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COMMON BASE CHARACTERISTICS

The performance of the transistor in a circuit, depends on the V–I
characteristics of the transistor.
The transistor is a three-terminal device.

Digital Electronics One terminal is made common to input and output. The other two will be
the other input terminal and the output terminal.
DR. Lawal Based on which terminal is made common, we have
• Common base
• Common emitter
• Common collector configurations

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COMMON BASE CHARACTERISTICS COMMON BASE CHARACTERISTICS

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COMMON EMITTER CHARACTERISTICS

• The common emitter configuration is shown in Fig. 2.15 for a pnp transistor

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COMMON COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTICS

In common collector configuration, the collector terminal is common to input and output as shown in Fig.
2.19.

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Number Systems
• The study of number systems is important from the viewpoint of understanding how data
are represented before they can be processed by any digital system including a digital
computer.
• It is one of the most basic topics in digital electronics. In this section, we will discuss
different number systems commonly used to represent data.
• We will begin the discussion with the decimal number system.
Analogue Versus Digital:- There are two basic ways of representing the numerical values of
the various physical quantities with which we constantly deal in our day-to-day lives.
One of the ways, referred to as analogue, is to express the numerical value of the quantity as
a continuous range of values between the two expected extreme values.
For example, the temperature of an oven settable anywhere from 0 to 100 °C may be
measured to be 65 °C or 64.96 °C or 64.958 °C or even 64.9579 °C and so on, depending
upon the accuracy of the measuring instrument. Similarly, voltage across a certain
component in an electronic circuit may be measured as 6.5 V or 6.49 V or 6.487 V or 6.4869
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Number Systems Analog and Digital

Properties Analog Signal Digital Signal
The underlying concept in this mode of representation is that variation in the numerical value of the Analog signal is a continuous signal which represents physical Digital signals are discrete time signals generated by
quantity is continuous and could have any of the infinite theoretically possible values between the two measurements. digital modulation.
Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves
extremes.
Representation Uses continuous range of values to represent information Uses discrete or discontinuous values to represent
The other possible way, referred to as digital, represents the numerical value of the quantity in steps of Example Human voice in air, analog electronic devices.
information
Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other digital electronic
discrete values. The numerical values are mostly represented using binary numbers. For example, the devices.
temperature of the oven may be represented in steps of 1 °C as 64 °C, 65 °C, 66 °C and so on. Technology Analog technology records waveforms as they are. Samples analog waveforms into a limited set of
numbers and records them.
Data transmissions Subjected to deterioration by noise during transmission and Can be noise-immune without deterioration during
Differences write/read cycle. transmission and write/read cycle.
Response to Noise More likely to get affected reducing accuracy Less affected since noise response are analog in nature
1. An analogue representation gives a continuous output, while a digital representation produces a
Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in implementation.
discrete output.
Uses Can be used in analog devices only. Best suited for audio and Best suited for Computing and digital electronics.
2. Analogue systems contain devices that process or work on various physical quantities represented in video transmission.
Applications Thermometer PCs, PDAs
analogue form while Digital systems contain devices that process the physical quantities represented in
Bandwidth Analog signal processing can be done in real time and There is no guarantee that digital signal processing can
digital form. consumes less bandwidth. be done in real time and consumes more bandwidth to
carry out the same information.
3. Digital techniques and systems have the advantages of being relatively much easier to design and Memory Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the form of binary bit e.g. 0 and 1
having higher accuracy, programmability, noise immunity, easier storage of data and ease of fabrication Power Analog instrument draws large power Digital instrument drawS only negligible power
in integrated circuit form, leading to availability of more complex functions in a smaller size. The real Cost Low cost and portable Cost is high and not easily portable
world, however, is analogue. Most physical quantities – position, velocity, acceleration, force, pressure,
Impedance Low High order of 100 megaohm
temperature and flowrate, for example – are analogue in nature
Errors Analog instruments usually have a scale which is cramped at Digital instruments are free from observational errors
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Introduction to Symbolic Logic Introduction to Symbolic Logic

 The most elementary part of symbolic logic is known as Sentential calculus or statement calculus. The calculus deals with
the use of logical connections such as ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘implies’

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Introduction to Symbolic Logic Introduction to Symbolic Logic

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Number System Binary Number System

Different characteristics that define a number system include the number of independent digits used in the number system, the place values
of the different digits constituting the number and the maximum numbers that can be written with the given number of digits.
The decimal number system with which we are all so familiar can be said to have a radix of 10 as it has 10 independent digits, i.e. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Similarly, the binary number system with only two independent digits, 0 and 1, is a radix-2 number system
Decimal Number System
The decimal number system is a radix-10 number system and therefore has 10 different digits or symbols. These are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
All higher numbers after ‘9’ are represented in terms of these 10 digits only. The process of writing higher-order numbers after ‘9’ consists in writing the second
digit (i.e. ‘1’) first, followed by the other digits, one by one, to obtain the next 10 numbers from ‘10’ to ‘19’. ’20’ to ’29’, ‘30 to ‘39’ and so on.

Logic operations are the backbone of any digital computer. George Boole reduced the mathematics of logic to a binary
notation of ‘0’ and ‘1’.

The place values for the different digits in the octal number system are 80, 81, 82 and so on (for the integer
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part) and 8−1, 8−2, 8−3 and so on (for the frac onal part).
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Number Systems – Some Common Terms

 Binary Number System: Bit is an abbreviation of the term ‘binary digit’ and is
the smallest unit of information. It is either ‘0’ or ‘1’. A byte is a string of eight
bits. Others are Decimal Number System, Octal Number System and
Hexadecimal Number System.

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