a treaty and involves representatives from participating states.
❖ Agreement is reached on the terms that will bind these signatory states.
❖ Upon agreement, the treaty is formally signed, typically by relevant government ministers.
❖ Signing signifies a state's intention to comply with the treaty, but does not constitute a legal obligation.
 3

Ratification:
❖ After signing, each state undergoes internal procedures according to its national legal framework.
❖ Example: In India, the Executive branch ratifies treaties, while in the Netherlands, parliamentary approval is
necessary.
❖ Upon completion of internal procedures and obtaining necessary approvals, a state formally notifies other
parties of its consent to be bound by the treaty. This process is known as ratification.
❖ Following ratification, the treaty becomes legally binding on that state.
Global Climate Change Negotiations Explained:
The Remaining Carbon Budget:
 4

❖ Carbon Budget: The total amount

of carbon dioxide emissions the
world can release to stay within a
defined temperature limit,
typically 2°C above pre-industrial levels.
❖ Current situation: As of 2011, approximately 531 billion tonnes of CO₂ out of an estimated total allowance
of 1000 billion tonnes had been emitted.
❖ Remaining carbon budget: This leaves roughly 469 billion tonnes of CO₂ emissions that can be released
before exceeding the 2°C threshold.
Competition for Limited Carbon Space:
❖ Limited carbon space: The
remaining carbon budget
represents a constrained
opportunity to avoid exceeding
the 2°C temperature target.
❖ Intense competition: Different countries and sectors compete for this limited carbon space to meet their
development and energy needs.
The Challenge of Carbon Reduction:
❖ Insufficient pledges: Current national pledges to reduce emissions (INDCs) fall short of the level needed to
stay within the remaining carbon budget.
❖ Exhaustion risk: At the current emission rate, the remaining carbon budget could be exhausted within the
next 25-30 years, significantly increasing the risk of exceeding the 2°C limit.
Climate Change and the Cost of Action:
❖ Reducing emissions: Transitioning towards a low-carbon economy requires an investment, with estimated
annual costs ranging from:
➢ 0.5 trillion USD: The lower estimate represents the potential cost of achieving the 2°C target.
➢ 2.6 trillion USD: The higher estimate reflects the cost of aiming for the more ambitious 1.5°C target.
International Conventions Explained:
Limited Carbon Space:
❖ The remaining carbon budget represents the estimated total amount of future greenhouse gas emissions that
can be released to keep global warming within safe limits (below 2°C or 1.5°C as outlined in the Paris
Agreement).
 5

Equity in Emissions Reduction:

❖ Developed countries: As the major historical contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, developed nations are
expected to shoulder a larger responsibility for reducing future emissions. Their historical emissions are
estimated to exceed 75% of the total accumulated atmospheric greenhouse gases causing climate change.
❖ Developing countries: While developing countries are encouraged to participate in emissions reduction
efforts, they are acknowledged to have a lower historical contribution and face challenges like energy poverty
and underdevelopment. They are entitled to technological and financial assistance from developed countries
to support their transition to cleaner energy sources and sustainable development.
❖ India and the Global South: These regions argue for a larger share of the remaining carbon budget due to
their historically low emissions and ongoing development needs.
Adaptation:
❖ Definition: Adaptation refers to the process of adjusting to the current and expected impacts of climate change.
❖ Purpose: It aims to minimize the damage caused by climate change and potentially benefit from new
opportunities that may arise.
❖ Examples:
➢ Large-scale infrastructure changes: Building sea walls to protect against rising sea levels.
➢ Behavioral shifts: Reducing individual carbon footprints through actions like minimizing food waste.
Mitigation:
❖ Definition: Mitigation refers to actions that reduce the severity of climate change by preventing or limiting
the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
❖ Strategies:
➢ Reducing emission sources: Increasing the use of renewable energy sources, developing cleaner
transportation systems, and enhancing energy efficiency.
➢ Enhancing carbon sinks: Expanding forests and other natural ecosystems that absorb and store carbon
dioxide.
❖ Overall objective: Mitigation aims to lessen the human impact on the climate and minimize future negative
consequences.
Loss and Damage:
❖ Definition: "Loss and damage" refers to the negative consequences of climate change that exceed a country
or community's ability to adapt or cope with. This includes both:
➢ Extreme weather events: Cyclones, droughts, heatwaves, etc.
➢ Slow-onset changes: Sea level rise, desertification, glacial retreat, etc.
❖ Link to adaptation and mitigation: Loss and damage occurs when:
➢ Mitigation efforts are insufficient to prevent significant emissions.
➢ Adaptation measures are ineffective or inaccessible due to limited resources.
❖ Developing country perspective:
➢ Advocate for addressing existing losses, not just focusing on preventing future ones.
➢ Hold developed countries morally and financially responsible for the losses incurred due to their historical
emissions.
➢ Emphasize the distinction between loss and damage, arguing that these losses cannot be fully adapted to.
 6

❖ Developed country perspective:

➢ Concerned about potential legal and financial liabilities associated with admitting responsibility for losses
and damages.
Climate Reparations:
❖ Concept:
Financial
compensation
provided by
developed
countries to
developing
countries for the
historical
contribution of
developed nations
to climate change
and its associated
damages.
❖ Basis: Extension of the "Polluter Pays" principle, which holds polluters accountable for the environmental
damage they cause.
Greenwashing:
❖ Definition: The deceptive practice of misleading the public about the true environmental impact of a company,
product, policy, or government initiative. This can involve making them appear more environmentally friendly
than they actually are.
❖ Prevention: Implementing a clear and standardized classification system (taxonomy) for green finance to
prevent misleading claims and ensure transparency.
Global Climate Change Negotiations Explained:
 7

The Keeling Curve:

❖ Definition: The Keeling Curve is a graph that visually represents the long-term rise in atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO₂) concentrations since the late 1950s.
❖ Origin:
➢ Named after Charles David Keeling, who initiated continuous measurements of atmospheric CO₂ at the
Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii in 1958.
➢ Measurements have been diligently continued by his son, Ralph Keeling, and a team of scientists since
then.
❖ Significance:
➢ Provides a critical piece of evidence for the ongoing increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, which
is primarily attributed to human activities like burning fossil fuels and land-use changes.
➢ The graph demonstrates a clear long-term rising trend, superimposed with seasonal fluctuations due to
the natural exchange of CO₂ between the atmosphere and land, primarily through vegetation.
➢ These annual variations highlight the long-term trend of steadily increasing CO₂ concentration over time.
International Conventions Explained:
Adaptation Gap Report 2022:
❖ Released by: The United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).
❖ Title: "Too Little, Too Slow - Climate adaptation failure
puts world at risk".
❖ Concept: The adaptation gap refers to the difference
between:
➢ Current state of adaptation: Preparedness to cope
with climate change impacts.
➢ Desired state of adaptation: Necessary level of
adaptation to effectively manage future climate
change impacts.
Key Findings:
❖ While over 80% of UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) parties have national
adaptation plans, funding remains inadequate.
 8

❖ Combined adaptation and mitigation finance in 2020 fell short of the $100 billion pledged to developing
countries.
❖ The adaptation finance gap in developing countries is estimated to be 5-10 times greater than current
international flows.
Principles for Locally Led Adaptation (LLA):
❖ Developed by: The Global Commission on Adaptation (GCA)
❖ Purpose: To guide stakeholders in implementing adaptation efforts owned and led by local communities.
❖ Established by: Netherlands and 22 other countries, including India, in 2018.
Emissions Gap Report 2022:
❖ Published by: The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
❖ Key Findings:
➢ To limit global warming below 2°C and 1.5°C, global greenhouse gas emissions need to be reduced by
30% and 45% respectively compared to current projections.
➢ While India is the third largest total emitter, its per capita emissions remain below the world average.
➢ The bottom 50% of households contribute a smaller share of global emissions compared to the top 1%.
❖ Concept: The emissions gap refers to the difference between:
➢ Expected levels of emissions: Forecasted future emissions based on current policies.
➢ Required emissions levels: Emissions necessary to achieve specific temperature targets (e.g., 2°C or
1.5°C).
International Conventions Explained:
The Stockholm Conference:
❖ Event: The UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference).
❖ Date and Location: June 5-16, 1972, in Stockholm, Sweden.
❖ Significance: Marked the emergence of international environmental law and global efforts towards
environmental protection.
❖ Theme: "Only One Earth".
❖ Outcomes:
➢ Stockholm Declaration: A document outlining 26 principles for environmental protection and
sustainable development.
➢ Action Plan for the Human Environment: A framework for international cooperation on environmental
issues.
➢ Establishment of UNEP: The United Nations Environment Programme, tasked with coordinating global
environmental activities.
➢ Increased global awareness: The conference raised global awareness about environmental challenges
and the need for collective action.
Key Principles Established:
 9

❖ Safeguarding natural resources.

❖ Alleviating poverty to protect the
environment (recognizing the link
between poverty and
environmental degradation).
❖ Other Important Points:
➢ The importance of the
precautionary principle:
taking preventive measures
against environmental risks,
even if scientific knowledge
is incomplete.
➢ The polluter-pays principle: holding polluters responsible for the costs of managing and preventing
environmental damage.
The UN Environment Programme (UNEP):
❖ Established: 1972, following the Stockholm Conference.
❖ Mandate:
➢ Coordinates UN environmental activities.
➢ Assists developing countries in implementing sustainable practices.
➢ Addresses environmental issues across various domains (atmosphere, ecosystems, governance, etc.).
❖ Membership: 193 member states, including India.
❖ Headquarters: Nairobi, Kenya.
❖ Key Achievements:
➢ Establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) jointly with the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO).
➢ Implementing agencies for various
environmental agreements like the
Montreal Protocol and the Minamata
Convention.
➢ Hosting the secretariats of several
multilateral environmental agreements.
➢ Major reports on environmental issues,
such as the Global Environment Outlook
and the Adaptation Gap Report.
➢ Faith for Earth Initiative (FEI): Promotes
collaboration with faith-based
organizations to achieve the UN
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
 10

Other UNEP-related initiatives:

❖ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): Established jointly with the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) to assess climate science.
❖ Global Environment Facility (GEF): UNEP is one of the implementing agencies for this international fund
supporting environmental projects.
❖ Faith for Earth Initiative (FEI): Launched in 2017 to engage faith-based organizations in achieving the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Champions of the Earth Award:
❖ Established: 2005
❖ Awarded by: UN Environment Programme (UNEP)
❖ Significance: Highest environmental honor bestowed by the UN
❖ Recognition: Outstanding leaders from government, civil society, and the private sector who demonstrate
transformative environmental impact
❖ Example: Dr. Purnima Devi Barman (2022, India) - leader of the Hargila Army, an all-female grassroots
movement protecting the Greater Adjutant Stork in Assam.
1982 Nairobi Summit:
❖ Purpose: Assessed the implementation of the Stockholm Declaration, a landmark environmental agreement
adopted in 1972.
❖ Outcome:
➢ Governments reaffirmed their commitment to studying environmental and development issues.
➢ The UN General Assembly established the Brundtland Commission in 1984.
Brundtland Commission and Sustainable Development:
❖ Report: "Our Common Future" (1987)
 11

❖ Definition of Sustainable Development: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs, encompassing both intra-generational (within generation) and
inter-generational (across generation) equity.
❖ Recommendation: Governments were urged to promote sustainable development practices.
UNCED/Earth Summit, Rio De Janeiro (1992):
❖ Full name: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
❖ Popularly known as: Earth Summit 1992
❖ Significance: Raised global awareness about integrating environmental and development goals.
❖ Commitment: 190 countries pledged significant reduction in global, regional, and local biodiversity loss by
2010.
Earth Summit Outcomes:
❖ Rio Declaration: Non-binding principles for countries to guide their sustainable development efforts (signed
by over 175 countries).
❖ Agenda 21: Non-binding action plan by the UN to address sustainable development challenges globally.
❖ Forest Principles: Non-legally binding guidelines for conserving and sustainably managing all types of
forests.
Rio Declaration:
❖ Content: 27 principles outlining the foundation for sustainable development.
❖ Key points:
➢ Human beings are central to sustainable development, striving for healthy and productive lives in harmony
with nature (Principle 1).
➢ States are expected to enact environmental legislation (Principle 11).
➢ The precautionary principle should be applied widely by states according to their capabilities (Principle
15).
➢ Polluter-pays principle encourages states to hold polluters responsible (Principle 16, with consideration
for public interest, trade, and investment).
➢ Principles should be fulfilled in good faith (Principle 27).
Agenda 21:
❖ Nature: Non-binding action plan by the UN for global sustainable development.
❖ Initial target: Achieve sustainability by 2000 (hence, "21" in the title).
❖ Review: The UN General Assembly assessed progress in 1997 (Rio+5).
❖ Local Agenda 21: Encourages local governments to develop their own sustainability action plans.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 14
Climate Change Negotiations
(Part-II)
 2

Climate Change Negotiations (Part-II)

Impact of Shrinking Cryosphere
❖ Water Scarcity
❖ Loss of biodiversity
❖ Reduce hydroelectricity capacity
❖ Change in vegetations
❖ Sea level rise (Small Island developing state)
Earth Summit:
❖ The 'Earth Summit' was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
❖ The Earth Summit resulted in the following documents:
➢ Rio Declaration: Principles intended to guide countries in future sustainable development.
➢ Agenda 21: Non-binding action plan of the United Nations regarding sustainable development.
➢ Forest Principles: Non-legally binding document on the Conservation and Sustainable Development of
all types of forests.
The Rio Declaration:
❖ The Rio Declaration consisted of 27 principles intended to guide countries in future sustainable development.
It was signed by over 175 countries.
❖ The first principle states that sustainable development primarily concerns human beings, who are entitled to
live healthy and productive lives in harmony with nature.
❖ Article 11 creates an expectation that states will enact environmental legislation.
❖ Further articles include formulations of the precautionary principle, which should be "widely applied by states
according to their capabilities" (principle 15), and of the polluter pays principle, which states are encouraged
to adopt where it is in the public interest to do so and it will not distort international trade and investment
(principle 16).
❖ The final principle invites fulfillment of the other principles in a spirit of good faith.
Agenda 21:
❖ It is a non-binding action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable development.
❖ Its aim initially was to achieve global sustainable development by 2000, with the "21" in Agenda 21 referring
to the original target of the 21st century.
❖ In 1997, the UN General Assembly held a special session Rio+5 to appraise the status of Agenda 21.
❖ One major objective of the Agenda 21 initiative is that every local government should draw its own local
Agenda 21.
Local Agenda 21 (LA21):
❖ It is a voluntary process of local community consultation with the aim to create local policies and programs
that work towards achieving sustainable development.
❖ Local Agenda 21 encompasses awareness raising, capacity building, community participation and the
formation of partnerships.
 3

❖ Local Agenda 21 is conceptualized in chapter 28 of Agenda 21, which was adopted by 178 governments at
the 1992 Rio Conference.
Culture 21 or Agenda 21 for culture:
❖ It is a program for cultural governance developed in 2002-2004 and organized by United Cities and Local
Governments.
❖ Part of the program's premise is to add culture as a fourth conceptual pillar of sustainable development in
governance, the historical three pillars of which are the environment, social inclusion, and economics.
❖ It is the first document with a global mission that promotes laying the foundation for a project by cities and
local governments for cultural development is Agenda 21 for Culture.
❖ A major achievement of the Earth Summit was an agreement on the Climate Change Convention
(UNFCCC), which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
❖ Important legally binding agreements opened for signature under the aegis of the Earth Summit are:
➢ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
➢ United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
➢ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
❖ Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit as an
independently operating financial organisation.
Global Environment Facility (GEF):
❖ It was established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit as an independently operating financial
organisation with 185 member countries, including India.
❖ The GEF provides grants for projects related to biodiversity, REDD+ (Sustainable Forest Management),
climate change, land degradation, the ozone layer, persistent organic pollutants, etc.
❖ It unites countries with institutions, civil society, NGOs, and the private sector to help tackle our planet's most
pressing environmental problems while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.
❖ The World Bank serves as the GEF Trustee, administering the GEF Trust Fund (contributions by donors).
❖ GEF runs a Small Grants Programme that provides financial support to projects that embody a community-
based approach.
❖ Year 2022 marks the 7th phase of SGP and is jointly implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change, UNDP and The Resources Institute (TERI). Energy and
❖ A corporate program of the GEF launched in 1992 during the Rio Earth Summit.
❖ Provides financial and technical support to local civil society to develop and implement innovative local
actions that address global environmental issues.
❖ Works closely with and complements other GEF projects and programs, supporting 136 countries and funding
grants up to $50,000.
Global Environment Facility (GEF) Council:
❖ It is GEF's main governing body.
❖ Composition: 32 members appointed by constituencies of GEF member countries, comprising 14 from
developed countries, 16 from developing countries, and 2 from economies in transition.
❖ Members rotate at different intervals determined by each constituency.
 4

❖ India is presently a member of a constituency comprised of the following countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka.
❖ It meets twice annually.
❖ It makes decisions by consensus.
❖ It develops, adopts, and evaluates the operational policies and programs for GEF-financed activities.
❖ Current developments:
➢ The 62nd meeting will be the final council of the GEF Trust Fund (GEF-7), closing the four-year funding
cycle, and commencing the GEF-8 cycle.
➢ GEF-7 safeguards the world's forests, land, water, climate, and oceans, builds green cities, protect
threatened wildlife, and tackles marine plastic pollution.
Key highlights of the GEF-7 Council:
❖ Leaders' Pledge for Nature to reverse species loss by 2030 by protecting land and ocean territory with globally
important biodiversity.
❖ 29 donor counties have pledged $5.33 billion for GEF-8 replenishment period i.e. July 2022 to June 2026 to
meet nature and climate targets.
❖ Address threats from climate change, land degradation, and chemicals and waste, and easing pressures on
ocean and international waters.
❖ Global Wildlife Programme (GWP) was launched in 2015 to combat trafficking in Wildlife. It is a World
Bank-led & GEF-funded partnership.
Rio+10:
❖ As a follow-up to UNCED, the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Rio+10) was held in 2002 in
Johannesburg, South Africa.
❖ Rio+10 affirmed the UN commitment to Agenda 21 alongside the Millennium Development Goals(MDGs).
(formed by the UN General Assembly)
❖ MDGs were established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000 consisting of 8 goals
to be achieved by 2015.
❖ The ensuing Johannesburg Declaration committed the nations of the world towards sustainable development.
Rio+20:
❖ In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20/Rio Earth Summit 2012) was
also held in Rio, Brazil.
❖ The issues touched included:
➢ Checking production of toxic components, such as lead in gasoline and radioactive chemicals,
➢ Alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels,
➢ Reliance on public transportation, congestion in cities,
➢ The health problems caused by pollution, and
➢ The growing usage and limited supply of water.
❖ The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were born at Rio+20.
❖ Since 2015, Sustainable Development Goals have been included in the Agenda 2030.
Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE)
❖ PAGE, launched in 2013, is a direct response to the Rio+20 Declaration.
 5

❖ The partnership brings together five United Nations agencies; UNEP, UNDP, ILO, UNIDO (UN Industrial
Development Organization), and UNITAR (United Nations Institute for Training and Research)
❖ It seeks to assist countries in achieving SDG (2030 Agenda), especially SDG 8: "Promote sustained, inclusive
and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment.
❖ The Dublin Principles pertaining to the importance of water as a resource for environmental protection
and human development, were presented at the conference
Stockholm+50:
❖ Recently, Stockholm+50 meeting was held at Stockholm, Sweden to commemorate the 50 years since the 1972
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm Conference), which
made the environment a pressing global issue for the first time.
❖ Stockholm+50 theme: A healthy planet for the prosperity of all responsibility, our opportunity. our
❖ Stockholm+50 agenda:
❖ To share experiences and initiatives to protect the planet.
❖ Sustainable recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic
High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF):
❖ It is a forum under the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) tasked with overseeing the outcomes
of the 1992 Earth Summit.
❖ HLPF meets both under the General Assembly every 4 years and the ECOSOC yearly.
❖ It is responsible for the follow-up and the review of the progress of implementation of the following:
➢ Agenda 21
➢ Johannesburg Declaration (Rio+10)
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):
❖ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental
treaty that came into existence under the aegis of the UN.
❖ It was negotiated in 1992 in New York City and was signed in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit (UNCED).
❖ As of Feb 2023, the UNFCCC has 198 parties.
❖ Its main objective is to stabilises greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous consequences.
❖ It is considered legally non-binding. It provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties
(called "protocols") that aim to set binding limits on greenhouse gases (GHGs). (UNFCCC itself sets no
binding limits)
Conferences of the Parties (COP) to UNFCCC:
❖ The COP is the decision-making body of UNFCCC. All States that are Parties to the Convention are
represented at the COP. They review the implementation of any legal instruments that the COP adopts. They
promote the effective implementation of the Convention.
❖ The parties to the convention met annually from 1995 till 2019. The 2020 COP was rescheduled to 2021.
❖ Last COP was held in Sharm-El-Shaikh (Egypt).
Kyoto Protocol (COP 3; UNFCCC 1997):
❖ The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997.
❖ It came into force in 2005. It is the only global treaty with binding limits on GHG emissions.
 6

❖ There are currently 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.

❖ India ratified in 2002, the USA never ratified, and Canada withdrew in 2012.
❖ Goal: Fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas (GHGs) concentrations in the atmosphere to “a level
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.”
❖ The Kyoto Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. It aimed to cut
GHG emissions across the developed world by about 5% by 2012 compared with 1990 level.
❖ The Kyoto Protocol legally binds on developed country Parties to emission reduction targets.
❖ The Protocol’s first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. The second commitment period
began on 1 January 2013 and will end in 2020.
❖ Kyoto Protocol Targets for the first commitment period
➢ Carbon dioxide (CO2);
➢ Methane (CH4);
➢ Nitrous oxide (N2O);
➢ Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs);
➢ Perfluorocarbons (PFCs);
➢ and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
❖ Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
➢ CBDR (Kyoto Protocol) puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the
basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of GHGs in the atmosphere.
❖ Differentiated Responsibilities
➢ Under Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), developed countries like the US, UK, Russia
etc., must contribute more to reduce GHGs by accepting certain binding limits on GHG emissions. They
must contribute funds towards reducing GHG emissions to developing and least developed countries
(LDCs).
➢ Developing and least developed countries (LDCs) should do everything they can to cut down their GHG
emissions. But
nothing is
binding on
them, and
every initiative
is voluntary.
Flexible Market
Mechanisms Under
Kyoto Protocol:
❖ Countries bound to
Kyoto targets have
to meet them
largely through
domestic action
that is, to reduce
their emissions onshore. But they can meet part of their targets through three “market-based mechanisms”:
 7

➢ Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

➢ Emission Trading
➢ Joint Implementation (JI)

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM):

❖ CDM allows a country with an emission-reduction commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party like
Australia) to implement an emission reduction project in developing countries (like India).
❖ Such projects can earn certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2,
which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
❖ In simple terms, developed countries emit more and lose carbon credits. They provide financial assistance
to developing and LDCs to create clean energy and gain some carbon credits, thereby meeting their Kyoto
Quota (Kyoto units) emissions without violations.
❖ Suppose a developed country has a Kyoto Quota of 100 Carbon Credits, then it can emit 100 tonnes of CO2.
❖ Due to negligence, it
emits 110 tonnes of
CO2, i.e., 10 carbon
credits are lost (Kyoto
Quota violation). The
country must
compensate for its lost
carbon credits to avoid
penalties.
❖ So, it invests some
money (equal to 10
carbon credits) in
developing and LDCs
to build clean energy
infrastructure like solar plants, wind farms etc., and will make up for its 10 lost carbon credits and avoid
penalty.
 8

Joint Implementation (JI):

❖ The mechanism known as “joint implementation” allows a country with an emission reduction commitment
under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex
B Party) to earn emission
reduction units (ERUs) from an
emission reduction project in
another Annex B Party, each
equivalent to one tonne of CO2,
which can be counted towards
meeting its target.
❖ Joint implementation offers
Parties a flexible and cost-
efficient means of fulfilling a part
of their Kyoto commitments, while the host Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer.
Carbon Credits Trading (Carbon/Emission Trading):
❖ Carbon credit:
➢ A carbon credit (a carbon offset) is a tradable certificate or permit.
➢ One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide.
➢ Carbon credits or offsets can be acquired through afforestation, renewable energy, CO2 sequestration,
methane capture, buying from an exchange (carbon credits trading), etc.
❖ Carbon trading:
➢ Carbon trading is the name given to the exchange of emission permits (carbon credits). This exchange
may take place within the economy or may take the form of an international transaction.
➢ Under the Carbon Credits Trading mechanism, countries that emit more carbon than the quota allotted
to them buy carbon credits from those that emit less.
➢ In Carbon trading, one credit gives the country or a company the right to emit one tonne of CO2.
➢ Carbon credits are traded at various exchanges across the world. The MultiCommodity Exchange of
India launched futures trading in carbon credits in 2009.
❖ What is traded under the Emission Trading Mechanism?
➢ Parties with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Parties) have accepted targets for limiting
or reducing emissions. These targets are expressed as levels of allowed emissions or assigned amounts,
over the 2008-2012 commitment period. The allowed emissions are divided into assigned amount units
(AAUs).
➢ Emissions trading, as set out in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows countries that have emission
units to spare - emissions permitted them but not "used" - to sell this excess capacity to countries that are
over their targets.
➢ Other Traded Units:
✓ A removal unit (RMU) on the basis of land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) activities
such as reforestation
✓ Emission reduction unit (ERU) generated by a joint implementation project Certified emission
reduction (CER) generated from a clean development mechanism project activity.
 9

❖ Types of Carbon Trading:

Emission trading/'cap-and-trade' Offset Trading/Carbon Project/'baseline-and credit'
Sell/purchase Create
Emissions trading allows countries to sell unused It is to be earned by a country by investing some amount of
emission units to countries that have exceeded their money in such projects, known as Carbon is tracked and
targets. traded like any other commodity in a carbon projects, which will emit a lesser amount of GHGs
"carbon market." into the atmosphere

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 15
Climate Change Negotiations
(Part-III)
 2

Climate Change Negotiations (Part-III)

Non-Compliance of Kyoto and Penalties:

❖ If a country does not meet the requirements for measurements and reporting, the country loses the privilege
of gaining credit through joint implementation projects.
❖ If a country exceeds its emissions cap without attempting to compensate through available mechanisms, it
must make up the difference plus an additional thirty percent in the next period.
❖ The country could also be banned from participating in the 'cap and trade' program.
Post Kyoto Protocol UNFCCC Summits:
❖ Bali (Indonesia) CCC 2007 (COP 13; CMP 3)
➢ In this summit, governments adopted the Bali Road Map
➢ The Bali Road Map included the Bali Action Plan, which charts the course for a new negotiating process
designed to tackle climate change.
➢ The Bali Action Plan was a comprehensive process to enable the full, effective and sustained
implementation of the Convention through long- cooperative action, now, up to and beyond 2012.
❖ Poznan (Poland) CC (2008) COP 14; CMP 4):
➢ It launched the Adaptation Fund under the Kyoto Protocol.
➢ The Fund is financed partly by the government and private donors and also from a 2% share of
proceeds of Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) issued under Clean Development Mechanism
projects.
❖ Copenhagen (Denmark) CCC 2009 (COP 15; CMP 5):
➢ The Copenhagen Accord included the goal of limiting the maximum global average temperature
increase to not more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels, subject to review in 2015.
➢ Developed countries promised to provide US$30 billion for the period 2010- 2012 and to mobilize long-
term finance of a further US$100 billion a year by 2020.
❖ Cancún (Mexico) CCC 2010 (COP 16; CMP 6):
➢ Parties agreed to commit to a maximum temperature rise of 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to
consider lowering that maximum to 1.5°C in the near future.
➢ Parties agreed to establish a Green Climate Fund (GCF) to finance projects, programmes, policies and
other activities in developing countries via thematic funding windows.
➢ The Government of India also agreed to include carbon capture and storage (CCS) in the projects under
the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), subject to technical and safety standards
❖ Durban (Denmark) CCC 2011 (COP 17; CMP 7):
➢ Decided to adopt a universal legal agreement on climate change no later than 2015.
➢ Second phase of the Kyoto Protocol was secured.
➢ Approved the Governing Instrument for the Green Climate Fund (GCF)
 3

❖ Doha (Qatar) CCC 2012 (COP. 18; CMP 8):

➢ COP18 reached an agreement to extend the life of the Kyoto Protocol, which had been due to expire at
the end of 2012 until 2020 (second commitment period 2013-20).
➢ The extension of the Kyoto Protocol until 2020 limited in scope to only 15% of the global CO emissions.
2

This was due to the lack of participation of Canada, Japan, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, and New
Zealand (they all refused to join the second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol) and the
United States (never ratified Kyoto).
➢ Also, developing countries like China, India and Brazil are not subject to emission reductions under the
Kyoto Protocol.
❖ Warsaw (Poland) CCC 2013 (COP 19; CMP 9):
➢ The term Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) was coined in Warsaw.
➢ Further, the Warsaw Mechanism was proposed, which would provide expertise, and possibly aid to
developing nations to cope with loss and damage from such natural extremities as heatwaves, droughts
and floods and threats such as rising sea levels and desertification.
❖ Lima (Peru) CCC 2014 (COP 20; CMP 10):
➢ The overarching goal of the conference is to reduce GHGs to limit the global temperature increase by
2030 to 2°C above the 1850 baseline industrial era.
➢ The agreement urged parties to take national pledges by finalising their Intended Nationally Determined
Contributions (INDC) by November 2015 (before Paris Summit).
❖ Why Paris Deal?
➢ All the significant agreements and decisions were reserved for Paris Summit 2015. It is the most crucial
conference post-Kyoto because of the INDC commitments made by major polluters.
➢ The conference's objective is to achieve a legally binding and universal agreement on climate to be
signed in 2015 and implemented by 2020.
➢ Before the conference, 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions
(INDCs).
➢ However, no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the
Paris Agreement (as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol with specific deadlines).
➢ COP21 negotiated the Paris Agreement, a global agreement on reducing climate change. It entered into
force in November 2016 after ratification by 55 countries that account for at least 55% of global
emissions had been met.
➢ Signatories: 195 as of 2023; more than180 countries have ratified; India signed and ratified in 2016.
➢ The expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to "well below 2°C"
compared to pre-industrial levels.
➢ The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic GHG emissions to be reached during the second half
of the 21st century.
➢ According to the adopted version of the Paris Agreement, the parties will also "pursue efforts to limit the
temperature increase to 1.5 °C." The 1.5 °C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030
and 2050.
 4

➢ The developed countries reaffirmed the commitment to mobilise $100 billion a year in climate finance
by 2020 and agreed to continue it further until 2025.
➢ In 2017, the US announced that it would cease all participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement. In
accordance with Article 28 of the Paris Agreement, it remained a signatory till November 2020.

❖ Paris Rulebook:
➢ The Paris rulebook is a legally binding international treaty on climate change.
➢ The Paris Rulebook is a set of guidelines and procedures that were adopted at the 24th Conference of
Parties (COP 24) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2018.
The Paris Rulebook provides details on how countries will measure, report, and verify their greenhouse
gas emissions reductions and their progress towards meeting the goals set out in the Paris Agreement.
➢ The Paris rule book governs how the world community of 191 countries must pledge emissions reduction
targets under the Paris Agreement and report on their progress. In signing the Paris rulebook, the 191
countries agreed that they would limit the rise in global temperatures to 1.5-2°C by 2030.
❖ Global Stocktake:
➢ The Global Stocktake is a process established under the Paris Agreement on- climate change. It is a
periodic review of collective progress towards achieving the agreement's long-term goals, including the
goal of keeping global temperature rise well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and
pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
➢ The Global Stocktake is designed to take place every five years, starting in 2023, and will assess the
collective progress of all countries in implementing their nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and
the overall progress towards achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement
❖ Article 6 of the Paris Agreement and Carbon Pricing:
➢ Under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, countries agreed to set up a new global carbon market system
(for trading of carbon emissions) to help countries decarbonise their economies at a lower cost.
➢ Article 6 aims at promoting integrated, holistic and balanced approaches that will assist governments
in implementing their NDCs through voluntary International cooperation.
➢ Article 6 contains three separate mechanisms for voluntary cooperation:
 5

✓ International Transfer Mitigation Outcomes (ITMO): Article 62 (Market based mechanism)

allows countries to strike direct bilateral and voluntary agreements to trade carbon units (that are in
excess of their NDCs Targets).
✓ Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM): Article 6,4 (Market based mechanism) creates a
centralized governance system for public and the private sector to trade emissions reduction
anywhere in the world., is due to replace the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
✓ Non-Market based mechanism: Article 6.8 develops a framework for cooperation between
countries to reduce emissions outside market mechanisms, such as developmental aid (ie. where no
trade is involved). This cooperation mechanism, if properly designed, should make it easier to
achieve reduction targets and raise ambition.
➢ These systems are more transparent than mechanisms under Kyoto Protocol.
➢ In particular, Article 6 could also establish a policy foundation for an emissions trading system, which
could help lead to a global price on carbon.
➢ Under this mechanism, countries with low emissions would be allowed to sell their exceeding allowance
to larger emitters, with an overall cap of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, ensuring their net reduction.
Supply and demand for emissions allowances would lead to the establishment of a global carbon price
that would tie the negative externalities of GHG emissions to polluters. In other words, by paying a price
on carbon, states exceeding their NDCs would bear the costs of global warming.
❖ Resolution of issue of double counting (at COP 26):
➢ Double counting refers to the situation where two countries, or more generally speaking, two parties,
claim the same carbon removal or emission reduction.
➢ The issue of double counting from now on will be addressed by the means of "corresponding
adjustments" of national carbon inventories.
➢ This means that if one country uses a carbon offset to reduce its carbon footprint, the credit cannot
be claimed by another nation.
➢ The Article 6 Aules thereby allows the nation, which is hosting the offsetting project, to make the ultimate
decision whether the emission reductions will be counted towards its own targets or sold to another nation.
➢ In any way, the country hosting the offsetting project has to notify a UN supervisory board.
❖ Carbon Tax:
➢ A carbon tax imposes a tax on each unit of GHG emissions and gives countries an incentive to reduce
pollution whenever doing so would cost less than paying the tax.
➢ A carbon tax is proposed in many developed and developing countries. However, the proposal has faced
severe political resistance (politician corporate nexus; people fear more burden).
➢ Budget of 2010-11 introduced a Clean Energy Cess of Rs. 50 per tonne on both domestically produced
and imported coal. Later it was increased to Rs. 100.
➢ With the introduction of the Goods and Service Tax (GST), the Clean Energy Cess was abolished.
➢ A new cess on coal production, called the GST Compensation Cess of Rs. 400 per tonne is put in place.
This cess is used to raise revenues for the National Clean Energy Fund.
 6

❖ National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF):

➢ NCEF is a fund created in 2010-11 to allocate Clean Energy Cess (later GST Compensation Cess) for
funding research and innovative projects in clean energy technologies of public or private sector entities,
up to the extent of 40% of the total project cost.
➢ The Fund is designed as a non-lapsable fund under Public Accounts and with its secretariat in the
Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.
Carbon Tax (price instrument) Carbon Trading (quantity instrument)
A pure carbon tax fixes the price of carbon but allows A pure carbon cap places a limit on carbon emissions,
the amount of carbon emissions to vary. letting the market price of carbon credits vary.
A carbon tax directly establishes a price on GHGs. Carbon Trading program issues a set number of
(One has to pay for every ton of emissions) emissions "allowances" each year. (One has to pay only
after they exceed their emissions quota)
Carbon tax ensures everyone knows the price being Conversely, cap-and-trade provides certainty about the
paid for each unit of carbon dioxide emitted, but quantity of emissions (it cannot exceed the cap), but
uncertainty remains about the actual quantity of uncertainty about the cost of achieving these
emissions. reductions.
A carbon tax offers stable carbon prices, so energy The regulatory costs are always fluctuating, and hence
producers and entrepreneurs can make investment making investment decisions is fraught with risks.
decisions without fear of fluctuating regulatory costs.

Current Affairs:
Mechanism of Carbon Credit Market:
❖ Carbon Credit: It is a tradeable permit or certificate allowing the holder to emit carbon dioxide or other
greenhouse gases (GHG) over a certain period. Carbon market allows countries, or industries, to earn
carbon credits for emission reductions they make in excess of what is required of them. These credits can
be traded to the highest bidder in exchange for money.
Who buys Carbon credits?
❖ Carbon Credits are bought, on a voluntary basis, by any country or company interested in lowering its
carbon footprint.
❖ The buyers of carbon credits can show the emission reductions as their own and use them to meet their own
emission reduction targets.
❖ Kyoto Protocol: Carbon trading market was set up in 1997, after the Kyoto Protocol was signed. It allowed
countries to trade emissions permits with each other.
❖ Paris Agreement: A similar carbon market is envisaged under the Paris Agreement (which has superseded
the Kyoto Protocol as the principal regulatory instrument).
Carbon Markets at International Level
❖ Kyoto Protocol:
➢ It is an International agreement signed under the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC).
 7

➢ Objective: Kyoto Protocol commits its Parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction
targets.
➢ 2008-2012: 1st Commitment Period.
➢ 2013-2020: 2nd Commitment period established through Doha
Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol
❖ Provisions for Developed countries: Binding emission reduction targets for developed countries.
❖ Provisions for Developing countries: No mandatory mitigation obligations or targets.
❖ Mechanism: Carbon credits could be sold by developing/developed countries to those developed countries
which had binding targets to reduce emissions, but were unable to.
❖ There are three Kyoto Protocol mechanisms for regulating carbon market (now non-operational):
➢ Clean Development Mechanism (CDM),
➢ Joint Implementation (JI) and
➢ the Emission Trading System (ETS)
Carbon Markets & Carbon Trading in India: 2 Mechanisms
❖ Perform, Achieve, Trade (PAT) scheme: It is a regulatory instrument to reduce energy consumption in 11
energy-intensive industries that account for nearly 50% of industrial energy consumption.
➢ It facilitates the Designated Consumers (DCs) ie. 11 energy intensive industries, to achieve their legal
obligations under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
➢ Launched by: Ministry of Power through the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the National
Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE).
❖ Carbon Trading: Those consumers who exceed their target energy consumption will be issued Energy
Savings Certificates (ESCerts). These ESCerts can be sold to designated consumers who failed to meet their
target.
About The Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022:
❖ The Bill seeks to amend the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
❖ Mandating use of non-fossil sources of energy: The Amendment Bill empowers the central government
to specify a minimum share of consumption of non-fossil sources (like Green hydrogen, Biomass etc) by
designated consumers (i.e., mining, steel, cement, textile, chemicals, and petrochemicals, transport sector,
commercial buildings).
❖ Carbon trading: The Bill empowers the central government to specify a carbon credit trading scheme.
❖ Energy conservation code for buildings: It aims to provide for an 'energy conservation and sustainable
building code'. This new code will provide norms for energy efficiency and conservation, use of renewable
energy, and other requirements for green buildings.
❖ Applicability to residential buildings: Under the previous act, the energy conservation code applied to
commercial buildings. Under the Bill, it will also apply to the office and residential buildings meeting the
certain criteria.
❖ Standards for vehicles and vessels: It include vehicles (as defined under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988),
and vessels (includes ships and boats) to comply with emissions standard.
 8

❖ Regulatory powers of SERCs: It adds that State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) may also
make regulations for discharging their functions.
❖ Composition of the governing council of BEE: The Bill provides that the number of members will be
between 31 and 37 (from earlier 20-26).
Renewable Energy Certificates:
❖ It is a market-based instrument to promote renewable energy and facilitate the compliance of renewable
purchase obligations (RPO).
➢ Under the REC scheme, the renewable energy (RE) producers are granted one REC per megawatt of
renewable energy that they contribute to the electricity grid.
➢ Carbon Trading: These RECs can be traded on the exchanges approved by CERC, whereby RE
producers (generators) can sell them to RE buyers (distributors or states deficit in renewable energy
resources) such that RE buyers can meet their renewable purchase obligation (RPO).
❖ Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPOs) RPO is the legally mandated percentage of electricity to be
procured by power distribution companies from renewable energy sources.
❖ Under the Electricity Act of 2003, the National Electricity Policy, 2005 and the Tariff Policy, 2006, it is
obligatory upon State Electricity Regulatory Commissions to fix a certain percentage of purchase of
power to be sourced from renewable energy sources
Power Exchange in India:
❖ Indian Energy Exchange (India’s first and largest energy exchange)
❖ Hindustan Power Exchange
❖ Power Exchange India Limited.
National Mission Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) is one of the eight national missions under
NAPCC.
It consists of four initiatives:
❖ Perform Achieve and Trade Scheme (PAT)
❖ Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency (MTEE)
❖ Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP)
❖ Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEEED)

Digital Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (D-MRV) Systems

❖ With growing interest of countries to participate in carbon markets to meet their climate change goals,
innovative D-MRV are evolving to track reductions in GHG emissions.
❖ Represent the first step in end-to-end digitalization of post-2020 carbon markets.
❖ These systems are based on Al, machine learning, blockchain, smart sensors, drones etc.
❖ The central government is considering implementation of a carbon trading scheme that will subsume all carbon
trading mechanisms in India.
❖ The government proposes to begin with a voluntary carbon market and gradually shift to 'cap and trade',
where industries are given emission targets like in EU emission trading system markets.
 9

Carbon Neutrality:
❖ Net zero means the amount of GHGs
emitted into the atmosphere is less
than the amount taken out.
❖ Similarly, Carbon Neutrality (Net
Zero Carbon Footprint) refers to
achieving net zero CO2 emissions.
❖ The global emissions of GHGs need
to be cut by 45 per cent by 2030 and
become net zero by 2050 to keep
warming below 1.5°C as decided
under the Paris Agreement.
❖ The nondescript hamlet of Palli in
Jammu and Kashmir's border district of Samba became country's first "carbon neutral panchayat".
❖ 500 kV solar plant will provide clean electricity to houses in the model panchayat.
❖ The village, which has 450 houses, have been given solar 'Chulhas' (stoves) and all the houses.
How Can Net Zero Emissions Be Achieved?
❖ Clean coal technology to reduce CO2 in the atmosphére (short-term measure).
❖ Carbon sequestration (long-term sustainable measure)
❖ Afforestation: Forests as carbon Sinks (long-term sustainable measure)
❖ Geoengineering to fight climate change (last resort superhuman options)
❖ Electric Mobility and Renewable Energy (prevention is better than cure option) FAME
❖ Carbon Trading and Carbon Tax (long-term measure)
❖ To contain carbon emissions, UNFCCC summits have arrived at the "polluter pays" principle by placing a
price on carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions.
❖ The "polluter pays" principle can be implemented through a Carbon Tax or Carbon Trading.
 10

Climate Neutral Now:

❖ Climate Neutral Now was launched by the UNFCCC secretariat in 2015. It is aiming at encouraging and
supporting all levels of society to take climate action to achieve a climate-neutral world by mid-century, as
enshrined in the Paris Agreement.
❖ Climate neutrality is a three-step process, which requires individuals, companies and governments to:
➢ A Measure their climate footprint;
➢ A Reduce their emissions as much as possible;
➢ A Offset what they cannot reduce with UN-certified emission reductions

Current Affairs:
Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
❖ Recently, India and three other nations have opposed the 'Carbon Border Tax at COP-27, which was
proposed by the European Union (EU) under a policy called the CBAM
About the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
❖ Definition: It is a duty on imports based on the number of carbon emissions resulting from the
production of the product in question. As a price on carbon, it discourages emissions, and as a trade-
related measure, it affects production and exports.
❖ Aim: To prevent carbon-intensive economic activity from moving out of jurisdictions with relatively
stringent climate policies and into those with relatively less stringent policies. It was introduced by the
European Union at CoP27 with the purpose to tax products such as cement and steel, that are extremely
carbon intensive, with effect from 2026.
Need For CBAM:
❖ Commitment of the EU towards Climate Change: It has declared to cut its carbon emissions by at least
55% by 2030. Till date, these levels have fallen by 24%. Such a tax would incentivize other countries to
reduce GHG emissions and further shrink the EU's carbon footprint.
❖ Carbon Leakage: The Emissions Trading System of the EU makes operating within the region expensive
for certain businesses. EU fears that these businesses might prefer to relocate to countries that have more
relaxed or no emission limits. This is called carbon leakage.
Reason for opposition by India:
❖ Unilateral measures and discriminatory practices: As per the BASIC group (comprising India, China,
Brazil, and South Africa), CBAM is a unilateral & discriminatory measure, that could result in market
distortion and aggravate the trust deficit amongst Parties.
❖ Shrink Indian goods demand: EU is India's 3rd largest trading partner. Increasing the prices of Indian
goods in the EU, it would make Indian goods less attractive to buyers and could shrink demand.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment & Ecology

Lecture – 16
International Conventions
 2

International Conventions
Arctic or Polar Amplification:
❖ Global warming, the long-term heating of the Earth's surface, has accelerated due to human activities,
raising the planet's average temperature by 1.1 degrees Celsius.
❖ While changes are observed worldwide, alterations in surface air temperature and net radiation balance
have a more pronounced impact at the North and South Poles, a phenomenon known as polar amplification.
Specifically, changes in northern latitudes are referred to as Arctic amplification.
❖ Causes:
➢ Ice-albedo feedback: Sea ice and snow have high albedo (ability to reflect sunlight), but as the ice melts,
the resulting open ocean will absorb more solar radiation. The radiation that has been absorbed then melts
more ice and retains more heat, starting a deadly cycle, thereby driving the amplification.
➢ Lapse rate feedback: The rate at which the temperature drops with elevation, decreases with warming.
➢ Water vapor feedback: It is the positive feedback loop between water vapour (a greenhouse gas) and
surface air temperature. An increase in surface air temperature (due to global warming) leads to an
increase in atmospheric water vapour, which could then amplify the initial temperature change due to
greenhouse effect.
About Arctic Region:
❖ It is the northernmost part of the Earth, spreading around the North Pole.
❖ It consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Finland,
Iceland, Norway, Russia (Murmansk, Siberia, Nenets Okrug, Novaya Zemlya), Sweden and the United
States (Alaska).
❖ It is the smallest and shallowest ocean of the five principal oceans on the Earth.
❖ It is partly covered by sea ice (frozen sea water that floats on the ocean surface) throughout the year, and
almost completely in winter.
❖ Its salinity is the lowest, on average, of the 5 major oceans due to low evaporation, heavy fresh water inflow
from rivers & streams, and limited connection & outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher
salinities.
❖ Arctic Ocean is home to the longest continental shelf in the world.
Climate Finance
❖ Definition: Climate finance refers to local, national or transnational financing-drawn from public, private and
alternative sources of financing-that seeks to support mitigation and adaptation actions that will address
climate change.
❖ Global Mechanism: The UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, and Paris Agreement call on Parties with larger financial
resources (Developed Countries) to provide financial support to those who are less wealthy and more
vulnerable (Developing Countries) → Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)
Climate Funds:
Global Environment Facility (GEF):
❖ The GEF Trust Fund is a financial mechanism, established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit.
❖ World Bank serves as the GEF Trustee, administering the GEF Trust Fund.
 3

❖ GEF Serves For:

➢ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
➢ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
➢ UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
➢ Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
➢ Minamata Convention on Mercury
❖ It manages the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF)
with the cooperation of the UNFCCC Conference of Parties (COP).

Funds under United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

❖ Green Climate Funds (GCF):
➢ Established in COP 16 (Cancun), in 2010, under the UNFCCC financial mechanism to channel funding
from developed countries to developing countries for climate mitigation & adaptation.
➢ Headquarter is in Incheon, South Korea
➢ GCF has been given an important role in serving the Paris agreement and supporting the goal of keeping
climate change well below 2 degrees Celsius.
❖ Special Climate Change Funds (SCCF):
➢ Established in 2001 to support adaptation and technology transfer in all developing country parties to the
UNFCCC. It is managed by GEF.
➢ Finances Mitigation in selected sectors: energy, transport, industry, agriculture, forestry and waste
management.
❖ Adaptation Fund (AF): Established in 2001 under Kyoto Protocol of UNFCCC to finance projects aimed
at helping developing countries to adapt to the harmful effects of climate change.
➢ It is financed through a share of money from the UN Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
❖ Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF): Established by UNFCCC in 2001, to address the special needs
of the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) that are especially vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate
change. It is managed by GEF.
 4

❖ Climate Investment Funds (CIF):

➢ It is a multilateral fund established in 2008 (at the request of the G8 and G20) to finance and scale climate
pilot projects in developing countries.
➢ CIF consists of two funds, the Clean Technology Fund and the Strategic Climate Fund.
Other Mechanisms For International Climate Funding:
❖ Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF): created in 2007 by the World Bank and The Nature
Conservancy as an initiative to assist countries in engaging with an emerging concept known as REDD+.
❖ Global Energy Efficiency and Sustainable Energy Fund: advised by the European Investment Bank Group.
GEEREF invests in funds in Asia, Africa and Latin America that target infrastructure projects and companies
in the energy efficiency and renewable energy sectors.
❖ Africa's Climate Change Fund (ACCF): Intends to increase climate funding mobilised for activities that
take account of climate change in African countries.
❖ Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP): For channelling climate and environmental
finance to smallholder farmers.
Climate Funding Initiative by India:
❖ National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change (NAFCC): It is a Central Sector Scheme, set up in 2015-
16, to support concrete adaptation activities that mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. National
Bank for Agriculture & Rural Development (NABARD) is the National Implementing Entity (NIE).
❖ National Compensatory Afforestation Fund (NCAF): It Established under the Public Account of India as
a non- lapsable fund. It aims at financing afforestation to compensate for loss of forest cover, regeneration of
forest ecosystem, wildlife protection and infrastructure development.
❖ National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF): It created in 2011, under Public Account of India, using the carbon
tax (clean energy cess on coal), for funding research & innovative projects in clean energy technologies.
❖ Green Bonds: They are bonds in which money raised by the issuer is earmarked towards financing 'green'
projects, i.e. assets or business activities that are environment friendly. For eg. renewable energy, clean
transportation or sustainable water management.
COP26 of UNFCCC:
 5

Initiatives Signed by Indian at COP26

Major Initiatives launched at COP26 :

❖ Global Resilence Index Initiatives (GRII):
➢ It is launched by 10 global organisations. (Including Coalition for Disaster Resilience Infrastructure, the
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction.)
➢ Goals of GRII:
✓ Offer global open reference risk data using metrics built on insurance risk modelling principles;
✓ Provide shared standards and facilities applicable to a wide range of uses, including corporate
climate risk disclosure, national adaptation planning and reporting, and the planning of
prearranged humanitarian finance.
❖ Infrastructure for Resilient Island States (IRIS):
➢ It is launched by India, along with Australia, UK, Fiji, Jamaica and Jamaica.
➢ It has been co-created by the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) with support from
Member Countries and organizations and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) representatives.
➢ It is a dedicated initiative that will provide technical support on the multifaceted issues posed by
infrastructure systems and promote disaster and climate resilience of infrastructure assets in SIDS, and
share latest knowledge and learnings targeted to specific infrastructure sectors
❖ IRIS targets to deliver three intended outcomes as:
➢ Improve resilience of SIDS infrastructure to climate change and disaster risk.
➢ Strengthen knowledge and partnerships for integrating resilience in SIDS infrastructure.
➢ Promote gender equality and disability inclusion through resilient SIDS infrastructure.
➢ Small island developing states (SIDS), comprising countries in the Caribbean, Pacific, Atlantic, Indian
Ocean, Mediterranean and South China Sea regions, are among the most vulnerable to geophysical and
hydro-meteorological hazards.
❖ The Green Grid Initiative- One Sun One World One Grid Project (OSOWOG):
➢ It was a multi-layered dialogue between the OSOWOG initiative by India in partnership with COP26
Presidency, International Solar Alliance (ISA), World Bank, UK government and Wilton Park.
➢ It is India's initiative to build a global ecosystem of interconnected renewable energy resources that
connects 140 countries through a common grid.
 6

➢ The blueprint for the OSOWOG has been developed under the World Bank's technical assistance
programme.
➢ Implementation is divided into three main phases
✓ A Phase 1, ensures interconnectivity in the Asian continent.
✓ A Phase 2, connects the functional first phase to the pool of renewable resources in Africa.
✓ A Phase 3, aims to achieve a global interconnection.
27th Conference of the Parties (COP27): Sharm El- Sheikh Adoptation Agenda
❖ The 27th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 27) to the United Nations Climate Change Framework
Convention (UNFCCC) was recently hosted in Sharm El- Sheikh, Egypt.
❖ This is also the 17th Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP 17) and the 4th Conference of
Signatories to the Paris Agreement (CMA 4).
About COP 27:
❖ Background:
➢ Conference of Parties (COP): It is the supreme decision-making body of the UNFCCC which was
formed in 1994.
➢ Members: The UNFCCC has 197 parties including India, China and the USA. COP members have been
meeting every year since 1995.
❖ Key Agenda: ShiSing from pledging to implementa3on on scale and 3me, based on the agreed work streams
in Paris Agreement and ambi3ons reflected till COP26.
➢ Transformative adaptation agenda (1) based on science (2) responsive to the actual needs of the
countries. Support for loss and damage for the most vulnerable to climate change impacts.
➢ Providing, Mobilizing and Delivering climate finance for developing countries. Avoiding backsliding
on commitments & pledges despite multiple challenges. For e.g. energy crisis. Ensuring a managed and
just transition based on low emission & climate resilient development.

COP 27: OUTCOMES: AGENDA OUTCOMES

Loss and damage – Climate finance ❖ Consensus reached to establish funding arrangements, including
a dedicated fund for loss and damage.
❖ Institutional arrangements made for operationalization of the
Santiago network. The host of the secretariat of the network will
be selected by 2023. setting up of committee to make
recommendations for the operationalization of the new funding
arrangements at COP28.
❖ $3 billion plan unveiled by UN a to ensure everyone on the planet
is covered by early-warning systems in the next five years.
❖ V20 (Vulnerable 20) and G7 jointly launched the Global Shield
against Climate Risks to provide vulnerable countries more means
to protect themselves.
 7

Climate Targets Achievements ❖ Reaffirms the long term global goal of holding the increase in the
global average to well below 2 degree above pre-industrial level
and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature rise to 1.5 degrees
above pre-industrial levels, as aligned with the Paris Agreement.

❖ The Koronivia Joint Work for Agriculture received a four-year extension at COP27, highlighting the
significance of gender balance within the UNFCCC process. COP27 urged future COP presidencies to
appoint women as high-level champions, a concept initially proposed during COP25's mid-rade discussions
on the gender action plan.
❖ Furthermore, Costa Rica, led by Denmark and Costa Rica, announced the establishment of the Beyond Oil
and Gas Alliance. Tuvalu made was the first country to endorse the Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty.
❖ Additionally, the African Cities Water Adaptation Fund was established. Another notable initiative, the
Forest and Climate Leaders Partnership (FCLP), brought together 28 countries, with Brazil, Indonesia, and
Congo announcing a partnership to collaborate on forest preservation.
COP 28
The 28th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP28) of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
concluded recently in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE). Key Outcomes of the Summit:
❖ The summit concluded an agreement known as the Global Stocktake (GST) advocating for a shift from fossil
fuels to renewable energy sources.
❖ It adopted the declaration on "transitioning away from fossil fuel" and the need to replace fossil fuels with
clean energy.
❖ It calls upon countries to contribute to tripling the global installed capacity of renewable energy and
doubling annual improvements in energy efficiency.
❖ It encourages nations to expedite the reduction of unabated coal power usage.
❖ It includes a commitment to “phasing out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies that do not address energy poverty
or just transitions.
❖ It targets global net zero by 2050 by tripling renewable energy capacity globally and doubling the global
average annual rate of energy efficiency improvements by 2030.
❖ First Global Stocktake at COP28. New collective quantified goal on climate finance, the discussion continued
on this and 100 billion dollars were decided for Climate Finance.
❖ Global Renewable and Energy Efficiency Pledge is the idea of the European Union, the USA, and the UAE.
The aim is to triple renewable energy capacity and double the global rate of energy efficiency by 2030. India
and China are not the signatories.
Agreements Not signed by India:
❖ Declaration on Climate and Health: It aims to address climate-related health impacts.
❖ Global renewables and energy efficiency pledge: It pledges to "triple the world's installed renewable energy
generationon capacity to at least 11,000 GW by 2030.
❖ Declaration to Triple Nuclear Energy: It aims to advance the goal of tripling nuclear energy capacity by
2050.
 8

❖ Declaration on Food Systems, Agriculture, and Climate Action: It aims to strengthen efforts to integrate
agriculture and food systems into national climate plans.
❖ Global Methane Pledge: It aims to cut methane by at least 30 percent by 2030. Initiatives led by India at
COP28
❖ Global River Cities Alliance (GRCA): It aims to foster the sustainable development of river cities.
❖ Green Credit Initiative: It incentivizes voluntary environmental ac,ons of various stakeholders.

Extra Edge:
❖ Loss and Damage: It is the residual negative effect of climate change that cannot be avoided through
mitigation and adaptation.
❖ In 2013, the Warshaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage was established, with the fund being
initially announced during COP27 in Egypt.
❖ It will administered by the World Bank.
Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS)
❖ Established in 1990 having 39 members of small Island and Coastal Developing States.
❖ It functions as negotiating voice on behalf of Small Island Developing states.

India's INDC objectives:

❖ During Warsaw Summit 2013 (COP 19), countries agreed to publicly outline what actions they intend to take
under a global agreement well before the Paris Summit 2015. These country commitments are known as
Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs).
❖ India's three INDC objectives were announced in October 2015 (the Lima summit urged every country to
announce its INDCs by Nov 2015).
➢ Reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33-35% by 2030, below 2005 levels.
➢ Achieve 40% of its total electricity capacity from renewables.
➢ Create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 through afforestation by 2030
❖ In 2021, the Prime Minister of India had announced a new 5-point set of targets at COP-26 (Panchamrit):
➢ India will increase its non-fossil fuel energy capacity to 500 gigawatt (GW) by 2030; (Not the part of
INDC)
➢ It will meet 50% of its energy requirements from renewable sources by 2030;
➢ The total projected carbon emissions will be reduced by 1 billion tonnes from now through 2030; (Not
the part of INDC)
➢ The carbon intensity of its economy will be brought down to less than 45%;
➢ India will achieve its target of Net Zero by 2070.
❖ India's updated NDCs
➢ It is prepared after carefully considering India's national circumstances and the principle of common but
differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC).
➢ It represents the framework for India's transition to cleaner energy for the period 2021-2030.
 9

➢ It updates two of the three quantitative targets of 2015 NDCs related to emissions intensity and share
of non-fossil fuels in installed electricity capacity.
➢ Two panchamrita commitments (promises made during COP26 in Glasgow) not converted into official
targets i.e,
✓ A 500 GW non fossil fuel energy &
✓ A emissions of at least one billion tonnes of carbon dioxide by 2030.
 10

REDD and UN-REDD+

❖ REDD+ also includes a stronger emphasis on the involvement of local communities and indigenous peoples
in forest conservation and management, as well as the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Other Inituatives:
❖ Forest Carbon Partnership Facility
➢ It is a global partnership of governments, businesses, civil society, and Indigenous peoples focused
on reducing emissions from activities commonly referred to as REDD+:
✓ deforestation and forest degradation, forest carbon stock conservation,
✓ the enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries,
✓ the sustainable management of forests.
➢ The World Bank assumes the functions of trustee and secretariat. The World Bank, the Inter-
American Development Bank and UNDP are delivery partners under the Readiness Fund and responsible
for providing REDD+ readiness support
❖ Forest Carbon Partnership Facility
➢ Objectives:
✓ To assist countries in their REDD+ efforts by providing them with financial and technical assistance.
✓ To pilot a performance-based payment system for REDD+.
✓ To test ways to sustain or enhance livelihoods of local communities and to conserve biodiversity.
✓ To disseminate broadly the knowledge gained in Emission Reductions Programs (ERPs).
 11

❖ Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)

➢ In 2012, a few nations, along with the UNEP, came together to form the Climate and Clean Air
Coalition.
➢ It is a partnership of governments, public and private sector, scientific institutions, civil society
organizations, etc. committed to protecting the climate through actions to reduce short-lived climate
pollutants
❖ BioCarbon Fund Initiative
➢ BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest Landscapes (ISFL) is a multilateral fund, supported
by donor governments and managed by the World Bank.
➢ It seeks to promote reduced GHG emissions from the land sector, from deforestation and forest
degradation in developing countries (REDD+), and from sustainable agriculture, as well as smarter land-
use planning, policies, etc.
❖ Cool Coalition
➢ It aims to inspire ambition and accelerate action on the transition to clean and efficient cooling.
➢ It was launched at the first Global Conference on Synergies between the 2030 Agenda and Paris
Agreement in 2019.
➢ It is a global effort led by:
✓ UNEP
✓ Climate and Clean Air Coalition
✓ Kigali Cooling Efficiency Program
✓ Sustainable Energy for All (SE for ALL)
❖ Global Climate Change Alliance + (GCCA+):
➢ GCCA+ is a European Union initiative. It helps vulnerable countries on the front line of climate change.
➢ CCA+ initiatives help mainly Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries
(LDCs) increase their resilience to climate change.
➢ It also supports these group of countries in implementing their commitments resulting from the 2015 Paris
Agreement (COP21)
❖ Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture (GACSA)
➢ GACSA is promoted by FAO along with various governments. Its vision is to improve food security,
nutrition and resilience in the face of climate change.
➢ GACSA works towards three aspirational outcomes to:
✓ Improve farmers' agricultural productivity and incomes in a sustainable way;
✓ Build farmers' resilience to extreme weather and changing climate;
✓ Reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with agriculture, when possible.
❖ GHG Protocol:
➢ GHG Protocol is developing standards, tools and online training that helps countries, cities and
companies track progress towards their climate goals.
➢ GHG Protocol establishes frameworks to measure and manage greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from
private and public sector operations, value chains and mitigation actions.
 12

➢ GHG Protocol arose when World Resources Institute (WRI) and World Business Council for Sustainable
Development (WBCSD) recognized the need for an international standard for corporate GHG accounting
and reporting in the late 1990s.
❖ Arctic Council
➢ Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum promoting cooperation, coordination and interaction
among the Arctic states, Arctic Indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic
issues, in particular on issues of sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic.
➢ The Arctic Council consists of the eight Arctic States such as Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark
(including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United
States
❖ Santiago Network
➢ The vision of the Santiago Network is to catalyze the technical assistance of relevant organizations,
bodies, networks and experts, for the implementation of relevant approaches for averting, minimize
and addressing Loss and Damage at the local, national and regional level, in developing countries that
are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.
➢ The Santiago Network will connect vulnerable developing countries with providers of technical
assistance, knowledge, resources they need to address climate risks comprehensively in the context
of averting, minimizing and addressing loss and damage.
➢ Mandated at COP 25 in Madrid, the Santiago Network will further the work of the Warsaw International
Mechanism for Loss and Damage.
❖ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
➢ The IPCC, the UN body for assessing the science related to climate change.
➢ It was established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) in 1988.
➢ The IPCC produces reports that support the UNFCCC.
➢ IPCC reports cover all relevant information to understand the risk of human- induced climate change,
its potential impacts & options for adaptation and mitigation.
➢ The IPCC does not carry out its own original research. Thousands of scientists and other experts
contribute on a voluntary basis.
❖ Reports in News:
➢ The work is shared among three Working Groups (WG), a Task Force and a Task Group of IPCC:
✓ WG I aims at assessing the physical scientific basis of the climate system and climate change.
✓ WG II assesses the vulnerability of socio-economic and natural systems to climate change.
✓ WG III focuses on climate change mitigation, assessing methods for reducing GHG emissions,
and removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
 13

✓ The research by the WGs is published by the IPCC at regular intervals as comprehensive Assessment
Reports for the understanding of human- induced climate change, potential impacts and options for
mitigation and adaptation.

AR1:1990: Formed the basis of UNFCCC, 1992

AR2: 1995: Formed the basis of Kyoto Protocol

AR4:2007: IPCC won the Nobel Peace Prize

ARS:2014: Formed the basis of the paris agreement

AR6: Currently being published: will inform the global stocktake in 2023.

❖ The IPCC is currently in its 6th Assessment Cycle, during which the IPCC will produce the following reports:
➢ Assessment reports (ARs) of its three WGs,
➢ Three special reports (SR1.5, SRCCL & SROCC),
➢ Special Reports on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR1.5 - October 2018).
➢ Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL - August 2019)
➢ Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC September 2019)
➢ A refinement to the methodology report, and
➢ The Synthesis report (the last of the AR6 reports) to inform the global stocktake.

August 2021: The WG I contribution to the AR6, Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis.

February 2022: The WG II to the AR6, Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.

April 2022: The WG III to the AR6, Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change.

❖ The Synthesis Report, the last of the AR6 reports was released recently
❖ Few unique points highlighted by the reports:
➢ Concentrations of CO2 unmatched for at least 2 million years.
➢ Glacial retreat unmatched for 2,000+ years.
➢ Sea level rise faster than any prior century for 3,000 years.
➢ Summer Arctic ice coverage smaller than smaller than any time in the last 1,000 years.
➢ Ocean warming accounted for 91% of the heating in the climate system, with land warming, ice loss and
atmospheric warming accounting for about 5%, 3% and 1%, respectively.
❖ India, both annual and summer monsoon precipitation will increase during the 21st century, with enhanced
interannual variability.
❖ Covered areas and snow volumes will decrease in most regions of the Hindu Kush Himalaya during the
21st century
 14

Current Affairs
India’s Cooling Sector

❖ A new report 1tled “Climate Investment opportuni8es in India’s cooling sector was released by the
World Bank, in partnership with the state government of Kerala, during the two-day India Climate
and Development Partner’s meet.
❖ Vulnerability: -
➢ By 2037: The demand for cooling is likely to be 8 times more than the current level.
➢ Heat waves: About 200 million people could be exposed to a lethal heat wave every year by 2030.
➢ Loss of job: 35 million Indians will face job losses due to heat stress related productivity decline.
➢ High food wastage: Currently, around one-third of the food is lost. This could dramatically increase
with increasing temperature.
 15

➢ Rise of GHGs: There will be a demand for a new air-conditioner every 15 seconds, leading to an
expected rise of 435% in annual greenhouse gas emissions over the next two decades.
❖ Opportunity: -
➢ Need of new technologies: India to deploy alternative and innovative energy-efficient technologies
for keeping spaces cool. -
➢ Investment Opportunity: Investment opportunity of $1.6 trillion by 2040, besides reducing GHG
emissions and creating 3.7 million jobs.
National Action Plan:
❖ Launched in 2019.
❖ Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
❖ Significance: India is the first country in world to develop such a document (ICAP) which addresses cooling
requirement across sectors and lists out ac1ons which can help reduce the cooling demand.
❖ Goal: To provide sustainable cooling and thermal comfort for all while securing environmental and socio-
economic benefits for the society. This will also help in reducing both direct and indirect emissions.
❖ It Provides For:
➢ Reduction of Cooling Demand: Across sectors by 20-25% by the year 2037-38.
➢ Reduction of Refrigerant Demand: By 25-30% by the year 2037-38.
➢ Reduction of Cooling Energy Requirements: By 25%-40% by the year 2037-38.
➢ Training and Certification: Targeting 100,000 servicing sector technicians by the year 2022-23, in
synergy with the Skill India Mission.
➢ Thermal Comfort for All: Provision of cooling for EWS and LIG housing.
➢ Sustainable Cooling: Low greenhouse gas emissions related to cooling.
➢ Skilled Workforce: For improved livelihoods and environmental protection.
➢ Make in India: Domestic manufacturing of air conditioning and related cooling equipment.
➢ Robust R&D: On alternative cooling technologies to promote innovation in the cooling sector.
About Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI)
❖ It is an independent annual report, first published in 2005, that monitors tools for tracking the climate
protection performance of 59 countries and the European Union. Together, these countries account for over
90% of Global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions.
❖ Published by Germanwatch, New Climate Institute, and Climate Action Network International, all based
in Germany.
❖ The objective is to enhance transparency in international climate politics and enable the comparison of
climate protection efforts and progress made by individual countries.
❖ Top Performers:
➢ The report highlights Denmark, Sweden, Chile, and Morocco as the only four small countries ranked
above India, securing the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th positions, respectively. The first, second, and third
ranks were not awarded to any country.
 16

➢ Index Assessed in 4 Categories, with 14 Indicators:

✓ Global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions (40% of overall score)
✓ Renewable Energy (20%)
✓ Energy Use (20%)
✓ Climate Policy (20%)
❖ India’s Status: India ranked 8th in the CCPI 2023, performing the best among all large economies. It is
the only G-20 country within the top 10 ranks. India achieved a high ranking in the GHG Emissions and
Energy Use categories, while attaining a medium ranking for Climate Policy and Renewable Energy.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 17
Biodiversity & Conservation
 2

Biodiversity & Conservation

Diversity
❖ Diversity is the different forms of life on planet Earth.
❖ It is the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial and marine ecosystems,
as well as other ecological complexes of which they are a part. This encompasses diversity within species and
between species within ecosystems.
❖ It is the foundation of ecosystem services where human well-being is intimately linked
❖ Examples: How many varieties of plants and animals are living in a particular area?
Types of Diversity:

Meaning and Level of Biodiversity

❖ The 1992 UN Earth Summit (Rio Summit) defines biodiversity as "Variability among living organisms from
all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of
which they are a part. This includes diversity within species, between species, and ecosystems of a region."
❖ Edward Wilson popularized the term 'Biodiversity' to describe diversity at all levels of biological
organization, from populations to biomes.
Level of diversity:
❖ Genetic diversity: It refers to the differences in genetic makeup (number and types of genes) between distinct
species and the genetic variation within a single species.
➢ Example: Continental tiger (Panthera tigris tigris)
✓ Bengal tiger
✓ Malayan tiger
✓ Indochinese tiger
✓ Amur (Siberian) tiger
 3

❖ Species diversity: It refers to the variety in the number and richness of species in any habitat. Example:
➢ Continental tiger (Panthera tigris tigris)
✓ Bengal tiger
✓ Malayan tiger
✓ Indochinese tiger
✓ Amur (Siberian) tiger
➢ Sunda tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica)
✓ Sumatran tiger
✓ Java and Bali (extinct)
❖ Ecosystem diversity: It refers to the variety of ecosystems present in a particular area. Example:
➢ Tropical rainforest
➢ Tropical grasslands

Measurement of Biodiversity
❖ Indices of Diversity:
➢ Alpha diversity refers to the diversity of organisms sharing the same community or habitat.
➢ Beta diversity refers to the diversity of organisms sharing two different habitats.
➢ Gamma diversity refers to the diversity across the entire landscape.
 4

Importance of Biodiversity
❖ Economic: Biodiversity provides humans with raw materials for consumption and production. Many
livelihoods, such as agriculture, forestry, and fishing, depend on it.
❖ Ecological Life Support: Biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that supply clean air, water, and
pollination services, which are essential for sustaining life on Earth.
❖ Recreation: Biodiversity also enhances recreational activities such as bird watching, hiking, camping,
and fishing, allowing people to connect with nature and enjoy its beauty. Examples:
➢ Village near Siligud
➢ Sam Sand Dunes (Jaisalmer)
❖ Knowledge Values: Biodiversity holds immense value in terms of traditional knowledge systems,
indigenous practices, and scientific research, contributing to our understanding of the natural world.
❖ Ethical Values: Biodiversity conservation is essential for maintaining ethical values, such as respecting all
forms of life and promoting harmony between humans and nature. Examples include the Chipko
Movement, which aimed to protect forests through non-violent means. One more example is:
➢ Kuttanad (Kerala): This region, known as the "Land below Mean Sea Level," has a unique agricultural
system where people have adapted to farming in submerged lands. This traditional knowledge of
growing crops in submerged land is an example of the value of biodiversity in sustaining human
livelihoods.
 5

❖ Species richness refers to the number of different kinds of species found in a habitat.
❖ Species evenness, on the other hand, refers to the distribution of species in a habitat. For example, if two
habitats have the same species richness but different species evenness, Habitat 1 would have more evenness.
❖ Few indices
1. Shannon-Weiner Species Diversity Index
2. Simpson's Diversity Index
Biodiversity Hotspot
❖ The concept of biodiversity hotspots was introduced by
Norman Myers in 1988.
❖ Conservation International (CI) adopted Myers' hotspots as its
institutional blueprint in 1989, and in 1996,
➢ It is an American nonprofit environmental
organization founded in 1987, identified 36
regions where success in conserving species can
have an enormous impact in securing our global biodiversity.
❖ The forests and other remnant habitats in hotspots represent just 2.5% of Earth’s land surface but contain 43%
of bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species as endemics.
❖ Criterion (strict):
➢ Contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants found nowhere else on Earth, known as "endemic"
species.
➢ Have lost at least 70 percent of its primary native vegetation due to human action.
 6

❖ Biodiversity Hotspots of India

➢ Western Ghats
➢ North east (except
Assam) and
Andaman (part of
Indo-Burma hotspot)
➢ Nicobar (part of
Sundaland hotspot)
➢ Himalaya
❖ Hottest of hotspots are
➢ Indo-Burma region
➢ Sundaland
➢ Philippines
➢ Western Ghats and Srilanka
➢ Madagascar
➢ Eastern arc & coastal forests of Tanzania/Kenya
➢ Caribbean island
➢ Brazil’s Atlantic forests
❖ Megadiversity
➢ Megadiversity refers to a high level of biodiversity, with endemism at the species, genus, and family
levels being the primary criterion for designation as a megadiverse nation.
➢ Such a nation must boast at least 5,000 indigenous plant species and be bordered by marine
environments.
➢ Examples: Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, the Democratic Republic Of The Congo, Ecuador, India,
Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines South Africa, United
States, and Venezuela.
❖ Data related to India:
➢ India is home to four biodiversity hotspots.
➢ Among these hotspots, three are considered the hottest of hotspots.
➢ India is one of the 17 megadiverse countries in the world.
Extra Edge:
Like Minded Megadiverse Countries (LMMC):
❖ Concept originated at the Cancun summit in 2002.
❖ The only criterion is that a country should be diverse and have associated traditional knowledge.
❖ Therefore, a landlocked country can be an LMMC but not a megadiverse country.
❖ For example:
➢ India is both a Group of Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries (LMMC) and a megadiverse country.
➢ The USA is a megadiverse but not an LMMC.
➢ Kenya is an LMMC but not a megadiverse.
 7

GIAHS (Globally Important Agriculture Heritage System):

Are agroecosystem inhabited by communities that live in an intricate relationship with their territory. These
evolving sites are resilient systems characterized by remarkable agrobiodiversity, traditional knowledge,
invaluable culture & landscape, sustainably managed by farmers etc. UN have designated 60 sites overall world.
❖ Saffron Heritage of Kashmir (Pampore Karewas)
❖ Koraput Traditional Agriculture (Sacred grooves method)
❖ Kuttanad Below sea level laming system species of flowering
Threats to Biodiversity:
❖ Threats to biodiversity have been identified by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), which was founded in 2012.
❖ India is a member of this platform.
❖ IPBES serves as the equivalent of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for biodiversity.
Following are some of the threats to Biodiversity:
➢ Land Use Change: Deforestation, mining, and fragmentation of habitats are some of the key drivers of
land use change.
➢ Climate Change: If the Earth's temperature rises by 2°C, it could trigger the 6th mass extinction,
according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
➢ Overexploitation: Hunting and poaching are examples of overexploitation, which can lead to the
depletion of wildlife populations.
➢ Invasive Alien Species: These species, such as Prosopis juliflora and Lantana camara, out-compete local
and indigenous species for natural resources and can quickly multiply due to the absence of competitors
and predators, ultimately dominating ecosystems.
✓ Examples include Prosopis juliflora, a weed that the Madras High Court has asked the Tamil Nadu
government to eradicate, and Lantana camara, an American weed introduced by the British in India.
House geckos and tilapia fish, both introduced species, have also thrived due to their fast breeding.
✓ Burmese python was introduced to control rodents in the Everglades in Florida but has become an
invasive species. Now, the state has hired Irular tribesmen to catch these snakes.
➢ Pollution: Examples of pollution include the Great Pacific garbage patch and pollution in rivers like the
Ganga, which threatens species like the gharial, dolphin, and turtle.
✓ Genetic Pollution: Genetically modified (GM) crops, such as GM mustard (DMH 11), are a source
of genetic pollution as they carry genes that could contaminate the native gene pool and potentially
lead to the elimination of natural varieties. Limited trials are being conducted for GM crops.
Biodiversity Conservation
 8

❖ Insitu Conservation: In situ conservation refers to the on-site conservation of genetic resources within
natural populations of plant or animal species. This includes conserving forest genetic resources within natural
populations of tree species.
➢ National Parks: Human activity is greatly restricted.
➢ Tourism: Allowed in Wildlife Sanctuaries, Allowed in Tiger Reserve but not allowed in core areas of
biosphere reserves
❖ Ex situ conservation: It is the technique of conservation of all levels of biological diversity outside their
natural habitats through different techniques like zoos, captive breeding, aquariums, botanical gardens, and
gene banks.
➢ Botanical garden is the ex-situ Conservation method. One notable example is the Acharya Jagadish
Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden in Howrah, which is India's largest botanical garden.
✓ Herbarium is used for preserving plants, while an arboretum is dedicated to trees.
➢ Seed Bank: Seed banks are facilities where seeds are stored at ultra-low temperatures, a process known
as cryopreservation.
✓ The world's largest seed bank is located in Svalbard, Norway, and is often referred to as a doomsday
bank. India has made contributions to the Svalbard seed bank.
✓ Changla, Ladakh, is India's seed bank, serving as a vital repository for preserving the country's plant
genetic resources.
➢ Captive Preservation
✓ Vulture breeding sites: Jatayu breeding center
✓ Gharial: Found in Chambal river
➢ Zoological Parks
✓ Shankar Bagh Zoo- Junagadh- Asiatic Lion
✓ P Naidu Zoo, Darjeeling: Red Panda, snow leopard
✓ Rann of Katchch: Indian Wild Ass
➢ DNA/ Gene bank
✓ CCMB-LaCONES
✓ Center for conservation and molecular biology: Lab for conservation of endemic species.
✓ Storage of genetic components:
• They may use somatic cell nuclear transfer technology in case of low population of a species.
• Restore and Revival Program:
1. Uses Crispr Cas - 9 and biotech
2. Bring back the extinct wooly mammoth by modifying the genetic structure of the Asian
elephant
 9

Tiger Reserves
❖ Tiger Reserves in India consist of a core tiger habitat, which would be managed as an inviolate area.
❖ These habitats are designated under the Wild Life Protection Act 1972.
❖ Tigers without compromising the rights of local tribes and other forest inhabitants.
❖ The National Tiger Conservation Authority is in charge of 54 Tiger Reserves in India.
❖ As per the reports, around 80% of tigers in the world are found in India and it becomes important for the
government to protect these species.
❖ Tiger reserves in India are declared by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and are
constituted of two components.
➢ Core Area: the core areas
have the legal status of a
national park or a
sanctuary, exclusive tiger
agenda is followed in the
core areas.
➢ Buffer Area: buffer or
peripheral areas are a mix
of forest and non-forest
land, managed as a
multiple-use area, an
inclusive people-oriented
agenda is followed in the
buffer zone.
Project Tiger
❖ In order to protect our national
animal, the tiger, India started
the Project Tiger initiative in 1973.
 10

❖ Project Tiger keeps an eye on 54 tiger reserves in India, which makes up roughly 2.21% of the nation’s
total land area.
❖ Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC’s) Project Tiger is a centrally sponsored
programme that offers tiger reserve states in India centralized support for tiger conservation.
❖ The NTCA oversees Project Tiger’s execution.
❖ National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA):
➢ It is a statutory body constituted under the Wildlife Pprotection Act, 1972 for tiger conversation.
➢ It is headed by the minister of MOEFCC.
➢ The Authority has three Members of Parliament of whom two will be elected by the House of the People
and one by the Council of States.
➢ It also has eight experts or professionals having qualifications and experience in wildlife
conservation and the welfare of people including Tribals.
➢ The Inspector General of Forests, in charge of Project Tiger, is the ex-officio Member Secretary.
Extra Edge:
Critical Tiger habitats:
❖ Critical Tiger habitats are wildlife habitats established in the areas of National Parks and Sanctuaries that
must be maintained inviolate for the purpose of wildlife conservation.
Protected Area Network
❖ The Protected Area Network is established under the Wild Life Protection Act of 1972. These areas
comprise National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, and Community Reserves.
Elephant Reserves
❖ In order to protect elephants, their habitat, and migration routes, address issues relating to man-animal conflict
and ensure the welfare of elephants kept in captivity, the Government of India established Project Elephant
as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme in 1992.
❖ Elephant reserves were established towards this end.
❖ In 16 of India’s 28 states, the Indian Elephant is frequently sighted, with a concentration in the Southern
Western Ghats, North-Eastern India, Eastern India, Central India, and Northern India.
❖ The Elephant reserves are not notified under a particular law.
❖ According to the Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA) 1972, a ‘protected area’ can be one of a ‘national park’,
a ‘wildlife sanctuary’, a ‘conservation reserve’ or a ‘community reserve’. In the eyes of the law, an elephant
reserve is no different from forest land or revenue land. The activities that are prohibited in protected areas –
including mining, oil- and gas- drilling, dams, etc. – are permissible in an
elephant reserve.
❖ In 2010, Elephant was designated as National Heritage Animal but nothing
was done to preserve its sanctity in a legal sensehere are 33 elephant reserves
in India.
Biosphere Reserves:
❖ It promotes solutions reconciling the conservation of biodiversity with its
sustainable use.
 11

❖ They are learning areas for sustainable development under diverse ecological, social and economic contexts,
touching the lives of more than 250 million people.
❖ There are currently 738 biosphere reserves in 134 countries, including 22 transboundary sites, that belong
to the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
❖ The first biosphere reserve of the world was established in 1979
❖ Biosphere Reserves: India has 18 Biosphere Reserves, 12 of which are in the World Network (UNESCO).
Panna was added in 2020.
➢ It encompasses Panna National Park, three sections of the Gangau Wildlife Sanctuary (I, III, and IV), and
the Reserved Forests of the North Panna Forest Division. The Ken river flows through this terrain.
Additionally, it is a part of the Ken-Betwa Link project.
➢ It can contain national parks and wildlife sanctuaries within itself.
➢ Protection of both terrestrial and marine ecosystems and genetic diversity.
➢ A biosphere reserve has 3 zones.
➢ World Network of Biosphere Reserves: It is an interactive network of sites of excellence. Collaboration
for sustainable development, knowledge sharing, poverty reduction, human well-being, respect for
cultural knowledge and enhanced capacity to cope with climate change.
Community and Conservation Reserve:
❖ Community Reserve: Area outside a National Park or Wild Life Sanctuary that acts as a connector to other
National Park or Wild Life Sanctuary. Privately owned land can be declared a community reserve. Here,
protection is done with the help of the community.
❖ Conservation Reserve: area contiguous to existing protected area/wildlife corridor where local communities
use land for livelihood. This area is owned by the government.
International Conventions:
❖ The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
➢ It is a legally binding multilateral treaty that was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro in 1992
and entered into
force in 1993.
➢ It currently has
196 members,
including India.
➢ All UN member
states, except the United States, have ratified the treaty.
➢ With a focus on sustainable development, the convention has three main goals:
✓ Conservation of biological diversity,
✓ Sustainable utilization of its benefits/components, and
✓ Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
➢ The topmost decision-making body of the CBD is the Conference of Parties to the CBD.
 12

❖ India and Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

➢ India is a party to the Convention, having ratified it in 1994. The Biological Diversity Act of 2002 was
enacted to give effect to the provisions of the Convention.
➢ To implement the Act, the government established the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) in 2003.
State Biodiversity Authorities and Biodiversity Management Committees at the local level have also been
established.
Additionally, People's Biodiversity Registers (PBRs), which record the knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes of
people regarding natural resources, plants, and animals, along with their utilization and conservation in a village or
panchayat, are also being prepared.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 18
Biodiversity and Conservation
(Part 2)
 2

Biodiversity and Conservation (Part 2)

The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD)
❖ It is an international convention with three major aims, they are:
➢ Conservation of Biodiversity.
➢ Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity.
➢ Fair and equitable benefit sharing.
❖ The Convention was established in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (the Rio "Earth Summit).
❖ India has ratified this convention, while the USA has not yet done so.

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety:

❖ The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international
agreement adopted in 2000.
❖ It entered into force in 2003 and covers the field of biotechnology.
❖ It currently has 173 parties.
❖ India has ratified CBD and its Cartagena Protocol (signed in Cartagena, Colombia).
❖ Cartagena Protocol aims to ensure the safe handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms
(LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology.
❖ LMOs have novel combinations of genetic material.
Extra Information from the Class:
Recombinant DNA technology:
❖ Recombinant DNA technology involves the use of enzymes and various laboratory techniques to manipulate
and isolate DNA
segments of interest.
❖ This method can be
used to combine
DNA from different
species or to create
genes with new
functions, a process
known as splicing.
❖ The resulting copies
are often referred to
as recombinant DNA.
❖ Such work typically involves propagating the recombinant DNA in bacterial or yeast cells, where the
cellular machinery copies the engineered DNA along with its own.
 3

❖ The Cartagena Protocol chiefly governs the following:

➢ Living modified organisms (LMOs) that are intentionally introduced into the environment.
➢ Genetically modified (GM) farm commodities (grain and corn used for animal feed, food or for
processing).
➢ LMOs are classified as follows under the Protocol:
✓ LMOs for intentional introduction into the environment – subject to AIA procedures.
✓ LMOs for direct usage as food or feed, or for processing – subject to simplified procedures, including
informing through the BCH.
✓ LMOs for contained usage (such as bacteria for lab experiments) – these are exempt from AIA
procedures.
❖ The Protocol has provisions for an Advance Informed Agreement (AIA) procedure.
❖ The AIA is for ensuring that countries are given enough information to make informed decisions before
agreeing to import LMOs into their country.
❖ There are four components to the AIA:
➢ Notification by the exporter (This is a detailed written description of the LMO by the exporter, well in
advance of the first shipment).
➢ Acknowledgement of notification receipt by the importer.
➢ Decision procedure (Approve/prohibit/ask for more information, etc.)
➢ Review of decisions.
❖ Data will be shared regarding scientific risks etc.
❖ The Cartagena Protocol also sets up a Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH) to enable information exchange
on LMOs between countries.
➢ It is also intended to help countries implement the Cartagena Protocol.
➢ The BCH is an information-sharing mechanism for relevant technical, scientific and legal information.
❖ The Protocol gives a precautionary approach to the issue of transfer of LMOs from one country to another.
❖ LMOs for Food/ Feed / Processing:
➢ Such LMOs relevant information and risk assessment to be made publicly available through Biosafety
clearing house.
➢ It does not cover pharmaceuticals for humans addressed by other international agreements and
organisations or products derived from LMOs, such as cooking oil from GM corn.
India and Cartagena Protocol
❖ India is a party to the Cartagena Protocol (ratified in 2003).
❖ The nodal agency (Competent National Authority-CNA) in the country for the implementation of the Protocol
is the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MOEF&CC)
❖ Regarding setting up of procedures for regulating LMOs, India was one of the early movers in the development
of a biosafety regulatory framework, way back in 1989, and has a systematic and structured science-based
regulatory system.
 4

❖ In the Indian regulations, the terms Genetically Engineered Organism or Genetically Modified Organism
are used, which are synonymous with LMOs.
❖ In India, series of guidelines are available for risk assessment and risk management of GMOs
Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol:
❖ The Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress is a supplementary protocol
to the Cartagena protocol on Biosafety.
❖ After several years of negotiations, the Parties to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety adopted the
Supplementary Protocol on 15 October 2010, in Nagoya, Japan
❖ The Supplementary Protocol requires that response measures are taken in the event of damage resulting from
living modified organisms, or where there is sufficient likelihood that damage will result if timely response
measures are not taken.
❖ The Supplementary Protocol also includes provisions in relation to civil liability.
❖ Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing: 3rd objective
➢ At the 10th Conference of Parties (COP10 2010) to the Convention on Biological Diversity in Nagoya,
Japan, the Nagoya Protocol was adopted.
➢ It is the second Protocol (supplementary agreement) to the CBD. It entered into force in 2014.
➢ It presently has 137 parties, including India.
➢ India signed the Nagoya Protocol in 2011 and ratified it in October 2012. The ratification by India was
done at the 11th Conference of Parties (COP) to the CBD, which was conducted in Hyderabad.
➢ Nagoya Protocol is about “Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization”, one of the three objectives of the CBD.
❖ The parties to the protocol are obliged to take actions with respect to access to genetic resources, benefit-
sharing, and compliance.
❖ Access to Genetic Resources:
➢ Access measures should have legal certainty, transparency, and clarity.
➢ The rules and procedures thereof should be fair and non-arbitrary.
➢ There should be clear rules for prior informed consent and mutually agreed-to terms.
➢ The rules should include provisions for the issuance of a permit (or its equivalent) when granted access.
➢ Encourage research that will contribute to the conservation of biodiversity and its sustainable use."
➢ Cases of imminent emergencies that threaten plant, animal, or human health should be considered.
➢ Take into consideration the importance of genetic resources for food and agriculture, to have food
security.
Benefit-sharing
❖ Benefit-sharing measures should have provisions for the fair & equitable sharing of benefits that arise from
the utilization of genetic resources with the contracting party that provides genetic resources.
❖ Utilization implies research and development on the biochemical or genetic composition of genetic
resources, as well as the resulting applications and commercialization.
 5

❖ Both Monetary and non-monetary, commercial and non-commercial uses are covered.
❖ Sharing should be subject to mutually-agreed terms.
❖ Benefits could be non-monetary or monetary. Benefits could be in the form of royalties or sharing of the
results of the research.
❖ The country must translate the provisions into domestic legislations to ensure legal certainty.
❖ There are official checkpoints in terms of PIC and MAT.
❖ India enacted the Biodiversity Act of 2002 to ensure compliance with the CBD and its additional protocols.
Biodiversity Act, 2002:
❖ It was enacted to provide for:
➢ The conservation of biological diversity,
➢ Sustainable use of its components
➢ Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and knowledge.
❖ It ensure India's compliance with the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Nagoya Protocol on Access
and Benefit Sharing
❖ CBD recognises that Genetic Resources of a state are its sovereign rights.
❖ The act envisioned a three-tier structure to regulate access to biological resources:
➢ The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
➢ The State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs)
➢ The Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) at the local level.
❖ A People's Biodiversity Register, maintained by BMCs with the help of gram sabha, contains information
about local flora and fauna, climate, landscape, agriculture, and traditional knowledge..
❖ NBA has powers of a civil court.
❖ Before applying for any form of IPRs (Intellectual Property Rights) in or outside India for an invention based
on research on a biological resource obtained from India, prior approval of National Biodiversity
Authority will be required.
❖ While granting approvals, National Biodiversity Authority will impose terms and conditions to secure
equitable sharing of benefits.
❖ The monetary benefits, fees, royalties as a result of approvals by National Biodiversity Authority will be
deposited in National Biodiversity Fund (NBF).
❖ NBF will be used for conservation and development of areas from where resource has been accessed, in
consultation with the local self-government concerned.
❖ Results of research not to be transferred to Foreign citizens, NRIs, and foreign companies without the
approval of National Biodiversity Authority.
❖ The act excludes traditional uses of Indian biological resources and associated knowledge
❖ Under Section 37 of Biological Diversity Act, 2002 the State Government in consultation with local bodies
may notify the areas of biodiversity importance as Biodiversity Heritage Sites.
 6

❖ Indian citizens / entities / local people including vaids and hakims have free access to use biological resources
within the country for their own use, medicinal purposes and research purposes.
❖ Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHSs):
➢ Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHSs) are well-defined areas that constitute unique, ecologically fragile
ecosystems, spanning terrestrial, coastal, inland, and marine waters, with rich biodiversity.
➢ BHSs are notified by State Governments, in consultation with local bodies.
➢ The creation of BHSs does not impose any restrictions on the prevailing practices and usages of local
communities, except those voluntarily decided by them.
➢ State Governments are also empowered to devise schemes for compensating or rehabilitating any
individuals or groups economically affected by such notifications.
Provisions The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 Amendments to the 2002 Act
Access to Biological The Act requires anyone seeking to access The Bill modifies the classification of
Resources biological resources or associated entities and activities that require
knowledge in India to obtain prior intimation, while also introducing
approval or inform the regulatory authority exemptions to certain cases.
about their intent.
Intellectual Property Concerning Intellectual Property Rights The Bill suggests that approval will be
Rights (IPR), the Act currently demands NBA required before the actual grant of the IPR,
approval before applying for IPR related to not during the application process.
biological resources from India.
Exempting AYUSH It seeks to exempt registered AYUSH
Practitioners medical practitioners and people accessing
codified traditional knowledge, among
others, from giving prior intimation to State
biodiversity boards for accessing biological
resources for certain purposes.
Benefit Sharing The Act mandates benefit sharing, which The Bill removes the applicability of
involves sharing both monetary and benefit sharing requirements from
non-monetary benefits with those who research, bio-survey, and bio-utilisation.
conserve biodiversity or hold traditional
knowledge associated with it.
NBA determines the terms of benefit
sharing when granting approvals for
various activities.
Criminal Penalties The Act imposes criminal penalties, The Bill, on the other hand, decriminalizes
including imprisonment, for offenses such these offenses and introduces fines ranging
as not obtaining approval or intimation for from one lakh to fifty lakh rupees instead.
specific activities.
 7

Components
❖ Richness of wild as well as domesticated species or intra-specific categories.
❖ High endemism.
❖ Presence of rare and threatened species, keystone species, species of evolutionary significance.
❖ Wild ancestors of domestic/cultivated species or their varieties.
❖ Past pre-eminence of biological components represented by fossil beds and having significant cultural,
ethical or aesthetic values and are important for the maintenance of cultural diversity, with or without a
long history of human association with them.
❖ Presently 36 BHS are in India including Majuli, Unakoti, Silachari Caves, Amarkantak etc.
❖ First Biodiversity Heritage Site of India is Nallur Tamarind Grove in Bengaluru, Karnataka (2007).
❖ Recently, Tamil Nadu issued a notification declaring Arittapatti and Meenakshipuram villages in Madurai
district the first biodiversity heritage site in State.
Aichi Biodiversity Targets
❖ At CBD COP 12 (2014),
parties discussed the
implementation of the
Strategic Plan for
Biodiversity 2011- 2020
and its Aichi Biodiversity
Targets that to be achieved
before 2020.
❖ It officially known as
“Strategic Plan for
Biodiversity 2011-2020”,
it provided a set of 20
ambitious yet achievable
targets collectively.
❖ India agreed to form the
National Biodiversity
action plan with 12
targets, similar to the aichi
targets.
❖ None of the 20 ‘Aichi
Biodiversity Targets’ agreed on by national governments through the CBD has been met, according to CBD’s
Global Biodiversity Outlook 5 report.
❖ Sharm El Sheikh Declaration is the New Deal for Nature
❖ COP 14 of CBD adopted this declaration in Sharm El city (also called the city of peace) in Egypt.
❖ It focuses on integrating biodiversity into legislative & policy frameworks.
 8

❖ It aims to develop a Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework (after failed Aichi Biodiversity Targets) to
achieve the 2050 vision for biodiversity known as New Deal for Nature, catalyse action from all stakeholders
in support of biodiversity conservation.
COP 15
❖ The 15th Conference of Parties (COP15) of the Convention on Biological Diversity concluded in Montreal,
Canada.
❖ About COP15
➢ Chaired by China and hosted by Canada.
➢ Held in two phases:
✓ Phase one took place virtually in Kunming, China, in October 2021
✓ Phase two was recently held in Montreal, Canada.
➢ Objective: To adopt a Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), which will replace the Aichi Biodiversity
Targets that expired in 2020.
❖ GBF and its underlying documents are not legally binding.
❖ The adoption of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) aims to address biodiversity
loss, restore ecosystems, and protect indigenous rights. It includes:
➢ Four long-term goals for 2050 aligned with the 2050 Vision for Biodiversity.
➢ Twenty-three action-oriented global targets for urgent action over the decade leading up to 2030.
30×30 target:
❖ Target 3 calls for 30 percent of the world’s terrestrial, inland water, and of coastal and marine areas, to
be in effective protection and management by 2030.
➢ To achieve this objective, a high-ambition coalition was formed—an intergovernmental group co-chaired
by Costa Rica and France, with the UK also serving as a co-chair. The coalition is committed to advocating
for a global agreement aimed at achieving the 30×30 target.
❖ India is part of this High Ambition Coalition.
Special Trust Fund
❖ Global Environment Facility requested to establish a Special Trust Fund in 2023, and until 2030, to support
the implementation of the GBF.
❖ Fund would have its own “equitable governing body” dedicated to achieving the goals of the GBF and must
be prepared to receive “financing from all sources”, including official development assistance
India’s Initiations
Wildlife Protection Act of 1972:
❖ Background of the Act
➢ The legislation is based on a Resolution of the Legislature of 11 States, invoking Article 252 of the
Constitution that provides for Parliament to pass a common law for two or more States making such a
request by a resolution of the State Legislature.
➢ The Act initially applied to only those State Governments whose Legislatures passed the requisite
resolution, but was later extended to all States through the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act
1991 after the subject “protection of wild animals and birds (17B)” was brought to Concurrent List.
 9

❖ The act provides for:

➢ State wildlife advisory boards
➢ Defines wildlife related terminologies like habitat, hunting, zoo, sanctuary, National Park, Reserve forest
etc.
➢ Regulations for hunting wild animals and birds
❖ Sanctuaries and national parks can be established by the State Government through a notification, without
the need to pass any law.
❖ Central government can declare an area as a Sanctuary or National Park where the state government ceases,
or otherwise transfers any area within a sanctuary, to central government.
❖ Regulations for the trade in wild animals, animal products, and trophies.
❖ Management of zoos.
❖ Imposition of judicial penalties for violating the Act.
❖ According to the Act, the State government may appoint a Chief Wildlife Warden, while the Central
government may appoint directors and assistant directors.
❖ Prohibits taxidermy, which involves the preservation of dead wild animals as trophies or in the form of
skins, antlers, horns, eggs, teeth, or nails.
❖ Alteration of boundaries can be done by States only with prior approval of National Board for Wildlife
(NBWL).
❖ The Central government has the authority, through notification, to designate any wild animal specified in
Schedule II as vermin. Vermin refers to wild animals that are harmful to crops, animals, or carry diseases,
such as rodents. This provision was added in the 2022 Amendment.
➢ For example, the declaration by the Centre of nilgais as vermin in Bihar and monkeys as vermin in
Shimla, as well as the refusal to declare wild boars as vermin in Kerala, has sparked controversy and
drawn criticism.
❖ Additionally, the Central Government has the power to add or remove any entry from any Schedule,
transfer an entry from one Part of a Schedule to another, or transfer an entry from one Schedule to
another.
❖ Authorities established under this act:
➢ The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (with statutory status), headed by the Director of Wildlife
Preservation, appointed by the Central Government.
➢ Chief Wildlife Wardens appointed by state governments.
➢ The Central Zoo Authority.
➢ The National Board of Wildlife, headed by the Prime Minister.
➢ State Boards of Wildlife, headed by the Chief Minister.
➢ The National Tiger Conservation Authority, headed by the Minister of the Ministry of Environment,
Forest, and Climate Change.
➢ Tiger Conservation Foundations, to be established by states.
➢ The act has been amended eight times so far: in 1982, 1986, 1991, 1993, and 2002.
 10

Amendments of The Act:

❖ 1982 amendment:
➢ Introduced a provision permitting the capture and transportation of wild animals for the scientific
management of animal population.
❖ 2002 amendment:
➢ It made punishment and penalty more stringent.
➢ It introduced the provision for the National Board for Wildlife, which stipulated that no alterations in
the boundaries of National Parks or Wildlife Sanctuaries could be made without its approval.
❖ 2006 amendment:
➢ Establishment of the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
➢ Establishment of the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB).
❖ 2013 amendment:
➢ It introduced the provision for imprisonment of up to 7 years.
➢ It protects the hunting rights of Scheduled Tribes in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
➢ Delineation of Powers:
✓ No human activity is permitted inside a NP except for ones permitted by Chief Wildlife Warden
of State.
✓ Chief Wild Life Warden may permit hunting of any wild animal if it has become dangerous to human
life or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery.
✓ Both State and Central Governments can notify National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries under the
act.
Wildlife Protection (Amendment) Act, 2022:
Rationalization of schedules
Schedule Earlier Now
Schedule I Animal species with highest level of protection Animal Species with highest level
of protection
Schedule II Higher protection than Schedule III and IV but lower Animal Species with lower level of
than Schedule I protection
Schedule III Protected species with hunting prohibited but the Protected Plant species
Schedule IV penalty for any violation is less compared to the first Specimen listed under CITES
two schedules. Appendices
Schedule V Vermin –
Schedule VI Protected Plant species –

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 19
Biodiversity and Conservation
(Part 3)
 2

Biodiversity and Conservation (Part 3)

Wildlife Protection (Amendment) Act, 2022: (Provisions)
❖ The Act amends the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 which regulates the protection of wild animals, birds
and plants.
❖ It implements provision of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) which is a convention to prevent illegal trade in wildlife. It has three appendices with varying
levels of protection.
❖ Central government to designate:
➢ Management Authority: It grants export or import permits for the trade of specimens.
➢ Scientific Authority: It advises on aspects related to the impact on the survival of the specimens being
traded.
❖ Every person engaging in the trade of a scheduled specimen must report the transaction details to the
Management Authority.
❖ Identification mark to be used by the Management Authority for a specimen, as per the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
❖ Wild animals will be declared as Vermin by the Central Government by way of notification for any area and
a specified period.
❖ It is forbidden to change the identification mark.
❖ Increased in penalties
Violation 1972 Act 2022 Amendment
General Violation Up to Rs. 25,000 Up to Rs. 1,00,000
Specially protected animals At least Rs. 10,000 At least Rs. 25,000
❖ The Chief Wildlife Warden will manage and protect sanctuaries by the management plans prepared as per
guidelines of the central government. (Earlier such a provision was not there.)
❖ In the case of sanctuaries falling under scheduled areas or areas where the FRA 2006 is applicable, the
management plan for such sanctuaries will be prepared after due consultation with the concerned gram
sabha. (The gram sabha plays a crucial role in the FRA.)
❖ Transfer or transport of live elephants is allowed for religious or any other purpose by individuals
possessing ownership certificates, subject to conditions prescribed by the Central Government.
❖ The Central government is empowered to regulate or prohibit the import, trade, possession, or
proliferation of invasive alien species.
❖ It empowers the Central government to declare areas adjacent to National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries
as Conservation Reserves to protect flora and fauna, along with their habitat. Previously, only state
governments held such powers.
❖ Community Reserves are declared by states.
 3

❖ It provides for any person to voluntarily surrender any captive animals or animal products to the Chief Wild
Life Warden to avoid abandonment.
❖ No compensation will be paid to the person for surrendering and surrendered items will become the state’s
property.
❖ The State Board of Wildlife is permitted to constitute a standing committee.
❖ No renewal of any arms licenses to be granted to any person residing within 10km of a sanctuary except
under the intimation of the Chief Wildlife Warden.
Indian Forest Act of 1927:
❖ The Indian Forest Act (IFA), 1927 was largely based on previous Indian Forest Acts implemented under the
British.
❖ The most famous one was the Indian Forest Act of 1878.
❖ The Act provides a legal framework for the protection and management of forests and duty leviable on
Timber.
❖ It provides for the procedure to be followed for declaring an area to be reserved or Protected or Village
Forest
❖ 2017 Amendment:
➢ Amended the definition of the tree to remove the word bamboo. It means, that bamboo growing in non-
forest areas will be waived off the requirement of permission for its felling or transportation for
economic use.
❖ Reserve Forest
➢ The State government may constitute any forest land or waste land as reserved forest which is the
property of the Government and may sell the produce from these forests.
➢ Before issuing official notification state government needs to appoint a Forest Settlement Officer (has
power of Civil Courts) to inquire and to provide settlements to persons belonging to that area.
➢ All activities are prohibited unless permitted in Reserve Forests.
❖ Protected Forest
➢ State government may constitute any forest land or wasteland not included in Reserve Forest as
Protected Forest.
➢ Protected forests are of two kinds:
✓ Demarcated protected forests
✓ Undemarcated protected forests
➢ All activities are permitted unless prohibited in PFs.
❖ Village Forest:
➢ State government can assign any village community the rights over any land that has been constituted
as reserved forest.
➢ It may make rules to regulate the management of village forests, prescribing conditions under which
the community may access timber, forest produce, or pasture.
 4

➢ The degree of protection for forests follows this hierarchy: Reserved forests > Protected forests >
Village forests.
Forest Conservation Act, 1980:
❖ Background of the Act:
➢ The Forest (Conservation) Act 1980, flows from entry 17A of List III (Concurrent List) of the Seventh
Schedule.
➢ This was facilitated by the Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act 1976, which inter alia moved the subject
from the State List to the Concurrent List.
➢ It was enacted in response to the rapid decline in the forest covers in India, and also to fulfil the
Constitutional obligation under Article 48-A.
➢ It enacted to consolidate the law related to forest, to control unchecked deforestation, the transit of forest
produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest produce.
➢ Forest officers and their staff administer the Forest Act.
➢ Under the provisions of this Act, prior approval of the Central Government is required for the
diversion of forestlands for non-forest purposes.
➢ An Advisory Committee constituted under the Act advises the Central Government on these approvals.
➢ The Act gives rule-making power to The Central Government.
➢ The Act deals with the four categories of forests, namely reserved forests, village forests, protected
forests, and private forests.
➢ 1992 Amendment, it provisioned for allowing some non-forest activities in forests, without cutting
trees or limited cutting with prior approval of the Central Govt.
❖ TN Godavarman Thirumulkpad vs the Union of India) judgement:
➢ Supreme Court noted that the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, was brought to prevent deforestation
and goes on to add that its nature of land classification doesn’t matter.
❖ The order read that “the provisions made for the conservation of forests must apply to all forests
irrespective of the nature of ownership or classification thereof.”
❖ The court had also said that forests will not just be areas recorded as forest land in government records,
but all areas that are similar to the dictionary definition of a forest.
❖ Under the Godavarman order, the states are supposed to identify and notify forests.
❖ The Forest Advisory Committee, the apex body that deliberates on granting permission to fell forests said,
“criteria finalised by a state need not be subject to approval by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change
❖ Forest Conservation Rules, 2022:
➢ The Rule constitutes an Advisory Committee, a regional empowered committee at each of the integrated
regional offices and a screening committee at State/Union Territory (UT) government-level.
➢ These rules will replace the forest conservation rules of 2003.
➢ Provides a certain time frame for projects to be cleared.
 5

➢ In principle approval after considering the recommendations of the advisory committee, then final
approval from the central government.
Committees Features
Project ❖ To be constituted by State or UT.
Screening ❖ To meet atleast twice every month to recommend projects to State/ UTs administration.
Committee ❖ To examine the proposal received from the State Government or Union territory
Administration, except proposals involving forest land of five hectares or less.
Regional ❖ To be setup by Central Govt. in each of the regional offices.
Empowered ❖ To meet atleat twice every month to examine every referred project for approval or
Committee rejection.
Advisory ❖ To be setup by the Central govt consisting 6 members to meet every month.
Committee ❖ To advise with regards to grant of approval under various sections of rules.
❖ Zoos exempted from permissions under FCA:
➢ MoEFCC has approved consideration of Central Zoo Authority of considering Zoos on forest land
as forestry activity.
➢ Earlier, zoos, rescue centers etc. was considered non forestry activity, making forest clearance from the
center mandatory. Now, Zoos will be exempted from taking multiple approvals as they are considered
forestry activity.
❖ Compensatory Afforestation:
➢ Applicants seeking to divert forest land in a hilly or mountainous state with green cover encompassing
more than two-thirds of its geographical area, or in a state/Union Territories with forest cover spanning
more than one-third of its geographical area, will have the option to undertake compensatory
afforestation in other states/UTs where the cover is less than 20%.
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016
❖ The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) Act seeks to provide
an appropriate institutional mechanism, both at the Centre and in each State and Union Territory, to
ensure expeditious utilization in the efficient and transparent manner of amounts released in lieu of forest land
diverted for the non-forest purpose which would mitigate the impact of diversion of such forest land.
❖ The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act was passed by the center in 2016 and the related rules were
notified in 2018.
❖ It seeks to establish the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India, and
a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state.
❖ These Funds will receive payments from
➢ Compensatory afforestation,
➢ Net present value of forest (NPV), and
➢ Other project-specific payments.
➢ The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the remaining 90%.
 6

❖ The funds can be used for:

➢ Treatment of catchment areas,
➢ Assisted natural generation,
➢ Forest management,
➢ Wildlife protection and management,
➢ Relocation of villages from protected areas,
➢ Managing human-wildlife conflicts,
➢ Training and awareness generation,
➢ Supply of wood saving devices, and
➢ Allied activities.
Forest Rights Act, 2006:
❖ The Act is also known as the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest
Rights) Act, 2006:
➢ This Act facilitates the restitution of forest rights for marginalized communities throughout India.
➢ It emphasizes the integration of conservation efforts with the livelihood rights of the people and the
reinforcement of local self-governance.
➢ The implementation of this Act falls under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
➢ It is applicable to Forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(OTFD) who have resided in such forests for generations.
➢ In the context of ethics, the Act aims to correct historical injustices.
❖ For the first time FRA recognizes and secures:
➢ Community Rights in addition to their Individual Rights
➢ Right to protect or conserve or manage any community forest resource which the communities have
been traditionally protecting & conserving for sustainable use.
➢ Right to intellectual property and traditional knowledge related to biodiversity and cultural diversity.
➢ Rights of displaced communities and rights over developmental activities.
❖ The Gram Sabha has been designated as the competent authority for initiating the process of determining
the nature and extent of individual or community forest rights.
❖ The decision of the Gram Sabha to reject or allow a claim can be appealed before the court.
❖ The FRA act identifies 4 types of rights
➢ Title rights: It gives the right to ownership to land-farmed forest dwellers subject to a maximum of
four hectares.
➢ Use rights: Rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest Produce, grazing areas, etc.
➢ Relief and development rights: Rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement and
to basic amenities, subject to restrictions for forest protection.
 7

➢ Forest management rights: Right to protect, regenerate or conserve, or manage any community forest
resource that they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.
❖ Criteria and evidence for Forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST) to claim rights under FRA:
➢ Must be Schedule Tribe in an area.
➢ Primarily resided in forest or land prior to Dec 2005.
➢ Depend on forest or forest land for livelihood needs
❖ Criteria for other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OFTD) to claim rights under FRA:
➢ Primarily resided in the forest for three generations (75 years) prior to December 2005.
➢ Depend on forest for livelihood needs.
➢ Critical Wildlife Habitats (CWH)
➢ The Critical Wildlife Habitats (CWH) have been envisaged in the Forest Rights Act, 2006. CWHs are
defined under the act as the “areas of national parks and sanctuaries which are required to be kept as
inviolate (human settlement and usage) for the purposes of wildlife conservation”.
➢ FRA identifies the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change as the agency to notify the
guidelines related to Critical Wildlife Habitats (CWH).
❖ The Act recognizes the right of ownership access to collect, use, and dispose of minor forest produce (it
defines Minor Forest Produce to include non-timber forest produce of plant origin) by tribals.
❖ The rights conferred under the Act shall be heritable but not alienable or transferable.
❖ National Parks and Sanctuaries have been included along with Reserve Forest, and Protected Forests for the
recognition of Rights.
❖ The Act only recognises pre-existing rights which are already being exercised by eligible persons.
❖ Also, it secures the tenure of existing forest dwellers, but no new rights are being created.
❖ Critical Wildlife Habitats (CWH) vs Core or critical tiger habitat:
➢ The phrase ‘core or critical tiger habitat’ is mentioned only in the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, as a
sequel to amendment made to the said Act in 2006. It is not defined in the Scheduled Tribes and Other
Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.
➢ The phrase ‘critical wildlife habitat’ is defined only in the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional
Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, and NOT in the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972.
❖ Habitat Rights to Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs):
➢ Certain tribes are called PVTGs based on their greater vulnerability classified as such after the Dhebhar
Commission highlighted inequalities among tribals.
❖ Criteria:
➢ Pre-agricultural level of technology.
➢ Extremely low literacy.
➢ Stagnant, declining population.
➢ Subsistence based economy.
 8

➢ Forest-dependent livelihood.
➢ 75 PVTGs distributed among 18 states and UTs of India.
➢ The communities were identified based on the recommendations of Tribal
➢ Research Institutes (TRIs) of the respective state governments and by 1993-94, 75 groups had been
identified and placed on the list of PTGs.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 20
Indian Legislation
 2

Indian Legislation
India State of Forest Report (ISFR), 2021:
❖ Assessment of India’s forest and tree cover, published every two years by the Forest Survey of India (under
MoEFCC), ISFR 2021 is the 17th report.
❖ New features in the 17th Report include:
➢ Assessment of tiger reserves and tiger corridors.
➢ Estimation of above ground biomass using synthetic aperture radar data in collaboration with ISRO.
➢ Mapping of Climate Change hotspots in Indian Forests in collaboration with BITS Pilani.
❖ Definitions in ISFR are as follows:
➢ Recorded Forest Area (RFA): Any lands notified as forest under any Government Act or Rules. (An
RFA may or may not have a forest).
➢ Forest Cover: All patches of land with a tree canopy density of more than 10% and an area exceeding
one hectare, regardless of land use (agroforestry, compensatory forestry), ownership (public or private),
and species of trees (it can even be a plantation). The FAO definition does not include agriculture and
plantation land as it doesn’t support biodiversity, according to a recent Indian Express investigation.
➢ Tree Cover: All patches of trees less than one hectare outside RFA, irrespective of canopy density.
➢ Trees Outside Forests (TOF): All trees outside RFA, regardless of patch size. (Tree Cover is a subset
of TOF).
❖ Clarification:
➢ Within Recorded Forest Areas, there are areas with a canopy density of less than 10%, and some
without trees altogether.
➢ Conversely, outside Recorded Forest Areas, there are areas with tree stands possessing a canopy density
of more than 10% and an area of one hectare or larger; these areas also contribute to forest cover.
➢ Hence, alterations in forest cover can stem not only from changes within Recorded Forest Areas but also
from outside them.
❖ Density based classification
3
 4

❖ Forest Cover as a percentage of Gross Area:

➢ Lakshadweep (90%)
➢ Mizoram (85%)
➢ Andaman & Nicobar Islands (82%)
➢ Arunachal Pradesh (79%)
➢ Meghalaya (76%)
➢ Manipur (74%)
➢ Nagaland (74%)
➢ Tripura (74%)
➢ Goa (61%)
➢ Kerala (55%)
❖ States with a positive change in Forest Cover:
➢ Andhra Pradesh (647 sq km),
➢ Telangana,
➢ Odisha,
➢ Karnataka, and
➢ Jharkhand (110 sq km).
❖ States with a negative change in Forest Cover:
➢ Arunachal Pradesh (257 sq km),
➢ Manipur,
➢ Nagaland,
➢ Mizoram, and
➢ Meghalaya (73 sq km).
❖ In term of cities, Delhi has the largest Forest Cover (194 sq km), followed by Mumbai (111 sq km),
Bengaluru (89 sq km), Hyderabad (82 sq km), Chennai (23 sq km), Ahmedabad (9.4 sq km), and Kolkata (1.7
sq km).
New York Declaration:
❖ The New York Declaration on Forests is a voluntary and non-legally binding political declaration which
grew out of dialogue among governments, companies and civil society, spurred by the United Nations
Secretary-General’s Climate Summit held in New York in 2014.
❖ The Declaration pledges to halve the rate of deforestation by 2020, to end it by 2030, and to restore hundreds
of millions of acres of degraded land.
❖ Presently, India has not signed the New York Declaration on Forests (NYDF).
Tree City of the World’ (TCW) Tag:
❖ Mumbai and Hyderabad have been jointly recognised as ‘2021 TCW’.
❖ TCW programme has been started by United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organisation and American
non-profit organisation Arbor Day Foundation.
❖ It provides direction, assistance, and worldwide recognition for a community’s dedication to its urban forest
and framework for a healthy, sustainable urban forestry programme in town or city.
 5

❖ City was evaluated based on five standards i.e. Establish Responsibility, Set the Rules, Know What You
Have, Allocate the Resources, and Celebrate the Achievements.
Miyawaki Method
❖ It is a technique of urban afforestation by creating micro forests over small plots of land.
❖ It was devised by Japanese botanist Akira Miyawaki in 1980s.
❖ It ensures 10 times faster growth of plant and 30 times denser than usual.
❖ In this technique, native trees of a region are divided into four layers (shrub, sub-tree, tree, and canopy) after
identification and analysis of soil quality.
Indian Acts
The Water (Prevention And Control Of Pollution) Act, 1974
❖ The aim of the act is the prevention and control of water pollution, as well as the maintenance or
restoration of the wholesomeness and purity of water.
❖ Background of the Act: Since water is a state subject, the Act was enacted based on the Resolution of the
Legislatures of 12 States, invoking Article 252 of the Constitution, similar to the case of the Wild Life Act.
❖ The Act vests regulatory authority in State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and empowers these Boards
to establish and enforce effluent standards for factories discharging pollutants into water bodies.
❖ A Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) performs the same functions for Union Territories and
formulates policies and coordinates activities of different State Boards.
❖ The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCBs and CPCB to directly close a defaulting industrial plant.
Air Act 1981:
❖ The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 and its amendment in 1987.
❖ Background of the Act:
➢ To implement the decisions taken at the UN Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm
in 1972, Parliament enacted the nationwide Air Act.
➢ The Air Act expanded the authority of the central and state boards established under the Water Act to
include air pollution control.
➢ The 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into the Air Act and extended the Act to
include noise pollution.
Environment Protection Act of 1986:
❖ Background of the Act
➢ It was enacted in the wake of Bhopal GasTragedy
➢ It was passed by Parliament claiming legislative competence under Article 253 of the Constitution.
➢ The Act cites the decision of the Stockholm Conference with regard to appropriate steps for “protection
and improvement of the environment and the prevention of hazards to human beings, other living
creatures, plants and property”.
➢ The purpose of the Act is to act as an“umbrella” legislation designed to provide a framework for Central
government co- ordination of the activities of various central and state authorities established under
previous laws, such asWater Act and Air Act.
➢ Central Government gets full power for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the
environment.
 6

❖ The powers include:

➢ Coordination of action by state,
➢ Planning and execution of nationwide programmes,
➢ Laying down environmental quality standards, especially those governing emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants.
➢ Placing restriction on the location of industries and so on.
➢ Authority to issue direct orders, included orders to close, prohibits or regulate any industry.
➢ Power of entry for examination, testing of equipment and other purposes and power to analyse the sample
of air, water, soil or any other substance from any place.
➢ Preparation of codes, guides and manuals.
➢ Such other matters as central government deems necessary or expedient for purpose of securing the
effective implementation of act (this provision truly makes it an umbrella legislation).
❖ The Act provides provisions for penalties. Each failure or contravention carries a punishment, including a
prison term of up to 5 years or a fine of up to Rs. 1 lakh, or both.
❖ Section 19 states that any person, in addition to authorized government officials, may file a complaint with a
court alleging an offence under the Act. This "Citizens' Suit" provision requires the person to give notice
of not less than 60 days of the alleged offence of pollution to the Central Government.
❖ Section 3 empowers the government to constitute authorities for the purpose of exercising powers and
performing such functions as conferred by the Act. These authorities include:
➢ Central Groundwater Authority
➢ Taj Trapezium Zone Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority 2003
➢ Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority for the NCR: now replaced by NCAQM (not
formed under this act)
❖ Important legislations notified under this Act:
➢ E-Waste Management Rules, 2022
➢ Solid Waste Management, 2016 Rules
➢ Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016
➢ CRZ Rules
➢ Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017
➢ The Ozone Depleting Substance Rules
➢ Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 (amended in 2018, 2021, 2022)
❖ Ecologically Sensitive Zones:
➢ Ecologically Sensitive Zones are the areas ecologically important and fragile surrounding protected areas.
➢ Designated by the Central Government through the exercise of powers conferred by section 3 of the
Environment Protection Act, 1986.
➢ The extent of Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) as per the 2011 guidelines is generally a width of up to 10
km around a Protected Area (PA).
➢ The aim is to create a kind of “Shock Absorber” for Protected Areas (PAs) to prevent human-wildlife
conflict.
 7

➢ Recently, the Supreme Court directed that every protected forest, national park, and wildlife
sanctuary in the country should mandatorily have a minimum 1 km ESZ (Ecologically Sensitive
Zone).
➢ The Core and buffer model of management is employed:
✓ The Core area holds the legal status of a national park, while the buffer area has no such status and
is meant to serve as a transition zone.
✓ It includes sensitive corridors, connectivity, ecologically important patches, landscape linkages, and
may extend beyond 10 km as well.

❖ Western Ghats:
➢ The Gadgil panel (2011) recommended tagging 64% of the Western Ghats region as an Ecologically
Sensitive Area (ESA) with varying degrees.
➢ Later, the Kasturirangan committee (2013) was appointed and proposed that 37% of the total area of
the Western Ghats be declared as an ESA.
➢ The committee advocated for continuing the existing system of ‘red,’ ‘orange,’ and ‘green’
categorization of activities based on their polluting effects. It further recommended a blanket ban on
mining, quarrying, setting up of red category industries, and thermal power projects.
➢ In recent news, the Supreme Court has quashed a plea against the reports of both the Kasturirangan
and Gadgil panels regarding the Western Ghats. To address the conflict between the two reports, the
Kerala government proposed implementing the Oommen v Oomen report. This report suggests
keeping plantations and inhabited areas in the Western Ghats out of the Ecologically Sensitive Area
designation.
 8

Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Rules:

❖ In accordance with the Environment Protection Act of 1986, the Environment Ministry created the Coastal
Regulation Zone rules (CRZ rules) in February 1991.
❖ In 2018, the government released the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2018 to lift building limitations,
speed up the clearance procedure, and boost tourism in coastal areas.
❖ The National Coastal Zone Management Authority and State Coastal Zone Management Authority were
created for the enforcement and monitoring of CRZ rules under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
➢ CRZ-I areas are those that are environmentally most critical. They are further classified as:
➢ CRZ-I A constitutes ecologically sensitive areas (ESAs) and geomorphological features that play a role
in maintaining the integrity of the coast, including mangroves and coral reefs.
➢ CRZ-I B constitutes the intertidal zone, i.e., the land area between the High Tide Line (HTL) and the
Low Tide Line (LTL).
❖ CRZ-II constitutes the developed land areas that are substantially built-up with drainage and other
infrastructural facilities or are legally designated urban areas.
❖ CRZ-III consists of land areas that are relatively undisturbed, i.e., rural areas that do not fall under CRZ-II.
CRZ-III areas are further classified as follows:
➢ CRZ-III A: Areas with a population density of more than 2161 per sq. km as per the 2011 census. In
CRZ-III A, the area up to 50 meters from the HTL on the landward side is designated as the No
Development Zone (NDZ).
➢ CRZ-III B: It encompasses areas with a population density of less than 2161 per sq. km as per the 2011
census. In CRZ-III B, the area up to 200 meters from the HTL on the landward side is designated as the
No Development Zone (NDZ).
❖ CRZ-IV constitutes the water area and is further classified as follows:
➢ CRZ-IV A: The water area between the LTL up to 12 nautical miles on the seaward side.
➢ CRZ-IV B: Tidal influenced water bodies.
❖ Projects located in CRZ-I (Ecologically
Sensitive Areas) and CRZ-IV (areas
covered between the Low Tide Line and
12 Nautical Miles seaward) will be
processed for CRZ clearance by the
The Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEF). The authority for
clearances regarding CRZ-II and III has
been delegated to the State level.
National Green Tribunal Act, 2010:
❖ The Act provides for the establishment of a National Green Tribunal for the effective and expeditious disposal
of cases relating to environmental protection. Enacted under Article 21, it ensures the right to a healthy
environment.
 9

❖ The specialized architecture of the NGT will facilitate the fast-track resolution of environmental cases and
provide a boost to the implementation of many sustainable development measures. The NGT is mandated to
dispose of cases within 6 months of their respective appeals.
❖ The Principal Bench of the NGT has been established in New Delhi, with regional benches in Pune (Western
Zone Bench), Bhopal (Central Zone Bench), Chennai (Southern Bench), and Kolkata (Eastern Bench).
❖ Members:
➢ The sanctioned strength of the tribunal is currently 10 expert members and 10 judicial members,
although the act allows for up to 20 of each.
➢ Every bench of the tribunal must consist of at least 1 expert member and 1 judicial member.
➢ The Chairman of the tribunal is required to be a serving or retired Chief Justice of a High Court or a
judge of the Supreme Court of India.
❖ The Tribunal has Original Jurisdiction on matters of "substantial question relating to environment" (i.e.,
when a community at large is affected, or there is damage to public health at a broader level) and "damage to
environment due to specific activity" (such as pollution). The term "substantial" is undefined.
❖ The NGT has the power to hear all civil cases relating to environmental issues and questions linked to the
implementation of laws listed in Schedule I of the NGT Act. These include the following:
➢ The Water (Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
➢ The Water (Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
➢ The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
➢ The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
➢ The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
➢ The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
➢ The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
❖ NGT has not been vested with powers to hear any matter relating to:
➢ Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
➢ Indian Forest Act, 1927.
➢ Various laws enacted by states relating to forests, tree preservation etc.
❖ The Tribunal’s orders are binding, and it has power to grant relief in the form of compensation and damages
to affected persons.
❖ It is not bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, but shall be guided
by principles of natural justice.
❖ It is also not bound by the rules of evidence as enshrined in the Indian Evidence Act, 1872.
❖ The order of the National Green Tribunal can be challenged before the Supreme Court within 90 days.
❖ NGT applies the principles of sustainable development, precautionary principle and polluter pays
principles in its orders.
❖ Strict Liability vs. Absolute Liability
➢ Strict Liability Principle: A party is not liable and does not need to pay compensation if a hazardous
substance escapes its premises by accident or by an 'act of God,' among other circumstances.
 10

➢ Absolute Liability Principle: A party in a hazardous industry cannot claim any exemption. It must
mandatorily pay compensation, whether or not the disaster was caused by its negligence.
❖ The National Green Tribunal Act of 2010 incorporates the absolute liability principle.
❖ The NGT Act mandates that absolute liability should be applied even if the disaster caused is an accident.
National Board For Wildlife:
❖ It is a Statutory Organization constituted under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
❖ It was established in 2003, replacing the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL).
❖ The primary function of the Board is to promote the conservation and development of wildlife and forests.
❖ It serves as the apex body to review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around national
parks and sanctuaries. No alteration of boundaries in National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries can be made
without the approval of the NBWL.
❖ It is a 47-member body chaired by the Prime Minister, with its vice-chairman being the Minister of
Environment.
Animal Welfare Board of India:
❖ It established in 1962 under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960.
❖ It founded under the stewardship of Late Smt. Rukmini Devi Arundale.
❖ The government has relocated the headquarters of the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) to Ballabhgarh
in the Faridabad District of Haryana from Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
❖ Initially, the Board fell under the jurisdiction of the Government of India's Ministry of Food and
Agriculture. Later, in 1990, the subject of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was transferred to the Ministry
of Environment and Forests.
❖ Functions of the Animal Welfare Board of India:
➢ It ensures diligent adherence to animal welfare laws in the country and provides grants to Animal
Welfare Organizations.
➢ It suggests changes to laws and rules concerning animal welfare issues.
➢ It issues publications to raise awareness of various animal welfare issues.
➢ It recognizes Animal Welfare Organizations.
Wildlife Institute of India (WII):
❖ It established as an attached office in May 1982.
❖ It granted autonomous status under the MoEFCC in 1985.
❖ It conducts specialized research in areas of study such as Endangered Species, Biodiversity, Wildlife
Management, Wildlife Policy, Wildlife Forensics, Habitat Ecology, Spatial Modeling, Eco-development,
and Climate Change.
❖ WII has a research facility that includes:
➢ Forensics
➢ Remote Sensing and GIS
➢ Laboratory
➢ Herbarium
➢ Electronic Library
 11

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

❖ It is a statutory organization that was constituted in September 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act, 1974.
❖ CPCB was entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1981.
❖ Functions of the CPCB:
➢ To promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States through prevention, control,
and abatement of water pollution, and
➢ To improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.
➢ It also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests regarding the provisions
of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Forest Survey Of Inda (FSI):
❖ It is an organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and
Climate Change.
❖ It responsible for the assessment and monitoring of the forest resources of
the country regularly.
❖ It was established in 1981.
❖ It has headquartered in Dehradun.
❖ India State of Forest Report is a biennial publication of the Forest Survey
of India (FSI), an organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forests,
and Climate Change, since 1987.
National Tiger Conservation Authority:
❖ It is a statutory body constituted under the WPA, 1972 for tiger conservation.
❖ It is headed by the minister of Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change.
❖ The Authority has three Members of Parliament of whom two will be elected by the House of the People
and one by the Council of States.
❖ It also has eight experts or professionals having qualifications and experience in wildlife conservation and
welfare of people including Tribals.
❖ The Inspector General of Forests, in charge of project Tiger, is the ex- officio Member Secretary.
National Biodiversity Authority:
❖ The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) was established in 2003 by the Central Government to implement
India’s Biological Diversity Act (2002).
❖ It is a Statutory body, headquartered in Chennai.
❖ It performs a facilitative, regulatory and advisory function for the Government of India on the issue of
Conservation, sustainable use of biological resources and fair equitable sharing of benefits of use.
❖ The Biological diversity Act (2002) mandates implementation of the provisions of the Act through
decentralized system.
 12

Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) :

❖ WCCB is a statutory body established by the GOI
under the MoEFCC, to combat organized wildlife
crime in the country.
❖ It is the nodal agency in India for CITES related
enforcements.
❖ It is also the nodal point for South Asia Wildlife
Enforcement Network (SAWEN) in India Regional
intergovernmental wildlife law enforcement
support body launched in January, 2011 in Paro,
Bhutan.
❖ United Nation Environment has awarded Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB), with Asia
Environment Enforcement Awards, 2018 for excellent work done by the Bureau in combating
transboundary environmental crime.
❖ Mandate under Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972:
➢ Collect and collate intelligence related to organized wildlife crime activities and disseminate it to state
and other enforcement agencies.
➢ Establish a centralized wildlife crime databank.
➢ Coordinate actions by various agencies in connection with the enforcement of the provisions of the Act.
➢ Assist foreign authorities and international organizations concerned with wildlife crime control.
➢ Build the capacity of wildlife crime enforcement agencies for investigating wildlife crimes and assist
state governments in ensuring success in prosecutions related to wildlife crimes.
➢ Advise the Government of India on issues relating to wildlife crimes.
Botanical Survey of India:
❖ It is the apex research organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change
for conducting taxonomic and floristic studies on the wild plant resources of the country.
❖ It was established in 1890.
❖ It has headquarter in Kolkata.
❖ Functions:
➢ Publication of National, State, and District Floras.
➢ Identification of threatened and red-listed species, as well as species-rich areas needing conservation.
➢ Ex-situ conservation of critically threatened species in botanical gardens.
➢ Survey and documentation of traditional knowledge (ethno-botany) associated with plants.
➢ Development of a National database of Indian plants, including herbarium and live specimens,
botanical paintings, and illustrations, etc.
Central Zoo Authority:
❖ The Central Zoo Authority of India (CZA) is the government body responsible for overseeing zoos.
❖ Headquarters: Delhi.
 13

❖ It is an affiliate member of the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums.

❖ It is a statutory body, constituted under the Wildlife (Protection) Act.
❖ The Central Zoo Authority is headed by the Minister of State for Environment & Forests (Forests &
Wildlife), Government of India.
❖ Functions:
➢ Recognition and evaluation of zoos.
➢ Coordination in the planned conservation breeding program for endangered species in Indian zoos.
➢ Approval of the exchange proposals of animals between Indian zoos and between Indian and foreign
zoos.
➢ Preparing and maintaining the studbooks, etc.
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS):
❖ BNHS is one of the largest non-governmental organizations in India engaged in conservation and
biodiversity research.
❖ It was founded on 15 September 1883 and is headquartered at Hornbill House, Mumbai.
❖ BNHS supports numerous research efforts through grants and publishes the Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society.
❖ The Department of Science and Technology has designated it as a ‘Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization’.
International measures
Important Bird Areas (IBAs)
❖ Declared under IBA programme of Birdlife International
❖ The Bombay Natural History Society and Birdlife International identified 554 IBAs in India.
❖ Aim:
➢ To identify, monitor and protect a global network of IBAs for conservation of the world's birds and
associated biodiversity.
➢ Serve as conservation areas for protection of birds at the global, regional or sub-regional level.
➢ Criteria according for declaring Important Bird Areas by Birdlife International:
✓ Holding significant numbers of one or more globally threatened bird species.
✓ Being one of a set of sites that together hold a suite of restricted-range species or biome-restricted
species and have exceptionally large numbers of migratory or congregatory birds.
Birdlife International:
❖ It is a global partnership of conservation organisations that strives to conserve birds, their habitats and
global biodiversity, working with people towards sustainability in the use of natural resources
❖ It is world’s largest conservation partnerships for conservation of birds and their habitats.
❖ It publishes a quarterly magazine, World Birdwatch, which contains recent news and authoritative articles
about birds, their habitats, and their conservation around the world.
The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC)
❖ It is a statutory body constituted under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
❖ It functions under the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
 14

❖ The body regulates the use, manufacture, storage, import, and export of hazardous microorganisms or
genetically engineered organisms and cells in India.
❖ Functions:
➢ It is the apex body to accord environmental approval of activities involving the large-scale use of
hazardous microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial production.
➢ It is also mandated with approving the release of genetically engineered organisms and products
into the environment, including experimental field trials.
➢ The Committee has the power to take punitive action against individuals or bodies under the Environment
(Protection) Act.
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
❖ The organization was founded in October 1948 as the International Union for the Protection of Nature (or
IUPN) following an international conference in Fontainebleau, France.
❖ The organization changed its name to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources in 1956, with the acronym IUCN (or UICN), and its headquarters are located in Gland, Switzerland.
❖ IUCN members include both states and non-governmental organizations.
Red Data Book
❖ Red Data book or Red list is a catalogue of taxa facing risk of extinction

India's National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

❖ NAPCC was published in 2008 by the then-Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change.
❖ It is centered around the development and use of new technologies.
❖ The implementation of the plan includes public-private partnerships and civil society action.
❖ The focus is on promoting understanding of climate change, adaptation, and mitigation, energy
efficiency, and natural resource conservation.
❖ There are eight National Missions that form the core of the National Action Plan.
 15

National Solar Mission (JNNSM)

❖ It is also known as the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM).
❖ It was inaugurated in 2010.
❖ Its objectives are to establish India as a global leader in solar energy and to promote sustainable growth
while addressing India’s energy security challenges.
❖ Targets are set for three phases:
➢ First phase (2010-13)
➢ Second phase (2013–17)
➢ Third Phase (2017–22)
❖ Total target of 100,000 MW (100 GW) by 2022.
❖ Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has proposed to achieve it through:
➢ 40 GW through Rooftop Solar Projects and
➢ 60 GW through Large & Medium Scale solar projects.
❖ Basics of Solar energy:
➢ Solar energy can be converted directly into electrical energy (direct current or DC) by photovoltaic
(PV) cells commonly called solar cells or to Alternating Current using Concentrating (Thermal) Systems.
❖ Photovoltaic Technology (PV):
➢ Photovoltaic cells are made of silicon and other
semiconductor materials (such as Silicon-
Germanium).
➢ When sunlight (photons) strikes the silicon atoms,
it causes electrons to flow, creating an electrical
current.
➢ This principle is called the photoelectric effect.
(Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for this.)
➢ This generates DC power, which is stored in a solar battery.
 16

❖ Applications of Solar Energy can be:

➢ Off Grid: Can be used for personal use (geyser, TV)
➢ On Grid: Needs to be converted from DC to AC using solar inverter

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 21
Indian legislation (Part 2)
 2

Indian legislation (Part 2)

India's National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC):

❖ NAPCC was published in 2008 by the then Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change.
❖ It is centred around the development and use of new technologies.
❖ The implementation of the plan includes public-private partnerships and civil society action.
❖ The focus is on promoting understanding of climate change, adaptation, and mitigation, energy
efficiency, and natural resource conservation.
❖ There are eight National Missions that form the core of the National Action Plan.

National Solar Mission (JNNSM)

❖ It is also known as the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM).
❖ It was inaugurated in 2010.
❖ Its objectives are to establish India as a global leader in solar energy and to promote sustainable growth
while addressing India’s energy security challenges.
❖ Targets are set for three phases:
➢ First phase (2010-13)
➢ Second phase (2013–17)
➢ Third Phase (2017–22)
3
 4

India's Initiatives
❖ Total target of 100,000 MW (100 GW) by 2022.
❖ Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has proposed to achieve it through:
1. 40 GW through Rooftop Solar Projects and
2. 60 GW through Large and Medium Scale solar projects.
Current Renewable Energy Scenario in India
According to National Investment Promotion and Facilitation Agency:
❖ As of Dec 2023, Renewable energy sources, including large hydropower, have a combined installed capacity
of 180.79 GW. The following is the installed capacity for Renewables:
➢ Wind power: 44.73 GW
➢ Solar Power: 73.31 GW (the target of 100 GW by 2022 could not be achieved)
➢ Biomass/Cogeneration: 10.2 GW
➢ Small Hydro Power: 4.98 GW
➢ Waste To Energy: 0.58 GW
➢ Large Hydro: 46.88 GW
Basics of Solar Energy
❖ Solar energy can be converted directly into electrical energy (direct current or DC) by photovoltaic (PV) cells
commonly called solar cells or to Alternating Current using Concentrating (Thermal) Systems.
❖ The solar energy could be generated by two ways:
1. Photo-voltaic Cell or PV Cell: The semiconductors are used in this kind of cell which is challenging for
India as it depends on imports of sem-conductors.
2. Solar Thermal Heating or Concentrating (Thermal) System
Photovoltaic Technology (PV)
❖ Photovoltaic cells are made of silicon and other semiconductor materials.
❖ (Silicon-Germanium)
 5

❖ When sunlight (photons) strikes the silicon atoms, it causes electrons to flow, creating an electrical current.
❖ This principle is called the photoelectric effect. (Einstein was given a Nobel prize for this.)
❖ This generates DC power which is stored in Solar Battery.
Applications of Solar Energy
❖ Off Grid: The appliances in your
home are being run by the solar
energy produced by the solar panels
installed on the terrace of your house.
Can be used for personal use (geyser,
TV)
❖ On Grid: The solar energy produced
by the solar panels of your house is
supplied to the grid of your area. The
solar energy generated is in DC form. It needs to be converted to AC using a solar inverter.
Net Metering
❖ Net Metering is a billing mechanism for grid connected Home Rooftop Solar Installation where the
electricity generated by the solar panels is fed into the utility grid.
❖ Household draws electricity from the utility grid. The household pays only for the difference between the
energy units consumed from the grid and the energy units fed into the grid.
❖ This is measured by a bi-directional metre called Net Meter.
 6

Concentrating (Thermal) Systems

❖ Plain/curved mirror is used to concentrate solar light to generate heat. This heat is in turn used to rotate
turbines and create electricity. The solar energy produced here is in AC form.

Applications of Concentrating (Thermal) Systems

❖ Boiling water.
❖ Steam Generator
❖ Refrigeration: See the image given below.

Solar Park
❖ The solar park is a concentrated zone of development of solar power generation projects.
❖ Both PV Cells and Concentrating (Thermal) Systems are used.
❖ Karnataka's Pavagada: Pavagada Solar Park (Tumakuru district, Karnataka) is billed as the world's largest
solar park spread over 13,000 acres of land.
Current Scenario of Linkages between Solar Energy and Agriculture
❖ Two-thirds of the total irrigated area in India uses groundwater pumping, powered by more than two crore
electric and 75 lakh diesel pumps.
❖ Farmers need reliable, affordable electricity to extract groundwater.
 7

❖ Agriculture is a major consumer of electricity, accounting for one-fourth or one-third of consumption in

many States.
❖ Currently this demand is met through subsidising the electricity supplied to farmers as well having higher
tariffs for other consumers like industry and commercial (called cross-subsidy).
❖ Given the criticality of the agricultural sector, the electricity to farmers is supplied at low tariffs or for free.
❖ Due to the lower tariff and poor revenue collection, agricultural sales are often seen as a major reason for the
financial losses of distribution companies (discoms).
❖ As a result, agriculture often gets poor quality supply leading to problems such as frequent pump burn-outs
and power failures.
Impact of Solar energy and Solar Driven Pumps
❖ Solar PV Plant:
➢ A 1 MW solar plant can support around 350, 5 hp pumps and requires around 5 acres of land to
set up.
➢ The plant can be set up in a few months and there is no change at the farmer's end.
➢ Pumps need not be changed and farmers do not have to take responsibility for installation and operation.
❖ Advantages:
➢ Reliable day-time electricity for 8-10 hours between 8 am and 6 pm.
➢ When solar generation is low, maybe due to cloud cover, balance electricity can be drawn from the
discom.
➢ When pumping demand is low, may be during rains, excess solar electricity will flow back to the
discom.
➢ No new large transmission lines are needed, which has become a bottleneck for various large scale
wind and solar power tenders.
➢ Cost-effective, thereby enabling reduction in subsidy.
➢ Provide distributed jobs to local youth in construction, operation and maintenance of the plant.
❖ It is a win-win-win situation for the farmers, government and discoms, offers a much needed farmer-
centric yet fiscally prudent pathway for the power sector.
 8

PM KUSUM Yojana
❖ Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan
❖ It was launched in 2019 by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
❖ State Nodal Agencies (SNAs) of MNRE will coordinate with States/UTs, Discoms and farmers for
implementation of the scheme.
❖ Aim: To ensure energy security for farmers by Harvesting Solar Energy and increase the share of installed
capacity of electric power from non-fossil-fuel sources to 40% by 2030 as part of Intended Nationally
Determined Contributions (INDCs).
❖ Target: To add 30.8 Gigawatt (GW) of solar capacity by FY 2025-26 (Earlier target was to be completed
by 2022), and De-dieselization of Farm Sector by replacing Diesel Pumps with Solar Pumps.

PM-KUSUM: Components and Implementation

Component-A: Component-B: Component-C:

❖ To set up 500 KW to 2 MW ❖ To support 20 lakh ❖ Restructured to Solarisation
Renewable Energy based power plants individual farmers in of agricultural feeders
by individual farmers/ cooperatives/ installing standalone instead of pumps and supports
panchayats /farmer producer org- solar pumps of capacity 15 lakh individual farmers to
anisations (FPO), on their barren or up to 7.5 Horsepower solarise pumps of capacity up
cultivable lands or pastureland and (HP) where grid supply to 7.5 HP.
marshy land, referred as Renewable is not available. ❖ For Components B and C
Power Generator (RPG). ➢ Pumps of Higher Centre bears 30% of pump
➢ Projects smaller than 500 kW Capacity can also be cost while 70% is borne by
may be allowed (earlier not installed; however, State-owned DISCOMS.
allowed) by states based on the financial support
techno-commercial feasibility. will be limited to 75
❖ The power generated will be HP capacity.
purchased by the DISCOMs at a pre- ❖ It is mandatory to use
fixed tariff determined by respective indigenously
SERC. manufactured solar
❖ Performance Based Incentives @ Rs. panels with indigenous
0.40 per unit or Rs. 6.60 lakhs/ solar cells and modules.
MW/year, whichever is less, will be
provided by MNRE to DISCOMs for
five years for buying from RPGs.

Scheme for Development of Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects
❖ Scheme was rolled out by the Ministry for New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in 2014 to help solar
project developers set up projects in a plug- and-play model.
❖ 'Plug and play' concept normally refers to ready facilities in terms of building, power-water-sewage
connectivity, road connectivity etc.
 9

❖ Target: To set up at least 25 Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects targeting over 20 GW of solar
power installed capacity within a span of 5 years starting from 2014-15.
❖ Capacity of the Scheme: enhanced from 20 GW to 40 GW in 2017.
❖ Implementing agency: Solar Power Park Developer (SPPD).
❖ Facilitates and speeds up installation of grid connected solar power projects for electricity generation on a
large scale.
India's Largest Floating Solar Power Project
❖ As per National Thermal Power Corporation, it has commissioned India's largest floating solar power
project.
❖ 100 MW Floating Solar Power Project has been operationalized at National Thermal Power Corporation-
Ramagundam, Telangana.
❖ The project is endowed with advanced technology as well as environment friendly features.
International Solar Alliance
❖ Context: UN General Assembly (UNGA) confers Observer Status on the International Solar Alliance (ISA).
❖ Observer status of UNGA:
➢ Permanent Observers have free access to most meetings and relevant documentation.
➢ It started in 1946 with the Swiss Government as first permanent observer, a number of regional and
international organizations are given observer status by UNGA.
➢ Other observers include non-member states (e.g. Holy See); Intergovernmental and other organizations
(e.g. ISA by resolution 76/123); and Specialized Agencies (e.g. FAO).]
❖ Till March 2024, 118 countries have signed the ISA Framework Agreement and 97 countries have signed and
ratified the ISA Framework Agreement.
❖ At the COP26 in Glasgow, US announced joining the ISA as its 101st member.
❖ ISA is the first international organisation headquartered in India.
Initiatives taken by ISA
❖ Green Grids Initiative - One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG): It is launched by India at the
global climate conference COP26 with an aim to harness solar energy wherever the Sun is shining,
ensuring that generated electricity flows to areas that need it most.
❖ ISA partnered with Bloomberg Philanthropies to mobilise $1 trillion in global investments for solar energy
across ISA's member countries.
❖ Global Energy Alliance for People and Planet (GEAPP) launched at COP26 with USD10 billion of
committed capital to accelerate investment in green energy transitions and renewable energy solutions in
developing and emerging economies.
❖ ISA's Programme on Scaling Solar Applications for Agriculture Use (SSAAU) focuses on providing
greater energy access and a sustainable irrigation solution to farmers through deployment of Solar Water
Pumping Systems in member countries.
Recent General Assembly meeting
❖ ISA approved the 'Solar Facility’.
 10

❖ Solar Facility: A payment guarantee mechanism expected to stimulate investments into solar projects, with
two financial components.
➢ Solar Payment Guarantee Fund to provide a partial guarantee and enable investments in geographies
that do not receive investments.
➢ Solar Insurance Fund to reduce the burden of insurance premium for solar developers in the pre-revenue
phase of the project.
❖ The assembly also re-elected India and France as its President and Co- President.
Other News
❖ MoU between International Solar Alliance (ISA) and International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)
to check growth of CO2 emissions in the sector and idea of ICAO becoming a partner organisation of ISA was
mooted by India.
❖ Aviation sector responsible for around 2.5% of global CO2 emissions.
❖ In 2015, India's Cochin International Airport became world's first fully Solar powered airport.

National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency

❖ Objective: Promote the market for energy efficiency by fostering innovative policies & market instruments.
❖ The NMEEE mission document, which was approved in 2010, established the immense energy efficiency
potential of India, which was about Rs. 74,000 crores.
❖ A recent World Bank study has estimated the country's energy efficiency market to be at 1.6 lakh crores.
❖ NMEEE includes 4 efficiency initiatives under its umbrella:
1. Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT)
✓ Assigning energy reduction targets to large energy intensive industries and distributing Energy
Saving Certificates (ESCerts) on achievement of the targets. These ESCerts can then be traded.
Designated Consumers who are not able to meet their energy savings targets will buy the ESCerts.
 11

2. Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency (MTEE)

✓ Promoting adoption of energy efficient equipment and appliances through innovative business
models.
✓ Programs that were developed under this scheme include:
▪ Domestic Efficient Lighting Program: Unnat Jeevan by Affordable LEDs for All (UJALA)
program to promote the use of LED lighting for households.
▪ Super-Efficient Equipment Program (SEEP): Under this program, the manufacturers are
incentivized by GOl to elevate the efficiency standards of the equipment.
▪ The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (Ministry of Power) launched the program in the XII five-
year plan with a focus on ceiling fans, considering its wide use and impact on domestic energy
consumption.
3. Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP)
✓ The EEFP initiative is intended towards catalysing the finances for the energy efficiency sector by
addressing the barriers and challenges in market development and project implementation.
✓ It provides a platform for financial institutions, investors and project developers to increase their
confidence in supporting energy conservation and efficiency projects.
4. Framework for Energy Efficiency Economic Development (FEEED)
✓ Promoting energy efficiency initiatives by hedging against investment risks.
✓ BEE institutionalised two types of funds in order to protect the confidence of hanks and investors in
energy efficiency projects and to avoid the stalling of projects:
a. Partial Risk Guarantee Fund for Energy Efficiency (PRGFEE): The fund guarantees a risk
cover for banks and investors for up to 50% loan amount or INR 10 crore per project, whichever
is less.
b. Venture Capital Fund for Energy Efficiency (VCFEE): This fund is intended towards
promoting equity financing (stock, share) in the energy efficiency sector and thus reducing the
impact of non-availability of debt financing (bond, loan) to small size companies and projects.
The equity support is equivalent to INR 2 crore or 15% of total equity whichever is less.
Recent Energy Efficiency Initiatives
❖ Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act
❖ Context- It came into force recently.
❖ Background
➢ Amends Energy Conservation Act, 2001 which provides a framework for regulating energy
consumption and promoting energy efficiency and energy conservation.
➢ While the 2001 act deals with saving energy, the 2022 amendment deals with saving the environment and
tackling climate change, thus broadening the scope and objective of the principal Act.
Key Features
❖ Empowers the central government to specify a carbon credit trading scheme.
➢ Carbon credit implies a tradable permit to produce a specified amount of CO2 or other GHGs. (Recall
our earlier discussion on Kyoto Protocol)
 12

➢ Central government or any authorised agency may issue carbon credit certificates to entities registered
and compliant with scheme.
❖ Government is empowered to set requirements for designated consumers to meet a minimum share of energy
consumption from non-fossil sources like green hydrogen, green ammonia, etc.
➢ Failure to meet obligation will be punishable with a penalty of up to Rs 10 lakh.
❖ 'Energy Conservation and Sustainable Building Code' to replace Energy Conservation Code for buildings.
➢ This new code will provide norms for energy efficiency and conservation, use of renewable energy, and
other requirements for green buildings.
➢ Also applicable to the office and residential buildings meeting above criteria.
It also empowers state governments to lower the load thresholds.
❖ Expands the scope of energy consumption standards to include vehicles (as defined under the Motor Vehicles
Act, 1988), and vessels (includes ships and boats), in addition to equipment and appliances.
❖ State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) are empowered to make regulations for discharging
their functions.
❖ State Governments are required to constitute energy conservation funds for promotion of energy efficiency
and conservation measures. It will receive contributions from both the Union and State government.
❖ Increases and diversifies the number of members and secretaries in the governing council of BEE.
➢ The Government of India set up the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) on 1st March 2002 under the
provisions of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
State Energy & Climate Index (SECI)-Round I
❖ Released by NITI Aayog recently
❖ It is the first index that aims to track the efforts made by states and union territories (UTs) in the climate
and energy sector. This helps in promoting cooperative and competitive federalism.
Objective of the ranking
❖ Ranking the States based on their efforts towards improving energy access, energy consumption, energy
efficiency, and safeguarding environment;
❖ Encouraging healthy competition among the states on different dimensions of energy and climate
 13

Performance of the States and UTs

❖ More than half the states scored higher than the average.
❖ Overall performance- Top Scorer- Chandigarh, Lowest scorer- Lakshadweep
❖ Top 3 performers based on classification
➢ Larger States: Gujarat, Kerala, and Punjab.
➢ Smaller States: Goa, Tripura, and Manipur.
➢ Union Territories: Chandigarh, Delhi, and Daman & Diu/Dadra & Nagar Haveli.

Star Labelling Programme (BEE Star Ratings)

❖ The Ministry of Power had launched the Standards and Labelling (S&L) Scheme under the Energy
Conservation Act, 2001.
❖ The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) undertook the responsibility of the scheme.
❖ The key objective of the scheme is to provide consumers an informed choice about the energy savings of high
energy equipment and appliances.
❖ To materialise the objective of the scheme, the famous 'star label' was introduced on appliances - that detailed
the efficiency of the product along with various particulars, allowing consumers to compare models and choose
the best one in terms of energy conservancy.
❖ Presently, Star Labelling program covers star ratings for about 29 appliances/ equipment and it is
mandatory for the following appliances:
 14

National Mission on Sustainable Habitat

❖ The National Mission on Sustainable Habitat was approved in 2010.

❖ It seeks to promote:
➢ Improvements in energy efficiency in buildings by extending energy conservation building code to new
and large commercial buildings.
➢ Better urban planning and efficient and convenient public transport to facilitate the growth of medium
and small cities.
➢ Improved management of solid and liquid waste, e.g., recycling of material and urban waste
management.
➢ Improved ability of habitats to adapt to climate change and measures for improving advance warning
systems for extreme weather events.
➢ Conservation through appropriate changes in legal and regulatory framework.
❖ The Mission is being implemented through the following programmes of:
1. Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
2. Atal Mission on Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)
3. Swachh Bharat Mission
4. Smart Cities Mission
5. Urban Transport Programme
Other Sustainable Habitat initiatives in News
❖ Sustainable cities integrated approach pilot (SCIAP) project
➢ Context: UN-Habitat has highlighted issues related to Jaipur's urban development to propose strategic
interventions and promote sustainable development.
SCIAP Project
❖ Implemented by: UNIDO and UN-Habitat in partnership with the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
(MoHUA), Government of India.
❖ Funded by: Global Environment Facility
❖ Covers 5 pilot cities: Jaipur, Mysore, Vijayawada, Guntur and Bhopal.
 15

❖ Goal: To infuse sustainability strategies

into urban planning and management at
the city level and create an enabling
climate for investments in green
infrastructure that would reduce GHG
emissions, improve service delivery and
enhance the quality of living for all
citizens, thereby building resilience and
strengthening the governance capacity
of the cities.
❖ Major component of the project: To
develop an Urban Sustainability
Assessment Framework (USAF) for
spatial planning in India.
❖ It is designed as a decision support tool for municipal commissioners and urban practitioners to support
sustainable and support resilient urban planning and management of cities in India.
❖ Jaipur has received an overall sustainability rating of three on USAF.
11th World Urban Forum (WUF), 2022
❖ Held at Katowice, Poland, the WUF is the premier global conference on sustainable urbanisation co-
organized by UN-Habitat.
❖ WUF was established in 2001 by the UN to examine rapid urbanisation and its impact on communities, cities,
economies, climate change and policies.
❖ First WUF was held in Nairobi, Kenya in 2002.
❖ At 11th WUF, the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) Climate Centre for Cities (NIUA (Cube), World
Resources Institute India (WRI India) etc. launched India's first national coalition platform for urban nature-
based solutions (NbS).
GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment)
❖ GRIHA was developed by TERI (private energy research institute) and was adopted as a national rating
system for green buildings by the Government of India in 2007.
❖ It evaluates environmental performance of a building holistically over its entire life cycle, thereby providing a
definitive standard for what constitutes a 'green building'.
❖ It is also recognized as India's own green building rating system in INDIA's INDC submitted to
UNFCCC.
CITIS (City Investments to Innovate, Integrate & Sustain) Program
❖ CITIS is a joint program of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, the French Development Agency,
the European Union, and NIUA.
❖ Aim: to provide financial assistance by way of grants and technical assistance through international and
domestic experts.
❖ Main component of the 'Program to fund Smart City projects through a Challenge Process.'
 16

National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE)

❖ The primary objective of the Mission is to:
➢ develop a sustainable model to continuously assess the health status of the
Himalayan Ecosystem, and
➢ enable policy bodies in policy-formulation as also to assist States in the Indian Himalayan Region with
implementation of actions for sustainable development.
❖ The NMSHE attempts to address a variety of issues:
➢ Himalayan glaciers and associated consequences.
➢ Prediction and management of natural hazards.
➢ Biodiversity conservation and protection.
➢ Wildlife conservation and protection.
➢ Traditional knowledge societies and their livelihood.
❖ The effect of Climate Change on Himalayan glaciers and associated hydrological consequences:
➢ Increased drought like situations due to overall decrease in the number of rainy number of rainy days.
➢ Increased flood events due to overall increase in the rainy day intensity.
➢ Effect on groundwater quality in alluvial aquifers due to increased flood and drought events.
➢ Influence on groundwater recharge due to changes in precipitation and evaporation.
➢ Increased saline intrusion of coastal and island aquifers due to rising sea levels.
National Water Mission
❖ The Mission is in line with National Water Policy which aims to:
➢ increase water use efficiency by 20%
➢ ensure that a considerable share of the water needs of urban areas are met through recycling.
➢ ensure that the water requirements of coastal cities are met through modern desalination technologies.
➢ ensure basin level management strategies by working with states to deal with variability in rainfall.
❖ The Mission aims to achieve its objectives through:
➢ Increasing efficiency through regulatory mechanisms
(differential entitlements and pricing).
➢ Enhanced storage both above and below ground, rainwater
harvesting.
➢ Incentivising water-neutral or water-positive technologies,
and adoption of large scale irrigation programmes which
rely on sprinklers, drip irrigation and ridge and furrow
irrigation (The crops are grown on the ridges and the furrows are used to irrigate.)
Dynamic Ground Water (GW) Resource Assessment 2022 Report
❖ It is released by the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
❖ It is carried out at periodical intervals jointly by the Central Ground Water Board and States/UTS.
❖ Key highlights:
➢ India is the largest user of GW with a 1/4th of total global withdrawal.
 17

➢ Total annual GW recharge has increased and rainfall contributes to nearly 61% in this.
➢ State of GW extraction (percentage utilisation vs recharge) saw a decline reaching at 60%.
➢ Categories:
✓ 67% GW units are safe. (Ground water extraction is less than 70%.)
✓ There was a decline in the number of over-exploited units. 14 % assessment units are 'Overexploited'
(Ground water extraction exceeding the annually replenishable ground water recharge.)
✓ 4% are 'Critical. (Ground water extraction is between 90-100% of annual tractable resources
available.)
✓ Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) is the apex organisation of the Ministry of Water
Resources dealing with groundwater and related issues.
✓ The Union Government constituted the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) on 14th January
1997 under Section 3(3) of Environment (Protection) Act, 1996 with the objective to regulate and
control development and management of ground water with jurisdiction in the whole of the country.
United Nations (UN) Water Summit on Groundwater (GW) 2022
❖ Organised in Paris by UN-Water, UNESCO and International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre
(IGRAC)
❖ To bring attention to groundwater at the highest international level.
❖ Will mark the completion of "Groundwater: Making the invisible visible" campaign run by UN-Water
throughout 2022.
❖ UN-Water: A UN inter-agency coordination mechanism for all freshwater and sanitation related matters.
❖ IGRAC: A UNESCO Centre working under World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), and financially
supported by the Netherlands. It specialises in regional and transboundary-level assessment and monitoring of
GW resources.
❖ UN water development report 2022 will be used as a baseline for the global acceleration framework on SDG
- 6.
Water Convention (Convention on the Protection and Transboundary Watercourses and International
Lakes 1992)
❖ An international legal instrument steered by United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and
intergovernmental platform.
❖ It is adopted in Helsinki in 1992 and entered into force in 1996.
❖ Initially negotiated as a regional instrument, opened globally for accession to all UN
Member States in 2016.
❖ Requires Parties to use transboundary waters in a reasonable and equitable way and ensure their sustainable
management.
❖ Parties bordering the same transboundary waters must cooperate by entering into specific agreements and
establishing joint bodies.
❖ The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) was set up in 1947 by the United Nations
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) to promote pan-European economic integration.
 18

❖ Remember if you have seen IR lectures: does India have an important water sharing treaty with a significant
neighbour? What is the dispute settlement mechanism?
❖ India is NOT part of water convention, NOT part of UNECE.
World Water Forum
❖ In 2022, Water Convention organised the first ever transboundary pavilion at the ninth World Water
Forum in Dakar, Senegal.
❖ World's largest event on water organised every three years since 1997 by the World Water Council (a
think tank), in partnership with a host country.
❖ It provides a unique platform where the international water community and key decision makers can
collaborate on global water challenges.
Unconventional Water Resources
 19

Grey Water
❖ Context: 100% Saturation of Grey Water Management has been achieved in Pappankuzhi Village, Tamil
Nadu.
❖ Grey water refers to wastewater from baths, showers, hand basins, washing machines, dishwashers and
kitchen sinks, excluding streams from toilets.
❖ Significance of grey water recycling:
➢ Prevent potential harm to the environment and reduce the demand for freshwater.
➢ Reliable water resource unlike rainwater harvesting.
➢ Good fertiliser source due to high nitrogen and phosphorus content.
Bharat Tap
❖ The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) has launched the Bharat Tap initiative.
❖ It is conducted under the aegis of Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Transformation 2.0 (AMRUT) and
Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0 (SBM).
❖ Aim: To provide low-flow, sanitary-ware at scale, and thereby reduce water consumption at source
considerably.
❖ It is estimated to save at least 40% water, in turn resulting in energy saving.
Nirmal Jal Prayas
❖ MOHUA launched 'Nirmal Jal Prayas, initiative of National Real Estate Development Council (NAREDCO)
Mahi.
❖ It aims to map groundwater and save 500 crore litres of water per annum.
❖ Through the initiative, advocacy, awareness and amplification towards saving water will be disseminated and
highlighted.
NAREDCO
❖ It is an autonomous self-regulatory body, established in 1998, under the aegis of MOHUA.
❖ It strives to be the collective force influencing and shaping the real estate industry.
❖ NAREDCO had established Mahi-NAREDCO Women's Wing for empowering women entrepreneurs and
encouraging participation of women in the real estate sector and allied fields.
National Water Awards (NWA)
❖ The Ministry of Jal Shakti has launched the 4th NWA on Rashtriya Puraskar portal.
❖ This award is introduced to recognize and encourage exemplary work and efforts made by States, Districts,
individuals, etc. in accomplishing the government's vision ‘Jal Samridh Bharat’.
❖ Award winners in different categories will be presented with a citation, trophy, and cash prize.
❖ Rajendra Singh is an Indian water conservationist and environmentalist from Alwar district, Rajasthan in
India. Also known as "waterman of India", he won the Magsaysay Award in 2001 and Stockholm Water
Prize in 2015.
Swachh Sujal Pradesh
❖ Andaman and Nicobar (A&N) Islands have become India's first Swachh Sujal Pradesh.
❖ Swachh Sujal Pradesh certification is provided by Ministry of Jal Shakti.
 20

Three Components
❖ Safe and secure drinking water supply and management
❖ ODF (open defecation free) Plus: ODF Sustainability and Solid and Liquid Waste Management (SLWM), and
❖ Cross-cutting interventions like convergence, IEC (Information, Education Communication), action planning,
etc.
Pey Jal Survekshan
❖ The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs conducted a ground survey of PJS under Atal Mission for
Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) 2.0.
❖ It serves as a monitoring tool and an accelerator for AMRUT Mission.
Sponge City
❖ Recently, Urban flooding seen in
Auckland and the sponge city
concept can avoid such future
disasters.
❖ Sponge city is a city that is
designed to passively absorb,
clean, and use rainfall in an
ecologically friendly way that
reduces dangerous and polluted
runoff. It incorporates green
roofs, rain gardens, and
permeable pavements to absorb
and filter water.
❖ In early 2000s, Chinese architect Kongjian Yu created the concept of "sponge city".
River Cities Alliance (RCA)
❖ DHARA 2023 (Driving Holistic Action for Urban Rivers), an annual meeting of RCA members, was held.
DHARA provides a platform to co-learn and discuss solutions for managing local water resources.
❖ River Cities Alliance is a dedicated platform for river cities to ideate, discuss and exchange information
for sustainable management of urban rivers.
❖ It includes cities from both Ganga basin and non- Ganga basin states.
❖ RCA is a partnership between the Ministry of Jal Shakti and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs.
National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)
❖ It was registered as a society in 2011 under the Societies Registration Act 1860.
❖ It acted as the implementation arm of National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) which was constituted
under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act (EPA), 1986.
❖ NGRBA has since been dissolved with effect from 2016 consequent to the constitution of National Council
for Rejuvenation, Protection and Management of River Ganga which is referred as National Ganga Council,
headed by Prime Minister of India.
 21

Aim & Objective of (NMCG)

❖ To ensure effective abatement of pollution and rejuvenation of the river Ganga by adopting a river basin
approach to promote inter-sectoral coordination for comprehensive planning and management.
❖ To maintain minimum ecological flows in the river Ganga with the aim of ensuring water quality and
environmentally sustainable development.
Five Tier Structure
❖ National Ganga Council under the chairmanship of Prime Minister of India.
❖ Empowered Task Force (ETF) on river Ganga under chairmanship of Union Minister of Jal Shakti (Department
of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation).
❖ National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG).
❖ State Ganga Committees.
❖ District Ganga Committees in every specified district abutting river Ganga and its tributaries in the states.
District Ganga Committees (DGCs)
❖ In News: Minister for Jal Shakti launched Digital Dashboard for DCs Performance Monitoring System.
❖ DGCs are constituted in districts on Ganga River basin to ensure people's participation in management and
pollution abatement in Ganga and its tributaries.
❖ District Collector is the Chairperson of DGC.
MCG has a two-tier management structure and comprises of:
❖ Governing Council
❖ Executive Committee
❖ Both are headed by Director General, NMCG.
❖ The Executive Committee has been authorised to accord approval for all projects up to Rs.1000 crore.
❖ State Programme Management Groups (SPMGs) acts as the implementing arm of
State Ganga Committees.
❖ Ganga Praharis are motivated and trained volunteers from among the local communities working for
biodiversity conservation and cleanliness of the Ganga River with the ultimate objectives of restoring the
Nirmal (Unpolluted Flow) and Aviral Dhara (Continuous Flow).
National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)
Namami Gange Programme
❖ Namami Gange Programme is an Integrated Conservation Mission, approved as a 'Flagship Programme' by
the Union Government in June 2014 to accomplish the twin objectives of effective abatement of pollution and
conservation and rejuvenation of National River Ganga.
❖ It is being operated under the Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation,
Ministry of Jal Shakti.
❖ The program is being implemented by the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG), and its state counterpart
organisations i.e State Program Management Groups (SPMGs).
❖ Sewage Treatment Infrastructure
❖ River-Front Development
 22

❖ River-Surface Cleaning
❖ Biodiversity
❖ Afforestation
❖ Public Awareness
❖ Industrial Effluent Monitoring
❖ Ganga Gram
Arth Ganga
❖ Arth Ganga is a concept espoused by the Prime Minister during the National Ganga Council meeting in Kanpur
in 2019.
❖ It focuses on creating economic livelihood opportunities to sustain the activities under Namami Gange
Programme, the flagship program of the Government to clean Ganga and its tributaries.
❖ Aim: To contribute about 3% to the GDP from Ganga Basin. It expects to generate economic benefit of more
than Rs 1000 crores over the next 5 years.
 23

Other Initiatives
Stockholm World Water Week 2022
❖ The World Water Week is an annual event organised by Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI) to
address the global water issues and related concerns of international development.
❖ SIWI: A not-for-profit institute with a wide range of expertise in water governance - from sanitation and water
resources management to water diplomacy.
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
❖ NSA has been formulated for enhancing agricultural productivity especially in rainfed areas. (65% of
the country's net sown area is rainfed and accounts for 40% of the total food production.)
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
Stated dimensions of NMSA:
❖ Improved crop seeds, livestock and fish cultures
❖ Water Use Efficiency
❖ Pest Management
❖ Improved Farm Practices
❖ Nutrient Management
❖ Agricultural insurance
❖ Credit support
❖ Markets
❖ Access to Information
❖ Livelihood diversification
Other Initiatives
Soil Health Card (SHC) Scheme
❖ SHC scheme is under implementation since 2015 to provide Soil Health Card to all farmers every two
years. It will provide information to farmers on soil nutrients status of their soil and recommendation on
appropriate dosage of nutrients to be applied for improving soil health.
❖ It contains the status of soil with respect to 12 parameters:
➢ N-P-K (Macronutrients);
➢ Sulphur (Secondary-nutrient);
➢ Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, Bo (Micro-nutrients); and
➢ pH, EC, OC (Physical parameters).
❖ Based on this, the SHC will indicate fertiliser recommendations and soil amendment required for the farm.
Other Initiatives
National Mission on Natural Farming
❖ National Mission on Natural Farming or Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati Programme (BPKP) and is
a sub-mission under centrally sponsored scheme Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY).
❖ PKVY falls within the umbrella of the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA).
❖ BPKP is being upscaled as 'National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) / (Bhartiya Prakratik Krishi
Paddhati)' for implementation all across the country.
 24

❖ Tenure: 6 years (2019-20 to 2024-25).

❖ It will be a demand driven programme and states shall prepare a long- term perspective plan with year-
wise targets and goals.
❖ Knowledge partner for natural farming extension: National Institute of Agricultural Extension
Management (MANAGE).
❖ National Centre of Organic and Natural Farming (NCONF) shall work towards development of
certification programmes for Natural Farming, establish secretariat for certification management, portal
development, management, maintenance and integration with other portals.
❖ Subhash Palekar introduced the concept of zero budget natural farming in India.
Objective of the Mission
 25

Similarity Between Organic Farming and Natural Framing

❖ Both are non-chemical systems of farming.
❖ Both are based on diversity, on-farm biomass management and biological nutrient recycling.
❖ Diversity, rotation, multiple cropping and resource recycling is key.
Differences between Organic Farming and Natural Farming

Organic Farming Natural Farming

Open for use of off-farm organic and biological No external inputs, only on-farm inputs based on Desi
inputs Cow (Jeevamrit, Beejamrit, Ghanajeevamrit)

Open for micronutrient correction through use of Use of compost/vermicompost and minerals are not
minerals allowed

Ploughing, tilling, mixing manure, weeding, and There is no ploughing, no soil tilling, no fertilisers, and
other fundamental agro activities are still required. no weeding

Widely popular, Global market at 132 billion US$ Evolving markets are yet to be developed

Millets
❖ A diverse family of small-grained cereals (Poacee family), indigenous to various parts of India.
❖ Popularly known as Nutri-cereals as they provide most of the nutrients required for normal functioning of the
human body.
 26

❖ Contain 7-12% protein, 2-5% fat, 65-75% carbohydrates and 15-20% dietary fibre.
❖ Before the Green Revolution, millets were one of the largest grown staples in India, but have been reduced to
a marginal fodder crop to feed livestock.
➢ India produces 20% of the globe's production that is led by Africa and the Americas.
➢ India exports millet products worth USD 34.32 million during 2021- 22.
❖ Top 5 millet-producing states in India- Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnatalka, Rajasthan, and
Maharashtra.
 27

Initiatives to promote millet

❖ National year of millets was observed in 2018
❖ Increase in Minimum Support Price (MSP) to support millet cultivators.
❖ Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0 mandates supply of millets at least once a week in midday meal
scheme.
❖ Recently, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, organised an opening
ceremony for the International Year of Millets - 2023 (IYM2023) in Rome, Italy.
International Year of Millets (IYM) 2023
❖ The United Nations 2021 has adopted India's proposal to declare 2023 as the IYM.
❖ The IYM 2023 will raise awareness about the importance of millets in food security and nutrition.
❖ The IYM 2023 will provide an opportunity to:
➢ increase global production,
➢ efficient processing and better use of crop rotation,
➢ promote millets as a major component of the food basket,
➢ promote research and development on millet.
Direct-seeded rice (DSR)
❖ It refers to the process of establishing a rice crop from seeds sown in the field rather than by transplanting
seedlings from the nursery.
❖ It is a water-saving method of sowing paddy.
❖ It is also known as broadcasting seed technique.
❖ It has been rejected by farmers in Punjab.
 28

National Mission for A Green India

❖ The Green India Mission aims to sequester 2.523 billion tonnes of carbon by 2020-30, and this involves adding
30 million hectares in addition to existing forest.
❖ It aims at protecting; restoring and enhancing India's diminishing forest cover and responding to climate
change by a combination of adaptation and mitigation measures.
❖ The mission will be implemented on both public as well as private lands. It will engage local communities
in planning, decision making, implementation and monitoring.
❖ The intended major outcomes of the project:
➢ Improved ecosystem services Reversal of land degradation.
➢ Improvement in quality of forest cover and ecosystem services of forests, degraded grassland and
wetlands.
➢ Eco-restoration of shifting cultivation areas, cold deserts, mangroves, ravines and abandoned mining
areas.
➢ Improvement in forest and tree cover in urban lands.
➢ Improvement in tree cover on agricultural lands and other non-forest lands (agroforestry/social forestry).
National Mission for A Green India National Mission on Seabuckthorn
❖ The MoEF and DRDO have launched the initiative for Seabuckthorn cultivation in the cold deserts. The
initiative is a part of the Sub-Mission on Cold Desert Ecosystems under the Green India Mission.
Seabuckthorn
❖ Seabuckthorn, popularly known as Leh berries, is also called the "Wonder plant" and "Ladakh gold".
❖ It has multi-purpose medicinal and nutritional properties.
❖ The plant has the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
 29

❖ It is tolerant to extreme temperatures and has an extensive root system, making it ideal for controlling soil
erosion and preventing desertification.
"Cloud Forest Assets Financing a Valuable Nature-Based Solution"
❖ Recently a new report "Cloud Forest Assets Financing a Valuable Nature- Based Solution" was released by
Earth Security, a global nature-based asset management advisory firm.
❖ The suggested Cloud forest bonds as per the report are a part of ' Nature Based Solutions (NBS)' and their
financing to protect these Cloud forests.
Cloud Forests
❖ Cloud Forests are mountain tropical forests generally found at the river headstreams and mostly covered
with clouds.
❖ These forests serve as the storage of clean water for communities, industries and hydropower plants.
❖ Majority of Cloud Forest i.e., 90% are found in 25 developing countries in tropical regions which bears the
disproportionate impact of climate change.
 30

Cloud Forest and The Cloud Forest 25 (CF25) Initiative

❖ CF25 is an Investment Initiative to bring countries, their creditors and multilaterals organisations together to
accelerate, and consolidate the progress and scale of such investment products.
❖ Financing Mechanisms:
➢ Water Payments: To create a mechanism for payments for ecosystem services from water users such as
hydropower dams which works on a national scale and is subject to compliance norms.
➢ Sovereign Carbon: The financing of forest carbon at sovereign and sub- sovereign jurisdictional scales
as part of an approach to wider areas of lowland tropical rainforests.
➢ Cloud forest bonds: They are debt based instruments to mobilise finance for protection of cloud forest.
Their value is based on the economic value of a country's Cloud forest resources.
Nature-based solutions
❖ Nature-based solutions are ways of addressing environmental challenges and achieving sustainable
development by working with, and enhancing, nature.
❖ These solutions use the power of ecosystems and natural resources to provide benefits for both people and
the environment.
❖ Examples of nature-based solutions include reforestation, ecosystem restoration, sustainable agriculture,
green infrastructure, and natural flood control measures.
❖ Nature-based solutions can help address a wide range of challenges, such as climate change, biodiversity loss,
water scarcity, food security, and natural disasters.
❖ They often provide multiple benefits, such as improving soil health, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and
enhancing biodiversity.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 22
Sustainable Development
 2

Sustainable Development
National Parks of Maharashtra:
❖ Sanjay Gandhi (Borivali) National Park
❖ Chandoli National Park
❖ Navegaon National Park
❖ Pench National Park
❖ Gugamal National Park
❖ Tadoba National Park
Sanjay Gandhi (Borivali) National Park:
❖ Sanjay Gandhi (Borivali) National Park is located
within the Mumbai Metropolis.
❖ Kanheri Caves serve as a Buddhist Learning Center.
❖ It is one of the Important Bird Areas (IBA) of the
state.
❖ The Karvi Shrub blooms with lavender flowers once
every 8 years.
Chandoli National Park:
❖ Chandoli National Park is another significant natural reserve.
❖ The park, along with the adjacent Koyna wildlife sanctuary, has been designated as a Tiger Reserve known
as the 'Sahyadri Tiger Reserve'.
Pench National Park (Jawaharlal Nehru Pench National Park):
❖ It is also a tiger reserve.
❖ It is located on the border of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
❖ It derives its name from the Pench river.
❖ It mentioned by the famous Rudyard Kipling in his book ‘The Jungle Book’.
National Parks of Madhya Pradesh:
❖ Maadhav Nationa Park
❖ Panna National Park
❖ Bandhavgarh National Park
❖ Satpura National Park
❖ Vanvihar National Park
❖ Kuno NP/Kanha National Park
❖ Fossil National Park
❖ Sanjay National Park
Madhav National Park:
❖ It is situated in the central highlands of India, intersecting with the upper parts of the Vindhya hills.
 3

❖ Sakhya Sagar and Madhav Sagar are the two crucial lakes in the national park.
❖ Sakhya Sagar lake has an abundant population of marsh crocodiles.
❖ Tigers are being reintroduced (from Panna, Bandhavgarh and Satpura National Parks.) more than six decades
after they were last seen there in 1960s
Bandhavgarh National Park (TR):
❖ More than 20 luminous streams out of which some of the most important streams are Johilla, janadh, etc.
(merge into the son river)
Satpura National Park (TR):
❖ It is also a tiger reserve and first biosphere reserve of Madhya Pradesh.
❖ The Satpura National Park is considered the northern extremity of the Western Ghats.
Kuno National Park:
❖ The Kuno River (tributary of the Chambal River), flows here.
❖ The Kuno can carry populations of all four of India’s big cats, the tiger, the leopard, the Asiatic lion and
cheetah. (Cheetah Reintroduction)
❖ Only wildlife site in the country with a complete incentivized voluntary relocation of villages from inside the
park.
Kanha National Park (Tiger Reserve):
❖ It is also a tiger reserve.
❖ It is situated in the Maikal range of Satpuras.
❖ It is located in Central India, it experiences a tropical monsoonal climate.
❖ The state animal of Madhya Pradesh, the Hard Ground Barasingha, is found exclusively in the Kanha Tiger
Reserve.
❖ Tribes displaced from the region include the Baiga tribe.
Sanjay National Park:
❖ It was carved into two when Chhattisgarh came into existence in 2000. The area which went to the Chhattisgarh
administration is now known as the Guru Ghasidas National Park.
National Parks of Odisha:
❖ Bhitarkanika National Park
❖ Similipal Biosphere Reserve/National Park
❖ Chilika Wildlife Senctuary
❖ Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary
Bhitarkanika National Park
❖ It houses the Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary.
❖ The park boasts the largest population of endangered Saltwater crocodiles in India.
❖ It is situated at the estuary of the Brahmani, Baitarani, Dhamra, and Mahanadi river systems.
❖ Bhitarkanika National Park is home to India’s largest heronry, a breeding colony of herons.
❖ It ranks as the second-largest mangrove forest in India, following the Sundarbans.
 4

Similipal Biosphere Reserve/National Park/Tiger reserve

❖ It features Sal forests, Mugger crocodiles, and is intersected by 12 rivers.
❖ It is home to the Indian Trogon bird species.
National Park in Goa:
Mollem National Park or Bhagwan Mahavir Wildlife Sanctuary
❖ The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has recently granted permission to clear
140 hectares of forest area in Mollem National Park for the construction of a double-tracked railway project.
❖ This decision has sparked the "Save Mollem" movement, aimed at preserving the natural habitat and
biodiversity of the area.
Renewable Energy
Biofuel:
❖ Any hydrocarbon fuel, whether solid, liquid, or gas, produced from organic matter, either living or once living
material in a short period of time is considered a biofuel.
❖ Examples of biofuels include:
➢ Solid: Wood, manure
➢ Liquid: Bioethanol and Biodiesel
➢ Gaseous: Biogas
❖ Biofuels emit less carbon dioxide (CO2) than conventional fuels, making them suitable for blending with
existing fuels to effectively reduce CO2 emissions in the transport sector.
Important Biofuels:

Generations of Biofuels:
❖ First Generation Biofuels (1G):
➢ First Generation biofuels are directly derived from food crops. This involves extracting oils for biodiesel
or producing bioethanol through conventional fermentation methods.
➢ Common feedstocks for bioethanol include crops like wheat and sugar, whereas rapeseed oil is often
utilized for biodiesel production.
 5

❖ Issues with First Generation

Biofuels (1G):
➢ These biofuels may result
in Negative Net energy
gains, where more carbon
is released during their
production than what is
captured by the feedstock
during growth.
➢ The most significant
concern is the 'fuel vs
food' debate. Biofuels sourced from food crops have been criticized for contributing to the rise in food
prices in recent years.
❖ Second Generation Biofuels (2G):
➢ The 2G biofuels are produced from non-food crops such as wood, organic waste, food crop waste
&specific biomass crops, therefore eliminating the main problem with first generation biofuels.
➢ They are also aimed at being more cost competitive in relation to existing fossil fuel.
➢ Life cycle assessments of second-generation biofuels have also indicated that they will increase Positive
net energy gains, overcoming another of the main limitations of first-generation biofuels.
❖ Third Generation Biofuels (3G):
➢ The Third Generation of biofuels takes advantage of specially engineered energy crops such as algae.
➢ The algae are cultured to act as a low-cost, high-energy, and entirely renewable feedstock.
➢ It is predicted that algae will have the potential to produce more energy per acre than conventional crops.
➢ Algae can also be grown using land and water unsuitable for food production. A further benefit of
algae based biofuels is that the fuel can be manufactured into a wide range of fuels such as diesel, petrol,
and jet fuel.
➢ It is potentially carbon neutral (the same amount of carbon is absorbed and emitted).
❖ Fourth Generation Biofuel (4G)
➢ The Fourth Generation biofuels are aimed at not only producing sustainable energy but also a way of
capturing and storing Carbon Dioxide (CO2). Biomass materials, which have absorbed CO2 while
growing, are converted into fuel using the same processes as second-generation biofuels. This process
differs from second and third generation production as at all stages of production the carbon dioxide is
captured using processes such as oxy-fuel combustion.
➢ The carbon dioxide can then be geo-sequestered by storing it in old oil and gas fields or saline aquifers.
➢ This carbon capture makes 4th generation biofuel production carbon negative rather than simply carbon
neutral, as it is locks away more carbon than it produces. This system not only captures and stores carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere, but it also reduces CO2 emissions by replacing fossil fuels.
 6

Advantages of Biofuels:
❖ Increases vehicle engine lifespan due to their higher cetane levels and superior lubricating properties.
❖ It results in lower carbon emissions.
❖ Its sourcing is easy as biofuels can be derived from various renewable sources like manure, crop waste, corn,
switchgrass, soybeans, algae, and specially cultivated fuel plants.
❖ It reduces pollution levels significantly. Biofuels are biodegradable, thus minimizing the risk of soil and
underground water contamination during transportation, storage, or utilization.
Disadvantages of Biofuels:
❖ High Cost of Production and Future Price: Biofuels are currently quite expensive to produce in the market,
leading to concerns about their affordability in the future.
❖ Food vs. Fuel Debate: There is ongoing debate about the competition between using crops for biofuel
production versus food production, raising concerns about food security.
❖ Pollution: Large-scale industries involved in biofuel production often emit significant amounts of emissions
and can contribute to water pollution on a smaller scale.
❖ Changes in Land Use and Pollution: Biofuel production can incentivize monoculture, leading to biodiversity
loss and potential environmental degradation.
❖ Unsuitability for Low Temperatures: Biofuels are less suitable for use in colder temperatures, as they can
attract moisture and promote microbial growth in engines, ultimately leading to engine filter clogging.
National Policy on Biofuels (2018):
❖ The National Policy on Biofuels 2018 is a revised version of the National Policy on Biofuels made by the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy during the year 2009.
❖ Its aim is to increase the usage of biofuels in the energy and transportation sectors of the country in the
coming decade, and to utilize, develop, and promote domestic feedstock and its utilization for the production
of biofuels.
❖ Biofuels Covered such as Bioethanol, Biodiesel, and BioCNG.
❖ It is implemented by the National Bio-fuel Coordination Committee (NBCC), set up in 2020 and chaired
by the Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas. It has representatives from 14 other ministries and departments.
❖ Functions of the committee:
➢ Take decisions for the effective implementation and monitoring of the biofuels program in the country.
➢ Provide overall coordination among Food Corporation of India (FCI) and oil marketing companies.
❖ Policy objectives:
➢ The policy envisages an indicative target of achieving 20% blending of ethanol in petrol by 2025
[previously targeted for 2030].
➢ The policy aims for a 5% blending of biodiesel in diesel by 2030.
❖ Classification of biofuels under the policy:
➢ Basic Biofuels – First Generation (1G) bioethanol & biodiesel.
➢ Advanced Biofuels – Second Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste to drop-in fuels.
 7

✓ Other advanced biofuels- bio-methanol, dimethyl ether (DME)derived from bio-methanol, bio-
hydrogen
➢ Third Generation (3G) biofuels, bio-CNG etc.
❖ The Policy expands the scope of raw material for ethanol production by allowing use of:
➢ Sugarcane Juice, Sugar containing materials like Sugar Beet, Sweet Sorghum, Starch containing materials
like Corn, Cassava, etc.
➢ Damaged food grains like wheat, broken rice, Rotten Potatoes, unfit for human consumption.
➢ Surplus food grains with the approval of National Biofuel Coordination Committee.
➢ To develop the National Biomass Repository by conducting appraisal of biomass across the country.
Extra Edge:
❖ Drop-in fuels refer to fuels derived from biomass, agricultural residues, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW),
plastic wastes, etc., which can be used in existing engines without requiring modifications to their fuel
distribution system.
Recent Amendments:
❖ Advancement of the target for 20% ethanol
blending in petrol to Ethanol Supply Year
(ESY) 2025-26 from the previous target of
2030. (ESY spans from 1st November of a
year to 31st October of the next year)
❖ Increased utilization of various feedstocks
for the production of biofuels.
❖ Biofuel production is being promoted under
the 'Make in India' program within Special
Economic Zones and Export Oriented
Units.
❖ Authorization has been granted for the
export of biofuels in specific cases.
❖ New members have been added to the NBCC
(National Biofuel Coordination Committee),
granting it the authority to revise policies.
Bioethanol
❖ Bioethanol (aka ethanolor ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH)) is an alcohol
produced from starch and sugar crops.
❖ It is mainly produced by fermentation and by reacting ethylene with
steam.
❖ Ethanol is a clear, colourless liquid.
❖ It is biodegradable, low in toxicity and causes little environmental
pollution. It burns to produce carbon dioxide and water.
 8

❖ It is a high-octane fuel and has replaced lead as an octane enhancer in petrol.

❖ By blending ethanol with gasoline, we can also oxygenate the fuel mixture, so it burns more completely and
reduces polluting emissions.
❖ The biofuels can be produced from various sources including:
➢ Sugars, such as sugar cane, sugar beet, sorghum, etc.
➢ Starch, including corn, cassava, potatoes, algae, etc.
➢ Cellulosic materials, such as bagasse, waste wood, agricultural and forestry residues, etc.
Linkages between sugar surplus and ethanol:
❖ As sugarcane cultivators produce a perishable crop, they require a price guarantee, prompting the central
government to announce the Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP), similar to the Minimum Support Price.
❖ FRP represents the minimum price that sugar mills must pay to cultivators, as they purchase sugarcane.
❖ The higher cost of raw material (sugarcane) and the cost of sugar production have impacted the profits of the
mills. Consequently, as the mills incur losses, they are unable to pay their dues to the farmers.
❖ Additionally, FRP and guaranteed procurement have led to increased cultivation of sugarcane, affecting
groundwater levels in many regions of India (e.g., Ralegaon Siddhi).
❖ With the increasing acreage and production, the sugar market has experienced a glut, leading to a decline in
sugar prices.
❖ Sugar levy:
➢ The Rangrajan Panel in 2012 recommended complete decontrol of the sugar industry, immediately
dispensing with the levy sugar obligation and administrative control on non-levy sugar.
➢ Every sugar mill is mandated to surrender 10% of its production to the central government at a price lower
than the market price – this is known as levy sugar.
➢ Export restrictions (per WTO norms) and price competitiveness from markets like Brazil have led to
losses for sugar mills.
❖ In this context, diversion of sugar surplus to produce bioethanol is beneficial because it:
➢ Solves the liquidity issues of sugar mills.
➢ It reduces the need for oil imports and lowers emissions from blended fuel.
➢ It makes the sugarcane and sugar industry more viable.
Ethanol Blending Programme
❖ An ethanol blend is defined as a blended motor fuel containing ethyl alcohol that is at least 99% pure,
derived from agricultural products, and blended exclusively with gasoline.
❖ Since it is plant-based, it is considered to be a renewable fuel.
❖ Government has allowed ethanol production/ procurement from sugarcane- based raw materials viz. C & B
heavy molasses, sugarcane juice / sugar / sugar syrup, surplus rice with Food Corporation of India (FCI) and
Maize.
❖ The Oil Marketing Companies are to procure ethanol from domestic sources and blends ethanol at its
terminals.
 9

❖ Government has been notifying administered price of ethanol since 2014.

❖ Department of Food and Public Distribution (DFPD) is the nodal department for promotion of fuel grade
ethanol producing distilleries in the country.
❖ Amended targets
➢ Recently, the central government has advanced the target of 20% ethanol blending in petrol (also called
as E20), by five years to 2025, from 2030.
➢ The Government has also released an expert committee report on the ‘Roadmap for Ethanol Blending
in India by 2025’.
➢ The committee recommended introducing vehicles that are compatible by rolling out of E20 material
compliant and E10 engine- tuned vehicles from April 2023 and production of E20-tuned engine vehicles
from April 2025.
Recent Initiatives to promote bioethanol
❖ Under PM-JIVAN (Jaiv Indhan- Vatavaran Anukool fasal awashesh Nivaran) Yojana, 12 commercial plants
and 10 demonstration plants of Second Generation (2G) Bio-Refineries are envisaged to be set up in areas
having sufficient availability of biomass so that ethanol is available for blending throughout the country.
❖ Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) approved ₹8,460 crore Modified scheme for extending
interest subvention for those setting up standalone ethanol distilleries using grain, molasses, dual feed, sugar
beet, sweet sorghum and cereals as a feedstock.
❖ The focus is on increasing India’s ethanol production capacity.
❖ Prime Minister has launched a Pilot Project of E100 dispensing stations at three locations in Pune.
❖ Notification of Mass Emission Standards for E12 AND E15 Fuels by Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways
➢ The mass emission standards for E 12 (12% Ethanol with Gasoline) and E15 (15% Ethanol with gasoline)
fuels are notified under the Central Motor Vehicles (Twenty Fifth Amendment) Rules, 2021.
➢ This will enable the Automotive Industry to manufacture E 12 and E 15 compliant motor vehicles.
❖ Cassava (Tapioca): ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI) has identified Cassava (tapioca)
as a promising raw material for bioethanol production to meet Ethanol Blending Petrol (EBP) programme
target of 2025.
About Cassava:
❖ Its starch with its unique physico-chemical and functional properties finds extensive applications in the food
and industrial sectors.
❖ The agricultural residues of cassava such as peels, stems and leaves are potential feedstock for 2G
bioethanol production.
❖ Major production is from Tamil Nadu, followed by Kerala.
Flexi Fuel:
❖ Ministry of Road Transport & Highways has launched first of its kind pilot project on Flexi-Fuel Strong
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (FFV- SHEV) in India.
 10

Flex Fuel vehicles (FFV)

❖ Like traditional vehicles, flex fuel vehicles have an internal combustion engine, but instead of regular petrol,
it can run on blended fuel such as petrol with ethanol or methanol. The ethanol mix can vary between 20%
and 85%.
❖ Unlike electric hybrid vehicles, no bulky parts need to be added to the basic gasoline vehicle architecture.
❖ Upgrading existing vehicles is possible but expensive and not considered feasible.
❖ Flexi Fuel Vehicles are currently being used successfully in Brazil, giving people the option to switch fuel
(gasoline and ethanol).
❖ An Flexi-Fuel Strong Hybrid Electric Vehicles (FFV-SHEV) possesses a flex-fuel engine and an electric
powertrain.
➢ This setup extends dual advantages of higher ethanol use and greater fuel efficiency, as it can run on its
EV mode for a good amount of time, while the engine stands shut off.
Significance of FFVs:
❖ They are less polluting.
❖ They provide a check on the diversion of sugar used in ethanol blending.
❖ They can burn with whatever proportion of mixture is in their combustion chamber.
❖ They contribute to reducing the import bill.
Challenges of FFVs:
❖ Lack of adequate infrastructure.
❖ Issues with ethanol supply, as it largely comes from sugarcane in India.
❖ They offer less mileage.
Fuel Cell:
❖ Fuel cells are electrochemical devices designed to convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
❖ Unlike batteries, fuel cells do not require periodic recharging; they continue to produce electricity as long as
a source of hydrogen and oxygen (usually air) is supplied.
❖ The source of hydrogen is commonly referred to as the fuel, hence the name "fuel cell."
❖ Applications include transportation, portable devices (such as military equipment, auxiliary power units,
and laptops), and stationary power generation for industrial, commercial, and residential buildings.
❖ Benefits of fuel cells include lower operational costs due to higher efficiency and the high energy density of
hydrogen, noise-free operation, and longer operating times.
❖ Challenges include transportation, the flammability and storage of hydrogen gas, high initial costs, and
technological hurdles such as system size and managing air, heat, and water.
 11

Roshini:
❖ It is India’s first Saline Water Lantern which uses sea water as electrolyte between specially designed
electrodes to power the LED lamps.
❖ Developed by the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Chennai.
❖ Technology can also be used in hinterlands, as any saline/normal water mixed with common salt can be
used to power the lantern.
Biobutanol:
❖ Biobutanol is four-carbon alcohol produced by the fermentation of biomass.
❖ The production of biobutanol can be carried out in ethanol production facilities.
❖ Its properties are similar to that of gasoline.
 12

❖ Some gasoline-powered vehicles can even use biobutanol without being modified.
❖ However, it has a lower energy content, on average 10-20%, than that of gasoline, which is a major
disadvantage of biobutanol.
❖ Biobutanol exhibits the potential to reduce carbon emissions by 85% when compared to gasoline, thus making
it a viable and suitable alternative to gasoline and gasoline-ethanol blended fuels.
Biodiesel:
❖ Biodiesel is made from renewable sources such as vegetable/plant/animal oils for use in diesel engines.
❖ Vegetable oils are chemically called triglycerides (fats).
❖ Biodiesel comprises esters of long chain fatty acids derived from these oils.
❖ To make biodiesel, fats in the vegetable oil (triglycerides) are reacted with alcohol, usually methanol.
❖ In this reaction, glycerine (in triglycerides) is replaced by methanol to produce methyl ester (biodiesel).
❖ Biofuel development in India centres around the cultivation of Jatropha plant seeds, rich in oil (40%).
 13

Biodiesel Blend:
❖ The biodiesel blend is a mix of biodiesel with fossil fuel, designated as BXX, where XX represents the volume
percentage of biodiesel in the blend (B100 means pure biofuel).
❖ Currently, biodiesel is blended with the fossil fuel in the proportion of 2%, 5%, etc, although technically it
can be used as a pure fuel with some minor modifications in existing engine systems.
❖ Advantages of biodiesel:
➢ Biodiesel has intrinsic lubricating properties (diesel engines are long lasting compared to petrol engines
because of this very property).
➢ The Cetane Index (CI), a measure of the inflammability of fuel, is more than 56 to 58 for biodiesel
compared 50/52 for fossil fuel. A higher CI value will mean better ignition and combustion.
➢ The biodiesel molecule contains about 11% oxygen, facilitating improved combustion and less soot.
❖ The sulphur content in biodiesel is as low as 0.001%.
❖ Biodiesel requires less energy to produce than fossil fuels (for every unit of energy needed to produce biodiesel,
3.24 units of energy are gained)
❖ Biodiesel production does not hurt the production of edible oil (‘food or fuel’ dilemma doesn’t exist).
❖ Used Cooking Oil (UCO) based Biodiesel
➢ Context- Recently, Indian Oil Corporation has kicked-off the supply of diesel that is blended with
biodiesel made from used cooking oil.
❖ About Used Cooking Oil (UCO):
➢ UCOs are oils and fats that have been used for cooking or frying in the food processing industry,
restaurants, fast foods and at consumer level, in households.
➢ UCO must contain only fats, oils, or greases that were previously used for cooking or frying operations.
➢ UCO is an important source of raw material to produce biodiesel.
➢ It is also used for making soap, cosmetics, cooking oil, and animal feed, etc.
 14

❖ Benefits of Biodiesel made from UCO:

➢ Prevent people from serious ailments such as hypertension, obesity, atherosclerosis, Cancer, Alzheimer’s
disease, liver diseases by removing reused or burnt cooking medium from the food chain.
➢ UCO when discarded without any treatment clogs drainage systems.
➢ Contributing to the needs of a Circular Economy.
❖ Initiative taken to make Biodiesel from UCO:
➢ In 2019, Ministries of Petroleum and Natural Gas & Steel, along with Health & Family Welfare, Science
& Technology and Earth Sciences, had initiated Expressions of Interest for “Procurement of Bio-diesel
produced from UCO”
✓ It aims to create an ecosystem for collection and conversion of UCO into Biodiesel and developing
entrepreneurship opportunities.
✓ Under this initiative, OMCs offer periodically incremental price guarantees for five years and extend
off-take guarantees for ten years to prospective entrepreneurs.
➢ The National Policy on Biofuels (2018) encourages the establishment of supply chain mechanisms for
biodiesel production from non-edible oilseeds, Used Cooking Oil, and short gestation crops.
➢ The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), in association with the Biodiesel Association
of India (BDAI), launched the 'Repurpose Used Cooking Oil (RUCO) project' in 2019.
➢ The project aims to purchase used oils from hoteliers, caterers, snack makers, and traders at a
reasonable price, converting them into biodiesel at a plant.
➢ A RUCO sticker and a mobile phone application were launched for the collection of used cooking oil
(UCO) to ensure that it does not return to the ecosystem
Bio-Jet Fuel Technology:
❖ This refers to the technology developed by CSIR-IIP Dehradun to produce bio-jet fuel, which has been
formally approved for use on military aircraft of the Indian Air Force.
❖ Bio-jet fuel can be produced from various sources such as used cooking oil, tree-borne oils, short gestation
oilseed crops, and waste extracts from edible oil processing units.
❖ Previously, the AN-32 transportation plane and commercial planes like SpiceJet were flown in 2018 using bio-
jet fuel.
Compressed BioGas (CBG):
❖ Context: Union Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas inaugurated Asia's largest CBG plant in Sangrur,
Punjab.
❖ CBG is the compressed and purified bio-gas produced from waste/bio- mass sources like agricultural residue,
cattle dung etc.
❖ Benefits:
➢ It reduces the problem of Stubble Burning and related carbon dioxide emissions.
➢ It produces fermented organic manure for organic farming.
➢ It generates employment and additional income for farmers.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 23
Sustainable Development
(Part 2)
 2

Sustainable Development (Part 2)

Biomass Co-firing:
❖ Government had launched the SAMARTH Mission i.e., National Mission on Use of Biomass in coal based
thermal Power Plants.
❖ Co-firing biomass consists of burning biomass in coal-fired power plants along with coal. Three different
concepts for co-firing i.e, Direct co- firing, Indirect co-firing, Parallel co-firing.
❖ Advantages: Lower capital costs, higher efficiency, increased economies of scale, lower electricity costs due
to the larger size and superior performance of conventional coal power plants.
National Bioenergy Programme (NBP):
❖ Recently, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has notified the National Bioenergy Programme
for the period from FY 2021-22 to 2025-26. The Programme has been recommended for implementation in
two Phases. The Phase-I of the Programme has been approved with a budget outlay of Rs. 858 crore.
❖ NBP will comprise the three sub-schemes:
➢ Waste to Energy Programme
➢ Biomass Programme
➢ Biogas Programme
Important Terms:
❖ Biomass: It is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. Biomass is the raw material
to produce biogas. Major component of biomass is carbon. (Recall carbon cycle)
❖ Bioenergy: It refers to electricity and gas that is generated from organic matter, known as biomass.
❖ Biogas: It is a renewable fuel produced by the breakdown of organic matter such as food scraps and animal
waste by microorganisms in absence of oxygen. Biogas is composed mostly of methane (CH 4), and carbon
dioxide (CO2).
Sub-scheme 1: Waste to Energy Programme (Programme on Energy from Urban, Industrial and
Agricultural Wastes /Residues)
❖ Objective: To support the setting up of Waste to Energy projects for generation of Biogas/ Bio-CNG/ Power
plants (excluding municipal solid waste to power project)/ producer or syngas from urban, industrial and
agricultural wastes/residues.
❖ Implementing agency: Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA). IREDA, established in
1987, is a Mini Ratna (Category-I) Enterprise under administrative control of MNRE.
❖ Scope:
➢ It provides Central Financial Assistance (CFA) to project developers and service charges to
implementing/inspection agencies in respect of successful commissioning of waste to energy plants.
❖ Advantages:
➢ A secure and advanced method of waste disposal, which effectively reduces greenhouse gas emissions,
produces clean energy, and facilitates metal recycling.
Sub-scheme 2: Biomass Programme
❖ Biomass Programme also called Scheme to Support Manufacturing of Briquettes & Pellets and Promotion
of Biomass based cogeneration in Industries.
➢ To assist in the establishment of Biomass Briquette/Pellet manufacturing plants.
➢ To support Biomass (non-bagasse) based cogeneration projects in industries.
 3

❖ [Note: A briquette is a compressed block of coal dust or other combustible biomass material.]
❖ Implementing agency: Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA).
❖ Scope: The program offers Central Financial Assistance (CFA) to project developers and provides service
charges to implementing agencies and inspection agencies for the establishment of Briquette/Pellet
manufacturing plants and Biomass (excluding bagasse) cogeneration projects in industries.
❖ Advantages:
➢ Reduce stubble burning. (More discussion to be followed while discussing stubble burning)
➢ Provide additional source of income to farmers and better environmental practices and reduced
pollution.
Sub-scheme 3: Biogas Programme
❖ Objective: Setting up of biogas plants for small power needs of users.
❖ Implementation:
➢ By designated Programme Implementing Agency (PIA) of State/ Union Territory/Biogas Development
and Training Centres (BDTC).
➢ IREDA, NABARD/ RBI approved Financial Institutions may also implement it in consultation with PIAs.
❖ Scope: It covers setting up of small and medium biogas plants ranging from 1M3 (cubic meter) to 2500 M3
biogas generation per day for individual user, farmers, poultry etc.
❖ Advantages: Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, enhanced sanitation, creation of employment
opportunities, and the potential for digested slurry from biogas plants to supplement or decrease reliance on
chemical fertilizers.
Wind Energy:
❖ Wind energy harnesses the kinetic energy of wind to drive the mechanical rotation of rotor blades. This
rotation powers a turbine-generator, converting the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
❖ It generates alternating current (AC) power.
❖ The gearbox plays a crucial role by converting the low revolutions per minute (RPM) of the rotor blades
to high RPM, optimizing the efficiency of power generation.
❖ Suitable locations for Wind Energy Plants
➢ Coastal
✓ Onshore: Most of the India’s wind power is on shore.
✓ Offshore: They generate electricity from wind blowing across the sea. They are more efficient than
onshore wind farms, due to the higher speed of winds, greater consistency and lack of physical
interference.
✓ Pilot Projects: Kanyakumari, Ramesh-waram, etc.
➢ Hilly Region:
✓ Favorable sites include the tops of smooth, rounded hills and mountain gaps that funnel and intensify
wind.
 4

➢ Islands:
✓ Favorable sites include the tops of smooth, rounded hills and mountain gaps that funnel and intensify
wind.
✓ Andaman Nicobar Islands (longer islands) > Lakshadweep (atolls)
➢ Deserts:
✓ Saudi Arabia has a potential of 200 GW due to its Desert landscape.
Wind Aero Generator:
❖ An aerogenerator is a small wind electric generator having a capacity of up to 30 kW.
❖ Aerogenerators are installed either in stand-alone mode (off grid) or along with solar photovoltaic (SPV)
systems to form a wind-solar hybrid system for decentralized power generation.
❖ An aerogenerator is suitable for power generation in unelectrified areas having adequate wind speeds.

Hydrogen:
❖ It is the secondary source of energy. It is utilised for the storage of energy.
❖ It can be used as a fuel cell as well as an internal combustion engine.
❖ It is a clean source of energy.
❖ Water is the byproduct of the hydrogen.
How will hydrogen production occur?
❖ One way of making hydrogen is a process called electrolysis, when electricity is passed through a substance
to force a chemical change — in this case, splitting H2O into hydrogen and oxygen.
❖ Green hydrogen is when the energy used to power electrolysis comes from renewable sources like wind,
water or solar.
❖ Pink hydrogen refers to hydrogen generated through electrolysis powered by nuclear energy.
❖ Yellow hydrogen is the term used for hydrogen made through electrolysis of water using solar power.
❖ White hydrogen, also known as "natural," "gold," or "geologic" hydrogen, is a naturally occurring form of
hydrogen found in the Earth's crust.
Steam methane reforming (SMR) is a chemical reaction where methane (CH4) reacts with steam (H2O) in the
presence of a catalyst to produce hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO). The reaction is represented as:
CH4+H2O→CO+3H2
 5

Water gas shift (WGS) reaction occurs subsequently, converting CO and water into additional H2 and
carbon dioxide (CO2) in the presence of a catalyst:
CO+H2O→CO2+H2
❖ Grey hydrogen is the most common form and is generated from natural gas, or methane, through a process
called “steam reforming”.
❖ Brown hydrogen is produced by gasification, where carbonous materials are heated into a gas. This
extraction process involves turning coal into gas and produces large quantities of carbon emissions that
are released into the atmosphere.
❖ Hydrogen is labelled blue whenever the carbon generated from steam reforming is captured and stored
underground through industrial carbon capture and storage (CSS).
Three major process of Carbon capture Utilisation Storage Mechanism:
❖ Pre Combustion Capture
❖ Oxyfuel Combustion
❖ Post Combustion Capture

Wind-Solar Hybrid System:

❖ A wind solar hybrid project is a renewable energy system that combines both wind turbines and solar panels
in the same location to generate electricity. This approach is a solution to the intermittency challenges of both
solar and wind energy generation providing a more stable and reliable energy output.
❖ The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE) has issued the National Wind-Solar
Hybrid Policy in 2018 with an aim to boost renewable power generation by promoting new projects as well as
hybridisation of existing ones.
Wind Energy:
❖ India currently has an installed capacity of 41 GW (Feb 2023), the fourth highest in the world. (China>
USA> Germany > India)
❖ However, this is just 29% of its target, which
is to install 140 GW by 2030.
❖ Tamil Nadu accounts for 25% of this installed
capacity followed by Gujarat at 24%.
❖ Important wind farms
➢ Muppandal Wind Farm, Kanyakumari
district- 1.5 GW
➢ Jaisalmer Wind Park, Rajasthan- 1.06
GW.
Muppandal Wind Farm, India
❖ The area of Muppandal features vast barren
land, which is not fit for cultivation but boasts
of high pressure winds (due to funnelling
effect) making it an ideal location for the
development of wind farms.
❖ Muppandal receives strong winds for nine
months a year from the west, due to the presence of the Western Ghats mountain range.
 6

National Offshore Wind Energy Policy

❖ It has been notified in 2015 to provide a legal framework for development of the offshore wind sector in
India.
❖ Policy authorises, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy to work in close coordination with other
government entities for development of offshore wind energy within the entire exclusive economic zone
(EEZ) of the country.
❖ National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) has been designated as the nodal agency to carry out or facilitate
necessary resource assessment activity for offshore wind development.
Global Offshore Wind Alliance:
❖ The Global Offshore Wind Alliance (GOWA) sees the addition of nine new countries, including Belgium,
Colombia, Germany, the US, the UK, among others.
❖ This initiative was launched by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Denmark, and the
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC).
➢ GWEC is international trade association for the wind power industry (India is also a member).
❖ It brings together governments and other stakeholders to accelerate deployment of offshore wind power.
❖ Objective: To contribute to achieving a total offshore wind capacity of a minimum of 380 GW by 2030 and
an installed capacity increase of at least 70 GW per year from 2030.
Small Hydro Power:
❖ In India, hydro power plants with capacity of 25 MW or below are classified as small hydro.
❖ Hydro Power was looked after by Ministry of Power prior to 1989.
❖ In 1989, plant capacity up to 3MW and below was transferred to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE). And, Subsequently plant capacity up to 25MW and below was entrusted with the MNRE in
November 1999.
❖ Estimated potential: 21133 MW from 7133 sites
❖ The hydropower facilities are powered by the kinetic
energy of flowing water as it moves downstream.
❖ Hydropower utilizes turbines and generators to
convert that kinetic energy into electricity, which is
then fed into the electrical grid to power homes,
businesses, and industries.
❖ At the plant level, water flows through a pipe—also
known as a penstock—and then spins the blades in a
turbine, which, in turn, spins a generator that
ultimately produces electricity.
❖ Advantages:
➢ It can be utilized in challenging terrains,
especially in hilly areas, to provide power
supply.
➢ It reduces ecological impact.
 7

❖ Disadvantages:
➢ It lower power generation capacity, typically below 25 MW.
➢ It is limited to local applications, not integrated into the grid.
➢ Seasonal variability, particularly with non-perennial rivers.
➢ Potential loss of water in lower riparian areas if not returned to the river and used for irrigation.
Tidal Energy:
❖ Mechanism:
➢ During high tide, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin, propelling turbines to generate electricity.
Conversely, during low tide, the water recedes back to the sea.
❖ Requirements:
➢ Continuous, predictable high and low tides occurring at regular intervals.
➢ Ideally, there should be two high and low tides each day.
❖ Tidal Range:
➢ Minimum height difference between High Tide (HT) and Low Tide (LT): 5 meters.
❖ Locations:
➢ Tidal power generation can occur in creeks, gulfs, estuaries, and deltas.
❖ Locations in India:
❖ Tidal power generation sites include the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Khambat, and the Sundarbans Delta. Notably,
the Durga-duani creek project has been halted.
❖ Worldwide:
➢ Tidal power is generated at only 20 locations globally. Among these, the Rance power project in France
stands as the oldest with a capacity of 240 MW. The largest tidal power project is in South Korea, located
at Sihwa Lake, with a capacity of 254 MW.
 8

Coal-bed Methane (CBM):

❖ CBM is an unconventional form of natural gas found in coal deposits or coal seams, formed during the
process of coalification, transformation of plant material
into coal. When coal and methane conversion process occur
such that coal is saturated with water and methane is trapped
within coal, the result is CBM.
❖ Uses: Power generation, as CNG auto fuel, feedstock for
fertilisers, industrial uses such as in cement production,
rolling mills, steel plants, and for methanol production.
❖ Regulation: Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas
formulated CBM Policy under Oilfields (Regulation &
Development) Act 1948 and Petroleum & Natural Gas
Rules 1959 to harness the potential of CBM.
❖ Process of Extraction:
➢ A steel-cased hole is drilled into the coal seam and the
underground (produced) water is pumped out through
tubing.
➢ Removal of produced water helps reduce the hydrostatic pressure within the coal bed, causing the gas
to be desorbed from its surface.
➢ As production occurs, the change in pressure alters the porosity and permeability of the coal bed.
➢ The recovered gas is sent into a natural gas pipeline or air compressor system.
Geothermal Energy:
❖ ONGC has reportedly started drilling its first well at Puga (Ladakh) to generate electricity using
geothermal power.
❖ Geothermal power plants use hydrothermal resources that have both water (hydro) and heat (thermal). Hot
water and steam from deep underground can be
piped up through underground wells and used to
generate electricity in a power plant.
❖ Benefits of Geothermal: carbon-free, renewable,
provides a continuous, uninterrupted supply etc.
❖ Disadvantages: Location-specific energy source,
associated with other emissions like sulphur
dioxide and hydrogen sulphide, causes mini tremors
in area of operation, high initial cost etc.
❖ Potential: As per preliminary investigations
undertaken by Geological Survey of India, there are
around 300 geothermal hot springs in India.
❖ Geothermal sites (in decreasing order): Tattapani
in Chhattisgarh, Puga in J&K, Cambay in Gujarat,
Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh, Surajkund in
Jharkhand, Chumathang in Ladakh.
 9

Geothermal Provinces of India:

❖ Himalayan belt
❖ Naga-Lushai Province
❖ Andaman Nicobar Islands
❖ West Coast Province
❖ Cambay Graben Province
❖ Aravalli Province
❖ Son-Narmada -Tapi province
❖ Godavari Valley Province
❖ Mahanadi valley Province
❖ South Indian Cratonic Province
Geothermal well: It is used in power generation. Water circulated through a pipe in earth's crust and converted
to steam. This Steam is used to run turbine for electrical power

Coal Gasification
❖ Context: The Union government has allowed a concession of 50% in
revenue share for coal gasification.
❖ Coal gasification (CG) is the process of converting coal into synthesis
gas (syngas), which is a mixture of hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide
(CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Process of Coal Gasification:
❖ Coal is fed into a vessel called a gasifier. In gasifier, Coal is exposed to
heat and pressure.
❖ Controlled amount of oxygen is released into gasifier allowing the coal to burn (Partial oxidation)
 10

❖ Heat and pressure break up the structure of partially oxidized coal causing a chemical reaction to take place
creating syn gas.
❖ Ash and other byproducts are trapped in the bottom of the gasifier.
❖ In the gasification process, sulphur present in the coal is converted to hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and minor
amounts of carbonyl sulphide (COS).
➢ These sulphur compounds can be easily and economically removed using acid gas removal systems.

Dimethyl ether (DME):

❖ Dimethyl ether (DME) is a synthetically produced alternative to diesel.
❖ DME is the compound which can be produced from methanol or directly from syngas.
Green Methanol:
❖ It is produced from biomass or methanol produced from using green hydrogen.
 11

Methanol Energy and Methanol Economy

❖ Methanol burns efficiently in all internal combustion engines, produces no particulate matter, no soot, almost
nil SOx and Nox emissions.
❖ Blending of 15% methanol in petrol will reduce pollution by 33% & diesel replacement by methanol will
reduce pollution by more than 80%.
❖ Although slightly lower in energy content than petrol and diesel, methanol can replace both these fuels in
Transport sector, Energy sector, Retail cooking etc.
❖ Methanol & Di-methyl Ether are substantially cheaper than Petrol and Diesel.
❖ Methanol has many desirable attributes which make it an excellent spark ignition engine fuel, including high
octane number and improved efficiency.
❖ Methanol Economy is the “Bridge” to the dream of a complete “Hydrogen based fuel systems”.
❖ The Concept of “Methanol Economy” is being actively pursued by China (10% of fuel in transport sector).
❖ Methanol economy will help India use its vast coal reserves (burning coal directly is bad).
Recent Initiatives:
❖ Recently, India's first Indigenously Designed High Ash Coal Gasification Based Methanol Production Plant
was inaugurated at BHEL R&D Centre, Hyderabad.
 12

Green Methanol:
❖ Context: National Thermal Power Corporation Limited (NTPC) and Tecnimont (an Italy-based company)
signed an MoU to jointly explore the establishment of a green methanol production facility at an NTPC project
in India.
❖ Green Methanol is methanol produced through a process that emits zero or minimal amounts of
greenhouse gases (GHGs), typically measured as an equivalent amount of CO2. It is derived from sustainable
biomass or from carbon dioxide and hydrogen generated from renewable electricity.
❖ Applications of Green Methanol include its use as a material in the chemical industry, for storing renewable
electricity, as a transportation fuel, and as a substitute for maritime fuel applications.
 13

Methanol Blended Diesel (MD15):

❖ Context - A demo-run of a vessel powered by Methanol Blended Diesel (MD15), named SB Gangadhar, was
held in Guwahati, Assam, in anticipation of India Energy Week 2023 (IEW 2023).
❖ IEW 2023, first major event under India's G20 Presidency, follows PM’s pledge at COP26 to cut India's
emissions to net-zero by 2070.
❖ IEW 2023 is held under Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas.
Global International Biofuel Alliance (GIBA):
• GIBA was launched by India during India Energy Week 2023.
❖ GIBA will help create a favourable ecosystem for promoting development and deployment of biofuels with
key stakeholders including US, Brazil, EU, IEA etc. as a clean mobility alternative under India’s G20
Presidency.
❖ Other Initiatives in news:
➢ Network for Greening the Financial System: Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has joined the Central Banks
and Supervisors Network for Greening the Financial System (NGFS) as a member.
Environmental Information, Awareness, Capacity Building and Livelihood Programme (EIACP):
❖ Environmental Information System (ENVIS) is renamed as EIACP.
❖ EIACP serves as a one stop platform for dissemination of environmental information, informed policy
formulation on various facets of environment and facilitation of alternate livelihoods through green skilling.
❖ EIACP conducts Environmental Awareness Programs to School Children, Colleges and Universities on
Environmental Important Days.
❖ As per the mandate of EIACP, the activities of the Programme Centres are to be aligned with Lifestyle for the
Environment (LiFE) introduced by India at COP 26 in Glasgow.
Lithium-ion Battery:
❖ About Lithium:
➢ Lithium is lightest solid metal. It is currently produced from hard rock or brine mines.
➢ Australia is the world's biggest supplier, with production of Lithium from hard rock mines, while
Argentina, Chile and China are producing it from salt lakes.
❖ Lithium in India:
➢ In India, first traces of Lithium ever to be discovered in the ancient igneous rock of Karnataka’s Mandya
district.
➢ Recently, Lithium reserves were also discovered in Jammu Kashmir.
➢ Currently, India imports all its lithium needs, with China and Hong Kong biggest suppliers.
 14

Steps taken for Lithium-ion batteries in India:

❖ National Mission on Transformative Mobility: To encourage domestic Lithium- Ion Cell manufacturing
and EV components.
❖ ISRO and BHEL agreement: to develop low-cost lithium-ion batteries.
❖ India’s first lithium cell plant manufacturing facility will be launched in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh.
❖ Lithium triangle nations: India is focusing on 'Lithium Triangle' nations Argentina, Bolivia and Chile for
joint exploration.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment & Ecology

Lecture - 24
Pollution
 2

Pollution
National Parks of Uttarakhand:
 Jim Corbett National Park
 Rajaji National Park
 Gangotri National Park
 Nanda Devi National Park
 Valley of Flowers National
National Parks of Himachal Pradesh:
 Great Himalayan National Park
 Pin Valley National Park
 Khirganga National Park
 Inderkilla National Park
 Simbalbara National Park
National Parks of Jammu & Kashmir:
 Dachigam National Park.
 Famous for Hangul (Kashmir stag)
 Hemis National Park.
 One of the most important natural habitat for the snow leopard and the largest national park.
 Kaziranga National Park
 Kishtwar National Park
 Salim Ali National Park
National Parks of Gujarat:
 Gir National Park
 Vansda National Park
 Marine National Park
 Blackbuck National Park
Stubble Burning:
 Stubble burning is the act of setting fire to the crop residue that remains after grains like paddy, wheat etc.
have been harvested in order to prepare field for sowing next crop.
 It is one of the chief causes for rising air pollution levels in Delhi during winters.
 Reasons for Stubble Burning:
 Mechanization (use of combine harvesters) leaves behind smaller stubble on the ground that is difficult
to collect.
 Laws like Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act which has delayed date for paddy transplantation.
 The Act aims at conserving groundwater by mandatorily delaying the transplanting of paddy to
beyond June 10, when the most severe phase of evapotranspiration (transfer of water from land to
the atmosphere through evaporation from the soil and plant transpiration) is over.
 3

 Farmers were forbidden from sowing paddy before May 10, and transplanting it before June 10.
 Farmers’ organisations say late sowing and transplanting delays the harvesting as well (it is end-
October by the time operations end), andthey are left with a very small window to prepare their
fields for the next (wheat) crop.
 In this situation, setting the stubble ablaze is a quick-fix solution.
 Crop intensification leaves farmers with small windows to clear the fields so burning the residue is
the easiest.
 Measures to control Stubble Burning:
 In-situ Measures: Utilization of Happy Seeder Machines; Establishment of Custom Hiring Centers to
provide access to this equipment for small and marginal farmers at reasonable rental rates; Promotion of
short-duration rice varieties and crop diversification, etc.
 The Happy Seeder Machine is a tractor-mounted device that not only cuts and uproots the stubble
but also drills wheat seeds into the freshly cleared soil. Simultaneously, the straw is thrown over the
sown seeds to create a mulch cover.
 Ex-situ measures: Utilizing stubble in various ways such as cattle feed, compost manure, roofing
material in rural areas, biomass energy, packaging materials, etc.
 Policy response to address stubble burning
 National Green Tribunal had banned crop residue burning in the states of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana and Punjab.
 National Policy for Management of Crop Residue (NPMCR), 2014 ensure prevention of burning
of crop residues, by incentivizing purchase of modern machineries.
 Central Sector Scheme on ‘Promotion of Agricultural Mechanization for In- Situ Management of
Crop Residue in the States of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and NCT of Delhi’.
 Supreme Court guideline to incentivise farmers for stopping the burning of paddy crop stubble.
 Commission for Air Quality Management directions.
 PUSA Bio-Decomposer
 Developed by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), it is a low-cost microbial
bio-enzyme solution that accelerates the decomposition of crop residue, including stubble from
paddy crops, into manure within 15-20 days.
 In one capsule of fungal solution, a farmer can produce 25 litres of liquid substance. After
preparing the liquid, the farmer needs to add jaggery and
gram flour to it and then sprinkle the mixture onto the
stubble, facilitating its bio-degradation within 20 days.
 This solution is emerging as a potent method for curbing
stubble burning, while also providing additional manure
through decomposed stubble, thereby improving soil quality.
 Anti-Smog Gun:
 It was recently installed in Delhi to reduce air-pollution
mainly concentration of PM10 and PM2.5.
 Anti-smog gun is designed to create an ultra-fine fog,
comprising very fine water droplets (less than 10-micron
in size).
 These tiny water droplets will be spread over a sizeable area with the help of a high-speed fan, which
can absorb smallest dust particles in air.
 4

 Green Crackers
 SC, in 2018 judgement on firecrackers banned manufacture, sale and use of joined firecrackers
(series crackers or ‘laris’) as they caused air, noise and solid waste problems.
 SC allowed the manufacture and sale of only “green” (safe water and air sprinklers that emit less
sound and light) or “improved” crackers (avoid the use of ash as filler material).
About Green Crackers:
 They are made using less polluting raw materials. Their chemical formulation ensures reduced particle
emission into the atmosphere by suppressing the dust produced. They do not contain hazardous chemicals
like Barium Nitrate.
 Green crackers were researched and developed by CSIR-NEERI.
 Different types of green crackers available in India: Safe Water Releaser (SWAS), Safe Thermite Cracker
(STAR) and Safe Minimal Aluminium (SAFAL) crackers.
 Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organisation (PESO) under Ministry of Commerce and Industry tasked
with certifying that crackers are made without arsenic, mercury, and barium, and are not loud beyond a
certain threshold
Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM):
 About:
 A statutory body established under the Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital
Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021, initially established in 2020 through an Ordinance.
 It is headed by a Chairperson with a minimum of 15 years' experience in the field of environment
and pollution or 25 years of administrative experience.
 Appeals against CAQM orders and directions are heard by the National Green Tribunal.
 Functions of CAQM:
 Coordinate actions on monitoring air quality.
 Plan and execute strategies to prevent and control air pollution in NCR.
 Conduct research and development through networking with technical institutions.
 Recent news:
 The CAQM issued directives to ban the use of coal in industrial, domestic, and other miscellaneous
applications to reduce GHG emissions.
 The use of low-sulfur coal in thermal power plants has been exempted from the ban.
 Date of implementation of the ban on the use of coal:
 October 1, 2022, in areas with piped natural gas (PNG) infrastructure and supply.
 January 1, 2023, in areas where PNG supply is still unavailable.
 Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP):
 The Central Authority for Quality Management (CAQM) issued orders to enforce measures under
'Stage-1' of GRAP in the National Capital Region (NCR) after air quality deteriorated to the 'poor'
category in Delhi.
 GRAP is an action plan designed to address air pollution in Delhi-NCR, structured around four different
stages of adverse air quality.
 It was revised recently by CAQM under provisions of CAQM in NCR and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021.
 5

National Clean Air Program:

 Launched in 2019, aiming to reduce air pollution through comprehensive mitigation actions for prevention,
control, and abatement.
 Initially envisioned to achieve targets of 20 to 30% reduction in Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5)
concentration by 2024 across the country, with 2017 as the base year.
 Recent changes:
 A new target has been set for a 40% reduction in particulate matter concentration in cities covered
under the Programme by 2026.
 Key Features:
 Preparation of City-specific action
plans which include measures for
strengthening the air quality
monitoring network, reducing
vehicular and industrial emissions,
increasing public awareness, etc.
 Implemented in 132 cities:
 123 Non-Attainment cities
(NACs) identified under NCAP
based on non- conforming to
National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS)
consecutively for five years.
 8 million Plus Cities (MPCs)
identified by 15th Finance
Commission (XV- FC), for receiving performance-based grant for air quality improvement.
 PRANA (Portal for Regulation of Air-pollution in Non-Attainment cities) portal monitors the
implementation of NCAP.
 6

Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan :

 The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) will launch Swachh Vayu
Sarvekshan under the National Clean Air Program (NCAP). 131 cities across the country will be ranked based
on their implementation of City Action Plans prepared under the NCAP, aiming to reduce air pollution by up
to 40% by 2025-26.
 Cities will be categorized into three groups based on population (population > 10 lakh, population between 3
to 10 lakh, and population < 3 lakh). For the survekshan, cities are required to conduct annual self-assessments
as per the framework provided on the PRANA online portal.
 Cities must report the implementation of activities and measures taken regarding solid waste management,
road dust management, construction and demolition waste management, control of vehicular emissions, and
industrial pollution.
 Based on the self-assessment and third-party evaluation, the top three performing cities in each group will be
awarded cash prizes.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
 NAAQS is developed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
 They are applicable all over the country.
 The CPCB has been conferred this power by the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
 7

WHO’s Air Quality Database:

 Context- WHO has released 2022 update of its air
quality database.
 About the WHO Air quality guidelines:
 Recommended levels and interim targets for
common air pollutants: PM, O3, NO2, and SO2.
 First released in 1987 and Latest global version
published in 2021.
 About the 2022 update:
 Almost the entire global population (99%)
breathes air that exceeds WHO air quality limits.
 Introducing for the first time, ground measurements
of annual mean concentrations of nitrogen dioxide
(NO2), a common urban pollutant and precursor of particulate matter and ozone.
 These measurements also encompass particulate matter with diameters equal to or smaller than 10 µm
(PM10) or 2.5 µm (PM2.5).
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme:
 The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has been executing anationwide programme of ambient air
quality monitoring known as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP).
 The network consists of 804 operating stations covering 344 cities/towns in 28 states and 6 UTs of the country.
 NAMP is undertaken to determine the status and trends of ambient air quality;
 to ascertain the compliance of NAAQS;
 to identify non-attainment cities;
 to understand the natural process of cleaning in the atmosphere; and
 to undertake preventive and corrective measures.
 Under NAMP, four air pollutants
 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2),
 Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2),
 Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM / PM10)
 Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5), have been identified for regular monitoring at all the locations.
 The monitoring wind speed and wind direction, relative humidity (RH) and temperature were also
integrated with the monitoring of air quality.
System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research (SAFAR):
 It is a national initiative introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) (not MoEFCC).
 It is an integral part of India’s first Air Quality Early Warning System operational in Delhi.
 SAFAR will measure the air quality of a metropolitan city.
 It also monitors all weather parameters like temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and wind direction,
UV radiation, and solar radiation.
 8

 The network has multiple air quality monitoring stations in each city, equipped with real-time, continuous
monitors for various pollutants).
 The system is indigenously developed by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune and
is operationalised by the India Meteorological Department (IMD).
 It has a giant colour LED display that gives out real-time air quality indexon a 24x7 basis with colour-coding
(along with 72 hours advance forecast).
 The ultimate objective of the project is to increase awareness among the public regarding the air quality in
their city.
Pollutants monitored under SAFAR System
include:
 PM2.5,
 PM10,
 Ozone,
 Carbon Monoxide (CO),
 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx),
 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2),
 Mercury
 Benzene
 Toluene (methylbenzene — used in paint thinners &
as octane booster in gasoline engines),
 Xylene (dimethylbenzene — used as a solvent in printing, rubber, and leather industry), and
National Air Quality Index (AQI)
 AQI was launched by MoEFCC in April 2015 under ‘Swachh Bharat’.
 It helps the citizens to judge the air quality within her vicinity.
 There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe.
 The AQI will consider eight pollutants
 particulate matter (PM) 10
 PM2. 5,
 Ozone (O3),
 Sulphur dioxide (SO2),
 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
 Carbon monoxide (CO),
 Lead (Pb) and
 Ammonia (NH3)
National Air Quality Resource Framework of India (NARFI):
 NARFI is an informational mechanism designed to assist decision-makers in government, municipalities,
startups, and the private sector in addressing air pollution issues across various climatic zones of India.
 Developed by the National Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS), Bengaluru, with support from the Office
of the Principal Scientific Adviser, it will provide a comprehensive guide to collecting air quality data,
studying its impacts, and implementing science-based solutions.
 It will comprise five modules, including Emission Inventory, Air Shed, and Mitigation, as well as Impacts on
Human Health and Agriculture.
 9

Norms for Thermal Power Plants (TPPs):

 Context: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) gave two year extension to
thermal power plants (TPPs) on SO2 norms.
 About TPP Norms:
 In 2015, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) notified environmental norms
concerning particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
nitrogen oxides, mercury, and water usage for coal-based
Thermal Power Plants (TPPs).
 The initial deadline for implementation, set for 2017,
was subsequently extended to 2022.
 Deadline for SO2 has been further extended for all three
categories of TPPs. However, the deadline remains the
same for meeting PM and NOx standards.
 Compliance with norms requires retrofitting existing
TPPs with auxiliaries to control emissions, such as Flue
Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) and Selective Catalytic
Reduction.
 FGD refers to a set of technologies used to remove SO2 from sources of emissions, such as exhaust
flue gases from fossil-fuel power plants. Thermal power plants are the biggest users of water among
all industries.

Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)

 Electrostatic precipitation can remove over 99 percent of particulate matter present in the exhaust.
 They are used in boilers, furnaces, thermal power plants, cement factories, steel plants, etc. In electrostatic
precipitation, dust emitted is charged with ions, and the ionized particulate matter is collected at an oppositely
charged surface.
 Working:
 An electrostatic precipitator has electrode wires maintained at several thousand volts, producing a corona
that releases electrons. These electrons attach to dust particles, giving them a net negative charge.
 The collecting plates are grounded (relatively positive charge) and attract the charged dust particles.
 The air velocity between the plates must be low enough to allow the dust to fall.
 The particles are removed from the collection surface by occasional shaking or rapping.
 10

Scrubbers
 Scrubbers are wet collectors. They remove aerosols from a stream of gas either by collecting wet particles
on a surface, or the particles are wetted by a scrubbing liquid.
 The particles get trapped as they travel from the supporting gaseous medium across the interface to the liquid
scrubbing medium (this is similar to mucus in trachea trapping dust).
 A scrubber can remove gases like sulphur dioxide.
Inertial Collectors:
 Inertia of Suspended Particulate Matter in gas is higher than its solvent. As inertia is a function of the mass
of the particulate matter, the device collects heavier particles more efficiently (centrifugation is the technique).
 ‘Cyclone’ is a common inertial collector used in gas cleaning plants.
Catalytic Converter
 Catalytic converters, having expensive metals, platinum-palladium and rhodium as the catalysts, are fitted
into automobiles for reducing the emission of poisonous gases.
 Motor vehicles equipped with catalytic converters should use unleaded petrol because the lead in the petrol
inactivates the catalyst.
 Working:
 As the exhaust passes through the catalytic converter, unburnt hydrocarbons are converted into carbon
dioxide and water, and carbon monoxide and nitric oxide are changed to carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas,
respectively.
 11

Flue-Gas Desulfurization (FGD) systems:

 FGD systems may involve wet scrubbing or dry scrubbing to remove acidic gases, particularly sulphur
dioxide (SO2) and HCl, from flue gases (gases
flowing out of vertical exhaust pipes). Lime is used
in both.
 Wet FGD
 Flue gases are brought in contact with a liquid
or solid slurry absorbent.
 The sulphur dioxide dissolves in or reacts with
the absorbent & becomes trapped in as wet
calcium sulphite.
 The sulphite can be converted to gypsum (used
in cement production).
 In dry FGD scrubbing, lime is injected directly into
flue gas to remove SO2 and HCl from low-sulphur
fuels.
Fly Ash:
 Fly ash is a by-product of coal based power generation.
 It is a fine powder with substantial amounts of oxides of silica, aluminium and calcium.
 It also contains traces of Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, lead etc. which leads to air and water pollution if disposed
on land.
 With low grade of Indian coal, its ash content is as high as 30-45% in comparison to imported coal with 10-
15%.
 With nearly 55% of our total power production through coal and lignite based Thermal Power Plants (TPP),
the fly ash generation in India is very high.
 About 83% of Fly Ash is utilized.
 Recent News:
 The Ministry of Environment,
Forests and Climate Change
(MoEFCC) has extended fly ash
utilization deadline for thermal
power plants with the introduction of
penalties for noncompliance.
 Shorter Fly-ash utilization cycle:
Existing provisions allow TPPs to
fully utilize fly ash in a four-year
cycle in a staggered manner. The new
policy will follow a three-year cycle for 100% utilization of Fly-ash with a grace period of a year if the
percentage of ash utilization is between 60-80% and two years if it is below 60%.
 Introduction of Polluter Pays Principle: A fine of Rs 1,000 per tonne of unutilized ash has been
introduced if the plant does not achieve at least 80% ash utilization annually or in three years.
 12

Acid Rain:
 Acid rain refers to any precipitation (rain, fog, mist, snow) that is more acidic than usual (pH < 5.6; pH < 7
is acidic).
 The pH Scale
 The pH scale measures how acidic or
basic (alkaline) a solution is, ranging
from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral.
 A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH
greater than 7 is basic. A solution with
a pH of 4 is ten times more acidic than
a pH of 5 and a hundred times more
acidic than a pH of 6.
 pH is based on the hydrogen ion
concentration in an aqueous solution.
 pH values decrease as hydrogen ion
levels increase. While the pH range is
usually 0 to 14, lower and higher
values are theoretically possible.
 Nitrogen will only react with oxygen at high temperatures and pressures in lightning bolts and combustion
reactions in power plants or internal combustion engines. Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) are
formed under these conditions. Eventually, nitrogen dioxide may react with water in the rain to form nitric
acid, HNO3.
 The nitrates thus formed may be
utilised by plants as a nutrient
(so, the soil gets nitrogen from
acid rain).”
 Chemistry of Acid Rain:
 Basic steps involved in
the formation of acid
rain:
 The atmosphere
receives oxides of
sulphur and nitrogen from both natural and human-made sources.
 Some of these oxides fall back directly to the ground as dry deposition.
 Sunlight stimulates the formation of photo-oxidants (such as ozone) in the atmosphere.
 These photo-oxidants interact with the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, as well as other gases like
NH3, to produce H2SO4 (sulphuric acid) and HNO3 (nitric acid) through oxidation.
 Acid rain, containing ions of sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, and hydrogen, falls as wet deposition.
 13

Harmful Effects of Acid Rain:

 Effects on soil:
 The exchange between hydrogen ions and the nutrient cations like potassium & magnesium in the soil
cause leaching of the nutrients, making the soil infertile.
 An increase in ammonia in the soil due to a decrease in other nutrients decreases the decomposition rate,
and the nitrate level of the soil is also found to decrease
 Effects on Humans:
 Bad smell, reduced visibility, and irritation of the skin, eyes and the respiratory tract. Some direct effects
include chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema and cancer.
 Effects on Aquatic Life: Eggs or sperms of fish, frogs and other aquatic organisms are sensitive to pH
changes. Acid rain kills their gametes affecting the life cycles (ecosystem imbalances).
 Effect on Terrestrial Life: Acid rain damages the cuticle of plant leaves and reduces photosynthesis.
 Effects on Microorganisms: The optimum pH of most bacteria and protozoa is near neutrality. Most fungi
prefer an acidic environment. Blue- green bacteria prefer an alkaline environment. So, microbial species in the
soil and water shift from bacteria-bound to fungi-bound> delay in the decomposition of soil organic material
 Effect on buildings, monuments and materials: Limestone and marble are destroyed by acid rain. Ex- Taj
Mahal (Marble cancer)
Acid Rain Areas:
 They are concentrated in the industrialised belt of the northern hemisphere- Scandinavia, Canada, Japan,
the Northeast United States and North-western Europe.
 In India, the first acid rain occurred in Bombay in 1974. Instances of acid rain are being reported in many
metropolitan cities. Low soil pH is reported from north-eastern India, coastal Karnataka and Kerala, parts of
Orissa, West Bengal and Bihar.
Acid Rain Control Measures:
 Utilizing low-sulfur fuel or washed coal (chemically washing pulverized coal) in thermal plants.
 Adding a neutralizing agent to the acidified water to increase the pH. Typically, lime in the form of calcium
oxide and calcium carbonate is employed.
Plastic Waste Data by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):
 Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat are among the top Indian Plastic waste producers.
 India ranks 5th in generation of plastic waste with an annual discharge of 3.5 million tonne in 2020.
 Almost 83% of this comes from just 10 states/ UTs.
 On a per capita basis, India’s plastic waste generation has almost doubled over FY 2016-20; however, remains
lower than most of the developed economies.
 14

Extra Edge:
 Plastic, being lightweight, hygienic, and durable, can be molded for a wide range of applications and is
relatively inexpensive to manufacture.
 Consequently, since the 1950s, the production of plastic has surpassed that of almost all other materials.
Microplastics
 Most plastics don't biodegrade. Instead,
they slowly breakdown into smaller
fragments known as microplastics.
Extent of Global Plastic Pollution
 Global Plastic Production by Industrial
Sector, 2015
How is Plastic Disposed off?
 According to the UNEP, as of 2015, of the
9 billion tonnes of plastic that the world
has ever produced, only 9% has been recycled, and
12% has been incinerated. India produces around 10
million tonnes of plastic per year, of which around 5
million tonnes are rendered waste every year. Therefore,
it is crucial that this waste is properly managed.
 The environmental harm caused by plastics has been the
subject of international research and analysis for many
years now. A study published by the World Wildlife
Fund in 2019 estimates that an average human may be
ingesting as much as 5 grams of plastic every week. This
is because almost one-third of the plastic waste that is
generated ends up in nature, especially in water, which
is the largest source of plastic ingestion.
Harmful Effects of Plastic Pollution:
 Environmental Impacts: Plastics take thousands of
years to decompose, thus contaminating soil and water.
They pose significant ingestion, choking, and
entanglement hazards to wildlife on land and in the ocean. There is emerging evidence that the toxic
chemicals added during the manufacturing process transfer from the ingested plastic into the animals’
tissues, eventually entering the food chain for humans as well.
 Health and Social Impact: Plastic pollution leads to health and welfare losses, rendering parks unusable
and causing sewage blockages that contribute to the spread of diseases such as malaria and dengue.
 Economic Impact: Visual pollution adversely affects the tourism sector. Additionally, the future cost of
removing these plastics from nature is higher than the cost of preventing littering today. Even biodegradable
plastics have many unintended consequences. Biodegradable plastic items often break down completely
only at temperatures above 50 degrees Celsius, conditions which are rarely met in the environment.
Therefore, even bioplastics derived from renewable sources (such as corn starch, cassava roots, or
sugarcane) or from bacterial fermentation of sugar or lipids do not automatically degrade in the environment,
especially not in the ocean.
 15

Compostable Pastic
 The Ministry of Earth Science has approved the commercial manufacturing of compostable plastic.
 Compostable plastics are a subset of biodegradable plastics.
 They are derived from sources such as corn, potatoes, cellulose, soy protein, etc.
 They are non-toxic and decompose into carbon dioxide, water, and biomass through composting.
Biodegradable plastics:
 Biodegradable plastics are those that degrade primarily through biological, mainly microbial, action. They
are commonly produced using renewable raw materials, petrochemicals, or a combination of the two.
Features of Bioplastic:
 They are 100% biodegradable.
 Equally resistant.
 Versatile; already used in agriculture and the textile sector.
Bioplastic are mainly categorized into:

Difference between Compostable Pastic and Biodegradable Plastic

Compostable Pastic Biodegradable Plastic
It requires a specific setting in order to breakdown. It can breakdown naturally
All compostable plastic are biodegradable. All biodegradable plastic are not compostable

Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016

 Key Provisions of the 2016 Rules:
 Increasing Minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 40 to 50 microns. Similarly, minimum thickness
of plastic sheets are also increased to 50 microns.
 Expand the coverage to rural areas.
 Phasing out of non-reusable Multi-layered Plastic.
 Introduces Extended Producer Responsibility for producers and generators of Plastic Waste
 16

(Note: India first introduced EPR to manage electronic-waste in 2012. EPR was extended to Plastic
manufacturers after the notification PWMR, 2016. )
 Shopkeepers and vendors who provide plastic carry bags must register with the local authority
(panchayat, ULB, etc.), and the money collected from customers for carry bags should be used by local
bodies for sustainable waste management.
 They can only use plastic carry bags that have been properly labeled and marked for use; otherwise, fines
will be imposed.
 ULBs and Panchayats have been entrusted with the responsibility of establishing and operating waste
management systems.
 The Land Department (or any department responsible for land allocation within state governments)
should allocate land for establishing waste management facilities.
 The beneficial use of plastic waste has also been promoted in road construction and waste-to-oil
conversion, among other methods.
The 2018 Amendment:
 Extension of phasing out norms applies to all MLPs that are deemed "non-recyclable, non-energy recoverable,
or lack alternate uses."
 The CPCB will develop a Centralized Registration system for producers, importers, and brand owners
contributing to plastic waste.
 The fee provision of Rs 48,000 per year for vendors, shopkeepers, etc., has been abolished.
 Plastic has not been completely banned due to the absence of suitable, clean, and economically viable
alternatives. Implementing a blanket ban would be impractical.
Single Use Plastics and Reasons for the Ban:
 Single-use plastics, or disposable plastics, are used only once before they are thrown away or recycled.
 Plastic is so cheap and convenient that it has replaced all other materials from the packaging industry but it
takes hundreds of years to disintegrate.
 If we look at the data, out of 9.46 million tonnes of plastic waste generated every year in our country,
43% is single use plastic.
 Further, Petroleum-based plastic is non biodegradable and usually goes into a landfill where it is buried or it
gets into the water and finds its way into the ocean.
 In the process of breaking down, it releases toxic chemicals (additives that were used to shape and harden
the plastic) which make their way into our food and water supply.
Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2022
 17

 Classification of Plastics:
 Category 1: Rigid plastic packaging will be included under this category.
 Category 2: Flexible plastic packaging of single layer or multilayer (more than one layer with different
types of plastic), plastic sheets and covers made of plastic sheet, carry bags, plastic sachet or pouches
will be included under this category.
 Category 3: Multi-layered plastic packaging (at least one layer of plastic and at least one layer of material
other than plastic) will be included under this category.
 Category 4: Plastic sheet or like used for packaging as well as carry bags made of compostable plastics
fall under this category



 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY

Lecture – 25
Pollution (Part-2)
 2

Pollution (Part-2)
Plastic Waste Management (PWM) Amendment Rules, 2021:
Context:
❖ Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has notified the Plastic Waste
Management Amendment Rules, 2021, which prohibits identified single use plastic items which have low
utility and high littering potential by 2022.
❖ India has defined SUP as “a plastic commodity intended to be used once for the same purpose before being
disposed of or recycled” in its PWM Amendment Rules, 2021.
❖ These include plastic bags, straws, coffee stirrers, soda and water bottles etc.
❖ The assessment of SUP was conducted by comparing two pillars — the utility index of a particular type of
SUP and the environmental impact of the same.
❖ The product that scores low on utility and high on environmental impact should be considered for immediate
phase out.
❖ Key Provisions:
➢ Prohibition on Manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale and use of single-use plastic, including
polystyrene and expanded polystyrene, commodities with effect from 1st July 2022.
➢ The ban will not apply to commodities made of compostable plastic.
❖ Thickness of plastic carry bags increased from 50 microns to 75 microns with effect from 30th September
2021 and to 120 microns with effect from the 31st December, 2022 [The thickness has been increased so that
bags becomes expensive as well as can be reused]
❖ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Plastic packaging waste not covered under present notification
shall be collected and managed in an environmentally sustainable way through EPR of the producer, importer
and brand owner (PIBO) as per PWM Rules, 2016.
❖ EPR Guidelines have been given legal force through PWM Amendment Rules, 2021
❖ Implementing agency: Along with state pollution bodies, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) will
monitor the ban, identify violations, and impose penalties already prescribed under the Environmental
Protection Act, 1986.
❖ Task Force: States and UTs had constituted the special task force for elimination of SUP and effective
implementation of the PWM Rules, 2016.
➢ Environment Ministry has also set up a national level task force for making coordinated efforts in this
direction.
➢ State /UT Governments and concerned Central Ministries/Departments have also been requested to
develop a comprehensive action plan for elimination of SUP and its implementation in a time bound
manner.
Steps taken by the Government to ensure enforcement of the ban
Mascot ❖ PRAKRITI mascot to spread greater awareness among masses and bring behavioural
change.
 3

E- ❖ National Dashboard on Elimination of Single Use Plastic and Plastic Waste

governance Management set up by MoEFCC to bring all stakeholders at one place and track the
portals &
apps progress.
❖ Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) launched-
➢ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Portal for Plastic Packaging for
compliance to EPR Obligations by Producers, Importers and Brand-owners.
➢ Mobile App for SUP Grievance Redressal to empower citizens to check sale/usage/
manufacturing of SUP in their area.
➢ Monitoring module for SUP for local bodies, State Pollution Control Boards
(SPCBs)/ Pollution Control Committees (PCCs) and CPCB, to inventorize details of
SUP production/ sale & usage in commercial establishments at district level, and on-
ground enforcement of ban on SUP.
Directions ❖ All leading petrochemical industries to not supply plastic raw materials to the industries
issued at engaged in banned SUP production.
national
state and ❖ SPCB/PCCs to modify/revoke consent to operate issued under Air/Water Act to
local level industries engaged in banned SUP production.
❖ Customs Authority to stop the import of banned SUP items.
❖ Local authorities to issue fresh commercial licenses with the condition that SUP items
will not be sold on their premises.

Microplastics:
❖ Microplastics are shreds of plastic less than 5 mm in length but larger than 1 micrometre.
❖ Microplastics are used in cosmetics, personal care products, industrial scrubbers, microfibers in textiles and
virgin resin pellets used in plastic manufacturing processes.
❖ Several studies have established the presence of microplastics in groundwater. A study estimated that the
average human ends up consuming at least 50,000 microplastics in food every year. Their impact on tiny
marine organisms is even significant since their injection leaves them starved and affects the marine food web.
❖ According to a study, we may inhale substantial quantities of microplastics with every breath. And these
plastics will eventually flow into our blood and accumulate in our organs.
❖ Scientists have been discussing the possibility that microplastic mists and clouds exist in the atmosphere but
this is the first study to quantify the magnitude of the problem.

Microbeads:
❖ Microbeads (>0.1 µm and < 5 mm) are very tiny pieces of plastic that are added to health and beauty products,
such as in some cleansers and toothpaste (cooling crystals).
 4

❖ However, one of the main contributors to microbeads pollution is not manufactured microbeads, but regular
plastic waste, 90% of which are not recycled.
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET Plastic):
❖ PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is the chemical name for polyester. It is a clear, strong,
lightweight plastic widely used for packaging foods and beverages, especially
convenience-sized soft drinks, juices, water, cooking oils, etc.
❖ PET is entirely recyclable and can easily be identified by the #1 in the triangular "chasing
arrows" code, which is usually molded into the bottom or side of the container. No other
plastic carries the #1 code.
Status of e-waste in India:
❖ India is the 3rd largest producer of electronic waste in the world after China and the United States.
❖ It produces about 4 million metric tonnes (mMT) of e-waste, a figure expected to increase 40-fold by 2050.
Computer devices account for nearly 70% of annual e-waste production, followed by the telecom sector,
medical equipment, and electric equipment.
❖ Only 1.5% of electronic waste generated is recycled through institutional processes. Uttar Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Tamil Nadu, and Haryana are among the states that have a larger capacity to dismantle and
recycle e-waste.
E-waste (Management) Rules 2022
❖ Context: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has notified E-waste
(management) Rules 2022, in the exercise of the powers conferred by the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
[Recall our discussion that EPA is an “umbrella” legislation]
❖ E-waste' Definition: Electrical and electronic equipment, whole or in part discarded as waste, and rejects from
manufacturing, refurbishment and repair processes
❖ Key Provisions:
➢ Every manufacturer, producer, refurbisher, dismantler, and recycler involved processing of e-waste with
certain exceptions
➢ Compulsory Registration of manufacturer, producer, refurbisher, or recycler of the e-products with
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
➢ Introduction of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Certificates to incentivize registered electronic
waste recyclers by introducing (not part of 2016 Rules).
➢ CPCB to conduct random sampling of electrical and electronic equipment placed on the market to monitor
and verify the compliance of reduction of hazardous substances provisions.
The Right To Repair Movement:
❖ Right to Repair electronic products is a reference to the need for government legislation that is intended to
allow consumers the ability to repair and modify their own electronic devices.
❖ The movement traces its roots back to 1950s.
❖ The concept originated from USA from the automotive industry.
❖ In July 2022, the United States passed the Fair Repair Act, 2022, on the right to repair.
 5

❖ The United Kingdom and European Union passed legislation such as Right to Repair Regulations and Right
to Repair regarding this right.
❖ Recently, in India, the Department of Consumer Affairs announced the formation of a committee under
the chairmanship of Nidhi Khare to develop a comprehensive framework for the right to repair.
Solid Waste Management Rules (2016):
❖ The Solid Waste Management Rules (2016) replace the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and
Handling) Rules, 2000, as notified under the Environment Protection Act, 1986. These rules now apply
beyond municipal areas and extend to urban agglomerations, notified industrial townships, areas under the
control of Indian Railways, airports, defense establishments, places of pilgrimage, etc.
❖ Responsibilities of generators have been introduced to segregate waste into three streams before handing it
over to the collector:
➢ Wet waste (Biodegradable)
➢ Dry waste (Plastic, Paper, Metal, Wood, etc.)
➢ Domestic hazardous wastes (Diapers, Napkins, Containers of cleaning agents, Mosquito repellents, etc.)
Segregation at Source:
❖ Source segregation of waste has been mandated to channel waste to wealth by recovery, reuse and recycling
❖ Hotels and restaurants will also be required to segregate biodegradable waste & set up a system of
collection to ensure that such food waste is utilised for composting/biomethanation.
❖ All resident welfare and market associations and gated communities with an area of above 5,000 sq m will
have to segregate waste at the source. They have to hand over recyclable material to authorised pickers and
recyclers or the urban local body.
❖ Collect Back scheme for packaging waste:
➢ Brand owners who sell or market their products in non-biodegradable packaging materials should have a
system to collect back the packaging waste generated due to their production.
❖ User Fees for Collection:
➢ Municipal authorities will levy user fees for collection, disposal, and processing from bulk generators.
➢ According to the rules, generators will have to pay a "User Fee" to the waste collector and a "Spot Fine"
for littering and non-segregation. The amount of these fees will be determined by the local bodies.
Waste Processing & Treatment:
❖ Bio-degradable waste should be processed and disposed of through composting/biomethanation.
❖ Rules have mandated bioremediation or capping of old and abandoned dump sites within 5 years.
❖ Waste processing facilities will have to be set up by local bodies within the stipulated time frame.
Promotion of Waste to Energy:
❖ All industrial units within 100 km of a solid waste-based Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) Plant must make
arrangements to replace at least 5 per cent of their fuel requirement with RDF so produced.
❖ Ministry of New and Renewable Energy should facilitate infrastructure creation for Waste to Energy plants
and provide appropriate subsidies or incentives for such Waste-to-Energy plants.
 6

Revision of Parameters:
❖ The landfill site must be located 100 meters away from a river, 200 meters from a pond, 500 meters from
highways, habitations, public parks, and water supply wells, and 20 km away from airports/airbases.
❖ Emission standards have been completely revised for dioxins, furans, particulate matter, etc.
❖ Compost standards have been updated to align with the Fertilizer Control Order.
Formation of the Central Monitoring Committee:
❖ A Central Monitoring Committee, chaired by the Secretary of MoEFCC, has been established to oversee the
implementation of the rules.
Treatment of solid waste
❖ As per 12th schedule and 74th Amendment act, ULB (urban local bodies) are responsible for keeping cities
clean.
❖ Incineration plants:
➢ The process of burning waste in large furnaces at high temperatures is known as incineration.
➢ In these plants, the recyclable material is segregated, and the rest is burnt.
➢ Burning garbage is not a clean process, as it produces tons of toxic ash and pollutes the air and water.
➢ At present, incineration is kept as a last resort and is used mainly for treating infectious waste.
❖ Pyrolysis:
➢ Pyrolysis is a process of combustion (burning) of material in the absence of oxygen, or under a controlled
atmosphere of oxygen.
➢ It is an alternative to incineration.
➢ Pyrolysis of carbonaceous wastes like firewood, coconut, palm waste, corn combs, cashew shells, rice
husk paddy straw and sawdust, yields charcoal and products like tar, methyl alcohol, acetic acid, acetone
and fuel gas.
❖ Plasma gasification:
➢ Plasma gasification is an extreme thermal process (uses a combination of electricity and high
temperatures) using plasma (without combustion) which converts organic matter into a syngas (synthesis
gas - made up of hydrogen and carbon monoxide).
➢ The inorganic wastes are converted into slag, a solid waste.
➢ Plasma gasification is a cleaner alternative to landfills, reducing or eliminating toxicity while avoiding
the landfilling of huge amounts of garbage
Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2016:
❖ Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules 2016 is an improvement to the 1998 rules. (notified under Environment
Protection Act, 1986)
❖ Biomedical waste comprises human & animal anatomical waste and treatment apparatus like needles used in
health care facilities (HCF – hospitals, laboratories, immunisation programmes, etc.)
❖ Salient features:
➢ Phase out chlorinated plastic bags, gloves and blood bags within two years.
 7

➢ Pre-treatment of the laboratory waste, microbiological waste, and blood samples through sterilisation
onsite.
➢ It establishes a bar-code system for bags or containers containing bio-medical waste for disposal.
➢ Bio-medical waste has been classified into 4 categories instead earlier ten to improve segregation at
source.
➢ State Government to provide land for common bio-medical waste treatment and disposal facilities.
➢ No occupier shall establish an on-site treatment and disposal facility if a service of it is available at a
distance of seventy-five kilometers
➢ Operator of a common bio-medical waste treatment and disposal facility to ensure the timely collection
of bio-medical waste from the HCFs.
➢ Vaccination camps, blood donation camps, etc., will come under the ambit of these rules.
❖ Procedure to be followed:
➢ The hospitals must put in place the mechanisms for effective disposal either directly or through common
biomedical waste treatment and disposal facilities.
➢ The hospitals servicing 1000 patients or more per month must obtain authorisation and segregate
biomedical waste into categories as specified by the rules.
➢ For example, syringes, needles and blood-soiled bandages should be all disposed of in a red-coloured bag
or bin, where they will later be incinerated (destroy by burning).
➢ If body fluids are present, the material needs to be incinerated.
 8

Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2016:

❖ It has been notified under Environment Protection Act, 1986.
❖ For the first time, Rules have been made to distinguish between hazardous Waste & other wastes.
❖ Other wastes include waste tyres, paper waste, metal scrap, used electronic items, etc. and are recognised as a
resource for recycling and reuse.
❖ Salient Features:
➢ The ambit of the Rules has been expanded by including ‘Other Waste’.
➢ Waste Management hierarchy in the sequence of priority of prevention, minimisation, reuse, recycling,
recovery, co-processing; and safe disposal has been incorporated.
➢ The rules encourage the reduction of hazardous waste generation and encourage its recycling and
reusing
➢ They specify strict guidelines related to the import/export or even storage and transportation of hazardous
wastes.
❖ Import & Export of Hazardous Waste.
➢ No country can export hazardous waste to India for final disposal. This means that India only imports
hazardous wastes to recycle, reuse or for other utilisation.
➢ The rules specify the procedure for importing and exporting hazardous waste to and from India.
❖ Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facility for Hazardous Wastes:
➢ 2016 rules give a clear direction of how the facility for treatment, storage and disposal is to be established.
➢ Permission from the SPCB is required for the layout in this regard.
❖ Packaging, Labelling and Transport of Hazardous and Other Wastes:
➢ CPCB provides extensive guidelines for packaging and labelling. If the waste is to be transported to a
facility in a different state for its final disposal, a ‘No Objection Certificate’ is required on the sender’s
part from the SPCBs of both states.
❖ 2019 Amendment:
➢ Amendment has been made considering the “Ease of Doing Business” & boosting the “Make in India”
initiative by simplifying the procedures under the Rules, while simultaneously upholding the principles
of sustainable development & ensuring minimal impact on the environment.
➢ Salient Features:
✓ Solid plastic waste has been prohibited from being imported into the country, including in Special
Economic Zones (SEZ) and by Export Oriented Units (EOU).
✓ Exporters of silk waste have now been given an exemption from requiring permission from
MoEFCC.
✓ Electrical and electronic assemblies and components manufactured in and exported from India, if
found defective, can now be imported back into the country without obtaining permission from
MoEFCC.
 9

✓ Industries that do not require consent under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
1974 and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981, are now exempted from requiring
authorization also under the Hazardous and Other Wastes Rules, 2016.
Measuring Pollution Load in Water Dissolved Oxygen (DO):
❖ Optimal DO content in water is crucial for the survival of aquatic organisms. The presence of organic and
inorganic wastes reduces DO content due to high decomposition rates and O2 consumption.
❖ Various factors, including surface turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2 consumption by organisms, and
organic matter decomposition, determine DO levels in water.
❖ Water with DO content below 8.0 mg/L may be deemed contaminated, while levels below 4.0 mg/L are
considered highly polluted.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
❖ Water pollution caused by organic wastes is measured in terms of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
BOD represents the quantity
of dissolved oxygen required
by bacteria to break down
the organic wastes present in
water.
❖ It is typically expressed in
milligrams of oxygen per liter
of water.
❖ A higher BOD value indicates significant pollution resulting from biodegradable organic wastes and a low
dissolved oxygen (DO) content in the water. Because BOD only accounts for biodegradable materials, it is not
a dependable method for measuring water pollution.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
❖ It is a more accurate method used to measure the pollution load in water.
❖ It quantifies the amount of oxygen, in parts per million, needed to oxidize both organic (biodegradable and
non-biodegradable) and oxidizable inorganic compounds present in a water sample.
Eutrophication and Ageing of Lakes:
❖ The nutrient enrichment of lakes promotes the growth of algae, aquatic plants, and various fauna. This
process is known as natural eutrophication.
❖ Human activities cause similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated rate, and the consequent aging
phenomenon is known as cultural eutrophication.
❖ Based on their nutrient content, lakes are categorized as Oligotrophic (very low in nutrients), Mesotrophic
(moderate nutrients), and Eutrophic (highly nutrient-rich). Most lakes in India are either eutrophic or
mesotrophic because of the nutrients derived from their surroundings or the organic wastes entering them.
 10

Eutrophication and Algal Blooms:

❖ Eutrophication is the response to the addition of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates naturally or
artificially, fertilising the aquatic ecosystem.
❖ Phytoplankton thrives on the excess nutrients, and their population explosion covers almost the entire surface
layer, restricting the penetration of sunlight. This condition is known as an algal bloom.
❖ It results in the death of aquatic plants and hence restricts the replenishment of oxygen.
Mechanism:
❖ Phytoplankton are photosynthetic during the daytime, adding oxygen to the aquatic ecosystem. However,
during the night, they consume far more oxygen as they respire aggressively. Therefore, algal blooms
accentuate the rate of oxygen depletion as the population of phytoplankton is exceedingly high.
❖ The primary consumers like zooplankton and small fish are killed due to oxygen deprivation caused by
algal blooms, adversely affecting the food chain. Furthermore, more oxygen is taken up by microorganisms
during the decomposition process of dead algae, plants, and fish. The new anaerobic conditions (absence of
oxygen) created promote the growth of bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum, which produces toxins deadly
to aquatic organisms, birds, and mammals.
Harmful Algal Blooms:
❖ Most algal blooms are not harmful, but some produce toxins (neuro and hepatotoxins), which can kill aquatic
organisms (E.g., Shellfish poisoning) and pose a threat to humans and are known as Harmful Algal Blooms
(HABs).
❖ They adversely affect commercial and recreational fishing, tourism, and valued habitats.
 11

Dead zones:
❖ Dead zones (biological deserts or hypoxic zones) are areas in the ocean with very low oxygen concentrations
(hypoxic conditions). They emerge when the influx of excess chemical nutrients spurs algae growth (algal
blooms). These zones usually occur 200-800 meters (in the saltwater layer) below the surface.
❖ Hypoxic zones can occur naturally (due to the upwelling of excess nutrients). They can be created or
enhanced by human activity to form dead zones. Dead zones are detrimental to animal life. Most of the animal
life either dies or migrates from the zone.
❖ Dead zones are increasing in the coastal delta and estuarine regions. One of the largest dead zones forms
in the Gulf of Mexico every spring (farmers fertilise their crops, and rain washes fertiliser off the land into
rivers). There’s a dead zone in the Gulf of Oman, and it’s growing.
Ocean Acidification:
❖ Oceans are an important reservoir of CO2 as they absorb a significant quantity.
❖ Ocean acidification is the change in ocean
chemistry, resulting in a lowering of ocean
pH (i.e., an increase in the concentration of
hydrogen ions), driven by the uptake of
carbon compounds by the ocean from the
atmosphere.
❖ As the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide
by the ocean increases, the concentration of hydrogen ions in the ocean increases, the concentration of
carbonate ions decreases, the pH of the oceans decreases, and the oceans become less alkaline – this process
is known as ocean acidification.
Mechanism of Ocean Acidification:
❖ An estimated 30-40% of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves
into oceans, rivers, and lakes. To achieve chemical equilibrium, a part of it reacts with water to form carbonic
acid.
❖ Some carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion (H+),
thus increasing ocean acidity (H+ ion concentration).
❖ The pH of the ocean surface waters has decreased by about 0.1 pH unit (i.e. 26% increase in ocean hydrogen
ion concentration) since the beginning of the industrial revolution.
Effects of Ocean Acidification
❖ Reduced Buffering Capacity: Oceans are an essential reservoir of CO2, absorbing a significant quantity of it
(one-third) produced by anthropogenic activities and effectively buffering climate change.
❖ The uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide is occurring at a rate exceeding the natural buffering capacity of the
oceans.
❖ Increasing acidity depresses metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms.
Effects on Marine Calcifying Organisms:
❖ Seawater absorbs CO2 to produce carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate ions. However, the increase in
atmospheric CO2 levels leads to a decrease in pH level and an increase in the concentration of carbonic acid
and bicarbonate ions, causing a decrease in the concentration of carbonate ions.
 12

❖ The decreased amount of carbonate ions makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms, such as coral
(calcareous corals) and some plankton (calcareous plankton), to form biogenic calcium carbonate.
❖ This accentuates coral bleaching, and commercial fisheries are also threatened as the calcifying organisms
form the base of the aquatic food webs.
Polluting Industries:
Iron and Steel Industry:
❖ Processes involved:
➢ Unwanted impurities are removed by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.
➢ Major impurities include sulphur (which forms iron sulphide, which dramatically reduces the strength
of steel), lead (improves the machinability of the steel when present in small quantities), oxygen (oxides
make iron and steel weak), etc.
➢ In a blast furnace, fuel (coke, which has far fewer impurities than coal), iron ore, and flux (limestone,
which removes sulphur and other impurities into slag), are continuously supplied.
➢ The byproducts obtained are liquid slag, liquid iron (pig iron, an intermediate product of smelting iron
ore that contains oxides), and gases.
➢ Oxygen in the iron oxides is reduced by a series of chemical reactions that produce CO and CO2.
➢ The progression from pig iron
to steel involves liquid (pig)
iron, cast iron (cooled liquid
iron; brittle; carbon content
greater than 2%), wrought iron
(weak, made from liquid iron +
slag), and steel (carbon content
is up to 2.1%; it does corrode),
with stainless steel being the
final product (made from steel
+ 10.5% chromium + Nickel, manganese, molybdenum, etc.; it does not corrode).
❖ Steel Slag:
➢ Slag is full of impurities such as calcium sulphide (CaS) and oxides of silica, alumina, magnesia, calcium
(CaO), etc., that enter with the iron ore or coke.
➢ Only a small percentage of slag goes into landfills.
➢ Cement made with blast furnace slag has lower permeability and is more durable than Portland (regular)
cement. It is used as an aggregate in concrete, cement clinker, asphalt concrete, asphalt, and road bases.
➢ The dissolution of slag generates alkalinity that can be used to precipitate out metals, sulfates, and excess
nutrients (like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) in wastewater treatment.
➢ Ferrous slags have been used to rebalance soil pH and as fertilizers (as sources of calcium and
magnesium).
 13

Air Pollution:
❖ The industry burns a lot of coal (thermal power; coke in the blast furnace), causing air pollution in the form of
PM2.5 and PM10, Carbon Dioxide, Sulphur Oxides (sulphur is eliminated as SO 2 in the blast furnace),
Nitrogen Oxides, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds
(NMVOC), etc.
❖ Coke ovens emit naphthalene which is highly toxic and can cause cancer (carcinogenic).
Magnetite Pollution:
❖ Magnetite pollution refers to the presence of a magnetic mineral called Magnetite (Fe3O4) in the
environment, as a result of human activities such as mining, steel production and industrial processes.
❖ Magnetic particles can interfere with the migratory patterns of birds and the operation of electronic equipment,
such as compasses and navigation systems.
Heavy Metals:
❖ Thay are naturally occurring elements, with high atomic weight and density at least 5 times greater than that
of water. Examples: Lead, iron, nickel, cadmium, arsenic, chromium and copper.
❖ Effects of heavy metals exposure:
➢ Health: Slowly progressing physical, muscular, and neurological degenerative processes that mimic
Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s disease etc.
➢ Environment: Affect biodegradability of organic pollutants, making them less degradable.
➢ Plants: Influences soil fertility, disturbs photosynthesis etc.
 14

Lead Poisoning:
❖ A report about lead poisoning was prepared jointly by government think tank Niti Aayog and Council of
Scientific & Industrial Research.
❖ It says India bears world’s highest health, economic burden due to lead poisoning.
❖ Sources of lead:
➢ Naturally occurring in the
Earth’s crust.
➢ Mining, smelting, and
refining industries and
their waste products.
➢ Household items such as
cosmetic products and
Ayurvedic medicines.
➢ Found in printed circuit
boards and batteries due to
improper recycling
methods.
➢ Pottery items like utensils
and glazed ceramic wares,
as well as water bodies.
Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAs)
❖ Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are termed as
"forever chemicals" because of their tendency to persist in
the atmosphere, rainwater, and soil for long periods of time.
❖ PFAS are used to make non-stick cookware, water-repellent
clothing, stain-resistant fabrics, cosmetics, and many other
products that resist grease, water, and oil.
❖ Chemicals with partially or completely fluorinated carbon
chains of varied lengths. They are referred as “forever
chemicals” as do not degrade easily in the environment due to
strong carbon-fluorine bonds.
❖ There is no known method that can extract and remove
PFAS from the atmosphere itself.
❖ PFAS like perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and
perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) listed under Stockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (their production
and use are restricted or eliminated in the Parties.)
 15

Concerns associated with use of PFAS:

❖ Found in the blood of people and animals.
❖ High exposure associated with health risks like decreased fertility, developmental effects in children,
interference with body hormones, increased cholesterol levels, liver damage, kidney and testicular cancer etc.
❖ Difficult to capture and destroy.
Measures to reduce PFAS contamination:
❖ Safe disposal of PFAS using methods like filtration through activated carbon tanks, incineration etc.;
❖ Phasing out PFASs listed under the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants and replacing them
with safer alternatives;
❖ Avoid PFAS-based non-stick pans and kitchen utensils; etc.
Nonylphenol (NP):
❖ Nonylphenol (NP) is commonly used in the production of Nonylphenol Ethoxylates (NPEs).
❖ NPEs are used as surfactants and in day-to-day consumer products such as detergents, wetting agents, and
dispersants.
❖ A study revealed the presence of high levels of the toxic chemical NP in drinking water across India.
❖ The impacts on humans include endocrine disruption associated with adverse effects like birth defects, skin
and eye irritation, etc.
❖ The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has designated NP as a chemical of global concern.
❖ There are no standards exclusively for NP in drinking and surface waters in India.
Bioremediation:
❖ Bioremediation uses microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) to degrade environmental contaminants into less
toxic forms.
❖ Microorganisms can be specifically designed for bioremediation using genetic engineering techniques.
❖ The process of bioremediation can be monitored indirectly by measuring the Oxidation Reduction Potential
or redox in soil and groundwater, together with pH, temperature, oxygen content, electron acceptor/donor
concentrations, and concentration of breakdown products (e.g. carbon dioxide).
❖ Researchers have reported the presence of naturally occurring chloropyrifos- resistant bacteria (E.Coli and
Pseudomonas fluorescens) in the environments of Kashmir Valley. Chloropyrifos is an organophosphorous
insecticide widely used in the region.
❖ The finding, according to the researchers, could lead to the use of microbial systems for removal of pollutants
from contaminated.
 16

In-situ (at the site) Bioremediation:

❖ Bioventing: Supply of nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the growth of bacteria. It is
used for simple hydrocarbons and can be used where the contamination is deep under the surface.
❖ Biosparging: Injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen
concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contaminants by bacteria.
❖ Bioaugmentation: Microorganisms are imported to a contaminated site to enhance the degradation process.
Ex-situ Bioremediation
❖ Landfarming: contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled until
pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and facilitate their
aerobic degradation of contaminants.
❖ Bioreactors: involve the processing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water through
an engineered containment system.
❖ Biopiles: It is a hybrid of landfarming and composting. Essentially, engineered cells are constructed as aerated
compost piles. Typically used for treatment of surface contamination with petroleum hydrocarbons.
❖ Composting: Composting is nature's recycling of decomposed organic materials into a rich soil known as
compost.
Advantages of Bioremediation:
❖ Destroys a wide variety of contaminants.
❖ The destruction of target pollutants is possible.
❖ Less expensive and environment-friendly.
Disadvantages of Bioremediation:
❖ Bioremediation is limited to biodegradable compounds.
❖ Not all compounds are susceptible to biodegradation.
❖ It often takes a longer than other treatment processes
Phytoremediation:
❖ Phytoremediation is the use of plants to remove contaminants from soil and water. Mangroves, estuarine
vegetation and other wetland vegetation carry out natural phytoremediation.
Types:
❖ Phytoextraction/phytoaccumulation: It is the accumulation of contaminants into the roots and aboveground
shoots or leaves of plants. E.g. Water hyacinth (an aquatic weed, invasive species) can purify water by taking
some toxic materials and several heavy metals from water. Planting eucalyptus trees all along sewage ponds
is suggested. These trees absorb all surplus wastewater rapidly and release pure water vapour into the
atmosphere.
❖ Phytotransformation or phytodegradation: It refers to the uptake of organic contaminants from soil,
sediments, or water and their transformation to more stable, less toxic, less mobile form.
❖ Phytostabilization: It is a technique in which plants reduce the mobility and migration of contaminated soil.
Leachable constituents are adsorbed and bound into the plant structure so that they form unstable mass of plant
from which the contaminants will not re-enter the environment.
 17

❖ Mycoremediation: It is a form of bioremediation in which fungi are used to decontaminate the area.
❖ Mycofiltration: It is a similar process, using fungal mycelia to filter toxic waste and microorganisms from
water in soil.
Stockholm Convention on POPs (UNEP convention):
❖ Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is an international treaty enacted in 2004 to
eliminate or restrict the production and use of POPs.
❖ Membership: 186 parties (185 states and the European Union). India ratified in 2006.
❖ The Ministry of Environment notified the 'Regulation of POP Rules' in 2018, under the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986.
❖ The chemicals targeted are listed in the annexes of the convention text.
❖ Notable non-ratifying states: the United States, (no surprises there) Israel, and Malaysia.
❖
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs):
❖ POPs are defined as “chemical substances that persist in the environment, bioaccumulate through the food
web, & pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health & the environment”.
❖ The most commonly encountered POPs are organochlorine pesticides.
Why POPs are so harmful?
❖ They remain intact for exceptionally long periods of time (many years).
❖ They become widely distributed throughout the environment as a result of natural processes involving soil,
water and, most notably, air, long range environment transport (LRET)
❖ They accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms including humans, and are found at higher
concentrations at higher levels in the food chain;
❖ They are toxic to both humans and wildlife.
❖ Exposure to POPs can lead to cancer, damage to central & peripheral nervous systems, diseases of Endos
immune system, reproductive disorders and interference with normal infant and child development.
❖ In addition, POPs concentrate in living organisms through another process called bioaccumulation. (upto
70000 times)
 18

Included Listed PoPs Use

Aldrin Insecticide
Endrin Agricultural insecticide
Heptachlor Termiticide
Hexachlorobenzene Chemical intermediate and a solvent for pesticides.
DDT Chlorine-containing pesticides

Endosulfan:
❖ Endosulfan is an organochlorine biocide used to control pests and mites by inducing neurotoxic effects. It is
sprayed on crops such as cotton, cashews, fruits, tea, paddy, and tobacco, among others. The substance was
banned in 2011 by the Supreme Court and is included in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants.
❖ A complete ban effective from December 2020 was also imposed on Alachlor, Dichlovos, Trichlorfon,
Phosphamidon, methyl parathion, phorate, and triazophos.
❖ The Supreme Court directed Kerala to compensate each victim of toxic Endosulfan pesticide with ₹5 lakh in
the Kasargod Tragedy.
Nanoplastics
❖ Context: Researchers have developed a new, metallic fingerprint-based method to detect and measure amount
of nanoplastics in organisms.
❖ Researchers exposed lettuce plants to nanoplastics from commonly found plastic waste in environment —
polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) nanoplastics.
❖ Nanoplastics are smaller than 1,000 nanometre (1 nm is equal to one billionth of a metre).
❖ It can lead to cell damage and inflammation in humans; growth impairments, larval deformities and other toxic
effects in marine organisms.
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of hazardous wastes (UNEP):
❖ The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
was adopted on 22 March 1989 by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries in Basel, Switzerland, in response to a
public outcry following the discovery, in the 1980s, in Africa and other parts of the developing world of
deposits of toxic wastes imported from abroad.
❖ It entered into force in 1992.
❖ As of 2018, 190 members are parties to the Convention. The United States has signed the Convention but
has not ratified it.
❖ India is a member of the Basel Convention. It ratified the convention in June 1992 and brought it into force
on 22nd September
Basel Convention was designed to:
❖ Reduce the movement of hazardous waste between nations.
❖ Prevent the transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries (LDCs).
❖ Minimize the amount and toxicity of wastes generated.
❖ Assist LDCs in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and other wastes they generate
 19

Annexes:
❖ Annex I of the Convention: as further clarified in Annexes VIII and IX, lists those wastes that are classified
as hazardous and subject to the control procedures under the Convention.
❖ Annex II of the Convention identifies those wastes that require special consideration (known as "other
wastes", and which primarily refer to household wastes).
❖ Examples of Waste Included: Biomedical and healthcare wastes, Used oils, Used lead acid batteries,
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs).
Rotterdam Convention (UNEP):
❖ It was adopted in 1998 by a Conference of Parties in Rotterdam, the Netherlands and entered into force on
24 February 2004.
❖ The Convention creates legally binding obligations for the implementation of the Prior Informed Consent (PIC)
procedure.
❖ It built on the voluntary PIC procedure, initiated by UNEP and FAO in 1989 and ceased on 24 February 2006.
❖ The Convention covers pesticides and industrial chemicals that have been banned or severely restricted for
health or environmental reasons by Parties and which have been notified by Parties for inclusion in the PIC
procedure.
❖ Prior Informed Consent
➢ A mechanism under Rotterdam Convention for formally obtaining and disseminating the decisions of
importing parties on their willingness to receive future shipments of hazardous chemicals listed in Annex
III of the Convention and for ensuring compliance with these decisions by exporting Parties.
❖ India has been a member of the convention since 2005, the objective of which is to promote shared
responsibility among parties in the international trade of certain hazardous pesticides and chemicals for health
and environmental reasons.
❖ The Prior Informed Consent (PIC) is a mechanism for formally obtaining and disseminating the decisions of
importing parties regarding whether they wish to receive future shipments of chemicals.
❖ Other key information:
➢ It covers pesticides and industrial chemicals that have been banned or severely restricted for health or
environmental reasons by Parties.
➢ It creates legally binding obligations for the implementation of the PIC procedure. Information Exchange
is facilitated among Parties for a very broad range of potentially hazardous chemicals.
➢ A subsidiary body Chemical Review Committee (CRC) was established to review chemicals and pesticide
formulations according to criteria set out by Convention.
Hong Kong Convention on Recycling of Ships:
❖ The Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships, 2009,
was developed in cooperation with the International Labour Organization and the Parties to the Basel
Convention. The Hong Kong Convention intends to address all the issues around ship recycling, including the
fact that ships sold for scrapping may contain hazardous substances such as asbestos, heavy metals etc.
❖ It also addresses concerns about the working conditions at many of the world's ship recycling locations.
 20

India and Ship Recycling:

❖ India is the leader in the global ship recycling industry, with a share of over 30% of the market. Around 800
vessels are sent for breaking every year around the world. India accounts for around 30% of that work, with
an average 250 ships recycled majorly at centre in Alang, Gujarat.
❖ Under Ship Recycling Act, 2019, India has acceded to Hong Kong Convention for Ship Recycling under
International Maritime Organization (IMO).
London Convention (Convention on Dumping of Wastes at Sea):
❖ An inter-governmental conference on the Convention on the Dumping of Wastes at Sea met in London in 1972
to adopt this instrument, the London Convention. The Convention has a global character and is aimed at
international control and putting an end to marine pollution.
❖ The definition of dumping under the Convention relates to the deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or other
materials from vessels, aircraft, platforms & other man-made structures.
❖ ‘Dumping’ here does not cover wastes derived from the exploration & exploitation of sea-bed minerals.
❖ The 1978 amendment to the convention banned the incineration of wastes at sea.
❖ It phased out the dumping of industrial wastes by 1995.
Blue Flag Certification:
❖ This Certification is accorded by an international agency “Foundation for Environment Education,
Denmark” based on 33 stringent criteria in four major heads i.e
➢ Environmental Education and
Information,
➢ Bathing Water Quality,
➢ Environment Management and
Conservation and
➢ Safety and Services on the
beaches.
❖ It started in France in 1985 and has
been implemented in Europe since
1987, and in areas outside Europe
since 2001 when South Africa
joined.
❖ Spain tops the list with 566 such
beaches; Greece and France follow
with 515 and 395, respectively.
Mangroves:
❖ Mangroves are salt-tolerant (halophytes) evergreen shrubs or small trees (vary in height from 8 to 20 m)
that represent a characteristic littoral (near the seashore) forest ecosystem.
❖ They grow below the highwater level of spring tides.
❖ The best locations are where abundant silt is brought down by rivers or on the backshore of accreting sandy
beaches.
 21

❖ Such locations include brackish waters of sheltered low-lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats, tidal creeks,
backwaters (coastal waters held back on lagoons of tropical and land), marshes and subtropical regions.
Adaptive Mechanisms of Mangroves:
❖ Succulent leaves (thick leaves adapted to store water and reduce evapotranspiration),
❖ Sunken stomata (to protect from drying winds),
❖ Leaves with salt-secreting glands (to flush out excess salt),
❖ Aerial breathing roots called pneumatophores,
❖ Vivipary (seeds or embryos begin to develop before detaching from the parent),
❖ Stilt and prop roots (they are fibrous (adventitious) support roots),
❖ Buttresses (large, wide support roots on all sides of a shallowly rooted mangrove tree).
❖ The adventitious roots (prop and stilt roots), which emerge from the main trunk above ground level, act as
support roots. The complex root system helps mangroves overcome the strong wave action and diurnal tidal
inundation.
❖ The pneumatophores (blind roots), prop roots and stilt roots help mangroves overcome the respiration problem
in anaerobic (low oxygen — anoxic) soil conditions (classic example of adaptation).
❖ Mangroves exhibit a viviparity mode of reproduction, i.e., seeds germinate in the tree itself (before falling to
the ground). This is an adaptive mechanism to overcome the problem of germination in saline water.
Why are mangroves not found beyond subtropics?
❖ Mangroves are confined to the tropics and subtropics, occurring mainly in the intertidal regions between
latitudes 24° N and 38° S.
❖ This is because the mangrove vegetation contains a complex salt filtration system that facilitates high water
loss at the root level itself to cope with the brackish conditions.
❖ These adaptive mechanisms are energy-intensive and require high solar radiation.
Mangrove Cover in India:
 22

❖ The mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangroves of the world.
(Sundari tree) This mangrove forest is famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger and crocodiles.
❖ Bhitarkanika (Orissa): Second largest in the Indian sub-continent Mangrove swamps also occur in profusion
in the intertidal mudflats on both side of the creeks in the Godavari- Krishna deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh.
❖ On the west coast of India, mangroves, mostly scrubby and degraded occur along the intertidal region of
estuaries and creeks in Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.
❖ The mangrove vegetation in the coastal zone of Kerala is very sparse and thin.
❖ In Gujarat (north-west coast) mangroves Avicennia marine, Avicennia officinalis and Rhizophora mucronata
are found mainly in Gulf of Kutch and the Kori creek.
State of Mangroves Report 2022
❖ Published by: Global Mangrove Alliance (annual report).
❖ Main Discoveries:
➢ The global extent of mangroves is 147,359 km2 as of 2020, which surpasses previous estimates of 136,000
km2 (for 2016). This increase is primarily attributed to enhanced mapping techniques rather than actual
gains in mangrove areas.
➢ The rate of mangrove loss has significantly reduced, with an average loss of only 66 km2 per year over
the past decade compared to 327 km2 between 1996 and 2010.
 23

Initiatives for Mangroves:

❖ The Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC) was launched by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and
Indonesia, with additional members such as Sri Lanka, Australia, Japan, India, and Spain. This initiative was
launched during COP27.
❖ Another initiative, "Building with Nature in Indonesia," was launched by Indonesia. Its goal is to naturally
regenerate mangroves and safeguard Indonesia's coastline from flooding. This initiative has been recognized
under the World Restoration Flagships, a designation from the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration for
exemplary large-scale and long-term ecosystem restoration efforts worldwide.
❖ MISHTI scheme (Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomesa): Launched under
Budget 2023-24. Take up mangrove plantation along the coastline and on salt pan lands, wherever feasible,
through convergence between MGNREGS, CAMPA Fund and other sources.
❖ Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystem (SAIME) Initiative:
➢ It is new initiative of sustainable shrimp cultivation provides hope for mangrove restoration in
Sundarbans.
➢ It is a community-based pilot project in West Bengal under which farmers are planting mangrove trees
around shrimp ponds. Generally, mangrove forests are cleared to cultivate shrimps in the areas. It is being
conceived by Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS), Global Nature Fund and others.
Importance of Mangrove:
❖ Highly productive ecosystems with rich biodiversity.
❖ Very efficient in dissipating the sea wave energy, thus protecting the coastal areas from tsunamis, storm surges
(produced by cyclones) and soil erosion.
❖ Slow down water flow and act as a zone of land accretion by enhancing sediment deposition.
❖ Act as a riparian buffer and trap pollutants, including heavy metal contaminants. They enhance the natural
recycling of nutrients.
❖ Essential carbon sink.
❖ Act as an essential source of livelihood for the coastal communitiesdependent on the collection of honey,
tannins, wax, firewood, medicinal plants, edible plants, and fishing
Threats to Mangroves:
❖ Natural threats:
➢ Cyclones, typhoons and strong wave actions.
➢ Trampling and overgrazing by wildlife and livestock close to mangrove regions.
➢ Damage by crabs, oysters and pests to the young seedlings of mangroves.
❖ Anthropological threats:
➢ Agriculture: Many thousands of acres of mangrove forest have been destroyed to make way for rice
paddies, rubber trees, palm oil plantations, and other forms of agriculture.
➢ Coastal Development: coastal development lead to the destruction and conversion of mangrove habitats
for infrastructure and human settlements.
 24

➢ Shrimp Farming: By far the greatest threat to the world’s mangrove forests is the rapidly expanding
shrimp aquaculture industry.
Coral Reef:
❖ Coral reefs are complex underwater ecosystems formed by the skeletons of colonial marine invertebrates
called corals. These corals belong to the Animal Kingdom and are classified within the Phylum Cnidaria. They
are actually living organisms with a symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae known as zooxanthellae,
which reside on the coral.
❖ There are two main types of corals: hard corals, also known as hermatypic corals, and soft corals, such
asahermatypic corals.
❖ Reef formation is primarily attributed to hard corals due to their ability to create limestone skeletons. These
colonies of polyps, tiny coral animals, collectively build and maintain coral reefs.
❖ As polyps grow, reproduce, and die, their calcium carbonate skeletons accumulate, forming the structural basis
of coral reefs. Over time, new generations of polyps settle on these skeletons, further adding to the reef's
structure.
❖ They are found in shallow tropical areas with clean, clear, and warm sea water.
Types of Coral Reef:
❖ There are three types of coral reefs:
❖ Fringing,
❖ Barrier and
❖ Atoll
Hard Corals and Soft Corals
❖ Hard corals create skeletons made of calcium carbonate, a hard substance that eventually solidifies into
rock, providing a sturdy structure that shelters zooxanthellae. On the other hand, soft corals cannot create such
skeletons, which is why they do not host zooxanthellae.
❖ The presence of zooxanthellae in hard corals is crucial because they require sunlight for photosynthesis. As a
result, hard corals are typically found in tropical waters and shallow areas of the ocean where sunlight can
penetrate to support this symbiotic relationship.
   