CHAPRER

Biology form 2

CELLS AND TISSUES

THIS CHAPTER WILL CONSIST OF THE FOLLOWING POINTS

Cells and tissues

The chemical components of cell
Energy from respiration
The cells and its environment
INTRODUCTIOSN
All living things are composed of matter organized in units called cells. Cells were initially observed
by Robert Hooke in 1665 using his microscope. The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit
of living organisms. Because it’s the smallest unit of living material capable of carrying on all the
activities necessary for life. Although all living organisms are made up of cells but they vary greatly
in size and appearance. Cells of living organisms can be divided into two according to the number of
cells they consist of.
 Unicellular organisms are those made up of one cell only. I.e. bacteria, amoeba
 Multicellular organisms are those made up of many cells (millions of cells). Such as human
Both of these organisms whether they are unicellular or Multicellular live in different habit. It can be
either

 Aquatic (water) are those live in water.

 Terrestrial (land) are those live in land.

 MODERN CELL THEORY CAN BE STATED AS FOLLOWS.

 All living things are composed of cells.
 All the chemical reactions that take place inside the body occur inside the cell.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 Hereditary characteristics are passed from cell to cell during cell division.

 KINDS OF CELLS ACCORDING TO THEIR STRUCTURE.

In biology, we use this word root to refer to the nucleus of a cell."Pro" means "before," and "eu"
means "true," So "Prokaryotic" means "before a nucleus," and "eukaryotic" means "possessing a true
nucleus." Prokaryotic cells have no nuclei, while eukaryotic cells do have true nuclei.

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STRUCTURE OF ANIMAL AND PLANT CELL AND THEIR FUNCTION

ANIMAL CELL

 NUCLEUS (in plural = nuclei) :

The nucleus is the round structure that controls the activities of the cell it is bounded by double
membrane called nuclear membrane with nuclear pores allowing communicating with the cytoplasm,
the function of the nucleus is to control the type and the quantity of the enzymes produced by the
cytoplasm the nucleus also controls the division of the cell without nucleus the cell cannot reproduce
inside the nucleus there is thread like structure called chromosomes. The chromosomes made up of a
chemical substance called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). And there is nucleolus at the centre of the
nucleus the nucleolus forms ribosome for protein manufacture
 CELL MEMBRANE

The cell membrane or plasma membrane is a thin skin round the cell it allows substances to enter and
leave the cell in general oxygen, food, and water is allowed to enter the cell. The waste product and
harmful substances are allowed to leave the cell. In this way the cell membrane is said to be selectively
permeable membrane
 CYTOPLASM

The cytoplasm is the portion between the nucleus and the cell membrane it’s the site where most
chemical reactions of the cell takes place it contains many small structures called organelles and large
number of substances such as ions, enzymes, food particles, and waste product. The liquid part of the
cytoplasm is b about 90% of water with the molecules of salt and sugar dissolved in it. It also large
molecules of lipids and proteins which are used to build cell structure example the membranes. Some
proteins are enzymes, and the enzymes control the rate of chemical reactions which takes place in the
cell.
 MITOCHONDRIA (singular = mitochondrion)

Mitochondria are tiny organelle present in plant and animal cell. They are rod shaped structure within
the cytoplasm they are bounded by double membrane the mitochondria contains many enzymes which
catalyzes the oxidation of food (respiration) to produce energy for this reason mitochondria is called
“the power house of the cell”
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Endoplasmic reticulum is a system of parallel flattened tubes with a thin membrane there are two types
of endoplasmic reticulum which are
 Rough Endoplasmic reticulum (RER): and
Are attached on the surface by ribosomes these are site of protein synthesis in the cell
 Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum (SER) :
Has smooth surface and has no ribosomes it produces lipids and breaks the foreign
chemicals

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 RIBOSOMES

Are very small organelles which are attached to the RER or can be present in the cytoplasm singly the
function of ribosomes is to synthesize the cell’s proteins
 LYSOSOMES

Are small bags containing digestive enzymes for the breakdown of unwanted substances such as old
and damaged cells the enzymes also digest proteins, fats and carbohydrates
 GOLGI BODIES

The Golgi bodies are flattened sac found within the cytoplasm their function is to package the
substances before they are discharged from the cell
 CYTOSKELETON

Cytoskeleton is network of protein microfilament within the cytoplasm the cytoskeleton maintains the
shape of the cell and also anchors the organelles to its position

PLANT CELLS
The following figure illustrates the structure of a generalized plant cell it is the evident that all the
structures we discussed in animal cell are also present in the plant cell however a plant cell contains
the following additional structure
 CELL WALL

The plant cell are enclosed by tough, rigid, cell

wall which act as protective coat the cell wall
is made up of chemical compound called
cellulose. It allows water and solutes to pass
through but resist swelling or expansion of the
cell
 CHLOROPLAST

The chloroplast are found in the cells of the

leaves and green parts of the stem they contain
the green pigment called chlorophyll which
traps the light energy from the sun that plants
need to make food by photosynthesis
 VACUOLE

Vacuole is large space filled with a fluid called

cell sap which contains sugar, salt, ions, and
waste product it is surrounded by membrane
called tonoplast ( vacuole membrane)

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COMPARISM BETWEEN ANIMAL AND PLANT CELL

 Cell wall.  Cell membrane.

 Cell membrane  Cytoplasm (Organelles)
 Cytoplasm (Organelles)  Nucleus.
 Vacuoles  have a irregular shape
 chloroplasts  the nucleus is large and often present at the centre
 Nucleus is small and mostly located edges of the of the cell
cell
 have a regular shape

SPECIALIZED CELLS:
 Red Blood Cells:
Red blood cells are found in the blood of animals, its function is to transport oxygen from the lungs to
all the body cells, and carbon dioxide
They are adapted by three ways:
 They have a biconcave disc shape that gives it a large surface area to carry more oxygen.
 They contain chemical called hemoglobin that combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide.
 They have no nuclease to carry more oxygen and CO2

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 Muscle Cells
They are cells found in muscles in animals, they contract and relax together to move the organisms.
Their function is to contract to support and move the body. They are adapted by two ways, First, Is
that they are made of contractile filament to help in contraction. Second is it contains lots of
mitochondria to supply the cell with energy.
 Root Hair Cells:
These are cells situated in the roots of plants. They have no chloroplasts. Their function is to absorb
water and minerals from the soil. And to anchor the plant in the soil
TISSUES, ORGANS AND SYSTEM
 ANIMAL TISSUES

Tissue is a group of similar cells that work together to perform same function. There are various types
of animal tissue the most important tissue are
 Epithelial tissue: is a lining tissue which consists of a single layer of flattened epithelial cells. It
covers the surface of animals, organs, and tubes. Its function is to protect the tissues underneath it.
 Connective tissue: Connective tissues hold the various organs together. They have a rich blood
supply their major function are support binding and storage.
 Muscle tissue: muscle cells working to gather from muscle tissue. There three types of muscle
tissue, skeletal, smooth, and cardiac tissue. All muscle tissue contract and relax for locomotion and
other type of body movements.
 Nervous tissue: nervous tissue is composed of nerve cells or neuron. Nervous tissue is found in
the brain, spinal column and nerves. Its function is to transmit impulses from one part of body to
another.

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 Blood tissue: plasma and blood cells working together from blood tissue. It’s a fluid tissue.
therefore its function is to transport food, oxygen, waste product and other substances
 PLANT TISSUES
 Epidermal tissues: is a single celled thin layer and protect inner tissues from mechanical injury
 Pallisade tissues: is a tissues which is rich in chloroplast and provides the site for photosynthesis
 Conducting tissues: has a xylem and phloem, the xylem conduct water from the roots to the
leaves and the phloem transport food from the leaves to other part of the plant

ORGANS
Organ is a group of different tissues combined to gather to carry our particular function. For
example the stomach is an organ which contains tissues made from epithelial cells, gland cells and
muscle cell these cells are supplied food and oxygen brought by blood vessels. The heart, lungs,
intestines, brains, and the eyes are all examples of organs in animals. On the other hand in
flowering plants the stem, roots, and leaves are the organs

SYSTEM
A system refers to group of organs whose functions are closely related. For example the heart and the
blood vessels make up the circulatory system. The brain, spinal cord and the nerves make up the
nervous system. On the other hand the flowering plants the stem, leaves and the bus make up the
system called the shoot system. Some examples of human body system and their function are in the
figure below

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ORGANISM
an organism is formed by the organs and system working together to form an independent plant or
animals.
FROM CELL TO ORGANIS

CELL

TISSUES

ORGAN

SYSTEM

ORGANISM

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ENERGY FROM RESPIRATION

Respiration is the process by which energy is released from the food. the chemical reaction taking
place in cells need energy when muscle cells contract or plant cell forms cell wall they use energy this
energy comes from food which cells take in. the food mainly used energy is glucose, there are two
types of respiration aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION

aerobic means that oxygen is needed for the reaction the food molecule are combined with oxygen the
process called oxidation, thus aerobic occurs in presence of oxygen the energy is stored in the form
known as ATP ( Adenosine Tri Phosphate).and this reaction takes place in mitochondria

C6H12O6 + O2 enzyme CO2 + H2O + 2830 KJ of energy

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen in this process energy is released from the food
by breaking glucose into carbon dioxide and alcohol. The common example is the reaction of yeast on
sugar to produce alcohol this process is called fermentation and is shown by the following equation.

C6H12O6 enzyme CO2 + C5H5OH + 118 KJ of energy

In animals the anaerobic respiration occurs in muscles that glucose is converted into pyrufic acid in
the first stage during intense exercise the pyrufic acid is turned into lactic acid and removed in the
blood stream on the reaching the liver some of the lactic acid is oxidized to produce carbondioxide and
water using up oxygen. Accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles may cause muscular fatigue and
latter painful cramp

Anaerobic Aerobic respiration

respiration Glucose pyrufic acid + O2 CO2 + H2O

CELLS AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

cells need take variety of material from surrounding environment such materials include oxygen water,
nutrients, like glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and minerals they also need to take expel waste
substance like carbon dioxide and urea.
DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the movement of substance from a region its concentration is high to a region where its
low concentration the process does not require energy because its passive transport.

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 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF DIFFUSION

 Concentration gradient: this is the difference in the concentration of substance between two
regions, the greater the concentration the greater the rate of diffusion,
 Temperature: the higher the temperature the higher the concentration
 Particle size: the smaller the particle the greater the rate of diffusion
OSMOSIS

Osmosis is the diffusion of water, the movement of water does not require energy and so osmosis is a
passive process. A solution depends on their solute concentration according the internal environment
of cell they are classified into three types namely.
 Isotonic
 Hypertonic
 Hypotonic
 Isotonic: if the concentration material inside the cell and outside the cell is the same, then the
movement f water into and out of cell is the same such this environment said to be isotonic so
cell does not change its shape
 Hypertonic: if the cell surrounding in solution whose solute concentration is higher than the
concentration of the inside the cell, then water will pass out of the cell and shrink.
 Hypotonic: if the concentration of solute inside the cell then the concentration outside the cell,
then the cell gains water and the cell swells and bursts

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ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Active transport is the reverse of diffusion it’s the movements of molecules across a cell membrane
from a region of low concentration to a region of higher concentration, active transport requires
energy. active transport occurs in a gut which takes up amino acids and glucose molecules into the
blood, glucose and amino acids are also taken up by the cells lining in the kidneys.
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Higher temperature
 Increasing oxygen will increase the rate of active transport
BULK TRANSPORT ( TRANSPORT OF LARGE MOLECULE)

This is the method by which materials like (liquid or solids) are taken into or removed out of the cell.
There are two types of these methods which are
 Endocytosis:is
 Endocytosis:is the
the transfer
transfer of
of material
material into
into the
the cells
cells across
across the
the plasma
plasma membrane.
membrane. Depending
Depending on
on
whether the particle is solid or liquid. endocytosis is divided into two types which are
 phagocytosis
 phagocytosis

 pinocytosis
pinocytosis
food
phagocytosis: is the process by cells ingest solid particle and destroy them such as bacteria, virus, or food.
pinocytosis: is the process by which cell take in dissolved materials(liquid) once inside the cell the
pinocytic vesicles rupture and releasing the dissolved materials inside the cell.
 Exocytosis:
 Exocytosis: isis the
the transport
transport of
of material
material out
out of
of the
the cell
cell across
across the
the plasma
plasma membrane.
membrane. Materials
Materials released
released
by this method are hormones, enzymes, from gland cells, waste product of digestion, and other
excretory materials.

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CHAPRER

ORGANIC AND IN-ORGANIC FERTILIZERS

ESSENTIAL PLANT NUTRIENTS
Essential plant nutrients are nutrients
required by the plant to complete their life cycle. Essential plant nutrients can be divided into two broad
categories which are

 Macronutrients
 Micronutrients
MACRO NUTRIENTS

These are the elements needed by the plants in large quantities and include,

 Primary macro nutrients: ( nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium)

 Secondary macro nutrients or liming elements (carbon, hydrogen, magnesium, calcium)

ROLE OF MACRO NUTRIENTS AND THEIR DIFFICIENCE

1. NITROGEN

FUNCTION OF NITROGEN SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY OF NITROGEN

Nitrogen encourages the vegetative growth Chlorosis: loses of chlorophyll
Nitrogen is involved in the formation of protein Stunted growth
Nitrogen increases the size and protein contents The leaves turn prematurely and fall of plants
of cereals

2. PHOSPHORUS

FUNCTION OF PHOSPHORUS SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY OF

PHOSPHORUS
It encourage root formation, development, chlorosis
Phosphorus strengthens the skeletal structure of Stunted growth
plants
Root formation and development are inhibited

3. POTASSIUM

FUNCTION OF POTASSIUM SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY OF

POTASSIUM
It is essential for chlorophyll formation Leaf curl
It is essential in carbohydrate formation and Short nodes that lead to stunted growth
translocation
It prevents bacterial and fungal attack Chlorosis followed by leaf fall

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LIMING ELEMENTS

Liming elements are including calcium, magnesium and sulphure.

1. CALCIUM
FUNCTION OF CALCIUM SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY OF CALCIUM

Terminal buds and tips of roots do not grow well

Calcium is necessary in the synthesis of protein. they are short.
It is useful in the elongation of the plant apical Leaves become chloride and Leaves roll up
tips and roots.

2. MEGNESIUUM
FUNCTION OF MEGNESIUUM SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY OF
MEGNESIUUM
It’s needed for chlorophyll formation It cause interveinal chlorosis
It activates the enzymes that are needed for It cause leaves to develop in purple color
carbohydrate metabolism
It is required in the synthesis of fats and oils

3. SULPHUR
FUNCTION OF MEGNESIUUM SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY OF
MEGNESIUUM
It necessary for protein formation Plant have very thin stem
It is necessary for the synthesis of amino acids Stunted growth
It is necessary for cholorophyll formation Leaves become yellow (cholorosis)

MICRO NUTRIENTS

These are plant nutrients that are absorbed by the plants in small quantities, micro nutrients are include

 Iron
 Copper
 Zinc
 Boron
 Chloride
 Manganese

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SOIL PH

The ph of acid is a measurement of its acidity or alkalinity , it is measured on scale that runs from 0 to
14 A ph of 7 is neutral where as above 7 is alkaline and below at 7 is acid the optimum range for
ph the majority of plant is 6.5 to
7.0
PH SCALE

0 7 14

From 0 to 6 is acidic From 6.5 to 7 is neutral From 8 to 14 is alkaline

SOIL FERTILITY

Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to supply crops with necessary conditions they need for growth
and development

CHARACTERISTICS OF FERTILE SOIL

 Good depth  Correct soil PH
 Proper drainage  Free from pests and diseases
 Good water holding capacity

HOW SOIL LOSES ITS FERTILITY

 Soil erosion
 Leaching
 Continuous cropping
 Mono cropping
 Burning of vegetation destroy organic matter beneficial organism and some mineral nutrients

HOW SOIL FERTILITY CAN BE MAINTAINED

Soil fertility can be maintained by the following ways.

 Crop rotation
 Control of soil erosion
 Proper drainage
 Application of organic and in-organic fertilizer

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CHAPRER

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

ORGANIC MANURES
Def: Organic manures are organic substance added to the soil to provide plant with nutrient. Organic
manures are classified according to the way they are prepared these are three main of organic manures.

1. GREEN MANURES: are types of manure made up of green plants. The plants are grown for the
purpose of incorporating in the soil thus improving soil fertility. these plants may be maize,
sorghum, legumes, and so on

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS USED AS A GREEN MANURES

 they should be highly leafy  they should be capable of growing poor

 they should have fast growth rate conditions
 they should have high nitrogen content

WHY GREEN MANURE IS NOT COMMONLY USED

Because of many reasons

 most of crops are food crops and is hard for people use them as a green manure
 green manure crops might use most of soil moisture
that leads a little growth for next crop
 it takes time for the green manure to decompose and therefore planting is delayed

2. FARM YARD MANURE (FYM): is the accumulated animal waste (urine and dung) and crop residues
used as animal bedding in animal houses. The mixture should be allowed for enough time to
decompose this manure is usually rich in nitrogen. the quality of farm yard manure is
determined by the following factors

 the type of animal used: dung from fattening animal has a higher level of nutrients
than other dung from other animals
 the type of food eaten: foods that are high nutritious result in manure with high level
of nutrients
 Methods of storage:
 age of farm yard manure:
PREPARATION OF FARM YARD MANURE

Confine an animal in its recommended housing. Provide bedding materials for example a layer of
grass. Feed the animals as recommended. The animal will deposit its drugs (droppings) and urine on
the bedding and mix them through trampling. Remove the bedding and deposit in a well prepared and
shaded place to allow decomposition after that they are taken to the field as manure.

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3. COMPOST MANURES: this is the type of manure that is prepared from organic material. The
compost materials include plant residue and animal waste or plant residue only. The site of
compost manure is properly selected considering the following factors.
 a well drained place
 direction of prevailing wings
 size of the farm

IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC MANURE

 It improves soil structure and aeration

 It improves water holding capacity
 Helps to keep PH of the soil stable
 It provides a dark color that help to absorb heat from the sun
 Encourage beneficial soil micro-organism
 Reduce soil erosion
IN ORGSNIC MANURE (FERTILIZERS)

In organic manures are the same as fertilizers, they are artificially prepared commercial products that
contain one or more chemical elements or plant nutrients. There are two types of fertilizers namely

 Straight or single fertilizers: these are fertilizers that supply only one of the primary macro
nutrients e.g. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK)
 Compound or mixed fertilizers: these are fertilizers also called complex fertilizer they have
two or more of the macro nutrients.

CLASSIFICATION OF FERTILIZERS

An inorganic fertilizer is classified on the basis of its influence on soil PH.

 An acidic fertilizer:
it promote concentration of (H+ )
 An Alkaline fertilizer: it promote concentration of (OH- )
 Neutral fertilizer: has no effect on soil PH

METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION.

Fertilizers are applied in one of the following ways:

 Band placement
 Side dressing (nitrogenous):
 Drill holes (phosphorus):
 Row application
 Ring placement
 Foliar spraying

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CHAPRER

ANIMAL AND PLANT NUTRITION

THIS CHAPTER WILL CONSIST OF THE FOLLOWING POINTS

Nutrition in animals and plants

Photosynthesis
Nutrition in animals

INTRODUCTION
Nutrition refers to the process in which living organisms obtain, and consume their foods. Nutrition
can be classified into two categories which are (autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition)

 Autotrophic nutrition: is the process by which an organism take in simple inorganic

material like carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to make food like carbohydrates, proteins
and fats and its carried out by green plants
 Heterotrophic nutrition: involves taking complex food material like carbohydrates,
proteins and fats from the bodies of plants and animals this form of nutrition is seen in
animals

 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is the manufacture of organic food material from carbon dioxide and water using
sunlight as a source of energy or is the process by which green plants make their own food using in
organic material such as carbon dioxide, water and sunlight energy absorbed by the chlorophyll the
process is takes place in cellular structure called chloroplast its seen I all green plants, algae, and
some bacteria. And four factories must be present to photosynthesis occur.

 Carbon dioxide
 Water
 Sun light
 Chlorophyll

The synthesis of sugar in photosynthesis is summarized the following equation

6CO2 + 6H20 C6H12O6 + 6O2

Glucose is the major product of photosynthesis, some of it used as an energy, part of it converted
into sucrose which is transported other parts of the plants the rest of the glucose is converted into
Starch and stored into the leaves, part of glucose is used to form cellulose, also the reaction of
photosynthesis leads to formation of amino acids and fatty acids

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Sun light energy

 Carbon dioxide
 Water
photosynthesis fatty acids and amino
acids
 Mineral salt

Sucrose

Glucose

Cellulose

Starch

THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The process of photosynthesis is takes place mainly in the cells of the leaves. Inland plants water is
absorbed from the soil by the roots and carried in the water vessels up the stem to the leaves carbon
dioxide is absorbed from the air through the stomata (pores in the leaf) the carbon dioxide and water
are combined to make sugar the energy of this reaction comes from sunlight which has been absorbed
by the green pigment called chlorophyll, the chlorophyll is present in the chloroplast inside the
chloroplast is where the reaction of photosynthesis takes place. The chlorophyll is the substance which
gives the leaves and stems their green color it’s able to absorb energy from light and use it to split
water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen (light reaction) the oxygen escapes from the leaf and
hydrogen added to the carbon dioxide to make glucose (dark reaction)

LIGHT CO2

ATP

H 20 Light Dark Glucose

reaction reaction
2H2

Oxygen Water

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SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

As we know that photosynthesis takes place mainly in the green parts of the plants especially the
leaves and soft part of green stem the diagram below shows the internal structure of the leave

RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The rate of light reaction depends on the light intensity the brighter the light the faster the water
molecules are split into hydrogen and oxygen. The dark reaction will be affected by temperature a rise
in temperature will increase the rate at which the carbon dioxide is combined with hydrogen to make
glucose. So the rate of photosynthesis is affected for the following factors

 Light intensity
 Carbon dioxide concentration
 Water availability
 Temperature

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 Light intensity
Light provides the energy that required to drive the process of photosynthesis, the rate of
photosynthesis increase as light intensity increase, at higher the light intensity the rate of
photosynthesis levels off at very light intensity the chlorophyll damaged and the rate of photosynthesis
falls.

 Carbon dioxide concentration

Carbon dioxide is the raw material of photosynthesis. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is constant 0.3% an increase the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere the
rate of photosynthesis will increase the higher the level of carbon c\dioxide the rate of photosynthesis
levels off the optimum concentration of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis is 0.1%

 Temperature
The rate of photosynthesis is catalyzed by enzymes because the rate of photosynthesis is sensitive to
the temperature, the rate of photosynthesis increase with increase the temperature, and the rate of
photosynthesis will double if the temperatures raise 100c however beyond 400c the photosynthesis
cease because the enzyme denatured the optimum temperature of photosynthesis varies from plats to
plants but range between 250c and 350c

GASEOUS EXCHANGE DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

In daylight respiration and photosynthesis takes place in green plants in darkness only respiration
takes place in green plants in day light plants take carbon dioxide and release oxygen, in darkness
plants take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide.

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PLATS USE PHOTOSYNTHETIC PRODUCT

The glucose molecules produces by photosynthesis are quickly built up into starch in the chloroplasts
if the glucose concentration will increase in messophyll cells of the leaf it could disturb the balance
between the cells of the leaf. Starch is broken down into sucrose which soluble sugar and transported
to all part of the plants which do not photosynthesize \

 Respiration
In sugar can be used to provide energy its oxidized by respiration to carbon dioxide and water and the
energy released is used to drive other chemical reaction of the plants such as building up of protein
and

 Storage
Sugar which is needed for respiration is turned into starch and stored some plats store it as a starch
grains in the cells of their stem or roots other plants such as potato have special storage organs for
holding the reserves of starch.

 Synthesis of other substances

As well as sugars for energy and starch for storage the plats need cellulose for its cell wall, lipids for
its cell membrane protein for its cytoplasm all these substances are built up from the sugar molecule,
by joining hundreds of glucose molecules together the long chain of cellulose are built up to the cell
wall. Amino acids are made by combining nitrogen with sugar molecule and amino acids are joined
together to form a protein which form enzymes and cytoplasm of cell.
Carbon dioxide and water

Salt and nitrate

Glucose

Amino acid

Sucrose Starch Cellulose Oil

Protein

Respiratio Cell wall Cell membrane

Cell structure and enzymes Storage

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PRACTICAL WORK

EXPERIMENT 1:

TESTING A LEAF FOR STARCH

PROCEDURE

 Pluck the leaf of plant that has been exposed to sunlight for few hours
 Place the leaf in a beaker of boiling water for one minute
 Transfer a boiling leaf into boiling tube containing alcohol and place the tube in hot water for
few minutes
 When the alcohol has turned green remove the leaf
 Rinse the leaf hot water for few seconds
 Lay the leaf on white tile and add the leaf few drops of iodine solution

OBSERVATION

 The leaf turned blue black so starch is presence in the leaf

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NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

INTRODUCTION
We mentioned the definition of nutrition and types of nutrition in the previous chapter, in this chapter
we will discuss how the animals obtain and consume their food inside their bodies. On the other hand
animals cannot make their own food like plats they get their food by eating plants or by eating other
animals. This mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic nutrition. There are four types of
heterotrophic nutrition which are

 Halozoic nutrition
This involves feeding on solid material obtained from bodies of plants and animals its carried
out by all chordates or all animals with backbone.
 Phagocytic nutrition
This involves solid food material by individual cells this is carried out by protozoa such as
amoeba
 Saprophytic nutrition
This involves feeding on dead or decaying material its carried out by many fungi and bacteria
 Parasitic nutrition
This is the nutritional relationship where one organism called parasite obtain food from living
body of another organism called host and its carried out by many fungi, bacteria and protozoa
and invertebrates such as some insects

 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES AND BALANCED DIET

All living things need food an important difference between plants and animals is that green plants
make their own food in their leaves but animals have to take it in ready by eating plants or by eating
bodies of animals food is used as follows

 For growth
Food provides substances needed for making new cells such substances include proteins,
vitamins and fats
 As a source of energy
Energy is required to drive for the chemical reaction that takes place in living organism, when
food is broken down during respiration the energy from the food is used for the chemical
reaction such as building up complex molecules. In animal the energy is also used for the
activates such as movement, heartbeat, and nerve impulse mammals and birds use energy to
maintain their temperature

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 For replacement of worn and damaged tissue

The substances provided the food are needed to replace the millions of our red blood cells
which breaking down each day and to replace the skin which is worn away and to repair
wounds
 CLASSES OF FOOD

There are three classes of food namely

 Carbohydrates
 Proteins and
 Lipids
CARBOHYDRATES

Sugar and starch are important carbohydrates in our diet starch is abundant in potatoes, bread, maize,
rice and other cereals the sugar which appear in our diet mainly is sucrose (table sugar) which is
added to drinks and many prepared food such as biscuit and cake. Glucose and fructose are sugars
which occur naturally in many fruits and vegetables, although all foods provide us energy,
carbohydrates are the most available source of energy they contain the elements of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen example glucose (C6H12O6). When glucose is oxidized to provide energy they break down
into carbon dioxide and water one gram of carbohydrate provide on 16kj of energy. If we eat more
carbohydrates some of it release energy the excess is converted into glycogen or fat in the liver, then
the glycogen is stored in the liver and fat is stored in the abdomen or under skin

Starch Sugar

Digested to Absorbed as

Sugar
Glycogen store in liver

Changed to glycogen and fat Oxidized in respiration Energy

Fat stored in fat deposits

Carbohydrates can be classified into three categories which are

 Monosaccharide
 Disaccharides
 Polysaccharides

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 MONOSACCHARIDE

Monosaccharide are the smallest unit of carbon hydrates they have the general formula of (CH2O) n
where n is the number of carbon and is between 3 to 10 for examples

 Triose ( three carbon sugar) C3H6O3

 Tetrose ( four carbon sugar) C4H8O4
 Pentose ( five carbon sugar) C5H10O5
 Hexose ( six carbon sugar) C6H12O6

Monosaccharide is similar to disaccharides’ for the following ways

 They are small molecules

 They are a sweet
 They are soluble in water
 Named by adding the suffix (ose)

Glucose is the most hexose sugar in animal body its molecular formula is C6H12O6 the other important
hexose sugar is fructose and galactose their molecular formula is that of glucose but they differ in
structure glucose play an important role for the production of energy in the cells therefore glucose
forms two different ring structure which are alpha glucose (α) and beta glucose (β)

Molecules having the same molecular formula but have a different structure are called isomers. E.g.
glues.
 DISACCHARIDE

Disaccharides is formed when two monosaccharide are joined together by a chemical reaction called
condensation reaction (removal of water) the bond formed between the two monosaccharides is
called glycosidic bond or oxygen bond. The most disaccharides’ are as follows

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 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C6H22011 + H20

Glucose + glucose maltose + water

 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C6H22011 + H20

Glucose + fructose sucrose + water

 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C6H22011 + H20

Glucose + galactose lactose + water

 POLYSACCHARIDE

Polysaccharides are large molecules and are made the combination of many monosaccharide units
polysaccharide factions are storage and structural molecules the most common polysaccharides are

 Starch : is the storage polysaccharide in plants

 Glycogen : is the storage polysaccharide in animals
 Cellulose : is the structural components of cell wall

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PTOTEINS

Meat, milk, and egg are important sources of animal protein. All plants contain some protein but beans
or cereals like wheat and maize are the best sources. When digested proteins it provide a substances
that is needed to build in cells and tissues. Example skin, muscles tissues, blood and bones. The
protein molecules contain long chain of amino acids when the protein are digested the molecules are
broken up into amino acids the amino acids are absorbed by the bloodstream and used up different
proteins these proteins form part of cytoplasm and enzymes the amino acids which are not used for
making new cells and tissues are not stored the liver removes their amino group and (NH2) and change
the residue into glycogen the glycogen can be stored to provide energy. One gram of protein can
provide 17kj of energy

 AMINO ACIDS

Amino acids are smallest structural units if protein each amino acid consist of three parts

 Amino group
 R group or hydrogen group
 Acid group or carboxyl group

Amino group
Acid group

Hydrogen group

When two amino acids are joined together by condensation reaction it forms molecule called peptide
molecules and the bond between the two amino acids is called peptide bond

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FATS

Animal fats found in meat, milk, cheese, butter and egg yolk. Plants fats occur as oil in fruits and seeds
example sun flower and seed oil. And are used for cooking and making margarine fats and oils are
called lipids. Lipids are used in the cells of body to form part of cell membrane. Lipids can also be
oxidized to release energy in body cells by respiration if you eat one gram of fats you will get 37kj of
energy this is much twice the energy obtained from carbohydrates and proteins

 FUNCTION OF FATS
 Sources of energy
 As heat insulating material
 Protection of vital organs like heart and kidneys from injuries
 Prevent water loss from the body\
 Energy storage
 DIET

In addition proteins, carbohydrates and fats the diets must include salt, vitamins, water and fibre
(roughages)

 SALTS

There are sometimes called minerals. Proteins, carbohydrates and fats can provides the body the
elements of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus but there are several elements which the
body needed and which occur as salt in the food we eat

 IRON

Our red blood cells contain the pigment called haemoglobin part of haemoglobin contains iron which
play important part of carrying oxygen round the body millions of red cells break down each day and
their iron stored by the liver and used to make more haemoglobin however some iron is lost so adult
must food containing iron each day. If the diet deficient in iron the person suffer from anaemia this
lead insufficient haemoglobin and the ozygen carrying capacity is reduces.

 CALCIUM

Calcium is deposited in the bones and teeth and makes them hard it present in blood plasma and plays
an essential part of blood clothing the richest sources of calcium are milk, and cheese. But calcium is
present in all foods but in small quantities and hard water

 IODINE

This is needed only in small quantities but if forms an essential part of molecule called thyroxine.
Thyroxine is the hormone produces in thyroid gland in the neck the richest sources of iodine is fish
and most vegetable. Iodine is important for thyroid cancer

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 WATER

About 70% of body tissue contains water its essential part of cytoplasm and the body fluids like the
blood, nymph, are composed mainly in water. Digested food, vitamins and mineral are carried round
the body as a solution. The excretory products such as salt and urea remove the body as a solution by
the kidneys and the process of digestion uses a water to break down the insoluble substances into
soluble substance. So we lost water by evaporation, sweating, urinating and brathing. We have take
water or watery food to recover the lost water.

 VITAMINS

Vitamins are organic compounds found in certain foods in general there are two types of vitamins

 Water soluble vitamin: like vitamin B and C

 Fat soluble vitamins: like vitamin A, D, E, and K

Although vitamins are needed only in small quantities they are essential to maintain our health and
protect us from disease. And every vitamin has its own function when our body does not get enough
vitamins we can get deficiency disease sources, function and effect of deficiency of vitamins are
summarized in the table below.

VITAMIN MAIN SOURCES FUNCTION EFFECT DIFICIENCY

A Liver, fish, egg yolk,  Maintain good eyesight  Night blindness
dairy product, green and  Promotes growth  Stunted growth
yellow fruits and  Keep the skin health  Dry and scaly skin
vegetable and tomatoes
B Yeast, cereal grains, like  Maintain health skin,  Tiredness
rice and wheat, liver, hair, tissues and  Beriberi (disease effected
eggs, and dairy products, nervous system nervous system leading to
fish and meat  Involves in the muscle weakness and
formation of red blood paralysis
cells  Aenemia (insufficient red
blood cells
C Fresh fruits, (oranges,  Maintain health skin  Scurvy (bleeding gum)
papaya, and grapes)and and other tissue like  Easily infected by diseases
green vegetable blood cells, bones, such as common cold
gums and teeth.  Unhealthy skin
 Helps in the absorption
of iron
 Improve resistance to
disease
 Help to heal wounds

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D Liver, fish, egg yolk,  Helps in the absorption  Rickets (soft bone)
dairy product, or human of calcium and  Poor teeth formation that
body produces vitamin D phosphorus which are leads to tooth decay
when it exposed to important for the
sunlight development of strong
bones and teeth
E Palm oil, vegetable oil  Necessary in  Sterility
cereals, eggs, and dairy reproduction
product  Helping to fight against
disease
K Green vegetable, liver,  Helps in blood clothing  Prolonged blood clothing
tomatoes, and cereals time

 ENZYMES
Enzymes are globular protein act as biological catalysts. A catalyst is a molecule which speeds up the
rate chemical reaction, but remains unchanged at the end of the reaction. Enzymes are globular
proteins. Like all globular proteins Enzyme molecules also have a special feature in that they possess
an active site. Active site is the where substrate with similar shape can bind to form enzyme substrate
complex. The shape of the active site allows the substrate to fit perfectly. Each type of enzyme will
usually act on only one type of substrate molecule. This is because the shape of the active site will
only allow one shape of moleculee to fit. The enzyme is said to be specific for this
thi s substrate.

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 ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS

All the chemical reactions going on within in a living organism is known as metabolism. Metabolism
can be divided into two categories which are anabolic reaction and catabolic reaction.
 Anabolic reactions build up large molecules from smaller ones, and usually require an input of
energy. Example the joining of glucose molecules into the polypeptide glycogen is an example
of anabolism
 Catabolic reactions break down large molecules into smaller ones, and often release energy.
Example The breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide and water and energy by respiration is
an example of catabolism.
What determines whether glucose molecules are built up into glycogen or broken down into carbon
dioxide and water? The answer is enzymes. Enzymes are proteins, and they act as biological
catalysts- they speed up reactions. The molecules that react in the enzyme- are called substrates, and
the molecules produced in the reaction are products.

 ENZYME AND TEMPERATURE

If the temperature raises the rate of chemical

reactions increase and if the temperature is slowing
down the rate of chemical reactions decrease the
temperature at which an enzyme catalyses a reaction
at the maximum rate is called the optimum
temperature. Human enzymes have an optimum
temperature of 40C0 beyond 40 the reaction rate
starts to decline.
 ENZYME AND PH (POWER OF
HYDROGEN)

The PH at which enzymes work best is called

optimum PH. Most enzymes works best at PH of
around 7 that is neutral. The PH varies depending
upon enzyme e.g. pepsin found in stomach works
bet at PH of 2 which is acidic level while trypsin
found in small intestines works the best at PH between 7 and 8 which is neutral.

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DIGESTION

Digestion is the process by wchich large food molecules are broken down ino smaller soluble
molecules. Digestion and absorption are takes place in
the alimentary canal this is the musculat tube runing
from mouth to anus. Digestion in human can be
classified into two types whci are

 Mechanical digestion
 Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion is the breaking down of food
into smaller substances by enzymes. Those enzymes
are released from two sources.
 The glands that are located in the alimentary
canal examples gastric glands of stomach and
intestinal glands of the small intestine.
 And the glands that are located outside the
alimentary canal examples The salivary glands

 MECHANICAL DIGESTION

Mechanical digestion Is the gridding and cutting food

into smaller particles by the teeth this form of digestion
includes
 Mixing the food with saliva to break down the starch
and to lubricate the food
 Peristalsis movement along the alimentary canal
 THE MAMMALIAN TEETH

Before can be swallowed the food must be bitten off which

small particles to pass down the gullet into the stomach and
this action are carried out by our teeth, jaws and muscles.
There are different types of teeth each kind of teeth carried
out different function and they are

 Incisors
 Canines
 Premolars
 Molars
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 STRUCUTRE OF TEETH
 ENAMEL

Covers the crown and makes hard surface its

nonliving part containing 97% of calcium, salt
and only 3% of organic materials

 DENTINE:

This is like bone but softer in enamel its living

tissue with cytoplasm the hardness of enamel
and dentine depends on the enough calcium in
the diet and sufficient vitamin D to help the
absorption of calcium.

 PULP:

The centre of the teeth its soft tissue, it

contains cells which makes the dentine and
keep the tooth alive. In the pulp are blood
vessels which bring food and oxygen so the
tooth can grow at the first and remain alive
when growth has stopped. There are also
nerves at the end of the pulp which are
sensitive to hot and cold but gives the
sensation of pain.

 CEMENT:

This is the bone like substance that covers the root of the tooth in cement has tough fibres which pass
into the bone of the jaw and hold the tooth in the place.

 DENTAL FORMULA

This refers to the number of each type of teeth in animal for example the dental formula of human
adult is writing as follows

𝟐 (𝐈 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
𝟐 𝐌 ) = 𝟑𝟐
𝐂 𝐏 𝟑
𝟐 𝟏
𝟐
The dental formula of other animals are summarized in the table below
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 MILKA AND PERMENENT TEETH

Mammals have two sets of teeth in their lifetime the first set or milk teeth grow through the gum
during the first year of the life between the age of 6-12 that milk teeth are gradually fall out and are
replaced by permanent teeth. If the permanent teeth are lost for any reason they do not grow again.

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 THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION

The process of digestion mainly is chemical process and consist of breaking down of large molecules
to small molecules, some food absorb without digestion example the glucose in a fruit juice could pass
the walls of the alimentary canal and enter the into the blood vessels. Most food however are solid and
cannot get into blood vessels so the solid food material is dissolved to become a solution and the
chemical which dissolved the solid food is called enzymes

 MOUTH

First the food is taken into the mouth by the

process called ingestion. In the mouth the food is
chewed and mixed with saliva the chewing breaks
the food into pieces which can be swallowed.
Saliva is digestive juice produced by glands
whose ducts lead into the mouth it helps to
lubricate the food and make the small pieces stick
together saliva contain one enzyme called
salivary amylase sometimes called (ptyalin)
which break down starch into maltose

 THE STOMACH

The stomach has elastic walls which stretch to as

the food is collect In it. The main function of
stomach is to store the food the glands in the
lining the stomach produce gastric juice
containing enzyme pepsin and pepsin is protease
or proteinase which break down proteins into
peptides. The stomach lining also produce
hydrochloric acid this acid provides best degree a
acidity for pepsin to work also the this acid kills
many of bacteria taken with the food. So how
long food remains in stomach depends on the nature, water
may pass the in few minutes and meal of carbohydrates such as
porridge may be held in the stomach for less than one hour, but
mixed meal containing proteins, fats and carbohydrates may be
held the stomach for 1or 4 hours. The passage of food from
one part to another is controlled by sphincter muscles. E.g.
Cardiac sphincter found between esophagus and stomach and
pyloric sphincter found between stomach and duodenum

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 THE SMALL INTESTINE

Most of the digestion in food takes place in small intestine its long tube with length of 4-5 meter it’s
highly coiled to fit in the abdomen. The small intestine ins divided into two regions the first region is
called duodenum which is one foot (30cm) and the rest part is called ileum and this region is divided
into two part jejunum and ileum proper the inner wall of small intestine is covered with finger like
structure called villi and villi increase the capacity of absorption

 THE DIGESTION IS DUODENUM

Most of the digestion of food takes place in the duodenum, a pancreatic juice from pancreas and bile
from liver are poured into the duodenum to act on the food in there. The pancreatic juice are include

 Pancreatic amylase: which break down starch into maltose

 Trypsin: which break down protein into small peptides
 Carboxypeptidase: which break down peptides into amino acids
 Pancreatic lipase: digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol

The walls of the duodenum contains intestinal glands called crypts and lieberkhun which secrete
digestive enzymes these enzymes are include

 Maltase: which break down maltose into glucose

 Sucrose: which break down sucrose into glucose and fructose
 Lactase: which break down the milk sugar lactose into glucose and galactose
 Amino peptidase: which break down peptides into amino acids

 THE ABSOPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD

A few substances like water, simple sugar and salts are absorbed in stomach. But most of the
absorption takes place in small intestine, the substances which are absorbed are include
Monosaccharide (glucose, fructose, galactse), Amino acids Fatty acids and glycerol.The
monosaccharide and amino acids are transported into the liver to store as glycogen for later use. And
the vitamins, salts and in-organic substances are absorbed by the intestine most of the absorption in
small intestines takes place in the ileum

 THE LARGE INTESTINE

The large intestine comprises colon and rectum, the function of large intestine are

 To package indigestible material forming feces

 To absorb most water and leaving dry residue
 To absorb mineral and vitamins

The rectum store the fecal material at last the feces discharged a process called egestion

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SUMMERIZING THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION

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 CHAPRER Biology form 2

SENSITIVITY AND CO’ORDINATION

THIS CHAPTER WILL CONSIST OF THE FOLLOWING POINTS

The skin and temperature control

The senses
Endocrine system
Nervous system

 THE SKIN AND TEMPERATURE CONTROL

The skin is the largest organ of the body and is composed of two layers the outer layer is epidermis and
inner layer is dermis. The epidermis is tough protective coat made up of dead flat cells the dead cells
continually flake off but they are replaced by the cells below. The major functions of skin are

 Protection of internal body part from drying out

 Excretion of waste matter as sweat
 Controlling body heat and regulating body temperature
 Giving the body color (pigment)
 Hair and nails are develops from the skin

 EPIDERMIS

The epidermis consist of three layers

 The cornified layer: this is the outer surface layer of the skin and consist of dead cells these
flake off all the time and are replace the cells below
 The granular layer: this is the middle layer it’s made up of living cells which have been
produced in the malphigian layer
 The malphigian layer (germinative layer): is the deepest layer consists of actively divided
cells and is where melanocytes found. Melanocytes are cells which produce the melanin that is
responsible for body color. Melanin absorbs the ultraviolet ray and protects the cells beneath
from damaged effect.
 THE DERMIS

The dermis consist of blood capillaries, lymph vessels, sensory nerves, hair follicles, sweat glands
subcutaneous layer

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 Blood capillaries: supplies the cells of the skin with oxygen and nutrients and take away
carbon dioxide and waste substances
 Hair follicle: is the part of the skin which hair are grown
 Sweat glands: release the sweat through the pores in the skin
 Sebaceous glands: produce oil called sebum which keeps the skin soft and kill the bacteria on
the skin
 Subcutaneous layer: is the fatty layer beneath the dermis it’s the storage region for fat.

 TEMPERATURE CONTROL

All healthy humans have body temperature close to the average of 370C only disease and some other
disorders can make it vary. The body can raise its temperature increasing the activities or by absorbing
more sunlight energy, we can also gain the energy from hot food and drinks. The body loses heat
energy from the skin by radiation, and evaporation of sweat also causes a heat loss. The air we breathe
out is warmer the air we breathe in this means we lose energy when we breathe out.

For most of time energy loses are balanced by the energy gains. Our body temperature therefore stays
370C. if the temperature of surrounding heat up or cool down or if the person make exercise the body’s
control system has to come into action and this system is controlled by the brain.

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 THE SENSES

Humans have five sense organs to respond what is going on to their environment these sense organs
are

 Sense of sight
 Sense of hearing
 Sense of smelling
 Sense of taste
 Sense of touch

SENSORY ORGAN SENSE STIMULI

Skin Touch Pain, cold, heat
Nose Smell Chemical in the air
Tongues Taste Chemical in food
Ears Hearing Sound
Eyes Sight Light

1. SENSE OF SIGHT
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF HUMAN EYE

The eye consist of the receptors for light stimuli and are the organ of vision the eye are protected by
the surrounding bones, the eyelids, the eyelashes, the eyebrows, and the conjunctiva

Eye is the sense organ of the sight. Sockets in the skull protect the eye and held in place by muscles
which let it move from side to side. Light from an object enters the eye through the pupil. And the
image forms on the retina. Each of the millions of light sensitive cells on retina is linked to brain by
nerve fibers. The brain interprets signals from the retina

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PARTS OF EYE FUNCTION

Sclera Protects the eye and helps to maintain its shape
Choroids A dark middle layer absorb light and supply the eye with oxygen and nutrients
Retina Light sensitive inner layer detects light and converts into nerve impulse
Cornea Helps to focus the light into retina onto the retina
Iris Control the size of the pupil
Pupil A hole in the centre of the iris control the amount of light enters the eye
Optic nerve A bundle of nerve fibers that links to the brain, carries the impulses from retina
to the brain to interpret
Conjunctiva A thin membrane that lines eyelids and covers the cornea protects the part
behind it

 THE TWO KINDS OF LIGHT SENSITIVE

 RODS:
These are not sensitive to color, but have greater sensitivity to light intensity than the cone cells and
are located at the edges of retina. They function only in dim light and therefore are responsible for
vision at low light levels at nights (scotopic vision)
 CONES:
These work best in bright light and are active at higher light levels (photopic visions) and also
recognize colors they are located at the centre of the retina. There are three types of cones: one that
detects blue, one that detects red, and one that detects green.

2. SENSE OF HEARING

We have one ear on each side of the head this helps us to tell where a sound is coming from. Ears
change the vibration in the air into nerve impulse which travels to the brain where they are interpreted
as sound. This vibration or sound waves are collected by the funnel or pinna, and passed down a short
canal into eardrum the eardrum is thin membrane which vibrate the time with vibration in the air.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF HUMANEAER

The ear can be divided into three parts which are

 Outer ear : and this part consist of

 Pinna (ear flap)
 Ear canal
 Middle ear : this part consist of
 Ear drum
 Ossicles

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 Oval window
 Eustachian tube
 Inner ear: this part consist of
 Semicircular canal
 Cochlea
 Auditory nerve

 HOW THE EAR WORKS

The sound waves pass down the outer ear canal and hit to the ear drum, causing to vibrate. The
vibrations are carried by the tiny middle ear to the inner ear. Nerves in the coiled cochlea detects the
vibration and send impulses to the auditory nerve to the brain the semicircular membrane detects
the movement of the heard and the send nerve impulses to the brain giving information about the
movement which help us balance.

PARTS OF EAR FUNCTION

Pinna Made up of cartilage and shaped like funnel collects and direct sound waves into the
ear canal
Ear canal A long narrow canal lined with hairs channels the sound waves in to eardrum
Ear drum thin membrane, vibrate In response to sound waves and transfer the waves into the
ossicles
Ossicles Consist of three small bones called malleus magnify the vibration and transfer into
oval window
Oval window Thin membrane transfer the waves from the ossicles to the cochlea
Eustachian tube Air filled canal linked to the middle ear to throat and balance the pressure in the
middle ear with the pressure in the aerdrum
Semicircular canal Fluid filled canal help the body to keep its balance by detects the movement the head
Cochlea Coiled fluid filled canal and lined with receptor cells which are sensitive to vibration
and help the body to keep its balance by detects the movement the head
Auditory nerve Bundle of nerve fibers links the ear to the brain and transmit the nerve impulses
from the cochlea to the brain so the sound can be interpreted

3. SENESE OF TASTE

Sense and smell are called chemical senses because their receptors are sensitive to the chemicals in the
food we eat and the air we breathe. The sensory receptors of sense of taste are located in the
taste buds.

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 HOW THE TONGUE WORKS

The tongue can detects four tastes which are

 Swear  Salty
 Sour  Bitter
The upper surface of the tongue is covered with taste buds which contain many receptor cells each type
of taste receptors detects only one type of taste. Different types of taste are located in different areas
in tongue. The process of taste detecting we summarized below

Saliva dissolves the food substance in the mouth

ubstances
Dissolved food substances stimulate
stimulate the taste
the taste receptors
receptors in taste
in taste buds

The taste receptors send an impulse to the brain via the

nerves

The brains interpret the impulses and identify the taste

 STRUCTURS OF TONGUES OF AREAS OF TASTE

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4. SENSE OF SMELLING

The sense of smell detests the chemicals in the air and its sensory organ is the nose.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF HUMANE NOSE

In the nasal cavity there are two types of cells

 Sensory cells: which act as smell receptors, these cells are located at roof of the nasal cavity
their function is to detects the stimuli
 Granular cells: which secrete mucus, mucus lines the walls of the nasal cavity this mucus
warms and moistens the air before it enters the lungs.

 HOW THE NOSE WORKS

The detection of chemicals in the air is summarized in the below

Air enters the nasal cavity through the nostrils

A chemical substance in the air dissolves into the mucus covers

the surface of the nasal cavity

The dissolved chemical substances stimulate the

smell receptors

The smell receptors send an impulse to the brain

via the nerves

The brain interprets the impulse and identifies the

smell

5. SENSE OF TOUCH

the sense of touch detects the pain, cold, heat, pressure

and its sensory organ is the skin the function of skin,
parts of skin we mentioned the beginning of the
chapter go back to the begging in of the chapter

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 INTRODUCTION

Coordination is the process by which organs and cells of the body work together to carry out their
various functions. This allows the organism to adapt, to change and to increase their chance of
survival. For example when anima/human gets hungry they go to find food so that their chance of
survival may increase. The coordination of the body is achieved by the

 The nervous system

 Endocrine system
 ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Endocrine system consists of glands and tissues that secrete hormones. Hormones are the chemical
messengers that affect the behavior of other tissues and glands. The hormones influenzas the
metabolism of the cells, growth of the body parts and
homeostasis the glands that secrete hormones in the
body are divided into two types which are

 Endocrine glands:
are ductless glands they
secrete their hormones into the fluids and
bloodstream for distribution throughout the
body. And there are seven main endocrine
glands which are pituitary gland, thyroid
gland, parathyroid gland, pancreas, gonads
(tests and ovaries) thymus gland, and the
adrenal glands

 Exocrine glands: which have a duct and

secrete their hormones into these ducts for
example salivary glands send saliva into the
mouth by the salivary ducts

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 HORMONES AND HOMEOSTASIS

Several hormones directly affect the blood glucose, calcium and sodium level in the body and some
others are involved in the function some organs including the reproductive organs. Some hormones are
controlled by negative feedback system. For example when blood glucose levels raises the some cells
of pancreas called beta cells secretes insulin which causes the liver to store the glucose as glycogen. If
insulin is too little or absent in the body the body cells are not able to use the glucose and come out in
the urine and the person develops the diabetes disease. And when the blood glucose lowers other cells
of the pancreas called alpha cells secrete glucagon which causes the liver to converts glycogen into
glucose. Insulin and glucagon is called antagonistic hormones because they do opposite function. On
the other hand when the calcium level in the blood raises the thyroid gland secretes calcitonin which
removes the excess calcium in the blood and. And when the calcium level in the blood lowers the
parathyroid gland secrete parathyroid hormones which increase the calcium level into the blood. All
these examples illustrate the negative feedback system.

 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine system refers to all ductless glands and their hormones. These hormones are transported
around the body in the blood to their target organs these glands and their function is summarized the
table below.

GLANDS HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTION

Thyroid glands  Thyroid glands are located below the larynx (voice box) and secrete two
hormones Thyroxin : which stimulate the cells to respire resulting more heat
in cold weather our body produce more thyroxin in order to produce more
heat or energy the deficiency of thyroxin leads cretinism and over-secretion
leads to high metabolic rate.
 Calcitonin: removes calcium ion in the blood, and stimulate loss of calcium in
the blood also cause storage of excess calcium in the bones

Parathyroid gland  These glands are attached to the thyroid gland they secrete parathyroid
hormones which increase the calcium level into the blood

Adrenal glands  These are two glands located on the top of each kidney. These glands secrete
adrenaline which increase the heart rate, dilation of blood vessels, and
increasing ventilation rate and this hormone secreted during fear or anger they
are also called fight or flight hormones these glands also secretes
 Hydrocortisone: brings about the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins. And also secretes
 Aldosterone which promotes the retention of salt in the bloodstream.

Pancreas  Secretes glucagon which leads the conversion of glycogen into glucose in the
liver it also secrete
 insulin which converts glucose into glycogen for storage in the liver

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Ovaries  Secrete Oestrogen which leads the development of secondary sexual

characteristics in females such as development of breasts, widening of hips it
also controls the menstrual cycle. It also secrete the
 Progesterone: which maintain the worm lining during pregnancy

Testes  Secretes Testosterone which leads the development of secondary sexual

characteristics in males such as development of beard, deep voice, muscle
enlargement, and also promotes spermatogenesis

Thymus gland  Thymus gland is located in the chest beneath the sternum thymus glands
secretes Thymosin which regulates the maturation of certain white blood cells
called T. cells

Pituitary gland This gland is also called master gland and is located at the base of the brain this gland
secretes several hormones which include
 Growth hormones (Somatotropin): controls growth by causing bone
elongation and growth of muscles and promotes protein synthesis if this
hormones under-secretion during infancy cause dwarfism and over-
secretion cause gigantism
 Thyroid stimulating hormones: which stimulate the thyroid gland to release
thyroxin
 Follicle stimulating hormones (FSH): stimulate development of follicles and
oestrogen production in the ovaries and stimulate production of sperm in males
 Luteinizing hormone (LH): stimulates the ovulation and production
of progesterone in females and testosterone in males
 Prolactin: is responsible the synthesis of milk by mammary glands
 Ant diuretic hormone (ADH): also called visopressin stimulates the water
reabsorption by the kidneys
 Oxytoxin: stimulating the contraction of muscles of the uterus after pregnancy
also stimulate the contraction of milk ducts causing milk production

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NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system of mammals consists of central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous
system (PNS). The central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord. The brain is enclosed in
bony covered called the cranium and the spinal cord is enclosed in bony covering called spinal
column or back bone

 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM HAS THREE SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS

 Sensory input: the receptors present in the skin and organs respond to external and internal
stimuli by generating nerve impulse that travel to the brain and spinal cord
 Integration: the brain and spinal cord sum up the data received from all over the body and
send out nerve impulse
 Motor output: the nerve impulses from the brain and spinal cord go to the effectors which
are muscles and glands muscles contract and glands secrete hormones to respond the stimuli
from.
 DEVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system has two major divisions which are central nervous system and peripheral
nervous system. (CNS (PNS)

 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS):

The central nervous system is made up of the brain and

the spinal cord. The spinal cord is basically a big
bundle of nerve cells running through a tunnel inside
the backbone which protects it while the brain is
protected by the skull. The central nervous system is
what gives out orders to other parts of the body to
perform certain jobs.
 THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PNS:
The peripheral nervous system is the other part of the
nervous system. The main job of the PNS is to detect
stimuli and send impulses to the CNS according to the
stimuli. The PNS is made of receptors and nerves that
carry the impulses. Receptor cells: are ones whose
function is to detect something about its environment.
There are many receptors in the body that are able to
detect many changes like temperature, touch, light,
sound and chemicals. There are some organs in the
body that are to detect just one stimulus, like the eye
for example. These are called sensory organs and they
can
be defined as a group of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli.

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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF NEURONS

The basic functional unit of nervous system is the nerve also known as neuron Neurones are one of
the most important structures of the nervous systems. Neurones act as a wire that transmits electrical
impulses all over the body. A bundle of neurones is called a nerve there are two types of nerves which
are cranial nerves those arising from the brain and spianl nerves those arising from the spinal cord.
The cranial nerves connects the brain to the various organs of the body while the spinal nerves
connects the spinal cord to the various organs of the body There are three types of neurones, each type
is to transmit electrical impulses from a specific place to another. And they are
 Motor Neurone:
This is a neurone that transmits electrical impulses from the Central nervous system to the effectors it
also called afferent neurone

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 Sensory Neurones:
The sensory neurone is that transmit impulses to the CNS it also called afferent neurone the impulses
arises when receptors are stimulated by the change in the internal or external environment

 Intermediate neuron ( Relay neuron)

Intermediate neuron is also called relay neuron link the sensory neuron and the motor neuron, they are
found in spinal cord intermediate neuron transfer incoming impulses from sensory neuron to outgoing
impulses to motor neuron

The neurons made up of three parts which are

 Cell body: which is the enlarged part of the nerve cell which contain nucleus the cytoplasm of
the cell body contains granules which are rich in RNA and therefore are important in protein
synthesis
 Axon: the axon is the cytoplasmic projection that extends from the cell body each cell has one
axon and this axon may have a several branches so that is can transmit stimulation to ore cells
these branches are called dendrites
 Dendron: these are an also cytoplasmic extension that arises from the cell body to the receptor
they are nerve tissue that conduct impulses towards the cell body. The neurons are surrounded
by supporting cells called neuroglia. Which are numerous and that include

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 Schwann cells: are the cells that produce mylein sheeth of the (PNS)
 Oligodendrocytes: are the cells which produce mylein sheeth of ( CNS)

THE HUMAN BRAIN

The central nervous system of an animal is made up of brain and the spinal cord. During the
maturation of the embryo the front part of the developing neural tube occurs in the head region swells
up to form the primary brain, the unswollen part forms the spinal cord. The primary brain matures
and divides into three parts which are forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. In human these three
parts are seen clearly during the early stages of the embryonic development. In adult the forebrain
becomes more larges composed of cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and the pituitary gland.
The hindbrain composed of cerebellum, pons, and the medulla oblongata

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THE FOREBRAIN
 Cerebrum:
The cerebrum is the largest parts of the brain there are two parts of the cerebrum which are the
left cerebrum hemisphere and the right cerebrum hemisphere. The left and right parts are
separated by the thick bundle of nerve fibers called corpus callosum. The bigger the cerebrum
hemisphere the more convolution and the higher intelligence of the mammal

 The function of the cerebrum

 The cerebral cortex determines the level of intelligence, memory, thinking, and it also the
centre of imagination
 It controls all aspects of behavior and awareness of oneself
 Controls the voluntary movement such as the movement of limbs, movement of the mouth,
lips, and tongue, movement of the abdomen, neck and etc
 Responsible the sensation of pain , temperature, sight, and even hearing

 The thalamus
This is the part of the brain just before the hypothalamus its very important centre as it contains
receptors for pain and pleasure

 The hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is the centre of the autonomic nervous system and its function includes
 Controlling feeding or eating i.e. is associated the feeling of hunger
 Osmoregulation centre the hypothalamus has osmo receptors that detects the osmotic pressure
of the body fluids
 Thermoregulation centre hence controls the temperature since it has thermo receptors
 Controlling sleep or wakefulness
 Has speech centre hence controls the talking
 Stimulating the pituitary gland to secrete hormones

 The pituitary gland

The pituitary gland is endocrine gland it also called the master gland in the body because it controls
the activities of all glands in the body through the hormones it secretes. The pituitary gland can be
divided into two parts namely the anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary each of these parts
secrete different hormones the function of pituitary gland we discussed in the endocrine system
THE MIDBRAIN

This part of the brain contains optic lope which are swellings on the brain that receives the impulses of
light and control the eye movement the floor of the midbrain contains red nucleus which controls the
movement and the posture

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THE HINDBRAIN

The hindbrain is made up of three parts namely cerebellum, medulla oblongata and the pons

 Cerebellum :

 Is the centre of unconscious action

 Maintenance of balance of equilibrium through coordination of muscle movement
 Maintenance of normal body posture

 The pons :
The pons is the relay centre between the cerebellum, the spinal cord and the rest of the body the word
pons means the bridge

 medulla oblongata :
The medulla oblongata controls the unconscious action of the body such as
 Swallowing action
 Salivation
 Vomiting
 Respiration
 Breathing process
 Rate of heart beat
 Constriction / dilation of blood

PROTECTION OF CNS

The spinal cord is held in the vertebral column which is bony framework that protects the spinal cord
from damages and absorbs shock. On the other hand the brain is enclosed in a bony cage called
cranium. Inside the cranium and the vertebral column are protective membrane called meninges the
meninges protects the brain from physical damage the meninges can be infected by viruses or bacteria
leads to the inflamation of meninges which result to a fetal disease called meningitis there are two
types of meninges namely the dura matter which is the tough outer protective membrane and pia
matter which is the innermost membrane. There is also fluid called cerebrospinal fluid which is
alkaline in nature and is similar to plasma except it lacks protein the function of cerebrospinal fluid are
include
 Helps the supply of food, nutrients and ions to the brain (it nourishes the brain)
 Supplies the brain with oxygen
 Helps in the removal of waste materials from the brain
 For support it helps the maintenance the uniform pressure of the brain and spinal cord
 Acts as shock absorber

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THE SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is situated inside the neural canal that occurs at the centre of the vertebral column the
function of the spinal cord are include the following
 It controls the quick and rapid responses to stimuli that reaches the surface of the body the
responses is quick because no thinking is needed such responses are called by spinal reflexes
 The spinal cord through the vertebral column keeps the human body upright by maintaining the
tone of muscles
 The spinal cord provides the channel for sensory and motor neurons between the brain and the
body parts the damage of spinal cord may lead to paralysis
 Helps to keep the body away from the harm

THE REFLEX ACTION

The reflex action is a rapid inborne automatic and involuntary response to a stimulus by body organs
or group of organs. There are two types of reflex action which are simple reflex action and
conditioned reflex action

 Simple reflex action

The simple reflex action are protective in nature since they help to prevent damage to body organs
simple reflex action can be classified into cranial reflex which is controlled by the brain and the
spinal reflex which is controlled by the spinal cord
 spinal reflex action: the spinal reflex action generally are inherited or inborne responses
which produce the responses for given stimulus example the knee jerk and the
 cranial reflex action: are mediated by the brain example of cranial reflex are constriction and
dilation of the eye pupil, blinking of the eye, salvation, responses to sight, or thought of food
and so on

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CHAPRER
CHAPRER
Biology form 2

INTRODUCTION TO INHERITANCE AND

GENETICS
INTRODUCTION

One of the main characteristics of organisms is that they reproduce. During reproduction the hereditary
traits are transferred from parents to offspring through the genetic material. The branch of biology
which deals the study of the inheritance of hereditary traits is called genetics, the hereditary traits are
passed from parents to offspring through the gametes (male gametes and female gametes) and these
gametes are produced by cell division called meiosis
CELL DIVISION

Any cell division, there are thread like structure in the nucleus of the cell these are called
chromosomes. The hereditary traits are located on the chromosomes; a cell normally contains fixed
number of chromosomes that usually occurs in pairs. Such a cell referred to as diploid. (2n). humans
body (somatic) cells contains 46chromosomes = 2n= (23) + (23) = 46. There are two types of cell
division which are mitosis which occurs in somatic cells and meiosis which occurs in germ cell or sex
cells
MITOSIS

Mitosis is the separation of chromosomes during cell division in which two cells produced each
genetically identical to the other and parent cell. The process of mitosis undergoes four stages which
are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Several important events occurs during each
stage once the process is complete the cell enters the resting stage called interphase during interphase
each chromosomes replicate and produce exact copy of it

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 SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS

The significance of mitosis are include the following

 Growth
 Cell replacement
 Regeneration and sexual reproduction
MEIOSIS

meiosis is similar to the mitosis, but the difference between them is the process of meiosis produce
four haploid cells, while the mitosis process produce tow haploid cells. Meiosis occurs or forms only
in sex cells or germ cells (means gametes) meiosis consist of two divisions which are meiosis I and
meiosis II. Meiosis I is called reduction because the chromosomes are halved

 SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

The significance of mitosis are include the following

 Formation of gametes ( sperm and egg)

 Restoration of original chromosome number

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MITOSIS MEIOSIS
 forms cell that genetically identical  forms cell that genetically different
 one cell division  two cell division
 two daughter cell are produced  four daughter cells are produced
 occurs in all cells of the body  each daughter cell has half of
 each daughter cell has the same number of chromosomes as the original
chromosomes as the original cell cell
 occurs throughout the life  occurs only in sex cells
 occurs only reproductive age

DNA and RNA

The DNA is the abbreviation of deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA for ribonucleic acid. DNA and
RNA, like proteins and polysaccharides, are macromolecules. They are also polymers, made up of
many similar, smaller molecules joined into a long chain. The smaller molecules from which DNA and
RNA molecules are made are nucleotides. DNA and RNA are therefore polynucleotides.
 NUCLEIC ACIDS

Nucleic acids are made up of many units called nucleotides joined together each nucleotides composed
of. The following
 A nitrogen-containing base
 A pentose sugar
 A phosphate group
The nitrogen containing base are divided into two types which are purine and pyrimidines which are
differ in their structure the purines are guanine (G)and adenine (A). Whereas pyrimidines are
thymine (T), cytosine (C) and uracil (U)
. In a DNA molecule there are four (adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine) An RNA molecule also
contains four bases which are (A, , C, G, U)

 BASE PAIRNING
 In DNA: adenine pairs with thymine
 And guanine pairs with cytocine (A – T)
(G – C)

 In RNA: adenine pairs with uracil (A – U)

 And guanine pairs with cytocine (G – C)
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 DNA STRUCTURE COMPARED TO RNA STRUCTURE

DNA RNA
Deoxyribose Ribose
Adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine Adenine, guanine, uracil, cytosine
Double stranded Single stranded
Have helix Have no helix
Found in the nucleus Found in the cytoplasm

HERIDITY AND VARIATION

All the children inherit certain characteristics from their parents the study of inherited characteristic is
called heredity
VARIATION

Every species have characteristic feature of shape and structure by which it can be recognized and
identified. Look at your classmates you should recognize that they have a similar features to you and
that features are what makes them human being. However you should also be aware that individual
students in your class are not exactly the same as you or each other different hair color, height, weight,
and skin color are examples of the differences that we call variation. Variation can be classified into
two types which are
 Continuous variation and
 Discontinuous variation

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 Continuous variation: are those characteristics controlled by many genes and exist in many forms
example height of people, short sightedness, body weight, skin color, intelligence in human, the
size of fruits, and milk production of cows, these variations are influenced by the environment
 Discontinuous variation: are those characteristics demined by single gene and exist in two forms
example blood groups, gender, rolling of tongue, these variations are not influenced by the
environment
CHROMOSOMES

These are threadlike structure found within nucleus of the cell they stain in dark and contain
organism’s genetic material called DNA. Each species of organism has set number of chromosomes
for example humans have 46 chromosomes, fruit fly has 8 chromosomes, and cats have 38
chromosomes

STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOMES

Each chromosome is composed of two

parallel strands called chromatids. Each
pair of chromatids is connected at point
called centromere

SEX CHROMOSOMES

In humans there are 23 pair of chromosomes in their cells. 22 pair of those chromosomes are called
autosomes,( body chromosomes) and remaining one pair is called sex chromosomes. The sex
chromosomes are X and Y. They are different in size in shape X chromosomes are greater Y
chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes (XX) and they are called homogametic. Males have
one X and Y chromosomes (XY) and they are called heterogametic.

THESE WORSD USED IN GENETICS

 Allele: is one of the variety of genes located at particular site of the chromosome
 Gene: gene: represents the genetic material on a chromosome that contains the constructions
for a particular trait
 Homozygote: is the gene with the identical allele
 Heterozygote: is a paired different allele in a gene
 Genotype: is the genetic makeup of organism,
 Phenotype: is the physical (external) characteristics of an organism

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Example 1
The example below shows the way that the male chromosomes XY and the female chromosomes XX
can combine at fertilization and the probability of each type of offspring can occur
 Parental phenotype: male X female
 Parental genotype: XY x XX

X Y
X XX XY
X XX XY

 Phenotype of children: 2 girls and 2 boys

 Genotype of children: 2 XX and 2XY

MUTATION

Mutation is the sudden change of genetic constitution of an organism caused by factors called
mutagen and the organism exhibiting mutation is called mutants the genes that is responsible
mutation recessive and is passed from parent to offspring if they occur in gametes, however if the
mutation is in the somatic cells it will not be passed to offspring

 TYPES OF MUTATION

There are two types of mutation which are

 Chromosomal mutation:
This involves sudden change of structure and number of chromosomes this leads to exchange of
genetic material which bring about variation. The number of chromosomes does not change but there
is change the arrangement of the genes in it. There are five types of chromosomal mutation namely

 Deletion  Inversion
 Duplication  Translocation
 Non-disjunction

 Gene mutation:

This refers to a change in chemical nature of gene it occurs to the alternation of DNA molecule

 CAUSES OF MUTATION

 It can be caused by rations such as X- rays, Gama rays and ultraviolet rays
 Also cause by chemical substances such as mustard gas, caffiene etc

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CHAPRER
CHAPRER
Biology form 2

CLASSIFICATION

Classification is a grouping of things according to their characteristics. The science of classifying

organisms is called taxonomy. Animals are classified in a variety of ways. This helps scientists to
study the relationships in animal groups. There are two system of classification which are
 Natural classification: is the grouping of organism based on possess similar natural
characteristics for example: all animals that possess with backbone are grouped to gather as a
chordates or vertebrates
 Artificial classification: : is the grouping of animals based on their size, habitat, usefulness
and harmfulness

 SIGNIFICANCE OF CLASSIFICATION

 To identify organisms and place them into their correct group

 To avoid confusion of the characteristics of organism
 It enables the biologist to predict the characteristics of organisms they are not seen before

 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

 Bionomial nomenclature
Bionimial nomenclature also called ( nomenclature) is a formal system of naming organisms by giving
each a name composed of two parts the first name is the generic name ( the name of the genus), and
the second name is the name of species. The generic name starts with capital letter while the specie
name starts with small letter the name are written in Italic or underlined.
Example:
1. Bean: its scientific name is phaseolus vulgaris. The name phaseolus is generic name and the
vulgarisi is the specie name
2. Dog: its scientific name is canis familiaris. The name canis is generic name and the familiaris
is the species name

 HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Is defined as the sequences of categories of organisms
from the kingdom to specie the biologist try to recognize
and group all living things on the earth these groups are
from the larges to smallest as follow

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 DIOCHOTOMOUS KEY
The word dichotomous key comes from two Greek words divide into two parts. Dichotomous key is
the key for the identification of organisms based on choice choices between alternative characters
 COMMON FEATURES USED FOR IDENTIFICATION
The features that you can identify the organisms are as flows
 ANIMALS

 Locomotary structures such as legs, wings. And fins

 Antenna ( presence and number)
 Eyes
 Number of body parts
 Body segmentation
 Body surface structure such as fur, hair, or scales
 Feeding structure
 Type of skeleton present
 PLANTS

 The leaf, leaf type, leaf variation, margins, lamina, and color
 The flower: flower type, shape, number of floral parts
 The stem: stem type (woody, fleshy, herbaceous) and texture of the stem (smooth, spiny or
thorny)
 The root: type of rot, ( tab root, fibrous roots) and storage of roots

Example one: of dichotomous key

Construct a dichotomous key that you can use to identify the flowing animals and place them into their
taxonomy class these organisms are
 Rabbit  Centipede
 Millipede  Tilapia fish
 Honey bee  Crocodile

KEY

1. A) Animals has vertebral column

B) Animals has no vertebral column
2. A) Animal’s body is covered with fur......................mammals
B) Animal’s body covered with scales
3. A) Animal’s body divides into two parts
B) Animal’s body divides into three parts
4. A) Animal that has fins..............................................Pisces
B) Animal that has no fins.........................................reptilian
5. A) Animal’s body is elongated and cylindrical ….. diplopoda
B) Animal’s body is elongated but not cylindrical... chilopoda

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ANSWER
ORGANISMA STEPS FLOWED IDENTIFICATION

Rabbit 1a, 2a Mammalian

Millipede 1b, 3b, 5b Diplopoda
Honey bee 1b, 3b Insect
Centipede 1b, 3a, 5b Chilopoda
Tilapia fish 1a, 2b, 4a Pisces
Crocodile 1a, 2b, 4b Reptilian

Example 2: of dichotomous key

Using the leaves below identify the plants from which the leaves obtained
KEY
1. A) leaf is a simple
B) Leaf is a compound
2. A) leaf ha the serrated margins............hibiscus
B) Leaf has smooth margins
3. A) leaf has lanceolate...........................Mango
B) Leaf is ovate......................................morning glory
4. A) leaf has many leaf lets.....................Nandi flame
B) Leaf has three leaf lets......................bean
ANSWER
ORGANISMA STEPS FLOWED IDENTIFICATION

P 1a, 2a Hibiscus
Q 1b, 4a, Nandi flame
R 1a, 2b, 3a, Mango
S 1b, 4b Bean
T 1a,, 2b, 3b Morning glory

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VIRUSES

There are many different types of viruses and they vary in

their shape and structure. All viruses have a RNA or DNA
surrounded by protein coat viruses have no nucleus,
cytoplasm, cell membrane so the viruses are not cells they do
not feed, respire, excrete or grow. Viruses do reproduce but
only inside the cells of living things the coat is made up of
packaged protein units called capsomere each containing
many protein molecules the protein coat is called capsid.

THE FIVE KINGDOMS

All living things are divided into five kingdoms each kingdom has certain characteristics that all
members of the group share and these kingdoms are
 Monera
 Protoctista
 Fungi
 Plantae
 Animalia
Viruses do not fit neatly into any of these above kingdoms because they do not exhibit the
characteristics of living things
 KINGDOM MONERA
Monera are living organism which
closely resemble the earliest form of live
on earth they live as single cells or in
colonies of identical cells, their cells do
not have true nucleus instead their genetic
material (DNA) lies free in cytoplasm not
enclosed by nuclear membrane, their cell
wall are rigid like plant cell but they are
made of minerals called peptidoglycan
monera are found in everywhere and their
reproduction is binary fission the bacteria
are grouped in number of different ways
most bacteria are one of these three
shapes rod shaped (bacillus) round
shaped ( coccus) and spirap shaped
( sprillium)

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 ECONMIC IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA

 Are useful in the manufacture of antibiotics

 Formation of cheese, butter, milk yoghurt
 Formation of vitamin B12 and K
 Formation of hormones such as insulin in genetic engineering
 Formation of vinegar, acetic acid, lactic acid, and citric acid
 Saprophytic bacteria are used in compost decomposition or cause decay
 Symbiotic bacteria in herbivore ruminants helps in digestion

 KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA

These are unicellular and simple multicellular organisms this kingdom consist of subkingdom of algae
and subkingdom of protozoa the general characteristics of this kingdom are
 They are eukaryote organisms
 They are mainly unicellular but some are simple multicellular
 Some are autotrophic and others are heterotrophic
 Reproduction is mainly asexual by binary fission
 They are mostly mobile moving by pseudopodia, cilia or flagella

SUB KINGDMON OF ALGEA

Algae are eukaryote organisms that have no roots, stem and leaves but do have chlorophyll and other
pigment for carrying out photosynthesis algae can be multicellular or unicellular some of the algae
have cell wall and some others have no. reproduction in algae occurs both asexual and asexual

SUB KINGDMON OF PROTOZOA

Protozoa are all I unicellular organisms and heterptroph they have no cell wall and chlorophyll
although most protozoa reproduce by asexual method protozoa are found in most moist places, fresh
weather and marine environment some protozoa are free living and non-parasitic some other protozoa
are parasites which cause a disease to human

AMEOBA
TRYPANSOMA IN BLOOD

VORTICELLA

PARAMECIUM
PARA

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 KINGDOM OF FUNGI
a fungi form a large group of organisms made up of about 7500 species for many years fungi were
classified with plants but are now recognized as separate kingdom, some fungi like yeast live as a
single cells. Most have more complex structure, mushrooms are good example fungi do not have
chlorophyll and therefore cannot make food by photosynthesis they feed by digesting their food
outside themselves and then absorbing it
 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

 Some cause to our food decay

 May be used as food example yeast
 Some are used in the production of antibiotics
example penicillin
 Yeast is used in brewing industry baking and
source of vitamin B
 They cause a decay in organic matter into the
soil so it recycles the nutrients
 Help in nitrogen fixation

 PLANT KINGDOM
Plant kingdom are multicellular organisms with the chlorophyll which absorb energy from the sunlight
for plant to make food for photosynthesis and their cell wall made up of cellulose they include small
organisms such as mosses, ferns, and flowering plants
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS

 Plants are eukaryotic

 All plants are autotrophic because they have chlorophyll
 They obtain their energy from the sun
 Cell wall of plant cells comprised of cellulose
 Plants reproduce both by sexually and asexually
 Plants they lack motility
The plant kingdom has three main division namely brophyta, ptridophyta, and spematophyta

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 SPEMATOPHYTA

Most plants grow from seeds these seed plants are classified into two groups which are
 Angiosperms
 Gametophyte
Angiosperms are flowering plants there seeds develops inside the female reproductive part of the
flower called the ovary. But the gametophyte have no flower or ovaries their seeds mature inside the
cones seeds may be carried away from the parent plant by wind water and animals
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ANGIOSPERMS

 They have a flower

 Reproduce by producing seed
 Seeds enclosed
 Flowering are bisexual
 Pollen grains land on stigma of pistil
 Ovary contains ovule
The angiosperms are divided into two groups which are monocotyledon and dicotyledonous depending
on the seed leaves
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GAMETOPHYTE

 They have naked seeds

 Woody trees
 Reproduce by means of cones
 They are unisexual
 The pollen grains land directly on the ovule

 ANIMAL KINGDOM
Animals are multiellular organisms whose cell have flexible cell membrane and do not cell wall their
cell are specialized into tissue, organ, and system animal use to move to get their food which is
swallowed and digested inside the body.The animals can be classified into two main groups namely
vertebrates and invertebrates. The main difference between vertebrate and invertebrate is the the
invertebrates lacks backbone or spinal column, but vertebrate animal have spinal column which is
made up of bones and cartilage

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 INVERTEBRATES
PHYLUM CNIDARIA

Are aquatic invertebrates sometimes known as coelenterates that includes hydra, jellyfish, sea
anemones and corals.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CNIDARIA

 Cnidarians are multicellular organisms

 Hallow-sack like body single opening the mouth
 All have tentacles for catching prey and locomotion
 Reproduction is asexual
 Has simple net of nervous system
 Lives in aquatic environment mostly marines

Jelly fish Sea anemones

PHYLUM PLATTYHELINTHES (FLATWORMS)

These organisms are hermaphrodites meaning they have male and female sex organs and can produce
offspring on their own. They are also soft bodies invertebrates they have no spine

 CHARACTERISTICS OF PLATTYHELINTHES

 Bilaterally symmetrical
 They posses blind gut means they have only mouth not have anus
 They breath whole the body
 Has normally nervous system of longitude fibres
 Their reproduction mostly sexual as hermaphrodites
 Mostly they feed on animals and other small lifes
 Some species are parasites to animals

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PHYLUM NEMATODA

Nematodes occurs every habitats including as parasites of all plants and animals they do not like dry
environment they live in very dense number in the soil and rotting vegetation there are also large
number of parasitic species many of which cause a diseases to human and plants
 CHARACTERISTICS OF NEMATODA
 They have a round body
 Their body possess gut with anus
 Body covered in a complex cuticle
 Female is larger than male
 Has a nervous system
 Has no circulatory system
 Their reproduction is sexual
 Feed on just about everything

PHYLUM ANNELIDA

Annelida have soft body and segmented annelids live in mud, sand, and shady moist rocks the phylum
includes earthworms, leeches, and lugworms

 CHARACTERISTICS OF ANNELIDA
 Body segmented
 Their body possess gut with mouth and anus
 Body possess three separate section prosomium, trunk and pygidium
 Has a nervous system
 Has no true respiratory organs
 Reproduction is normally sexual or hermaphrodites
 Live in moist environment

Leeches Earthworms Lugworms

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PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

The mollusca include snails, oysters, clams, octopuses, and squid.

 CHARACTERISTICS OF MOLLUSCA

 Free living aquatic forms

 Soft body with un-segmented covered by a shell
 Digestive system is complete
 Respiratory organs in the form of gills
 Locomotors structure is represented by muscular foot
 Reproduction is sexual

Squid
Snails Octopus

PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

Arthropoda are diverse group of organisms they include insects, crustaceans, spiders, and arachnids

 CHARACTERISTICS OF ARTHROPODA

 They have a exoskeleton made up of chitin

 Segmented body ( head, thorax and abdomen)
 Jointed legs
 Their blood is colorless
 They have a compound ayes

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ISECTS:

 Have exoskeleton
 Three body parts
 Six legs
 Pair of compound ayes
 Presence of wings and some are wingless
 Pair of antenna

CRUSTACEANS

 have exoskeleton
 two body parts
 have ten legs or more
 segmented body
 have two pair of antenna
 have modified legs to catch pray
 have a pair of compound ayes

ARACHNIDA

 body divided into two parts

 simple eyes
 have eight legs
 have no antenna

DIPLOPODA (millipede)

 Have many segmented body

 Have two pairs of legs per segment
 They live in terrestrial
 Have a cylindrical body and long
 They are a herbivores
 They have a one pair of antenna

CHILOPODA (Centipede)

 They have many segmented body

 One pair of legs per segment
 They live in terrestrial
 They have a long body
 They are carnivorous

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 VERTEBRATES ( chordates)
This phylum chordates are includes fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals the vertebrates
grow very large because of their spinal column support

MAMMALIAN

 Mammals have a hair on their body

 They Homoeothermic
 they are viviparous
 they have mammary glands
 they have four chambered heart
 they have a pinna ( external ear)
 they have a diaphragm
 they have a salivary glands ,

These mammalian are include camels, donkey, cows, horses, kangaroo, impala, bat, whale, and so on

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PISCES (fishes)

 they have a fins for locomotion

 they have two chambered heart
 they have a gills for gaseous exchange
 they have lateral line foe sensitive to vibration of water
 their body temperature varies with that of environment

AMPHIBIAN

 They live in fresh water when in young and

on land when in adult
 Their body temperature varies with that of
the environment
 They have a two pairs of legs
 Webbed feet for locomotion in water
 They have three chambered heart
 They have a moist skin for gaseous
exchange

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REPTILES

 They have a scales on the body

 They all have a limbs except snakes
 They have a dry skin
 They are oviparous ( laying egg)
 They have no pinna
 They have three chambered heart but crocodile have four chambered heart
 They have no mammary glands

AVES (birds)

 they are a homoeothermic ( constant body temperature )

 they have a fur chambered heart
 they have streamlined body for locomotion in air
 they have a dry skin and covered by feathers
 they have a scales on legs
 they have a hallow bones
 they are oviparous ( laying egg)
 mouth modified into beak

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 REVIEW QUESTION IN CHAPTER ONE

1. What are the structures are usually present in all cells whether they are from animal or plants?
2. What structures are present in plant cells but not in animal cells?
3. What cell structure that controls the entry and exit of substances into and out of the body?
4. Explain how does cell membrane differ from cell wall?
5. Compare animal and plant cell?
6. State function of the following
a. Nerve cell
b. Guard cells
c. Stomata
7. Name the chief sources of energy during respiration?
8. Which produce more energy
a. Aerobic and
b. Anaerobic
9. Define osmosis and diffusion?
10. Define isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic?

 REVIEW QUESTION IN CHAPTER TWO

1. Define essential plant nutrients?

2. State types of nutrients?
3. State the roles of mace nutrients and their deficiency/
4. Explain what is soil fertility?
5. How the soil losses its fertility?
6. How soil futility can be maintained/

 REVIEW QUESTION IN CHAPTER THREE

1. Define organic manure?

2. What is the different between organic manure and in-organic manure?
3. State types of organic manure? And differentiate each of them?
4. State the methods of applying organic manure into the soil?

 REVIEW QUESTION IN CHAPTER FOUR

1. Define nutrition? State types of nutrition?

2. Define photosynthesis?
3. Explain how does the photosynthesis occur?
4. State factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis?
5. What are the raw materials of photosynthesis?

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6. State what are the functions of protein, and carbohydrates?

7. State types of carbohydrates?
8. State the function of vitamins and their deficiency/
9. Define enzymes?
10. What is the function of enzymes?
11. Explain how the temperature and PH affect the function of enzymes?
12. State where found the enzyme pepsin and trysin?
13. Define digestion?
14. State types of digestion?
15. Explain the process of digestion?

 REVIEW QUESTION IN CHAPTER FIVE

1. Explain how the skin maintains the body temperature?

2. List five sense organs and their function?
3. Explain the endocrine glands?
4. State types of glands in the human body?
5. What are the main function of endocrine glands and their hormones?
6. Define the nervous system?
7. State types of nervous system?
8. Define the neurons?
9. Stare types of neurons? And their function?
10. State types of human brain?
11. What are the functions of cerebrum?
12. What are the functions of cerebellum?
13. State the function of spinal cord?
14. Define reflex action?
15. State types of reflex action?
16. What is the central nervous system and how it works?
17. Differentiate in nervous system and endocrine system in human?
18. Describe the cerebrospinal fluid?

 REVIEW QUESTION IN CHAPTER SIX

1. Define genetics?
2. Define heredity?
3. Explain how the cell division occurs?
4. Explants the term variation?
5. Stare the two types of variation?
6. What is mutation?
7. State types of mutation?
8. State what is caused by the mutation?

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9. What are the chromosomes? And where are found?

10. How many chromosomes are there in human body?
11. What is the deferent between chromosomes and gene?
12. What is the homozygous meant?
13. Explain the structure of DNA and its function?
14. Describe the difference between mitosis and meiosis?
15. Compare the DNA and RNA?

 REVIEW QUESTION IN CHAPTER SIX

1. Define classification?
2. Explain what is binomial nomenclature?
3. Describe the dichotomous key?
4. List the five kingdoms of life?
5. State the economic benefits of bacteria and fungi?
6. What are the characteristics of mammals and birds?

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REFERENCES

Secondary biology from two book in Somaliland syllabus

Complete biology for IGCSE ( By: Ron Pickering) Oxford
Comprehensive biology from two ( By: Aanastasia Maina, and Joy Kelemba) Oxford
GCSE biology third edition ( By D.G. Mackean)
Longman biology ( By Phil Bradfeild and Steve Potter

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