HISTORY OF

Season’s greetings! If you’ve

always wanted to know more
about Christmas and its wealth
of traditions, these pages are
packed with intriguing info
and festive folklore. From the
secret history of Santa to the
names of the Three Wise Men,
from mistletoe to Mary, explore
the history of Christmas.
 HISTORY OF

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Part of the

bookazine series
 44 86

28

62
8
The nativity
The story of
Jesus' birth,
from the gospels
and history

84

History Folklore
16 Pagan Origins 44 The Three Kings 62 Animal Magic
The pre-Christian roots of ancient traditions Meet the Magi Bizarre beliefs about talking beasts

22 In the Bleak Midwinter 48 Holly and Ivy 64 The Legend of

When is Jesus' date of birth? Why do we deck the halls? the Pavuchky
Beautiful Ukrainian baubles explained
24 Son of God? 50 Under the Mistletoe
A 4th century controversy over Jesus' humanity
Christmas kisses 66 Christmas Witches
Not just for Halloween!

26 Celebrating Advent 52 The Glastonbury Thorn

The lead-up to Christmas
A miraculous Christmas flower 68 La Befana
An Italian present-giver

28 Christmastide 54 Wassailing
The 12 days of Christmas
A pagan ceremony that became a tradition 70 The Wild Hunt
A ghostly procession
56 The Mari Lwyd
36 And call off Christmas! An ancient Welsh folk custom 72 We Wish You a
The sad times when Christmas was cancelled
Scary Christmas
58 Plays Take Centre Stage Festive frights from around the world
38 How Dickens Made a Medieval mumming plays are still going strong
Modern Christmas
The Victorian roots of Christmas imagery
60 Ireland's Wren Day
A tradition from Viking Age Ireland

6
 96

52

16

68

90 88

Traditions
80 Advent Calendars 94 The Good Night 110 The Burning
A Christmas countdown A Spanish-speaking celebration Log Festival
The Yule Log
82 St Lucia's Day 96 Light in the Darkness
A Swedish celebration Midnight Mass 112 Christmas Dinners
Festive feasts
84 Who is Mary? 98 Songs of Christmas
The importance of the nativity play
Carols and hymns 116 The King of Crackers
Making Christmas go with a bang
86 Christmas Trees 100 From St Nicholas to
Popularised by the Victorians
the Mantelpiece 118 Junkanoo
Christmas stockings A Caribbean Christmas carnival
88 Baubles, Tinsel
& Holly 102 From St Nicholas to 120 Twelfth Night
The beauty of Christmas decorations Epiphany Eve
Santa Claus
How a 4th century bishop ended up giving
90 From Fire Hazard out Christmas presents 122 Christmas in Ethiopia
to Fairy Light Celebrating Genna
The evolution of Christmas lights 108 What I Want 124 Strangest Ways to
for Christmas Celebrate Christmas
92 Christmas Cards Christmas presents Bizarre traditions around the world
Season's greetings
The real Halloween

7
 The nativity has been a familiar
subject of artists for centuries
and shaped the cultural
imaginings of the Jesus’ birth

8
 The Story of the Nativity

The Story of the

The birth of Jesus is one of the best

known stories in the world, but what
does the Bible really say about it?
Written by Ben Gazur

T
he life of Jesus has been called the
Greatest Story Ever Told, and every
great story needs a good beginning.
The nativity, or birth, of Jesus is one
of the best known aspects of his life. Each year at
Christmas the tale is retold in countless homes,
churches, and TV screens across the world.
To get the whole story of the nativity, however,
you have to examine our best sources, the four
canonical gospels, and piece it together. Each gospel
was written to emphasise different aspects of the life
of Jesus and each includes details about the birth of
Jesus that may not be reflected in the others. The
Gospel of Mark, considered the first to be written of
the four, gives no narrative of the birth of Jesus at all.
The Gospel of John does not discuss Jesus’ earthly
birth but rather his genesis as the ‘word of God’ in
the beginning of time. It is from Luke and Matthew
that we must draw out the story. So what is actually
said to have happened during the nativity?

The Annunciation
It was during the reign of Herod the Great (37-1 BCE)
in the Roman province of Judea that a girl called
Mary became pregnant. Mary was pledged to be
married to a man called Joseph but the two had
not yet consummated their relationship. This was a
troubling turn of events for those involved.
In the Gospel of Luke, the angel Gabriel came to
Mary and revealed that she was pregnant with a
son that she should call Jesus. Mary was perturbed
because she was a virgin, and asked how she could
have conceived. The angel revealed that the Holy
Spirit had visited her, and that the child she would
bear would be the son of God.

9
 History of Christmas

Genealogy
of Jesus

“This is the genealogy of Jesus the Messiah

the son of David, the son of Abraham…” Thus
begins the Gospel of Matthew. The writer
then gives the male line genealogy of Jesus,
via 40 generations back to Abraham. The line
of descent as listed in Matthew misses out
several generations that are mentioned in the
Old Testament.
In the Gospel of Luke a genealogy is given
that traces Jesus’ descent all the way from
Adam. The two sets of ancestors given in the
gospels are strongly divergent and disagree
in many places. Was Joseph’s father Jacob, or
Heli? In Matthew’s telling Jesus is descended
from Solomon, son of David, while Luke
suggests it was via David’s other son Nathan.
Various attempts have been made to
reconcile these differences but why were the
genealogies felt to be so important?
Several passages in the Old Testament
include prophecies that the Messiah will come The nativity continues to inspire new
from the house of David, an Old Testament interpretations. Here Paul Gauguin has
king. By showing Jesus as a direct descendant painted the nativity in a Tahitian setting
of David, several statements about the
Messiah are shown to be fulfilled. By linking
him to Adam, the first man, the Gospel of Luke The Gospel of Matthew does not mention an what happened next in the story of the nativity.
makes Jesus a culmination of all humanity. angelic visitation to Mary, but Joseph does receive “And it came to pass in those days, that there
Both Matthew and Luke point out that one. When Joseph discovered that Mary was went out a decree from Caesar Augustus that
Joseph was not the father of Jesus, who was
pregnant his first thought was to divorce her as all the world should be taxed.” This decree from
the son of God. This rather begs the question
of whether Jesus really was then descended Jewish law demanded, but to do so discreetly to the Emperor caused a great upheaval within the
from David in the ways they demonstrate. save her from public shame. Before he could do Roman Empire.
so however, an angel appeared in a dream and Luke specifically says that this census took
announced that the child Mary was carrying was place under the governorship of Quirinius. Publius
a son given to her by the Holy Spirit. When Joseph Sulpicius Quirinius was placed in charge of the
awoke he followed the orders of the angel and province of Syria and the expansion of direct
married her despite already being pregnant. Roman authority into Judea. This took place in 6
Mary was not the only member of her family to CE. From the Jewish historian Josephus we have
have become surprisingly pregnant at this time. confirmation that a census did take place under
All the gospels mention John the Baptist preparing Quirinius. Unfortunately the timing of this census
the way for Jesus. He was born to a cousin of does not fit with the Gospel of Matthew, which
Mary’s called Elizabeth, who was elderly. When says Herod the Great was still on the throne of
an angel announced the miraculous pregnancy of Judea when Jesus was born. As Herod died in 4
Elizabeth to her husband Zechariah, the old man BCE it is impossible for both of these narratives to
was unconvinced and doubted it would come to be completely accurate.
pass. For his disbelief, Zechariah was unable to We also know that there were never censuses
speak until his son John was born. taken of the entire empire. A census was a local
While Elizabeth was pregnant with John the affair. The census of Quirinius would only have
Baptist, Mary came to visit. As soon as Mary covered Judea. As Joseph and Mary were living in
entered the house Elizabeth’s child began to leap Galilee, not a part of Judea, they would not have
in her womb and Elizabeth announced that Mary been involved. Many biblical scholars believe that
The genealogy of Jesus appears in two of was to be mother of the Messiah. Luke erred in making the census the reason Mary
the gospels and has been used to decorate and Joseph had to travel to Bethlehem. For the
churches and bibles for centuries
The Roman census purposes of his story, however, this journey was
The Gospel of Luke gives the fullest account of vital to place Jesus’ birth in that town.

10
 The Story of the Nativity

Instead of taxing people where they were living describes Mary giving birth in a cave, not in the inn were told to go there and find a child swaddled and
at the moment of the census decree, it was decided stable of the popular imagination. placed in a manger. As the angel departed, more of
that all people must return to the place of their Today if you visit the Church of the Nativity the heavenly host appeared and sang of the glory
ancestors. As Joseph was descended from King in Bethlehem, the actual spot where Jesus is of God.
David, and David’s home town was Bethlehem, he supposed to have been born is in a crypt below The shepherds hurried to follow the guidance of
and Mary were forced to leave Nazareth in Galilee a church, formed from a natural grotto. The first the angel and went at once to Bethlehem. There
and journey there to be enrolled on the taxation church on the site was build by Helena, mother of they found Mary, Joseph, and the infant Jesus in
lists. Mary at this point was heavily pregnant. the Roman emperor Constantine, in 326 CE. his manger. The shepherds told everyone they met
None of the gospels mention her A century earlier the church father of the angel’s message. All who heard them were
making the journey on a little Origen had described how the amazed. Mary took in all they said and marvelled
donkey. very manger Jesus slept in at it. The shepherds left and repeated the words of
It was while in Bethlehem could still be seen there. the angel and all they had seen, glorifying God.
that Mary gave birth to “With respect to
The various
her son, Jesus. Luke’s the birth of Jesus in The coming of the Magi
telling of the story
nativity stories Bethlehem, if anyone King Herod the Great was a suspicious man and
involves Jesus being incorporate ancient desires to have additional always on the lookout for dangers to his throne.
placed in a manger, a Jewish prophecies evidence, there is shown Herod ruled Judea but was a client king of the
trough used for feeding about a promised in Bethlehem the cave Romans. He had the support of the Romans but
animals. This makeshift saviour of Israel where he was born, and was expected to support them in turn. His crown
cradle was used because the manger in the cave was always at risk of being taken away and given to
Joseph and Mary had not where he was wrapped someone more compliant with the empire’s needs.
been able to find room at an in swaddling clothes. And He had backed Mark Antony in the Roman civil
inn where she might give birth. this sight is greatly talked of in wars but when Octavian (Augustus Caesar) was
The presence of a manger at surrounding places, even among the triumphant he was allowed to keep his throne. His
the birth site has led to many visual enemies of the faith. It is being said that in paranoia only deepened, however. In the pursuit
representations of Jesus being born in a stable. this cave was born that Jesus who is worshipped of power Herod had executed one of his wives and
Often farm animals are shown surrounding the by Christians.” put three of his sons to death.
Holy Family and sometimes kneeling before the Caves were often used for the stabling of animals Herod ordered the rebuilding of the Temple
Messiah. None of the gospels mention this. Early at this time in the region. It may well be accurate in Jerusalem that had been destroyed centuries
church tradition had Jesus being born in a cave. A that Jesus was surrounded by farm animals as he earlier. This costly undertaking was perhaps done
2nd century writer called Justin Martyr says “When came into the world. to increase his support among the Jewish people
the child was born in Bethlehem, since Joseph he ruled. Herod also ordered a temple be built and
could not find a lodging in that village, he took While shepherds watched dedicated to the emperor Augustus. His religiosity
up his quarters in a certain cave near the village; In the countryside around Bethlehem, shepherds seems to have been always in service to the
and while they were there Mary brought forth were guarding their flocks through the night. An stability of his throne.
the Christ and placed him in a manger.” The non- angel appeared before them in heavenly glory and According to the Gospel of Matthew, travellers
canonical gospel known as the Protoevangelium bid them “Be not afraid.” The angel announced the from the east arrived in Jerusalem. These Magi, or
of James, also written in the 2nd century, also birth of the Messiah in Bethlehem. The shepherds wise men, asked where they might find the newly

Images of scenes from the nativity story

appear early in Christian art, as here from
a 4th century Roman sarcophagus

11
 History of Christmas

born king of the Jews. They had observed a star the child they bowed down in adoration. As well as taken place. According to the laws of Moses a
in the heavens and followed it to locate the child. their worship they offered expensive gifts of gold, woman who has given birth is ritually impure. She
When Herod heard of this he called all the chief frankincense, and myrrh. is forbidden from entering holy places or touching
people of the city together and questioned them On leaving Jesus and Mary, the Magi were given anything used in ritual. Mary offered a sacrifice of
closely. Where was the Messiah to be born? In a warning in a dream. They were told not to return a pair of turtledoves, or a pair of young pigeons, to
Bethlehem, he was told. That at least was where to Jerusalem, nor to tell Herod what they had expiate her sins.
scripture prophesied. discovered. Departing and travelling by circuitous At the temple Jesus is seen by a holy man called
Herod had the Magi secretly brought to him, for roads, they avoided Jerusalem and escaped back Simeon. The Holy Spirit had previously revealed
he did not want to give credence to their claims. He into the East. that Simeon would not die before he had seen the
made them describe the star they were following Messiah. As soon as he saw Jesus he praised God
and when it had first appeared. With seemingly The Massacre of the Innocents and said that he could now die happy having met
benign interest he directed the Magi towards Herod the Great had not forgotten about the birth the Lord.
Bethlehem and told them “Go and search carefully of a rival to his crown, however. The Holy Family was also seen by a prophetess
for the child. As soon as you find him, report to me, The Gospel of Luke tells us that the newborn called Anna. This Anna was a devout woman aged
so that I too may go and worship him.” baby was circumcised on the eighth day after 84 who spent all her time, day and night, in the
The Magi continued to follow the star until it his birth, as was traditional for Jewish boys. He Temple offering up prayers for the salvation of
stopped over the place where Jesus was to be also received the name Jesus that the angel had Israel. On seeing the infant Jesus she gave thanks
found. At this point we are told Jesus was in a foretold. Luke then says that Jesus was presented to God for his coming and told all who she met
house, which they entered. As soon as they saw at the Temple after the period of purification had about the baby.

12
 The Story of the Nativity

The Gospel of Luke ends the tale of the nativity moments in Christian theology. It was the moment
there and says only that the Holy Family returned when God was made flesh. The birth of Jesus
to Nazareth. Jesus grew up healthy and strong there also allowed for the crucifixion, which Christians
and was filled with the favour of God. The Gospel
of Matthew, however, tells a more sinister story.
believe allowed the sins of humanity to be forgiven.
It is not surprising then that a lot of thought has
W hy
As soon as the Magi (who are not mentioned by been given to this miraculous moment. Bethlehem?
Luke) departed, Joseph received a vision of an angel The efforts to reconcile the different stories of
in a dream. This angel commanded Joseph to rise the nativity found in Matthew and Luke’s gospels,
at once. “Take the child and his mother and escape though not always successful, have given us the
to Egypt. Stay there until I tell you, for Herod is culturally accepted tale as we know it today. Each
Jesus is so closely associated with the town
going to search for the child to kill him.” Joseph of the stages of the nativity have become resonant of Nazareth that in many ancient sources he is
heeded the call, got up in the night, and bundled with meaning and emphasise differing aspects. simply called the Nazarene. His parents Mary
his family onto the road. Many artistic representations of the birth of and Joseph both lived in Nazareth according to
Luke, so how did Jesus come to be born around
Herod was apoplectic with rage that the Magi Jesus dwell on the humble nature of his birth.
70 miles away in Bethlehem? The answer lies in
had not returned to him with intelligence about Mary, who was carrying the son of God, who was biblical prophesy.
the birth of a new king of the Jews. Because he also God himself, is shown riding a donkey on the The Old Testament records the sayings of the
could not learn where exactly this child was in journey to Bethlehem to underline the quotidian prophet Micah who lived in the 8th century BCE.
In one of his statements Micah declared that:
Bethlehem from them, he ordered the slaughter of aspects of Jesus’ arrival. His entry into the world
all male children in the town who were aged under was not accompanied by pomp and ceremony. His “But you, Bethlehem Ephrathah,
two years old, to be certain Jesus was killed. The birth did not differ from those of millions of other though you are small among the clans of Judah,
children who died in this barbaric act are known as people. Yet artists may also choose to show the out of you will come for me
one who will be ruler over Israel,
the Holy Innocents. supernatural aspects of the nativity. Angels, halos, whose origins are from of old,
Joseph, Mary, and Jesus fled from Judea into and God’s light often appear in nativity images. from ancient times.”
Egypt. Only when Joseph heard of the death of The story of the nativity can encompass both
This has been taken to be a prophecy stating
King Herod did he allow the Holy Family to leave of these readings and many more. Comic tellings
that the Messiah would be born in the town
Egypt. The Gospel of Matthew says that this of the nativity have existed since the Middle of Bethlehem. The belief that the Messiah
journey fulfills a prophecy in the Book of Hosea Ages. The Second Shepherd’s Play from Wakefield would come from Bethlehem is mentioned in
that says “Out of Egypt I called my son.” features shepherds visiting a child in a manger and the Gospel of John when people question how
Jesus can be the Messiah when he comes from
Because Joseph heard that Herod’s son Archelaus offering gifts to it – only to find the baby is a stolen
Nazareth and not Bethlehem, not knowing he
was now ruling in Judea he felt it would be too lamb that has been swaddled. was born there. Bethlehem was also the place
dangerous to return there. Instead he moved his “Give me leave him to kiss, and lift up the clout. where King David was born so further links Jesus
family to a town in Galilee called Nazareth, which What the devil is this? He has a long snout.” to the line of kings.
fulfilled a prophesy that the Messiah would be The tension between the sacred and the absurd
called Nazarene. This of course differs from the in the nativity remains today. Any number of
story in the Gospel of Luke that says Joseph already films retell the nativity as it is shown in the Bible,
lived in Nazareth before travelling to Bethlehem. but you can also find satires in films like Monty
Python’s The Life of Brian. That both exist at the
Envisioning the nativity same time shows how relevant the story of the
The birth of Jesus is one of the most important nativity remains today.

The birth of Jesus in Bethlehem was the

fulfilment of a prophecy recorded in the
Old Testament that the Messiah would
come from there

Different sects of Christianity emphasise

different aspects of the nativity, and
represent it in art in differing ways
13
 26

History 38

16 Pagan Origins
The pre-Christian roots of ancient traditions

22 In the Bleak Midwinter

When is Jesus' date of birth?

24 Son of God?
A 4th century controversy over Jesus' humanity
22
26 Celebrating Advent
16 The lead-up to Christmas

28 Christmastide
The 12 days of Christmas

36 And call off Christmas!

The sad times when Christmas was cancelled

38 How Dickens Made a

Modern Christmas
The Victorian roots of Christmas imagery
 28

26

36

24

15
 History

An 1836 depiction of a druidic

looking ‘Old Christmas’ riding a goat

16
 Pagan Origins

Christmas might be a uniquely Christian

celebration but its traditions owe a lot to the pagan
people who inhabited the western world long
before the birth of Christ, and their festivals to
celebrate the winter solstice
Written by Alice Pattillo

C
hristmas, literally meaning Christ’s – which was finally fermented and ready to drink,
Mass, is of course a Christian tradition and understandably, many people were keen to
that arose nearly 2000 years ago in drink plenty of it to pass the time. With no clocks,
celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ. astronomical events guided ancient cultures, and
However, it is not the first major festival that solar occurances such as the winter solstice gave
occurred around the winter solstice, and while it people hope. The longest night gave way to longer
may or may not have sprung up independently of days and signs of spring and life would start to
other midwinter celebrations, both pre-Christian creep in. It was therefore a time to celebrate and
Neolithic beliefs and concurrent pagan pageants thank the gods that the winter was almost over.
have shaped the ways in which we celebrate Midwinter solstice was seen as a time of rebirth
Christmas today. in many cultures, and was often their New Year.
Winter was a terrifying season for our ancestors. Many of these traditions were then filtered into
In the north, winters were bitterly cold and plagues Christmas, shaping our annual celebrations of the
ran rife as people were cooped up inside, shivering season even today.
by the fire and picking scraps of food. Many fresh
fruit and vegetables were a summer luxury, while Classical Christmas
livestock had been culled in anticipation of the The first time the date of Christmas was
harsh weather and limited resources. You were recorded as 25 December is the Roman calendar
lucky to survive the dark, freezing nights without of Philocaus, produced in 354AD. According to
succumbing to starvation, hypothermia or worse. late 4th century Christian writer, Scriptor Syrus,
Antoine-Franaois Callet’s Winter or The
Farmers, warriors and fishermen were all left this date was chosen due to a pagan custom
Satunalia, a 1783 Renaissance depiction without work, and the only thing that seemed to celebrating the birth of the sun. This pagan feast
of the pagan Roman midwinter feast
flow freely during the bleak midwinter was booze only pre-dated the emergence of Christmas by

17
 History

and New Year. Romans would begin the festival

of Saturnalia with a sacrifice at the Temple of
Saturn – an agricultural deity who had, according
to myth, previously ruled the universe during a
Golden Age of peace and abundance. Following
this ritual, a public banquet was held, known as
a lectisternium, complete with an image of the
god fashioned as if in attendance. Large-scale
The Yule log was at the centre of Christmas carnival-style festivities and feasts would see out
tradition from the medieval period onwards. It the day, with further celebrations continuing for
was dragged into the house and lit on the hearth
to warm the household during their festivities of A 1754 depiction of Celtic druids gathering in and at least two more days (the 17, 18 and 19 were
eating, drinking, dancing and reciting ghost tales around an oak tree covered with sacred mistletoe
public holidays in which schools, shops and
lawcourts were closed), both at home and in
a mere century and was an attempt by Roman public. Saturnalia eventually became a fullblown
emperor Aurelian to unite the Roman world in week-long festival with houses decorated in
a universal focus on worship, by building upon greenery (sound familiar?). The continued
Sol Invictus a Syrian cult of the Unconquered Sun that had private festivities honored various aspects of life
spread through the Roman Empire during the associated with Saturn including role reversal and
second and third centuries. Aurelian’s official throwing social norms to the wind. Slaves were
religion, the cult of Sol Invictus (the Latin term treated to a banquet of the calibre that was usually
The sun god is a familiar figure, with numerous for Unconquered Sun), lasted only until the reserved for their masters, and perhaps even
variations spanning religions across the globe, as reign of Constantine I (306-337AD), the first dined beside them. It was also a time of mockery
the sun is associated with giving and sustaining Christian Roman emperor, although, reportedly, and free speech, where people were given a
all life. The sun god is often thought of as the
male creation god, in contrast to the female Sol Invictus cult followers endured until at least certain behavioural license, dubbed by Horace as
aspect of the moon goddess. In later ancient the 5th century. Under Aurelian, a “December liberty”, and it was the only
Egyptian mythology this was the case, with the new temple for Sol was built, time of year slaves could get away
creator Amun often identified as a solar deity.
which was dedicated to the with answering back or even
The Persian sun god was Mithras, and was central
to the Roman mystery religion of Mithraism. god on 25 December 274 making fun of their owner.
Mithras is often seen in Roman art banqueting CE. According the the Everyone was required to
with another deity of Roman religion, Sol Invictus Phiocalian calendar, this Many pre- dress colourfully and do
(Latin for “Unconquered Sun”), but the true
date became a feast day Christian away with the traditional
nature of their relationship is unknown, with
known as Natalis Invicti, white toga. Gambling
some historians contemplating whether they are
but this calendar also
midwinter festivals was also permitted at
two versions of the same god, in a similar fashion
to how the sun god Helios is often described as mentions the birth of
share elements of Satunalia, something
the Greek equivalent to Sol. While the identity
Jesus and there is no light, greenery, and that was usually
of Sol Invictus is hotly debated, it is likely just
another name for (or indeed incarnation of, as other reference to an gift-giving prohibited and seen as
the Romans were always adopting others’ similar annual celebration held in poor taste. There was an
gods) the established Roman sun god, Sol. It is honor of Sol on this date. In appointed King of Saturnalia,
likely that he gained the epithet “unconquered”
due to a cult that had originated in Syria and
fact, games were held in honor the equivalent to the medieval
spread throughout the Roman Empire. In 274CE, of Sol every three years in late tradition of the Lord of Misrule,
Emperor Aurelian established 25 December October and even the Syrian predecessor and there may have been instances
as Natalis Invicti, the birth of the sun and Sol of the Cult of Sol Invictus held its annual feasts in of guising too; but the most important aspect
Invictus’ feast day. He had already reformed
the Roman cult of Sol, elevating the god to late summer rather than midwinter. Therefore, the of Saturnalia in regards to its influence on the
one of the most important gods in the Roman date chosen as Christmas may have more to do modern celebration of Christmas was the giving of
pantheon. Some historians believe that Jesus with the winter solstice than Sol Invictus. gifts. On 19 December, the day of Sigilaria (literally
was envisioned as a Christianised version of Sol
The Romans were not sure of the exact date of translated as gifts of pottery or wax figurines,
Invictus – or indeed a generic pagan sun god, and
this is why Christmas is held on 25 December. the winter solstice – the term itself derived from traditional presents to receive at Saturnalia), gifts
the Latin term for ‘the sun stands still’, often citing were shared and often accompanied by a poetry
anywhere from 23 December to 27 December as verse or two, an ancient Christmas card if you will.
the shortest day and the longest night. It can’t Interestingly, laurel or evergreen wreaths worn
be coincidence then, that 25 December lies right as a crown were a common indication of success
in the middle of this, and in fact, the calendar in poetry or music, and at Saturnalia, a time of
of Julius Caesar credited the 25th as the solstice, poetry reading and the arts, this image may have
midway between the ancient Roman feast of been adopted into the crown of thorns we now
Saturnalia on 17 December and the Roman New associate with Jesus Christ. Music, poetry and art
A Roman coin depicting Emperor Year celebrations of Kalendae on 1-3 January. These have also all survived into the modern Christmas,
Aurelian with Sol Invictus on the back two celebrations share many of the traditions with carol singing, pantomime and Christmas
that we now associate with modern Christmas crafting remaining popular during the festive

18
 Pagan Origins

An illustration depicting the ancient

Nordic yule festival, published in
weekly journal Die Gartenlaube in 1880

season. Curiously, there is no evidence of theatrical heavily influenced the later Abrahamic religions (of which the midwinter sun shines, but it captures
events being a part of the Saturnalia tradition, which Christianity is one) and which was prevalent the sunset rather than the sunrise. Most notably of
but the Roman style of comedy, often satirical across the Roman Empire before the advent of all, perhaps, is that the spectacular Stonehenge is
and poking fun at deities and those in power, no Christianity. Yaldā (meaning ‘birth’, in reference to aligned in the direction of the sunrise at summer
doubt imbued the spirit of the season. When Rome the sun god Mithras) is celebrated on or around solstice and the sunset at winter solstice. The fact
became officially a Christian nation, during the 21 December. Yaldā Night marks the longest night that these highly intricate, sophisticated structures
reign of Constantine I, it took a little while for the of the year and represents ‘light over darkness’, as that would have required a huge amount of
Romans to fully convert to the new doctrine – and it ushers in the start of longer days and shorter planning and labour to construct are connected
to part with the fun of Saturnalia, which continued nights. People still celebrate the festival in modern to the cardinal points of the sun indicates that
to be celebrated for another century by many day Iran and gather to eat, drink and recite poetry midsummer and midwinter were incredibly
Romans, although it did lose its original links to (similarly to traditions associated with Saturnalia) important times of the year to prehistoric Britons
Saturn and became more of a midwinter excuse and traditional red fruits in the form of watermelon and of great ritual significance. However, no written
for a frolic (much like Christmas for many modern and pomegranates are consumed (symbolising the records survive relating to either solstice or even a
secular folks). Romans were also known for their sun, light and fire) as well as mixed nuts, and fires solar deity. In fact, some of the only accounts we
religious flexibility, adopting and assimilating and candles are lit. It is customary to stay awake as have to reflect the pagan past of Britain and Ireland
aspects of pagan deities and traditions from across long as possible in order to stay alert and avoid evil – or indeed any other Celtic nation – cast more
the empire into their pantheon, seeing no issue in and misfortune. reverence upon the equinoxes than the solstices.
fusing various religions into their own. It is likely According to Roman historian Pliny, however,
then that this flexibility encouraged them to retain Ancient influences there are some residual Celtic aspects that still
their much-loved seasonal festival, amalgamating it In the British isles, Neolithic monuments were lurk in modern day Christmas, namely mistletoe.
into the new celebration of Christmas. built in alignment with cardinal points of the sun. He wrote that the Celts of Gaul held the parasitic
Along with Saturnia and Kalendae, the ancient The passage grave of Newgrange in Ireland has plant sacred, particularly when found near an oak
Persian winter solstice festival of Yaldā shares an aperture above its entrance through which tree. The plant would be gathered on the sixth
some distinct similarities to the modern Christian the midwinter rising sun shines, even with the day of the moon, a day upon which Gallic tribes
tradition. Yaldā’s origin lies in the mysterious entrance itself concealed. A similar passage grave would traditionally begin their months and years. It
religion of Mithraism, a sect of the ancient in Orkney, Scotland, named Maes Howe, also appears then, that Gallic Celts were more concerned
monotheistic religion of Zoroastrianism, which features a gap left above its entrance through with the lunar calendar than the solar one.

19
 History

A photograph from the 1980s

capturing the sunrise at
Stonehenge on the winter solstice
and disir, who were said to have their annual blot
The Anglo-Saxons and “North Men” or “Vikings”, (sacrificial holiday) during the undoubtedly pagan
as the Scandinavians were often called, shaped feast, the Norse Winter Nights – held in October,
the landscape of post-Roman Britain significantly. around the time of Halloween. In 725, Bede
While the religions of Rome and the Middle claimed that the pagan calendar shared by the
East may have had an impact on the arrival of Britons, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings and other Germanic
Christmas, earlier Germanic and Scandinavian groups combined the Roman months of December
winter solstice celebrations were perhaps the most and January, referring to the period as Giuli. This
influential pre-Christian traditions regarding the time began essentially at winter solstice, when the
way we celebrate Christmas today. daylight slowly started to creep back in and winter
The Anglo-Saxons settled in Britain during was thankfully coming to an end. This period was
the 5th century, originating from a variety of considered a time of rebirth and celebration, as life
Germanic tribes, and quickly assimilated into was returning to the earth.
life alongside the indigenous Brits. According to The term Yule is a word we commonly use
the English monk and historian Bede in 730, the as a synonym for Christmas, and is a colloquial
most significant annual festival of the English was Scandinavian term for the three days over
a celebration they called “Modanicht”, meaning Christmas or Winter Solstice. The word derives
“Mother’s Night”, and was held on Christmas Eve. from the Old Norse “jol” the origin of which is
There is very little information about this elusive largely unknown. Yule itself may have developed
night and the rites it entailed, in fact, it may well in reference to the Christian festival, but there
have been a Christian nativity feast in honor of is evidence that it is likely a much older term.
the Virgin Mary. Indeed, Anglo-Saxons, despite 13th century Icelandic scholar Snorri Sturluson
converting to Christianity by the 7th century, still explained a pattern in Old Nordic tradition of
referred to Christmas simply as Midwinter as late sacrificing first during the Winter Nights, in order to
as 1038 – the same year in which the term “Cristes initiate an easy winter season, secondly at Yule for
Maessan”, Christmas, first appears. While Mother’s a good crop, and for success in battle on Summer’s
Night may have developed out of Christianity, it Day (in April). According to Sturluson, Yule lasted at a heathen temple where ale was consumed in
also could have equally existed as a pre-Christian three nights, beginning on winter solstice night gallons – in fact Haakon passed a law to ensure
pagan sacrificial rite in honor of the collective (although this exact date is speculated by modern enough ale would be made available. As with all
ancestral mothers, deities such as the Norse norns scholars) and the Norse new year and the festival blots, it was quite the blood bath. Animals were
had been adapted into and moved to the same date sacrificed to the gods and sacrificial blood was
A 19th century artist’s impression as the feast of the nativity by the Christian king of collected and dispersed all over the pedestals of the
of Stonehenge, as it is believed to
have looked when built Norway, Haakon the Good, during the 10th idols, smeared upon the temple walls and splattered
century. A tried and tested way to garner upon faces using sacrificial twigs. The meat of the
support from pesky pagans was animals was then cooked and consumed (a boar’s
to assimilate their most popular head often as the centrepiece), fires were lit in the
pastimes and simply transfer centre of the temple and kettles hung above them.
all honour to the Christian There were toasts to the gods Odin, Njörðr and
God. Whether or not the term Freyr to welcome a good harvest next season and
Yule was used for the pre- inspire peace and prosperity, as well as in honour of
Christian pageant, midwinter all those who had departed in the past year.
undoubtedly harboured an When the Vikings began settling in Britain
important sacrificial feast that during the 8th century, they brought their raucous
began the year in Scandinavia. winter solstice frolics with them, much to the
This Pagan Yule was a Norse Christian Saxons’ dismay. Between the 4th and
“blot”, where a public feast was held 11th centuries there are no further mentions of the

20
 Pagan Origins

The bleak
midwinter

Winter solstice has long been observed by

ancient civilisations across the globe. With
midwinter ushering in the return of longer
days and shorter nights, there are many beliefs
surrounding the solstice that have transcended
cultures since the dawn of time. Lore regarding
fears of the darkness, rituals surrounding
death and rebirth – particularly the return of
the sun, new beginnings and new year cycles,
celebrations involving alcohol, and facing our
own mortality, are all aspects of various winter
solstice celebrations across the globe. In Jewish
tradition, the days leading up to the winter
solstice should be spent fasting and praying as
legend has it that Adam (the first man) believed
the shorter nights indicated impending death.
At winter solstice, he rejoiced with a feast. In
the Americas, the Incas used to celebrate Inti
Raymi on the winter solstice, in honor of their
most venerated deity, the sun god Inti. Lasting
nine days, there were sacrifices to ensure a
good harvest season, colourful dances and
processions. In India, Hindus observe the festival
of Makar Sankranti in honor of the sun goddess
Surya. Held at the beginning of January, it
marks the end of the month with the longest
night. Praying and charity are elements of the
festival that are shared with Christmas. In Japan,
Dongzhi – meaning the extreme of winter – is
held at the winter solstice and was originally a
An illustration by Bernard Picart, depicting harvest celebration. Today, people celebrate with
the Incan festival of Inti Raymi, published in dumplings, red beans, and family parties, while
Jean-Frédéric Bernard’s book, Cérémonies et
coutumes religieuses de tous les peuples du also ensuring they ward off any evil spirits.
monde, 1723

Roman pagan festival of Saturnia in contemporary seen in various forms of later folklore. The Norse Claus may have possibly been inspired by him. The
records, but the pagan midwinter and new year also told tales of undead creatures called the draugr, Yule Father was known to ride in a sleigh pulled by
feasts of ancient Northern Europe continued to who wandered the earth at this time of year, his eight-legged horse, Slepnir, often gave out gifts,
disrupt the church for centuries, proving that the sparking centuries of spooky Christmastide stories and disguised himself as an old man with a wide-
Norse were not willing to let go of their solstice of ghosts and spirits. brimmed hat – a common description of Santa prior
celebrations, whether continuing them under the Yuletide was also the time that the folkloric to the Victorian drawings of cartoonist Thomas
guise of Christianity or not. Wild Hunt would ride, in some traditions led by Nast, who produced the modern look of Father
Between 1005 and 1008, the Archbishop of York the all-father, Odin. This ghostly legend spread Christmas. The Yule Goat, likely stemming from
condemned the Viking settlement’s New Year’s Day throughout Western Europe, and always rode kid goats being sacrificed to the Norse agricultural
festivities as sorcery and in the late 12th century, between Halloween and New Year. The trope god Njörðr, became a symbol of Christmas and
the Bishop of Exeter served penance for “those who could be an indication that the midwinter pagan one of its gift-bringers; the Yule Log is still burned
keep the New Year with heathen rites”. One 14th Germanic festivities had grown out of a Stone and to ward off evil spirits and also now eaten as cake;
century text references, and warns against, the use Bronze Age festival for the dead and reverence of and Yule singing became carolling. The Yule Boar,
of magic on New Year’s Day, while another 15th the ancestors – and similar festivals can be seen an offering to harvest god Freyr, has been retained
century work referenced the tradition of New Year during this season in numerous cultures across the in the form of the tradition of Christmas ham and
divination. The idea that Yuletide, or at least winter world. Many Yule traditions most likely stemmed in medieval England, the tradition’s origins were
(beginning, in some traditions, at Halloween), is out of this pre-Christian feast and managed to credited to a scholar choking a boar on the way to
when the veil between worlds is lifted, making survive into the modern day, becoming popular Christmas mass. In the medieval world, all of these
it the perfect time for magic and fortune-telling, modern Christmas customs. Odin is also referred to disparate traditions were brought together under
continued well into the modern era and can be as the Yule Father, and early incarnations of Santa Christianity, and became part of Christmas.

21
 History
The gifts – gold,
frankincense and
myrrh – given
by the Magi to
the infant Jesus
became precursors
for general gift
giving, first at
Epiphany and
then at Christmas

In the

Christmas is celebrated on 25 December, so that

must be Jesus’s date of birth. Or is it?
Written by Edoardo Albert

T
he first Christians went out into systematising dates at a time when they were set the calligrapher Furius Dionysius Filocalus. The
the world spreading the news of down according to the reigns of emperors, consuls dating information in the Chronograph dates from
the death and resurrection of Jesus. and governors, the foundation of Rome and other about 20 years earlier so we know that Christmas
As such, by far the most important events was an incredibly difficult task. As to the was being celebrated in Rome by at least 350 CE.
festival for them was Easter. The rituals for the actual date of Jesus’ birth, early Christian writers Within 50 years, Christmas had become firmly
feast grew to include the whole of Holy Week and offered differing ideas, mostly based on theological established as one of the great feasts of the Church,
then expanded further with 40 days of Lent before predictions of what would have been the most alongside Easter, Pentecost and Epiphany.
Easter and the feast of Pentecost after Easter. appropriate day for his birth. We now use BCE/CE With little knowledge of the exact date of Jesus’s
Epiphany, the feast of Christ’s baptism, was added dates to refer to the Common Era. birthday, the question arises as to whether these
to the liturgical calendar on 6 January by at least In the early 3rd century, the historian Sextus early Christians knew the real birthdate of Jesus
the early 200s and it soon became associated Julius Africanus wrote a chronology of the world or timed their feast to coincide with the pagan
with the visit of the Magi to the infant Jesus. In based upon biblical evidence in which he placed Roman feast of Sol Invictus, also held on 25
the Eastern Orthodox churches, Epiphany remains the date of the Annuciation (that is, Jesus’s December. A later Christian writer, Scriptor Syrus,
the feast most associated with present giving to conception) on 25 March. Nine months from that stated as much. However, Scriptor Syrus (who is
commemorate Jesus’s birth. date gives us 25 December as Jesus’ date of birth. actually anonymous) wrote sometime after 1171,
But the actual date of Jesus’ birth was not easy Africanus’ work has not survived but it was much putting him a long, long time after these events.
to work out. Indeed, the monk who devised the quoted in early Church authors, indicating that it Moreover, the first mention of a Roman pagan
BC/AD system of calculating dates got it wrong: was widely read and influential. festival occurring on 25 December appears in the
King Herod died by 2 BC at the latest and more Following the historical traces of Christmas on, very same Chronograph of 354 that also records
probably in 4 BC, so Jesus was actually born before by 353/54 Christmas was given as the eighth day that date as the birth of Christ. As such, there is no
the calendar says he was. This might sound like a of the Kalends of January (that is 25 December) in way to say for sure which feast came first or if the
silly mistake on the part of Dionysius Exiguus but the Chronograph of 354, a calendar produced by two feasts grew together.

22
 In the Bleak Midwinter

The journey of the Magi to greet

the infant Jesus quickly became
associated with the Feast of
Epiphany on 6 January

23
 The Nicene Creed, which explicitly
said God the Son was equal to God
the Father, was the most significant
outcome of the Council of Nicaea

24
 Son of God

What did it mean to be the son of God? In the

4th century, Christians had to answer that
question definitively
Written by Edoardo Albert

W
hat was Jesus? This was the Bishop of Myra, Nicholas – the same St Nicholas
the question that came to that is now the Santa Claus of Christmas gift-giving.
preoccupy Christians in the Nicholas was particularly scathing about the heretical
4th century. They knew who beliefs of the Arians – a later account says he got so
Jesus was, they knew where and when he had lived cross he slapped one of the heretics across the face.
and died, and lived again. But in the 4th century the But why was it so important? If Jesus was not God,
question of what he was split the Roman Empire in God in the fullest sense, then Jesus’ redemption was
half. Jesus himself claimed a number of titles, most not all-embracing. And certainly his human birth,
frequently Son of Man, but also Son of God. The marked at Christmas, wasn’t as important or worthy
early Church had proclaimed him God and man. But of celebration if that was the case.
these Christians were living in a time when even After his outburst Nicholas was locked up for the
the most bloodstained pervert wearing the imperial rest of the meeting, and his bishop’s robes were taken
purple could declare himself a living god. Gods in from him. During the night, he had a vision of Jesus
the shape of men were the common currency of and Mary, who asked him why he was imprisoned.
belief. However, the early Church declared that Jesus On receiving his answer, that it was for love of them,
was not merely one god among many but rather Jesus presented him with a book of the gospels
the creator of heaven and earth, the One God who and Mary with a priestly robe. The next morning,
became Man. Nicholas’ jailers found him miraculously clothed as
It pushed human credulity. After all, would the a bishop once more and reading scripture. Seeing
all-powerful creator of everything really accept being this, the Council thought it best to take his side and
born into poverty and then dying on a cross? Surely declared that Jesus was truly God, formulating the
it made more sense for God to have sent his agent to Nicene Creed to express that belief. This combined
do this work for him – call him a son if you must but with his famous gift-giving gave Nicholas a strong
Jesus was clearly created, in the working out of time, association with Christmas.
by God to carry out the task appointed to him. Arianism endured for two centuries more among
This was the case put forward by the presbyter the Germanic tribes who had conquered northern
Arius (c.256-336 CE) and it rapidly gained ground, Europe, only slowly dying out, so Christmas remained
particularly among a population who had not given unimportant there for some time. But the coronation
much thought to the details of their belief. But for of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor in Rome
the Church bishops who gathered at the Council by the Pope on Christmas Day 800 CE saw the
of Nicaea in 325, these were not details but the descendants of those Germanic tribes embrace the
foundations of their belief. Emperor Constantine Catholic Church and dedicate themselves to it as
called the council to sort out these outstanding protectors. Christmas, the Emperor and Rome became
matters of doctrine and among the attendees was united in the empire the Franks were restoring.

25
 History

Each of the four advent candles

represents someone in the nativity
story, with the centre white candle
being lit on Christmas Day

26
 Celebrating Advent

Celebrating Advent
Uncover how the way we celebrate the lead-up
to Christmas has changed over the years
Written by Katharine Marsh

W
hen it comes to of the World’ coming to end the darkness before Easter, and it continued, even so far as
deciding when to of winter. But it has always had a second to be called ‘St Martin’s Lent’ in the 560s. The
start celebrating meaning, and in the past the church would fasting spread from France to England, Italy,
Christmas and take the chance to reflect on the prophesied Germany, Spain and beyond. Fasting would
getting those decorations up, many people Second Coming, when Jesus would rise again fall out of fashion, and in 1362 it was replaced
have one date they wait for: the beginning of to save the world from its sins. by a period of abstinence, as introduced by
Advent. Spanning the fourth Sunday before The oldest extant document mentioning Pope Urban V. However, the Greek Orthodox
Christmas Day right up to Christmas Eve, its Advent comes from St Gregory of Tours, Church continues to observe fasting through
history goes back to about 480 CE. who claims that one of his predecessors, St Advent starting from 14 November; flesh
Undoubtedly a highlight of the Christian Perpetuus, decreed a fast three times a week meat, butter, milk and eggs are all banned.
calendar, Advent – from the Latin word from the feast of St Martin (11 November) In Western Christianity, the liturgical
‘adventus’, meaning ‘coming’ – is the until Christmas Day around 480 CE. It was colour for Advent has been violet since the
preparation for the birth of Jesus, the ‘Light almost like a parallel to the Lent period 13th century. Some denominations, like the
Lutheran Church of Sweden, use blue instead,
to represent the hope that the season brings.
When it comes to celebration, there is a
whole host of services and musical events
that take place throughout the season. Each
Sunday of Advent is dedicated to different
members of the Christmas story (week
one is for the Patriarchs, week two for the
Prophets, week three for John the Baptist
and week four is for the Virgin Mary), and
many churches hold extra events like Nine
Lessons and Carols, Christingle and Carols
by Candlelight.
Over time, Advent has become more of
a time for celebration than penance. With
wreaths, calendars, music and more, it is
now mainly celebrated as a season of hope
and joy – the perfect way to start off the
St Perpetuus, who liturgical year.
possibly started
the advent fasting Pope Urban V introduced a
period of abstinence leading
up to Christmas Day
27
 Christmastide:

Christmas is not just a single day in the church calendar

but the start of a period of celebration for Jesus’ birth
Written by Ben Gazur

28
C
hristmas has traditionally been one of the would think Christmas lasts just one day given the long
most important periods in both church built up to the day itself and the long recovery that lasts
and secular calendars. It began as a day into the new year.
of celebration for the birth of Jesus, who Christmastide, the season of Christmas, was first
Christians believe is the son of God, with a mass in declared in 567 CE by the Council of Tours as 12 days
church – literally ‘Christ mass’. of sacred festivity. This was the period of celebration
The nativity, the story of Jesus’ birth, has grown in that followed the fasting and deprivation of Advent. For
importance across the centuries. The idea that God Christians this was a way of distinguishing the drab
would take on human form to give humanity an and hopeless world before Jesus and the miraculous
opportunity of salvation was vital to the lives of millions. joy of God being made manifest among humans. In the
Commemorating the day Jesus appeared offered a focal medieval church this period of festivity was lengthened
point for worship and community to Christians. to 40 days which lasted from Christmas to Candlemas.
In the calendars of many churches Christmas is not While some of the days which make up Christmastide
a single day however. It is just the beginning of a longer have fallen out of popular celebration in Britain and
season that focuses on the nativity of Jesus. From 25 elsewhere, they remain important dates in others. Each
December until the celebration of Epiphany on 6 January day is tied to specific traditions, church services, and
there are a number of important church dates that are folklore. Each of the days of Christmastide can boast its
marked each year. Even in secular society few people own unique flavour and significance.

29
History

F
or millions of people Christmas Day very

The Start of literally begins at 12am. Many Christians

attend a church service that starts as the
clock ticks over into the 25 December.

Christmas
Waking up on Christmas morning to piles
The tradition of holding a mass at midnight
began in the early 5th century but spread
throughout Catholic Europe in the Middle Ages.
Today the Pope actually holds a mass several hours
before midnight and it is referred to as the Mass
During the Night, but many other denominations
continue to hold their first Christmas service at
of gifts is just the first event that marks the midnight. In Spanish-speaking countries this is
known as Misa de Gallo – the Rooster’s Mass –
opening of Christmastide because it takes place so early.
These early masses are often cause for festivity,
with meals either before or after the service. In

Today most children look

forward to a visit from
Father Christmas but
Christmas has much more
going on than presents
 Christmastide

Poland, Wigilia suppers are eaten before attending Germany, to the striped candy canes of the United
Pasterka – the Shepherds’ Mass. Traditionally these States, conspicuous consumption of sugar is one of
meals are eaten once the first star is seen in the the marks of a successful festive period.

12 Days Carol sky on Christmas Eve. Christmas morning is then

greeted with a large breakfast. Food and feasting
The winter was often a lean season for many
people when food was relatively scarce or
has long been a part of the Christmas tradition expensive. By providing a feast on Christmas they
wherever it is observed. were looking forward to a bountiful year ahead.
In the past the period of Advent was a time of These foods could be stored for long periods
No one likes a person who brags about how
many Christmas presents they got, but one of the fasting and penitence in the build-up to Christmas. because of their sugar, or alcoholic, content,
best loved carols is told from the point of view of Fasting was not universally practiced but some which spread the cost of the meal. A traditional
someone who had a very bountiful season. The form of abstinence might be expected. For Christmas pudding is made on Stir-up Sunday, the
12 Days of Christmas was first printed in 1780
and has been a staple of caroling ever since.
Christians the arrival of Christmas and the birth of Sunday before Advent, when the whole household
The song recounts the gifts given by a lover Jesus gave them all the excuse they needed to let comes together to mix the pudding before it is put
over the 12 days of Christmastide. Beginning loose and toast the day with food and drink. away to mature. Panettone, Buche de Noel, and
with a partridge in a pear tree the lucky singer While Christmas has become increasingly Stollen are all rich and sweet cakes that would
receives two turtle doves, three French hens,
four colly birds, five gold rings, six geese a-laying, secularised it remains the busiest day for many have fortified hungry mouths at Christmas.
seven swans a-swimming, eight maids a-milking, churches. Attendance at services is usually at its The Feast of St Stephen on 26 December is
nine ladies dancing, ten lords a-leaping, eleven highest and several masses or events may be held a public holiday in many countries. The day is
pipers piping, and twelve drummers drumming.
across the day itself. Because Christmas has long marked by more feasting and celebration where
In total 78 gifts are given, or 364 if you count
each time a present is mentioned. been a public holiday in traditionally it is celebrated. Some use the opportunity
In 2021 the cost of all this largesse was Christian nations, people have to consume what was left over from
calculated. If 78 gifts are given then it would take always had more opportunity the day before. In Catalonia
$41,205 (£31,000) to buy them all. This includes
to visit churches, as well as rich pasta dishes are filled
the rental cost of the various lords and ladies
hired for the day. spend their free time on Stir- with the meat that was not
Alternative versions of the song have been other activities. eaten on Christmas day.
collected that include ships a-sailing and bears
up Sunday
One of the most Other traditions are more
a-baiting. While many people sing about ‘calling
widespread traditions
is named for a esoteric, however.
birds’ the more traditional lyrics refer to colly
birds. These are blackbirds, called colly due to is the giving of gifts line in a prayer, In Ireland St Stephen’s
their coal-like appearance. on Christmas. Several which became a Day is known as Wren
stories are linked to reminder to make Day. One explanation
The 12 Days of Christmas is a huge list of
presents. Its significance is debated but
why exactly presents the Christmas for this is that according
are exchanged on this to legend God once
it’s thought it was once a memory game pudding
day. Some link it directly challenged all birds to see
to the Magi who presented who could fly the highest. As
the infant Jesus with gold, the contest went on most of the
frankincense, and myrrh. Others tell birds dropped out from exhaustion, but
the story of how the 4th century St Nicholas the eagle continued to soar ever higher. Just as
provided gifts to poor people. Because there are a the eagle tired, however, a wren, which had hidden
range of gift-givers in the folklore of Christmas it itself under the eagle’s wings, fluttered out and
is not always on Christmas morning that presents claimed the prize as king of the birds.
are given but in western culture it is the most The celebrants of Wren Day used to dress up
widespread and popular occasion. and hunt a wren. When the bird was caught it was
The central act for many at Christmas is the imprisoned and placed on the top of a staff. The
consumption of a sumptuous meal. The specific crowd would then parade it through the streets
meal eaten changes from culture to culture. In and sing a song calling for those present to give
Britain most families will sit down to a roast dinner them gifts. Today the wren at the centre of the
of turkey and all the trimmings. Around 10 million ceremony is fake, but the mummers who sing
turkeys are eaten each Christmas. While historically remain. Some dress in long costumes made of
other meats like beef, goose, or even a boar’s head straw. Not many wren hunts still take place but
were the heart of the feast. Turkeys have been it is common for Irish people to spend the day
popular in Britain since at least the 16th century. visiting friends and family.
Other countries prefer other meats. In Central As St Stephen was the patron saint of horses
Europe it is common to find a large roast carp as many rituals developed in Europe about using
the main course on the Christmas table. Fish is also his day to bless horses. Riders bring their horses
served in Scandinavia. In Portugal it is salted cod through the streets and up to the door of a church
that graces the table. where a priest waits to bless them for the coming
Sweet treats also form a central part of Christmas year. In Austria the horses also receive a meal of
traditions. From the ubiquitous marzipan of blessed bread and salt.

31
 History

The middle days of

Pranks and Christmastide are less

celebrated than the others

Boy Bishops but contain some of the

stranger traditions of
the season

T
he 27th day of December is the feast by King Herod as he attempted to kill Jesus. The children were allowed to whip whoever they liked
day of St John the Apostle, also known Catholic church considers these children to be the with small twigs and branches. This perhaps was a
as John the Beloved. He was considered first martyrs as they died for Jesus’ sake. means of children getting revenge on behalf of the
by many Christians to be the author of the Gospel Understandably many considered the day which murdered infants. In Central Europe boys would
of John, several letters of the New Testament, and these babies were slaughtered on to be one of ill whip girls as a form of providing them with luck,
the Book of Revelation. Modern scholars doubt omen. Bad luck was supposed to be particularly while chanting this song:
that he did actually write these but he remains an likely to occur on this day. The British referred to
important saint in the history of Christianity. the day as Childermas and many activities were “Many years of healthy life,
In the Bible, John was one of the disciples of banned to try and ward off bad luck. No laundry Happy girl, happy wife:
Jesus, along with his brother James. The Gospel of could be done, no new enterprises should be Many children, hale and strong,
John describes one of the apostles as “the disciple started, and certainly no marriages should be Nothing harmful, nothing wrong,
whom Jesus loved” and historically this was solemnised on this day. King Louis XI of France, Much to drink and more to eat;
thought to refer to John himself. At the Last Supper known as Louis the Prudent, was very particular Now we kindly beg a treat!”
John is thought to have reclined beside Jesus. After about not doing anything on this day of the feast
Jesus’ death, John was called one of the pillars of for fear of bad luck. He took this further by trying The idea of children taking charge on Childermas
and main influences on the early church. Tradition not to do anything on the same day of the week as is an ancient one. In the Middle Ages it was
has it that John was the only one of the disciples to the feast fell in a particular year. For the rest of the common for a Boy Bishop to be elected for a period
die a natural death and that he lived to a great age. year he considered that day to be stained with bad that lasted until the feast of the Holy Innocents.
The feast of St John is not generally a time of luck. One minister recalled his fear of presenting This child would often be chosen from among
festivity but is rather one of quiet reflection on the his master with an emergency that required his the choristers of a cathedral and dressed in the
saint most closely associated with Jesus. attention on those days. vestments of a bishop. The boys of the cathedral
28 December commemorates one of the darkest One of the few things that could be done, and then took charge of the running of the church.
moments in the nativity story and yet was once a was into the 17th century, was the whipping of They would parade around the town and bless
day of pranks and ribaldry. The feast of the Holy children in their beds to remind them of the people while collecting money for the church. The
Innocents recalls the murder of all male infants in suffering of the Holy Innocents. In some places tradition was ended in England under Henry VIII,
Bethlehem under the age of two that was ordered however, it was quite the reverse. In Germany possibly because he felt it ridiculed the hierarchy

Defining moment
Christmas
25 December
The feast of Jesus’ birth marks the beginning of Christmastide.
Many Christians gather in churches to pray and to observe the
special nature of the day. Gifts are traditionally given to family
and friends and large meals eaten to toast the festivity. In some
places good children can expect a visit from Saint Nicholas or
Father Christmas who will bring them treats. Much folklore has
evolved surrounding Christmas traditions and the proper way to
mark the day. Today Christmas is a secular as well as a religious
holiday that has come to dominate the December calendar.

Timeline
O St Stephen’s Day O Feast of St John the Apostle O Feast of the Holy Innocents O Feast of St
The St Stephen was one of the
first Christian martyrs and
The feast day of St John the
Apostle commemorates “the
The Bible tells the story of how
king Herod ordered the deaths
Thomas Becket
Thomas Becket became

12 Days of this day marks his feast

in the church calendar. In
Britain it is known as Boxing
Day from the 18th century
disciple whom Jesus loved as a
brother.” Tradition holds that he
is the author of several books of
the New Testament.
of male infants in Bethlehem to
ensure Jesus was killed. These
slain children were considered to
be martyrs by many Christians.
one of the most important
British saints following
his murder in Canterbury
cathedral by soldiers

Christmas practice of giving Christmas

Boxes of food to the poor.
26 December
27 December 28 December acting, as they believed,
for King Henry II in 1170.
29 December

32
 Christmastide

of the church had had just proclaimed himself

head of. Boy Bishops have since been reinstated in
several churches.
The topsy-turvy nature of the feast of the Holy
Innocents is also reflected in traditions from
Belgium. In the morning children would seize the
keys to all the rooms in the house. When an adult
entered a room the children would lock them in
and demand a treat as the price of their release.
Several Catholic countries give children the sort
of license that other countries grant on April Fools’
Day. Pranks and tricks can be played with impunity
since the tricksters themselves are considered
innocent for the day.
In the town of Ibi in Alicante the feast of the
Holy Innocents is a time of warfare – if only a
playful form. Known as El Enfarinats – the floured
ones – this event sees people dressed in mock
uniforms pelting each other with bags of flour.
After the frivolity of Childermas comes the feast that the king, in frustration, exclaimed “Will no one Christmastide, such was his importance. Pilgrims
of St Thomas Becket, who was one of the most rid me of this turbulent priest?” Four of the king’s began travelling to Canterbury and his shrine was
important saints in northern medieval Europe. knights heard this and rode to Canterbury. In an act one of the richest in England. Visitors could drink
Becket had been a close friend of King Henry II that scandalised Christian Europe, the knights cut Becket Water, made by mixing water with his dried
when the English king made him the Archbishop down Becket in the middle of his own cathedral. blood, in the hope of miraculous cures. Today his
of Canterbury. Once in position, however, Becket Becket died in 1170 and by 1173 he had been feast is only observed in churches and has little
refused to act as the king wanted. Legend has it declared a saint. His feast day was placed in resonance with the public.

Defining moment Defining moment

Saint Sylvester’s Day, Twelfth Night
31 December 5 January
Pope Sylvester I was the pope at the time of Emperor Constantine’s As the last day of Christmastide, Twelfth Night has long been a time
conversion to Christianity in the 4th century. Sylvester died in 335 of revelry and feasting. In Tudor England Twelfth Night was one of
CE was buried on 31 December and so it was made his feast day. the major dates in the calendar for parties and pageantry. Wassail,
Traditions have long been associated with his day, such as the an alcoholic drink, was widely consumed and offered to guests who
blessing of pigs in Vienna, and fortune telling with hot lead dripped came to the door singing carols. Cakes feature heavily in Twelfth Night
in water. The change to the Gregorian calendar moved New Year’s traditions. Those who find a bean or figurine in their slice were crowned
Day to 1 January which has led to St Sylvester’s Day falling on the as monarch of the festivities. As the last night of Christmastide it is
raucous celebrations of New Year’s Eve. sometimes considered unlucky to leave decorations up past this date.

O Sixth day of O Feast of the Circumcision O St Basil’s Day O Feast of the Holy Name O Feast of Elizabeth Ann Seton
Christmastide This feast marks the day Jesus St Basil was one of the most of Jesus Elizabeth Ann Seton was the
One of the few days of was circumcised, but is also a influential theologians of the This day commemorates first person born in the United
Christmastide not marked by feast in honour of the Virgin early church, and Bishop of the day Jesus was named. It States to be canonised by the
a feast day, it is often used Mary in her role as mother of Caesarea in the 4th century. is only celebrated by some Catholic church. She was known
by churches to encourage a Jesus. It is also the day when In Greek tradition Basil brings Catholics, as Jesus’ naming is for setting up schools. She is
time of quiet reflection and Jesus is supposed to have gifts to children on New also marked on the Feast of the patron saint of widows.
prayer on the nature of the been given his name. Year’s Eve. the Circumcision. 4 January
Christmas miracle. 1 January 2 January 3 January
30 December

33
 History

Epiphany is the end of

Christmastide and celebrates the
visit of the Magi to the baby Jesus –
and the gifts they brought him

A Great
Epiphany
The 12 days of Christmas come
to a close with Epiphany, but not
before many more celebrations
have taken place
A mummer wearing a costume may
visit your house expecting a drink on
St Sylvester’s Day in Switzerland

34
 Christmastide

T
he 31st of December may be the biggest In the Middle Ages in France the 1st was
day – or rather, night – of partying on celebrated by clergy as the Feast of Fools. During
the planet. When the Gregorian calendar the festivities the lower clergy would elect one of
was introduced the start of the new year was
moved to 1 January. The end of the old year is now
W hen is their own as a bishop or pope and they would lead
the feast in a similar way to the Lord of Misrule.
marked with celebrations, fireworks, and revels to
welcome in the fresh new year.
Christmas? Because the revels smacked of blasphemy to the
church authorities the practice was suppressed in
New Year’s Eve is not one of the traditional days most places in the 16th century.
of Christmastide, however. In the Christian church 5 January was once the culmination of the
the 31st is the feast day of St Sylvester. Sylvester Christmastide season. Known as Twelfth Night it
The biblical accounts of the nativity give no firm
became the Bishop of Rome at a crucial time for was once a major celebration. Special cakes were
date on which Jesus was born. No one can say
Christianity in 314 CE. His pontificate fell during exactly why 25 December was chosen as Jesus’ baked and alcoholic beverages were brewed. In
the reign of Emperor Constantine I – the man who birthday, but Sextus Julius Africanus, writing in Britain wassail, a hot spiced drink made from cider,
would make Christianity a legal religion throughout the 3rd century, may have been influential. His would be shared. The spices of the drink recalled
history of the world suggested Mary became
the Roman Empire. Many legends give Sylvester a pregnant on 25 March exactly 5500 years after the gifts of the Magi. Often it was served from a
direct role in converting Constantine to Christianity the creation of the world – implying a date of wassail cup with many handles. After a few drinks
and winning the church many benefits from the birth nine months later. The church in Rome the extra support might be necessary.
emperor. One says that Sylvester cured the emperor began celebrating Christmas on the 25 December
Cakes feature heavily in Twelfth Night traditions
in 336 CE, and that has been the date most
of leprosy by administering baptismal water. For people use today, though some may disagree around the world. In Britain a cake would be baked
this, Constantine is said to have confirmed the about when this date actually falls. that contained a dry bean and pea. The man
Bishop of Rome as the most important position in Most of the world uses the Gregorian calendar, who got a slice of the cake with a bean in it was
but some churches use the older Julian system to
the Catholic church. crowned king of the feast, while the woman with
plan their religious events. When the Gregorian
The feast day of St Sylvester has traditions that calendar was introduced in 1582 it skipped ten the pea was the queen.
are quite separate from New Year’s Eve but often days to correct for a drift of the date. Not every Twelfth Night is the end of the Christmas season
related to the coming year. In Germany and Austria country accepted this change. Russia continued for many. Decorations are taken down and put
to use the Julian calendar until 1918. The
predictions for the next year are made using away for another year. But those seeking to bless
Orthodox church in Russia still uses the Julian
Silvesterblei – Sylvester Lead. By pouring molten calendar to this day. their home chalk the year and the initials C+M+B
lead into water and interpreting the shapes that The difference between the calendars is slight on their door. The letters stand for Caspar, Melchior,
form, it is thought that the future can be divined. If but continues to grow. The Julian calendar is now and Balthazar – the traditional names of the three
13 days behind the Gregorian. In the Orthodox
the lead forms a star then luck will be yours. If the wise men who visited the baby Jesus. They are
church, the Coptic church, and the Ethiopian
lead turns into a simple ball it means that your luck church, Christmas is now celebrated on 7 January appropriate to call on as their feast day occurs after
will roll away from you. in the Gregorian calendar. Twelfth Night. The 6th of January is the Feast of
One Austrian expression of luck is to say you the Epiphany that commemorates their visit.
“have had a pig.” Silvester, as New Year’s Eve is In much of Europe the Epiphany is celebrated
known, will be stuffed with pigs made of marzipan. with some variety of King Cake. These cakes take
Those who actually have pigs may walk them on several forms, from from the French galette, puff
a lead through Vienna to get them blessed for the pastry stuffed with frangipane, to the ring-shaped
following year. Those without a pig can hang a sponges favoured in Spain and Portugal. Just like
model one from the ceiling to touch at midnight for the Twelfth Night cake they have a surprise hidden
luck. A few years ago people on Twitter adopted a inside; a small ceramic figurine of Jesus that has
similar New Year’s Eve tradition of a pig made from replaced the traditional bean. Whoever finds the
citrus, tin foil and cloves, hashtagged #lemonpig. baby Jesus, just as the biblical Magi did, is crowned
In Switzerland children will attempt to wake up the king. Finding the baby in your slice of cake is a
as early as possible on St Sylvester’s Day because sign of good luck to come.
the last one to rise is mocked by the other children The feast of Epiphany is commonly called Three
of the family. They may also be visited by a Kings Day in many countries, in honour of the
Silvesterkaus – a person dressed up as St Sylvester Magi. Small gifts are given in several places just as
or some other character. Bands of these mummers the Magi delivered presents to Jesus. In Mexico it
roam the streets, stopping at houses and yodeling is the Magi themselves who will leave their gifts in
three times, and being rewarded with wine. the shoes of children who have behaved well that
1 January is New Year’s Day for most people. year. In Italy they are delivered by a terrible old
In several churches it is also the Feast of the woman known as Befana, on a broomstick.
Circumcision of Christ. According to Jewish In Ireland 6 January is known as Women’s Little
tradition a male child is circumcised eight days Christmas. Women get to put their feet up and
Due to a difference between the Julian
after birth. This was important because it was the and Gregorian calendars used to calculate celebrate with their friends while men take over the
first time that Jesus’ blood had been spilled and so dates, not every church celebrates housework for the day. And after all the religious
Christmas at the same time
confirmed his humanity. Several churches claimed and celebratory exertions of Christmastide, who
to be in possession of the holy foreskin as a relic. can blame them for having a rest?

35
 History

In Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves

Alan Rickman’s Sheriff of
Nottingham orders his men to
‘Call off Christmas!’ In reality,
medieval people were perfectly
happy with celebrating festivals

And Call Off

How the puritans decided Christmas

was both popish and pagan
Written by Edoardo Albert

P
uritans, strict Protestant Christians, English Parliamentarians was further reformation
did not like to see other people of the Church of England. As part of that reform,
having fun. Christmas was the English Parliament passed a law requiring
an occasion for drinking and that the last Wednesday of the month be a day of
dancing and, what was worse, it was Catholic too. fasting and penance. In 1644, Christmas fell on a
In Scotland, the puritan Kirk (church) founded Wednesday and Christmas was cancelled.
by John Knox banned the public celebration of Christmas was permanently cancelled in
Christmas in 1561, although court records indicate 1647 when Parliament passed An Ordinance
that not all the Scots complied with the ban. When for Abolishing of Festivals. However, in its
James VI was crowned in 1567 he rescinded it. determination to expunge Christmas, Parliament
James became king of England too in 1603 and required shops, inns and taverns to stay open on 25
his son and heir, Charles I, elaborated the royal December, which led to more people drinking and
celebrations of Christmas, presenting baroque, merrymaking than would have been the case if
extravagant masques. everyone had stayed at home.
Charles’ political opponents, the puritans, already The Restoration in 1660 saw a king back on the
disliked Christmas, so the king’s espousal of it throne and Christmas back in the calendar. The
exacerbated their antipathy to the festival. Puritan Scots continued to view Christmas with suspicion
scholars, having already condemned Christmas as though, and only declared it a bank holiday in 1958.
Catholic, decided it was pagan as well, ascribing In America, the new colonies adopted different
such customs as putting up greenery to pagan attitudes to Christmas: Virginia celebrated it
impiety. In fact, most of the present-day notions while puritan New England suppressed it, with
about Christmas really being a pagan festival derive Massachusetts outlawing its celebration in 1651.
from the puritan attacks on traditional celebrations. Although the law was repealed in 1681, Americans
One result of the Civil Wars in England, Scotland remained ambivalent about celebrating Christmas
and Ireland between 1639 and 1653 was that into the 19th century. Congress met on Christmas
Christmas was banned again. First in Scotland, Day up until 1850, while the first state to declare
in 1640, when the Scots defeated an army led by Christmas a holiday was Alabama in 1836. However,
the future Charles II, then in England in 1644. alongside the descendants of the puritans in
Curiously, the banning of Christmas in England America there were others, hailing from other parts
was the result both of the defeat of the Royalist of Europe, and their Christmas customs slowly
forces by the Parliamentarians and also previous began to seep into wider American culture with the
politicking. The Scots’ price for supporting the results we see today.

36
 And Cancel Christmas

As many as 200,000 people were

killed during the Civil War, making
it the bloodiest war in English
history when measured compared
to the general population

Sir Anthony van Dyck’s triple

portrait of Charles I symbolised the
fact that he was separately king of
England, Scotland and Ireland

37
 History

How Dickens Made a

The festive season would not be the same without the

influence of one of Britain’s most famous authors
Written by Jessica Leggett

I
t can be argued that Christmas would being at home to celebrate Christmas. Therefore, Dickens’ writings definitely helped to boost
not be the way it is today without Christmas Day for most people was treated like interest in the festive season, building on a craze
Charles Dickens, one of the greatest another average work day. that had already been brewing.
authors of the Victorian era. In fact, However, this slowly began to change during In his many novels, Dickens encouraged the
Dickens is so entwined with the holiday that he the Victorian era, partly helped by Queen Victoria message that Christmas was a time for family,
is often credited as being ‘the man who invented herself. Images of the queen, her husband Prince love, peace and goodwill, rather than for wealth
Christmas’. Of course, this is an exaggeration and Albert and their children enjoying Christmas and materialism. Of course, this message is most
Dickens did not invent Christmas as we know it. together, whether they were sitting around their evident in what is arguably Dickens’ most popular
However, the vision of Christmas and the ideas Christmas tree or eating dinner together, spread and beloved work, A Christmas Carol.
that he put forth in his novels have continued to across the country and influenced others to do Published in 1843, A Christmas Carol is a
persevere to this day, contributing to the many the same. Christmas increasingly became a time novella that follows Ebenezer Scrooge, an elderly,
traditions and expectations that we have for the for family to gather together with new traditions, greedy and selfish miser who is mean to those
holiday season. such as the Christmas card and Christmas tree, around him, refuses to give to charity, and
Believe it or not, Christmas was a rarely emerging and shaping Christmas into one of the hates Christmas. Scrooge goes on a journey of
celebrated holiday in Britain at the start of the biggest holidays of the year. redemption after being visited by the ghost of
19th century. The beginning of the Industrial So, where is Dickens’ place in all of this? In Jacob Marley, his old business partner, and the
Revolution in the mid-18th century led to a huge truth, his novels were published at a time when Ghosts of Christmas Past, Christmas Present and
increase in urbanisation, as workers left their rural Christmas was already experiencing a revival Christmas Yet to Come. Shown the error of his
communities and homes to move to cities to work during this period, with old traditions being ways and the fate that he faces should he continue
in the factories and so on. An increasingly urban brought back while new ones, like the ones just down his current path, Scrooge wakes up on
population in Britain meant that many workers mentioned, were created. While he was not solely Christmas Day a changed man, who wants to
were labouring away in the factories, instead of responsible for the renewed interest in Christmas, be kind and generous. Embracing his newfound

38
 How Dickens Made a Modern Christmas
Renowned author Charles Dickens
helped to shape Christmas into
the holiday we know today

Bob Cratchit carries his son, Tiny

Tim, from A Christmas Carol, 1843

This Victorian family are

enjoying Christmas dinner
together around the table

39
 History

Reviving
Christmas

Christmas may have been a bawdy celebration

of merrymaking and joy during the Tudor era,
but ultimately many of the pastimes were
neglected following the Reformation and the
crackdown placed on Christmas during the rule
of the Puritans in the 17th century. The ‘excesses’
of Christmas, such as gambling, dancing and
masques, were criticised and there were calls
for them to be curbed—although it should be
noted that these calls were also made before the
Protectorate came to power in England.
When Christmas was subsequently banned in
England in 1647, replaced with a day of fasting,
many people continued to celebrate in private.
However, the ban still affected many Christmas
traditions that would not return properly until
the Victorian era. This includes traditions such
as carol singing; decorating the home with
evergreens; the Christmas feast; games and
entertainment—most notably the pantomime,
which often opened on Christmas Day and has
been compared to the festive performances held
during the Tudor period. While the Victorians
revived many of these traditions, they also
re-invented some of
them, for example
decorating their home Dickens’ emphasised the
with evergreen Christmas importance of charity and goodwill
trees, which suited their at Christmas in his writings
tastes more.

focused on morality, charity, religion Ghosts, was influenced by the novella.

A Victorian Christmas and respect – even if there were It is also thanks to Dickens and
card, depicting many contradictions with A Christmas Carol that we
children carol singing
together how it appeared outwardly, wish for a white Christmas
compared to how it The every year and associate
behaved. Nevertheless, ideal of a snow with the festive
Christmas spirit, Scrooge corrects his previous A Christmas Carol was white Christmas season—even though, in
errors by donating to charity, sending a turkey to a hit and along with is rooted in the cold the UK at least, it is more
his employee, Bob Cratchit, and his family for their Dickens’ message on weather of Victorian typical to experience
Christmas dinner, and taking up his nephew’s morality, it also helped snow between January
invitation to spend Christmas with his family. to spread many of the
Britain’s Little Ice and March, rather than
Dickens wrote A Christmas Carol after reading Christmas traditions that Age climate in December. Born in
an 1843 parliamentary report on child labour in we know today, as well as event 1812, Dickens grew up in
the factories, and the appalling conditions that what a ‘traditional’ Victorian one of the coldest decades
they worked in. Although it is a festive tale, A Christmas was supposed to in British history, experiencing
Christmas Carol is ultimately a story that Dickens look like. exceptionally cold winters, in a period
wrote to draw attention to the conditions suffered Some of the Christmas traditions that often referred to as the ‘Little Ice Age’, which
by the poor and disadvantaged in society and to are featured in A Christmas Carol include singing ended in 1850. In fact, it was so cold in February
voice his views on social reform. This was an issue Christmas carols, Christmas trees, spending 1814 that the River Thames froze and London held
close to his heart as Dickens had experienced time with loved ones over a delicious feast, and its last frost fair, an iconic winter event which had
poverty himself as a child. giving and receiving Christmas cards and gifts. been held infrequently since the 7th century. It is
Emphasising the need to forget material wealth It is also said that the introduction of paid leave thought that the freezing winters of his childhood
and embrace charity at Christmas, Dickens’ novella for Christmas, something that Scrooge denies inspired Dickens to create an idyllic white
struck a chord with a Victorian society that was Cratchit before his night with the Christmas Christmas in his novella.

40
 How Dickens Made a Modern Christmas

Dickens’ influence
on the modern Christmas
even extends to the vocabulary that we still use
during the festive season today. The terms ‘Merry
Christmas’ and ‘Bah! Humbug’ were not widely
used until Dickens included them in A Christmas
Carol, and the novella helped to popularise these
sayings amongst the Victorians. As for Ebenezer A scene from A Christmas Carol,
1843, depicting Ebenezer Scrooge
Scrooge, the character became so iconic that the with the Ghost of Christmas Present
term ‘Scrooge’ is still used today to describe those
who refuse to join in on the Christmas spirit.
Speaking of the Christmas spirit, this attitude
of togetherness, merriment and giving is another
aspect of Christmas that we have to thank Dickens
for. His influence helped to revive Christmas
traditions that had been long neglected, as well
as emphasise that the festive season is a time for
generosity. Also, the illustration for the Ghost of
Christmas Present in A Christmas Carol was based
on Victorian images of Father Christmas, who is,
of course, a personification of the Christmas spirit,
with his joy and gift-giving.
Although A Christmas Carol is Dickens’ most
famous festive story, it was actually the first in a
series of five Christmas books that he wrote. His
four other Christmas novels were The Chimes,
The Cricket on the Hearth, The Battle of Life and
The Haunted Man and the Ghost’s Bargain, which
Dickens published following the success of A
Christmas Carol. Although none of them reached
the same popularity as A Christmas Carol, these
novels continued to perpetuate the messages and
traditions that Dickens had included in his novella.
When Dickens began his public readings in 1853,
A Christmas Carol was the first book he chose, and
he also read from the other four books during his
reading tours across Britain and the United States,
where his work was also popular. Together, these
five novels helped to revive the idea of a family
Christmas—both in Britain and the United States—
and cement the traditions and ideas that have
become associated with the ‘perfect’ Christmas
today. Dickens’ final public reading in March 1870,
three months before he died, was also from A
Christmas Carol.
While Dickens certainly did not invent the
modern Christmas as it is so often claimed, his
work most definitely contributed to both the revival
of Christmas celebrations and the traditions that
have become so synonymous with the festive
holiday today. The core message of his stories, that
you do not need wealth, like Ebenezer Scrooge, or
consumerism to enjoy Christmas, but rather family
and love, like the Cratchit family, is one that still
resonates with us all today.

41
 Folklore
44 The Three Kings
Meet the Magi

48 Holly and Ivy

Why do we deck the halls?

50 Under the Mistletoe

Christmas kisses
66
52 The Glastonbury Thorn
A miraculous Christmas flower

48 54 Wassailing
A pagan ceremony that became a tradition

56 The Mari Lwyd

An ancient Welsh folk custom

58 Plays Take Centre Stage

Medieval mumming plays are still going strong

60 Ireland's Wren Day 50

A tradition from Viking Age Ireland

62 Animal Magic
Bizarre beliefs about talking beasts

64 The Legend of
the Pavuchky
Beautiful Ukrainian baubles explained

66 Christmas Witches
Not just for Halloween!

68 La Befana
An Italian present-giver

70 The Wild Hunt

A ghostly procession

72 We Wish You a
Scary Christmas
Festive frights from around the world

72
44 56

52

64

62

54

58

60

43
 Folklore

The journey of three wise men

from distant lands to celebrate
the birth of Jesus has fascinated
people for millennia

44
 The Three Kings

The three ‘kings’ of the nativity are instantly

recognisable, but who were they? Where did they
come from? Where did they go?
Written by Ben Gazur

I
n almost every depiction of the nativity if they ever discover this new king. The star that
you will find that there are three figures the wise men are following ‘stops’ over the place
kneeling before the baby Jesus. These where Jesus is. They visit Jesus in a house and
three men are often richly dressed in kneel before him. They open a chest and give their
flowing and exotic robes. As they kneel they offer three gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. Then a
up gifts to the infant Messiah. Everyone knows that dream warns them not to return to Herod so they
they came to give gifts of gold, frankincense, and set off for their homes.
myrrh, and everyone thinks they know who they This is the entirety of the story of the wise men
are. So who were the three kings? Or is it wise men? as given in the Bible. Note that there is no mention
Or are they Magi? The tale of these visitors takes in of them kneeling in a stable, only in a house. There
theology, folklore, and art history. is also no number given to the wise men. The
Greek is plural so there must be more than one of
The biblical account them, but beyond that it is impossible to say how
The Gospel of Matthew puts great emphasis on the many there were. So who were these mysterious,
genealogy of Jesus but provides scant few details unnamed, and numberless visitors?
of his birth. You must look to the other gospels
for shepherds, little donkeys, and mangers. Yet Behind the nativity scenes
Matthew does include a strange story of visitors When the author of the Gospel of Matthew referred
from the east. to Magoi what exactly did he mean? The word is
We are told that wise men, ‘Magoi’ in the original often rendered ‘wise men’ in English but scholars
Greek, travelled from ‘the east’ having observed a have been able to probe deeply into its history.
star that predicted the birth of the king of the Jews. The Magoi, as the Greeks called them, or Magi in
They arrive in Jerusalem and meet King Herod to Latin, were a priestly caste in the Persian empire
ask where they might find the newborn king. Herod that served in the Zoroastrian religion. They are
is not keen on a potential rival to his throne and described in detail in the works of writers like
so sends them on with instructions to inform him Herodotus and Xenophon.

45
 Folklore

The Three
Gifts

Every child knows that the three kings brought

gold, frankincense, and myrrh to the baby
Jesus, but fewer will be able to tell you exactly
why these gifts were chosen. What exactly
is the meaning of these specific objects? The
Book of Isaiah that suggests kings will come to
worship the Messiah also says they will bring
gold and incense.
Early church thinkers believed that the
Medieval artists often painted the
gifts of the Magi had special significance. In
Magi as kings, to emphasise the
the 3rd century Origen described the gifts importance of these visitors paying
as: gold worthy of a king, myrrh for a mortal, homage to the infant Christ
and frankincense for a god. The symbolism
of gold is still obvious but the other two may
need explanation. In ancient religions the
gods were often thought to enjoy the smells
of sacrifice and burning. Costly fragrances
like frankincense were burned in honour of
deities. Myrrh was used to anoint the bodies
of the dead and so prefigured Jesus’ death on
the cross. Taken together the gifts cover the
various aspects of Jesus’ status.
The Bible does not record what happened
to the gifts of the Magi. Some traditions say
the gold was spent to support the holy family’s
flight to Egypt. Others say the myrrh was used
to prepare Jesus’ corpse for burial after the
crucifixion. Those who wish to see the gifts for
themselves may visit Mount Athos in Greece,
where they are supposedly housed in a gold
and silver reliquary.

The Magi in their accounts were advisers to the your dawn.” By making the wise men kings from
king and responsible for interpreting the will of distant lands this prophecy appears to have come
heaven. This involved close study of the heavens true. The link between the wise men and Isaiah’s
to allow for the casting of horoscopes for the royal prophecies is explicit in the gifts which they bring.
court. That such people would be the ones to spot Isaiah says they “will come bearing gold and
the motions of a star heralding the birth of a king incense and proclaiming the praise of the Lord.”
makes sense in this regard.
The Jewish people had long had dealings with We three kings
the Magi both during their exile in Babylon and Almost as soon as converts were won to
afterwards. The Talmud contains many stories of Christianity from among non-Jewish people the
Jewish people decrying the rites that were carried importance of the wise men was emphasised in art
out by the Magi where they conflicted with rituals and theology. The catacombs of the early Christians
the Jews held sacred. found underneath Rome contain multiple images
That the wise men are sometimes called kings of the wise men coming to give adoration to
The gifts of the Magi have been central to in later tradition is a syncretisation between the the young Jesus. The adoration of the Magi had
images of the nativity since the earliest Old and New Testaments of the Bible. The prophet a special meaning to these Christians. They
centuries of Christian iconography
Isaiah in the Old Testament says that “Nations will represented the first non-Jewish – gentile – people
come to your light, and kings to the brightness of who recognised Jesus as the Messiah. The question

46
 The Three Kings

This mosaic in Ravenna dates fromrepresent all people, not merely the young or old.
the 6th century and shows the MagiThe tradition that the three Magi represented
in traditional Persian garb
Persia, India, and Arabia also suggests that the
entire world was represented at the adoration.
The representation of Balthasar as Black in
European art began in the 12th century but only
became conventional in northern Europe from
the 14th century. The inclusion of African people
in Renaissance art became more common as
European nations expanded their empires. At first
glance the representation of a wise king as Black
may seem positive, but in much art of the period
Blackness was sometimes only used as a shorthand
for exotic and strange. In some modern Spanish
parades Balthazar is played by a white person in
blackface, though this tradition is controversial.
The biblical account of the wise men ends with
them journeying home by another road to avoid
King Herod. The Greek text of Matthew suggests
they are returning to a singular country, as if
they all call the same place home.
Today all three wise men are
regarded as saints by various
churches. They either
converted at once on
Historians meeting the baby Jesus
debate whether or later encountered
the Star of one of his apostles.
Bethlehem was a Some late texts
real astronomical suggest they suffered
martyrdom for their
event and if so,
new faith.
what it was The 14th century
writer John of Hidlesheim
described how the holy relics
of the wise men came to reside
in Cologne. He described St Helen, a
This tomb painting from the 3rd
century is the earliest known image voracious relic-hunter and mother of Constantine,
of the three Magi carrying their gifts recovering their bodies and taking them to
to Jesus and Mary
Constantinople. They were later moved to Milan,
of whether non-Jewish people could become wise men as Melkon the King of Persia, Gaspar the and from there to Cologne by Frederick Barbarossa,
Christians had been a fraught matter in the early King of India, and Baldassar the King of Arabia. In Holy Roman Emperor. Marco Polo, however,
church. The Magi set a precedent for this. the Latin west the names of the kings were more claimed to have visited the tomb of the Magi
In the earliest images the convention of having commonly given as the names we know today: during his travels in what’s now modern-day Iran.
three wise men, one for each gift, is not always Melchior, Caspar, and Balthazar. The feast of the three kings is celebrated today
followed. One tomb image depicts four men and on Epiphany – 6 January. In some places gifts are
another just two. Some documents from Syria Later travels given to children on this day instead of Christmas
suggest there were actually 12 wise men. In many Possibly because the biblical account of the wise to commemorate the coming of the wise men.
carvings and mosaics the wise men are shown in men is so scanty many traditions have sprung up In Central Europe, Catholic families will chalk
typically Persian dress to underline and emphasise around their lives before and after the adoration. the initials of the Magi above their door to bring
their foreign nature. St Bede, writing in the 8th century, described the their blessings onto their home. Traditional cakes
The idea of the wise men being kings is an three Magi in the following way “The first is said are sometimes served on Epiphany that include
ancient one. When the relics of the Magi were to have been Melchior, an old man with white hair figurines of the wise men or the baby Jesus.
recovered from Persia by the Eastern Roman and a long beard... The second, Caspar by name, Whoever gets the little statue in their slice is
Emperor Zeno in the 5th century he described young and beardless and ruddy complexioned... crowned the king of the season.
them as the remains of the kings. An apocryphal The third, black-skinned and heavily bearded, From just a very few lines in a single book of the
text known as the Armenian Infancy Gospel that named Balthasar…” By describing the Magi as Bible the wise men have come to play a very large
dates from around 500 CE gives the names of the of various ages Bede implies that they came to part in traditions surrounding the nativity.

47
A Royal Mail postage stamp
from 1982, part of a set featuring
Christmas carols and showing a
group of girls decorating with the
evergreen plants for Christmas

A traditional Christmas wreath

made with holly, ivy, conifer, fir
cones and red ribbons
 Holly and Ivy

We drape them around our fireplace, form them into wreaths, decorate our
tables with them – there’s even a Christmas carol devoted to the two plants
Written by Alice Pattillo

T
he roots of holly and ivy’s ivy are associated with the resurrection of Ivy has a similar dual nature to holly. To
relationship to the winter nature at this time. However, this does not the Greeks it symbolised immortality and
solstice likely lie, like so much explain why holly is linked with Christmas was sacred to the god of wine, Dionysus.
else regarding the Christmas and not Easter – but perhaps folklore can. Its leaves produce a narcotic effect and
season, with the ancients. Evergreen plants Due to its canopy-like structure and sharp were chewed by the female followers of the
like holly and ivy were the only plants exterior, the holly bush is thought of as a god, the maenads, to reach a frenzied state.
still thriving during the winter period in protective plant, resisting lightning strikes, Some classical historians think Dionysus
Christianity’s adopted home in northern shielding livestock and other plant saplings influenced aspects of Jesus’ iconography. It
Europe and were brought indoors as they – particularly those of the oak tree, its is a highly resilient plant, often destroying
were said to bring luck and assure the return so-called twin. While the oak would rule whatever it clings to. Ivy is also heavily
of spring, renewal and rebirth. Both have a the lighter months, holly would come into associated with love and death and is
strong folkloric relationship to rebirth and its own while the oak tree slept. The druids often found in graveyards, engulfing old
old pagan superstitions and myths of the fae are said to have worn it in their hair to trap tombstones. English folklore says that a
or fair folk that prevailed despite the advent evil spirits, and Celtic chieftains would wear grave without ivy meant the soul of the
of Christianity. One old folk fertility ritual a wreath of the evergreen upon their heads. dead was restless. A young woman’s grave
supposedly has a girl dress in ivy and a boy People would bring it into their homes swathed in ivy meant a broken heart was
in holly and parade around the village in during the most feared season of the year surely her cause of death. Bringing ivy into
order to usher in the spring. in order to fend off the troublesome entities the home is said to be unlucky, unless at
Medieval Christian lore associates the unleashed at the start of winter. Holly was Christmas – so long as you remove it before
red berries and sharp prickly leaves of the also life-giving during the harsh winter, as Candlemas. While holly will trap evil spirits,
hollybush with the crown of thorns worn the leaves could be made into medicine to ivy inside the house during December will
by Christ upon his death, and the blood that treat colds. In Wales, fresh sprigs of holly offer shelter to the fair folk of British lore,
resulted from his crucifixion. Christ himself would be used to beat girls out of bed on the who cannot cause harm during this holiest
was reborn in spring, and both holly and day after Christmas, supposedly for luck. of months, and you will win their favour.

49
 Folklore

A French new
year postcard
from 1890,
heavily featur
ing
mistletoe

n
was know
Mistletoe ruids as
ci en t d
by an s
anks to it
‘Allheal’ th erties
li n g pr op
hea

Mistletoe is now
associated with
kissing at Christmas

50
 Under the Mistletoe

A kiss under the mistletoe is a Christmas tradition, but why is this strange
plant associated with midwinter festivities?
Written by Katharine Marsh

W
hether you seek out was taken with the Vikings as they raided
the mistletoe at a and conquered northern Europe, and the
Christmas party or Anglo-Saxons were known to partake in the
you actively avoid it, tradition. When the English began to roam
it can seem a bit strange that standing under the world in search of new land to settle in
a plant means you’re open for a kiss. How on the Middle Ages, they took their mistletoe
Earth did this ever come about? kissing with them and spread it to the United
While the ancient Greeks were known States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand
to use mistletoe to cure everything and more.
from menstrual cramps to epilepsy, it In non-English-speaking countries,
was also a plant of peace. If enemies though, the emphasis seems to be more
met under it in the forest, they would on the side of peace. In France, mistletoe
lay down their weapons until the next is given as a porte bonheur, or gift for luck,
day. It’s mentioned in Virgil’s epic the during the festive season. The French prefer
Aeneid as helping the hero visit the mistletoe at New Year. And during World
Underworld. It’s most likely that our view War I, embroidered postcards sent from the
of the plant has come from 1st century CE fighting fronts at Christmas often featured
Celtic druids, though. To them, mistletoe was mistletoe as a symbol of peace and a message
sacred thanks to its ability to blossom during to missed loved ones.
freezing winters, and it was used by both But it wasn’t just the druids who Mistletoe has long appeared in
people and animals in the hope that it would were rather taken by mistletoe. In Norse midwinter customs, but its relationship
restore fertility, often called ‘Allheal’. However, mythology, it was declared by Frigg to be a with Christmas is entirely incidental as it
it is worth remembering that it’s actually a symbol of love when it was used to bring predates Christianity in most places. In fact,
highly toxic plant when ingested. It was also Baldur back from the dead. She vowed to kiss it can often be banned from decorations in
hung above doors for good luck. anyone who passed underneath it. This story churches due to its pagan associations.

51
A stained-glass window depicting
Joseph of Arimathea’s miraculous
planting of the Glastonbury
Thorn, which is said to have
grown from the stick he leant on
 The Glastonbury Thorn

Glastonbury is hugely important in British

legends and folklore for its Christian,
pagan, and Arthurian connections, and the
Thorn adds to its mystique

The

Legend says this Christmas-flowering hawthorn in one of Britain’s most

spiritually important places was miraculously planted by Joseph of Arimathea
Written by April Madden

T
he travellers had come from a second flowering season in the winter, show the unique winter flowering. Despite
far away, and as they set foot around Christmas. several attempts to destroy it by puritans,
on the island hill above the The man that brought his miraculous landowners and vandals, dedicated
Somerset Levels their leader, walking stick to Wearyall Hill was Joseph Glastonbury locals have ensured that grafts
an old man who despite his apparent wealth of Arimathea, a disciple of Jesus who in of the Thorn live on in the local churchyard
had clearly seen much hardship, leaned the gospels took responsibility for Christ’s of St John and in other, secret locations to
heavily on his walking stick and exclaimed body after the Crucifixion and who paid ensure its preservation. A flowering sprig of
“We are weary, all.” He was an elder of a new for and enacted the funerary rights, setting it, cut by the eldest child at the local infants’
religion from across the seas, and it seemed the body in what he had planned to be his school, is presented to the British monarch
that his god was with him, for when his staff own tomb (thereby fulfilling a messianic each Christmas, a centuries-old tradition
struck the earth it bloomed white, sprung prophecy). In later Arthurian tales, Joseph that was revived in 1929.
up, and became a hawthorn tree, long a of Arimathea is also the first keeper of the
symbol of magic and divine favour among Holy Grail, the cup used by Jesus at the Last
the native folk of Roman Britain. Supper and the symbol of the holy blood A Glastonbury Thorn in bloom.
The trees flower twice a year, in
So begins the story of the Holy Thorn, a spilled to redeem mankind’s sins. Joseph spring and around Christmas
biblically influenced folktale that provides was a wealthy, well-travelled businessman;
reasons for the name of Glastonbury’s other medieval legends have him acting as
Wearyall Hill, for the legend that the a mentor to the young Jesus and bringing
world-famous Somerset village was the the boy to Britain to study theology with the
location of the first Christian worship in the druids and learn the secrets of metallurgy
British Isles, and for the strange flowering from Cornish smiths.
cycle of its unique type of hawthorn, the The miraculous Glastonbury Thorn
Glastonbury Thorn. Like other hawthorn cannot be propagated from seed; only
this shrub blooms in May, but it also has cuttings taken from the original plant

53
 Folklore

This pagan ceremony is still a beloved festive tradition

Written by Jessica Leggett

A wassailing
ceremony
takes place in
Worcestershire,
England

54
 Wassailing

A
lthough it is rarely practised today, Wassailing could take different forms to please the spirits of the trees, but they also
wassailing is an English pagan depending on the local traditions, but there were wanted to scare off any bad spirits that could
custom usually performed for two variations that were the most common. ruin the crop for the year ahead. The orchard
Twelfth Night. The word ‘wassail’ The first involved a group of people, carrying owner would give the revellers a communal
is thought to derive from the Anglo-Saxon phrase a wassail bowl and singing traditional wassail wassail bowl to share in gratitude for their well-
‘waes hael’, meaning ‘to be well’. According to songs, visiting homes and wishing the residents wishes.
one legend, the custom of wassailing was created good health for the year ahead – this would There were many songs to accompany an
after a maiden, Rowena, presented Vortigern, eventually be overtaken by the practice of orchard-wassailing trip, with the most notable
king of the Britons, with a goblet of wine and carolling. During the Middle Ages, wassailers including The Wassailer’s Carol, Here We Come
toasted him with the words ‘waes hael.’ would visit their feudal lord and in return for a-Wassailing and The Gloucestershire Wassail
The wassail drink was made with roasted their blessings, the lord would gift them food and Song. A King or Queen would be appointed
apples, oranges, spices, eggs, sugar or honey, drink. to lead the wassail and begin the singing as
although it was made with ale or mead in some The second variation of wassailing usually the wassailers proceeded from one orchard
parts of the country. Sometimes, burst apples took place in rural areas. Wassailers would visit to the next. These wassail songs are still
would be added on top of the wassail, which their local orchards to dance, sing to the trees performed today on Twelfth Night by some
became known as ‘lamb’s wool’ because of the and bless them, wishing for a good harvest of rural communities in Britain – particularly in
frothy pulp. wassail would be served in a large fruit for the upcoming season, while banging cider-producing regions – who continue to go
bowl. pots and pans. Not only did the wassailers want wassailing to their local orchards and fruit trees.

Revellers would be
rewarded with a communal
bowl of wassail cider

An 1861 print depicting a

group of people in Devonshire
wassailing the apple trees

55
 Folklore
An early 20th Century postcard
with lyrics for the Mari Lwyd
ritual singing ‘pwnco’

The Mari Lwyd circa 1910-14 at

Llangynwyd, near Maesteg, Gwent,
where the custom still survives
today at the Old House Inn

56
 The Mari Lwyd

A horse’s skull paraded from door to door might not sound very festive,
but in South Wales, it’s a favourite yuletide tradition
Written by Alice Pattillo

I
n the Celtic nation of Wales until, more often than not, the cohort would Mari Lwyd means Grey Mary, linking her
there is a rather bizarre yuletide finally be invited inside for food and drinks. to the nativity story. Mari of course shares
mumming tradition called the In return, the household would receive good many similarities with other wassailing
Mari Lwyd. Between Christmas luck for the year. However, the Mari Lwyd is and mumming customs, and is no doubt
and Twelfth Night, a house-wassailing a mischievous old mare, and she may try to connected to numerous other Christmas time
tradition takes place. A horse’s skull, jaw still steal possessions or chase those she fancies hooded animal traditions across Britain such
intact, would be decorated with glass, lights (as well as children too) and generally cause as the Hoodening in Kent, the Broad in the
or baubles for eyes, a mane made of holly and havoc, so beware! Cotswolds and the northern customs of Old
ivy or bells and streamers flowing like hair, The origins of Mari Lwyd are rather Tup, Old Ball and Old Horse.
and a sheet disguising its wielder (who would mysterious. The first written record of the
often snap its jaw up and down while holding tradition dates back to 1800 and J Evans’
the large equine head on a pole). The rather book, A Tour Through Part of North Wales. The traditional Mari Lwyd
frightful sight would be accompanied by other Curiously, however, the custom is best known with streamers and bells for
a mane and bauble eyes
traditional characters such as Punch and for its practice in the South counties of Gwent
Judy, and the eerie crew would parade from and Glamorgan, where it was practised until
door to door. Upon knocking, the collective the 1960s, and it has experienced a modern
would sing Welsh language songs in order to revival, with incarnations still existing to this
gain entry to homes to which the occupiers day (most notably in the towns of Llantrisant
of each house would reply, again in song. and Llangynwyd).
Traditionally, the household and the group One translation of Mari’s name is Grey Mare
would indulge in a ritual known as ‘pwnco’, – suggesting her origin may have something
an exchange of rude rhymes, where the to do with the mythical pale horses from
household would recite a number of excuses Celtic legend, said to be messengers from
as to why the procession could not enter, the otherworld. Another translation is that
Folklore

How the Christmas tradition of medieval mummers’ plays

went on to inspire some of your favourite festive pantomimes
Written by Poppy-Jay St. Palmer
Old Father
Christmas is
a frequently
appearing
character
 Plays Take Centre Stage
The word ‘mummers’ comes from the Early
New High German term meaning ‘disguised
person’, which is a perfect way to describe
the extravagantly costumed actors

elaborate masks and costumes that would allow

them to take on a variety of roles.
The plays themselves were usually loosely based
on the legend of St George and the Dragon, and
could give modern pantos a run for their money.
In fact, many pantomimes contain archetypal
elements of mummers plays, including magical
creatures, crass humour, gender role reversals,
over-the-top stage fights and the idea of good
overcoming evil.
Characters were traditionally introduced using
short speeches, often written in rhyming couplets.
St George, or King George, stood at the centre of
most plays as the hero, although in the Cotswolds
the hero was Robin Hood and in Scotland it was
Galoshin. Mummers’ plays love a metaphor, and as
such King George was a symbol for Time, killing
off the old year, or the Sun overcoming winter.
Secondary characters were also archetypal and

T
included the Doctor (a comedic shaman-like figure
he British are partial to weird that cures the Earth from the deadness of winter)
traditions, and the festive season and his assistant, the Dragon (resurrected by the
is chock full of them. While newer doctor, with his fiery breath representing the Sun),
traditions include crackers, Christmas the Slasher or Turkish Knight (slain by King George
trees, a turkey dinner and falling asleep in front and representing the old year), the Sheba (the Earth
of the Queen’s Speech, some British Christmas Goddess that brings fertility to the land), the Devil
traditions can be traced back to the early Middle (a force of evil that aimed to stop the sun from
Ages. Take, for example, mummers’ plays. rising), and the Fool (no explanation necessary). Old
Adding a touch of theatricality to the usual Father Christmas – a different figure to Santa Claus
Christmas proceedings, mummers’ plays are folk – would also appear as the play’s narrator.
plays performed by half a dozen or so amateur Over the years, the tradition spread from the
(traditionally all male) actors in streets or during British Isles to former British colonies and became
visits to houses and pubs. The term ‘mummer’ is a popular fixture of Christmas, Easter and Plough
thought to have originated from the Early New Monday. Although mummers’ plays can’t compete
High German word meaning ‘disguised person’, and with the likes of Jack and the Beanstalk and
for good reason: in medieval times, the mummers Cinderella in 21st century Britain, they are still
(the actors performing in the plays) would don performed today.

Although Mummers’ Plays are no longer a

regular Christmas fixture for much of the
British population, they are still enthusiastically
performed in some parts of the country

59
 Wren Day has changed with the
times – modern iterations of the
celebration no longer include the
killing of wrens, and it’s no longer
just men and boys that get involved

Wren Day began in medieval

times, but people all over
Ireland still celebrate it today

60
 Ireland’s Wren Day

From collecting money to instigating brawls, the Irish tradition of

Wren Day marks the day after Christmas Day
Written by Poppy-Jay St. Palmer

C
ome the end of Christmas Day, the wrenboy leader’s decorated staff, dead era, when a Celtic plot to ambush a camp
the festivities are rarely over. or alive, and paraded around the local area. of Viking raiders was thwarted by wrens.
People from cultures and locations With the wren staff held high, the wrenboys Just before the attack came to fruition, a
all over the world like to keep in the countryside went house-to-house wren started pecking crumbs off the drum
the celebrations going into 26 December. In collecting money, which was usually donated the Vikings used to regulate their oar stroke
Great Britain, it’s Boxing Day, often observed to a school or charity, or used to host an aboard ship, waking the soldiers up. Another
through watching the football, hitting the extravagant ‘Wren Ball’ for the villagers on a legend says that the singing of a wren
sales, and attending the panto. In much of January night. The celebration was somewhat betrayed the hiding place of St Stephen, the
mainland Europe, it’s Saint Stephen’s Day, a different for the wrenboys in the towns, who first martyr, before he was stoned to death.
time for religious reflection and even more would sometimes instigate faction fighting, The hunt is Ireland’s revenge on the bird.
food. In the United States, it’s just the day after encouraging often dangerous mass brawls.
Christmas and a time for rest. But in Ireland, Alongside the wrenboys and the parading of On Wren Day, wrenboys
it’s Wren Day. the wren, other locals would also get involved, would parade through
towns with a wren atop a
Observed in conjunction with St Stephen’s playing music and donning disguises, like decorative stick, collecting
Day, Wren Day (pronounced ‘wran’) is the masks, straw costumes, blackened faces and money from villagers

last of Ireland’s ten public holidays a year. old-woman drag. While in costume, people
Though it doesn’t have quite the reputation would also use the opportunity to play tricks
of St Patrick’s Day, the traditions associated on their friends. Many participants received
with 26 December are just as unique. The a feather from the wren, given to them by
holiday first began back in medieval times. the wrenboys for good luck. Nowadays, no
From the 16th to the early 20th century, each hunting is involved and the wrens are fake,
Wren Day began with a group of wrenboys but most of the other festivities have endured.
(villagers in fancy dress) setting out to hunt a The origin of the vendetta against the
wren. The unlucky bird was then placed atop wrens is thought to have started in the Viking
 Folklore

According to some festive myths,

reindeer aren’t the only animals that
gain magical abilities at Christmas time.

How the nativity’s bowing donkey, and sinister folktales, led to the
legend that animals gain supernatural powers each Christmas Eve

Written by Poppy-Jay St. Palmer

62
 Animal Magic

F
rom the birth of Jesus to a visit
from Santa on his sleigh, much
about the festive season is magical
to many. But flying reindeer aren’t
the only creatures thought to get special abilities
at Christmas time. Magical animals crop up in
seasonal mythology across the world. Take, for
instance, the European legend of talking animals.
In many countries across the Continent, some
lightheartedly like to believe that farmyard animals
and household pets gain the ability to speak at the
stroke of midnight on Christmas Eve.
The idea of talking animals may sound quaint,
but some variations of the myth put a somewhat
darker spin on it. In The Christmas Troll and Other
Yuletide Stories by Clement A Miles, a dog and cat
team up and hatch a plot to kill their master. In
another version told in the German Alps, a farm
servant hides in the stable on Christmas Eve with
the hope of hearing the horses speak. Instead, he
finds a steed foretelling his death. Tales like these
are why some people view talking animals as more
of a bad omen than a flight of fancy.
The legend of the talking animals is often linked
to the belief that the Baby Jesus was born at exactly Some people believe that the ox and donkey
midnight on Christmas Day, a magical occurrence bowing at the birth of Jesus caused supernatural
animal behaviour on Christmas Eve
that caused a number of supernatural phenomena.

Though its exact origin can’t be identified, many

reckon the legend has pagan beginnings. Others
think they can trace it back to the ancient Roman
festival of Saturnalia, a week-long winter holiday
where social roles were reversed and masters
traditionally served their slaves.
In the nativity story, that we know today, the
ox and donkey present in the stable each took a
knee to bow when Jesus was born. This unusual
behaviour also features in a number of festive
folktales: in Sketches of Upper Canada written
by John Howison in 1821, Howison recounts that
a Native American person once told him that
deer fall upon their knees to the Great Spirit each
Christmas Night.
Perhaps the most unusual myth of them all
features in William Henderson’s book Folk-lore
of the Northern Counties of England and Their
Borders, published in 1879. He claims that a family
friend once witnessed a swarm of bees assemble
themselves into a choir to hum a hymn on
Many Europeans Christmas Eve. You’d be forgiven for presuming
lightheartedly believe that the man in question had consumed one too many
animals gain the power
of speech at the stroke of sherries, but in the English parish of Whitebeck it’s
midnight each Christmas common knowledge that bees begin to sing as the
Eve, with mixed results
clock strikes 12 on 25 December.

63
 Folklore

Every culture has its traditions,

and Ukrainians like to add spider
ornaments to their trees at Christmas

Decorating Christmas trees with

spider ornaments known as
pavuchky stems from a folktale
that has been passed down through
Ukrainian families

64
 The Legend of the Pavuchky

Spiders adorn the Christmas trees of many Ukrainian households each year,
and are thought to bring luck and good fortune
Written by Poppy-Jay St. Palmer

W
hen you think of months were hard on the struggling family tell the story from the spiders’ point of view,
Halloween, witches, and used up what little money they had. while others replace the sunlight shining
pumpkins and spiders When the festive season came around, they through the window with a miracle of Father
might be one of the found that they couldn’t afford to decorate Christmas, Santa Claus or the Baby Jesus. But
first things that come to mind. But in Ukraine, their new Christmas tree. The woman and whichever way you spin it, the tale is why
the eight-legged creatures stick around for her disappointed children went to bed on many Ukrainians believe that spiders can
Christmas too. Alongside the baubles, tinsel Christmas Eve, lamenting their poor fortune. bring luck and good fortune into the New
and candy canes adorning the branches of the Hearing the children’s sobs, the spiders living Year, and why you’ll often find decorative
Christmas tree, many Ukrainians add a festive in their hut decided to help bring some spider ornaments in Ukrainian households at
spider ornament – known as pavuchky, which Christmas magic to them. They crawled over Christmas time.
When the children in the
translates to ‘little spiders’ – when decorating to the bare tree and began spinning beautiful folktale awoke on Christmas
their tree. It may seem unusual but, like many webs between its branches. When the children morning, they found their
previously bare tree covered
of the best Christmas traditions, it began with awoke the next morning, they were thrilled in elegant, shining cobwebs
a folktale. to find the first rays of sunlight shining
Once upon a time, there lived a through the windows of their hut, lighting
hardworking widowed mother who lived in up the elegant webs to make them shine
a lowly hut with her children. While the sun like dazzling Christmas lights. Overjoyed,
was high in the summer, a pine cone fell upon the children ran to fetch their mother. Upon
the earthen floor of the family’s humble home. seeing the tree, the woman could hardly
Taking root, the pine cone began to grow. believe her eyes. From that Christmas on, she
The children tended to the sapling, and were never again felt poor, and was always grateful
excited by the prospect of having a Christmas for the blessings she already had.
tree for winter. But while the tree flourished The telling of this twee legend can vary,
under their care, the autumn and winter depending on who you hear it from. Some
 Folklore

Witches might not come to mind when

thinking about Christmas, but in northern
European folklore they love the festive season
Written by Alice Pattillo

I
n European mythology, otherworldly eaten the traditional supper of fish and gruel. In
spirits would be unleashed upon the Scotland, there is a similar witch who goes by
world during winter. Beginning at the name of Gyre-Carling, who will also punish
Halloween and ending at Easter, the those who have not spun their flax by Twelfth
cold, dark nights were a terrifying prospect for Night. Gyre-Carling is a little more compassionate,
ancient and medieval peoples, and a time that however, and will merely beat you with an iron
many wouldn’t survive. By the medieval age and club rather than gut you.
the added fearmongering surrounding witches, In Iceland, the mountains are haunted by the
much of folklore is full of superstitions of witches’ wicked ogeress Gryla, and her partner in crime, the
sabbats occurring at Halloween, Christmas or Yule Cat. Gryla snatches misbehaving children and
Easter, and similar rituals and traditions occur tosses them into her giant sack, ready to take home
across all of these major festivals. In Norway, to her icy cave dwelling and cook up in her stew to
one such belief that likely stems from pre- eat. Her familiar, the Yule Cat, isn’t much better. He
Christian times is the idea that witches emerge on gobbles up anyone not dressed for the holiday in
Christmas Eve, and it is traditional to hide all the brand new clothes, so be a little more grateful for
brooms in your household to prevent them from that pack of socks under the tree and the freshly
spreading evil and chaos. knitted sweater from grandma!
But Christmas associations with witches don’t In Italy, the season isn’t quite so brutal – in terms
end there. In Germany and Austria, there lies of both weather and mythology. Perhaps the less
the legend of Frau Perchta, whose origins lurk in extreme climate is to thank for their Christmas
Alpine paganism. An ugly goose-footed hag who witch, La Befana, who simply gives out sweets to
goes from house to house during the 12 days of children and rides from house to house on her
Christmas, she is said to put a silver coin in your broomstick, sweeping the houses of the children
shoe if you’ve been good, or slit you open and she visits. Legend has it that La Befana does all
replace your stomach and guts with straw and this on her endless search for the Baby Jesus. After
pebbles if you’ve been bad. She was particularly offering the three wise men a place to stay on their
keen to punish women who hadn’t finished their journey to Bethlehem, she wished to tag along,
spinning of flax or wool and those who hadn’t only to lose them en route.

66
 A procession of people dressed
up in Frau Perchta masks in the
Austrian town of Bad Hofgastein
 Dolls of Befana
on sale in Italy

Men and
women parade
in traditional
costumes during
the Epiphany
Befana festival in
Florence, Italy
 La Befana

In Italy, a traditional present-giver is the witch-like La

Befana, an ancient sibil who regrets not visiting the Baby
Jesus alongside the Three Kings
Written by Katharine Marsh

A
lthough Santa has become a January, or the Feast of Epiphany, the 12th day with a Roman-style cap, long live La Befana!”)
part of the Christmas tradition of Christmas. During the night, Befana flies around on her
in the West, Italy has another Befana is a witch, or at least witch-like, and broomstick and down chimneys to deliver
gift giver ready to reward good rides a broom. According to legend, she crossed sweets and gifts to those who have been good
children alongside the jolly red Babbo Natale: paths with the Wise Men while they were – and lumps of coal to the naughty ones.
La Befana. Instead of coming on Christmas on their journey to visit the Baby Jesus, but Befana is actually older than jolly old St Nick,
Eve, however, she visits on 6 she declined the offer to join them. She soon though. She seems to have appeared in the 8th
regretted her decision and tried to follow the century as part of Italy’s Epiphany celebrations,
same bright star, but got lost along the way. and her roots come from the ancient Alpine
Instead she left her gifts at the doors of other Celts, who had a priestess set a wicker puppet
children, and she continues to do so to this on fire to honour the gods. Other Celtic
day. Up and down the Italian peninsula, influences have led her to have a broom, which
children hang up their stockings or is connected to druidic nature rituals. Parts of
leave out their shoes before they Befana have changed over the years, though –
head to bed on 5 January. Some she has been a witch and a housewife – but her
will even sing a song: appearance has always been roughly the same:
an ugly old woman with a hooked, knotty nose,
La Befana vien di notte a wart and a patchwork dress.
con le scarpe tutte rotte The tradition of Befana has been fading
col cappello alla away, though, as she is increasingly being
romana replaced by Babbo Natale, or Father Christmas.
viva viva La Befana. However, re-imaginings of her paint her as an
animal lover, an ecologist and a justice bearer,
(“The Befana comes at so it’s unlikely that she will ever completely
night, with worn-out shoes, vanish from Italian homes.

Befana is
recognisable by
her broom, hooked
nose and wart

69
 An 1882 depiction of the hunt
by German painter Friedrich
Wilhelm Heine entitled
Wodan’s Wild Hunt

There’s a prevailing myth that a ghostly procession led by a legendary

spectral huntsman haunts the wild landscapes of northern Europe

Written by Alice Pattillo

70
 The Wild Hunt

people to take bread and a piece of steel with them

to church at Christmas in order to use the steel to
fend off the leader of the hunt and the bread to
distract the dogs.
In Britain, early medieval accounts paint pictures
of hideous demonic men riding black horses or
he-goats, suggesting a connection with the devil,
and occasionally Satan himself would oversee
the ride. In later accounts riders morphed from
demons to Celtic faeries and numerous deities and
mythological heroes were credited with leading
the magical army – including Odin, of course, but
also King Arthur and the legendary ghost Herne
the Hunter. In Wales, Gwynn ap Nudd, the ruler
of the Celtic otherworld of Annwn, oversaw the
procession, while in Ireland it was the king of the
Tuatha Dé Danann, Nuada. Hellhounds, including
the dreaded Welsh Cwn Annwn, accompanied
the hunters and various origin stories sprung up,
suggesting who the fugitive could be.
In Germany, the leader of the procession was
referred to as ‘der Schimmelreiter’, and was often
Odin or an undead nobleman who had been cursed
to ride eternally as part of the hunt. Sometimes
the leader was female, such as Frau Hulda or
Perchta. There were two versions of the Wild Hunt
in Germany, the host and the hunt. In the hunt, a
man would typically go out in front to warn people
of the oncoming procession, which could involve
hunters fighting between each other. The hunt
would sometimes function just as those across the
rest of northern Europe - with no prey – but could
also feature a female demon being captured, or

F
in some cases the capture of a white hart. Some
irst popularised by folklorist Jacob legends feature one sole hunter upon horseback,
Grimm – of the Brothers Grimm accompanied by hounds. In any case, if you come
– in 1835, the concept of the Wild across the ghostly procession on German soil and
Hunt is a myth that spans across stand up against them you will be punished, and
northern Europe, most notably the British Isles, if you choose to aid them, you will be rewarded
Germany and Scandinavia. Typically, it is a (although usually with a cursed piece of meat). But
chase led by the apparition of a legendary figure, to be safe, curiously all you need to do is stand in
accompanied by a ghostly procession of hunters the middle of the road…
in pursuit – of what, we don’t know. According to
lore, if you are unfortunate enough to witness the
hunt it’s a bad omen: from the foreshadowing of
An 1863 depiction of Frau
war or plague to your own death or abduction, it’s Holle leading the Wild Hunt
unlikely you will walk away unscathed. with a large procession of
ethereal beings
Grimm himself credited the myth’s origins
to Norse pagan beliefs, presumably spread
throughout Europe with the Vikings. In
Scandinavian lore, the Wild Hunt is led by the
all-father, Odin. A term given to the hunt in the
great North is Oskoreia, meaning terrifying hunt,
indicating the fear associated with it. Odin is
often said to be riding a one-wheeled chariot
Odin riding a horse and and accompanied by the souls of the damned or
accompanied by two dogs while
a man attempts to avoid the
ominous black hounds, and is heard but rarely
procession, illustrated by Swedish seen. In one area of Sweden, it was custom for
artist August Malmström
 The most wonderful time
of year for spreading some
Christmas fear!

72
 We Wish You a

Christmas is supposed to be a peaceful time of year – yet

folklore around the world is full of festive frighteners
Written by Alice Pattillo

C
hristmas falls at the coldest, darkest, remember the very reason Mary and Jesus were the season. The Scots-Irish goddess of winter,
most oppressive time of year in forced into a barn to bring God’s little bundle of the Cailleach, was portrayed as a mournful old
the northern hemisphere. For our joy into the world: Herod. The tale of the ghastly woman who strikes the ground with her giant
ancestors, winter wasn’t just cold and King Herod would probably get at least a PG13 staff, freezing the land. The Slavic goddess,
miserable, it was dangerous, and many people rating for disturbing content and violence if it Morana, is a similar winter deity who is heavily
wouldn’t make it through to the following were ever to make it to Hollywood nowadays, yet associated with death, and her effigy, Marzanna,
summer. The freezing cold temperatures and it is the backbone of the entire Christmas story. is ritualistically drowned every spring. She also is
lack of adequate insulation and heating, paired When Herod gets word that God is sending a king associated with Mare, a malicious entity in Slavic
with viruses and plagues and lack of light and in the form of a baby boy, Herod orders his men and Germanic folklore and the personification of
food, was a recipe for disaster. Life appeared to slaughter every single male child two years old nightmares. In Finland, the witch goddess Louhi
to be at a standstill, with numerous life-giving, or younger in the whole of Bethlehem, an event is said to have kidnapped the Sun and the Moon
edible plants dying out and livestock having to known as the Massacre of the Innocents. It casts and held them captive in a mountain, causing the
be culled thanks to a lack of resources – it really a pretty dark shadow over the joyous occasion extended darkness of the winter season.
was a hostile and miserable time of year. The real that is the birth of Jesus, and thankfully none of Myths and legends from all corners of the
life fears of people during the Christmas season Herod’s guards managed to infiltrate the stable world tell tales of creatures that lurk in the
manifested themselves into midwinter folklore, that was housing the son of God. The tale of dark of winter and are, in most cases, simply
full of terrifying beasts, frightening superstitions, Herod the child-killer is fictitious, however, and personifications of the most frightening aspects
and tales of dread, with the winter solstice a the real Herod was in fact a Romano-Jewish king of the season. In Canada, the chenoo is a former
beacon of hope, when the days started to fight of Judea. The biblical tale is likely negative anti- human who has succumbed to cannibalism,
back and nights became shorter. Midwinter Semitic propaganda and unfortunately, the factual perhaps thanks to the extreme weather
solstice represented death, rebirth, and in many history of King Herod has become lost behind conditions and lack of food available – they are
pagan religions, marked a time when the veil the myth. Herod remains the main antagonist then possessed by a spirit and their heart turns to
between this world and the “other” was lifted. of Christmas whether or not he actually earned ice. In Japan, the Yuki-onna is a beautiful woman
So while we might think of Christmas today as the title. But he isn’t the first Yuletide monster, who glides upon the snow freezing those caught
a cosy season of joy and merriment, it wasn’t despite being the most famous. in snow storms with her icy breath – a very literal
always that way. The winter gods and goddesses of pagan ice maiden.
If you think back to your childhood and northern Europe all express the respectful but The Nuckelavee is a skinless Scottish demon
hearing the nativity story, you will no doubt fearful relationship our ancestors had towards who, after being imprisoned during the summer,

73
 Folklore

Ghosts of
Christmas Past

Although scary stories are more commonly

associated with Halloween today, ghost tales
were a Victorian Christmas tradition. The
most famous of all Yuletide ghost stories is, of
course, A Christmas Carol, but sitting around
the fireplace in midwinter and reciting fictional
(or supposedly factual) accounts of hauntings
was a common form of entertainment even
before Charles Dickens cemented the link
in his seminal novel. Folklore dating back to
before the advent of Christianity is rife with
tales of spirits and malevolent creatures
spreading chaos at Christmas, and with the
long nights and short days, it’s a sinister
time of year – perfect for spreading some
Christmas fear! In 1589, Christopher Marlowe
referenced the “spirits and ghosts” that
defined the season in his play The Jew of
Malta. In the 17th century, Robert Burton
mentioned the Christmas tradition of telling
“merry tales” of “witches, fairies”. And in
1820, in the fifth installment of The Sketch
Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent, American
author Washington Irving (known for his tale,
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow) describes a
Christmas evening of ghost tales. But thanks
to the rise of the gothic novel and spiritualism,
Dickens, a stream of other popular writers, The Ghost – A Christmas Frolick: An 1814 depiction of
and an audience with a taste for midwinter a traditional Christmas Eve with a child terrifying his
macabre, the tradition reached its peak during family by dressing up as a ghost
the Victorian era, and periodicals churned out
Christmas specials chock full of terrifying tales becomes a rage-infested ghoul hell-bent on the stable door to ward off the trows from this day
of festive phantoms. However, with the rise causing suffering once freed by the cold. on. On Yule night itself, further steps were taken,
of Halloween during the 20th century, spooky
storytelling found a new home on 31 October,
The Norse winter solstice, Yule, was when with iron left in an unlocked door and a candle
striking the last nail in the coffin of the age-old the Wild Hunt rode, encouraging people to stay lit, hands and feet were washed in a bowl heated
tradition of Yuletide ghost tales. inside or else wind up having their soul collected with three blazing pieces of peat or else “the trows
by Odin and his team of hunters. The spirits would take the power from them”, houses were
of the dead were unleashed, along with other tidied (trows hate a messy house) and brand new
supernatural beings, such as trolls, so people night clothes were worn.
burned yule logs to ward off evil and misfortune. Winter solstice for the Yupik of Alaska and
In the heavily Norse-influenced Scottish islands Russia is particularly terrifying, with stories of
of Orkney and Shetland, seven days before Yule underground monsters known as Kogukhpak,
is known as Tulya’s E’en – the return of the who are gigantic creatures with teeth and tusks
dead. This day, usually 14 December, marked the like mammoths, big bulbous bodies and frog legs.
beginning of a time when supernatural spirits They emerged from their subterranean homes
were unleashed upon the earth. Trows, a form at winter solstice to reign terror upon the world
of sprite with magical powers that were greatest until the Sun returned, as the Sun was the only
during the winter season, ordinarily resided in thing that could kill them. In southeast European
caves and mountains, often below ground. At and Anatolian folklore, hairy goblin-like creatures
Yuletide, however, they could run havoc upon the called the Kallikantzaros would arise from their
land and measures had to be taken in order to underground habitat to wreak havoc and attempt
guard property and lives, as the trows’ mischief to destroy the tree of life in order to kill humanity.
A scene from the 1938 film adaptation of
Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol could often end in death. Two pieces of straw were Like the Kogukhpak, sunlight was fatal to them,
formed into a cross and left at the gate, and a hair but luckily they were also easily outwitted and
was taken from each animal, plaited and hung by couldn’t count past three. In one tale, villagers

74
 We Wish You a Scary Christmas

were encouraged to be well-behaved and adults and she also is the goddess who oversees the death
would protect their homes with a cross-shaped of children, appearing in two forms: as both a
sigil. Lussi would ride through the sky on a dark grandmother and a white lady. Her feast is in
broomstick and spread chaos, destroying crops midwinter, during the 12 Days of Christmas, when
and property, killing livestock and kidnapping or the dead are said to roam abroad, and she is often
killing anyone who wasn’t tucked up at home in said to be a leader of the Wild Hunt. As Perchta,
bed. Similarly, in Germanic folklore, Lutzelfrau is she appears as either a beautiful white woman or
supposedly another incarnation of St Lucia, but in a hideous hag, and often has one large goose or
this terrifying guise, she punishes lazy girls and swan foot. Perchta checks that you have upheld
disembowels naughty children. the tradition of spinning all your flax by Twelfth
For centuries folklore has told legends of Night and that your house is tidy. She roams the
altruistic beings such as Father Christmas and countryside at midwinter entering homes and
Saint Nick, the Italian good witch La Befana leaving gifts of silver coins in the shoes or pails of
and the Finnish Yule Goat. But alongside these those who had been good, ensuring luck for the
benevolent forces lie legends of more sinister folk year ahead. Those who had been naughty, or had
who serve to punish those who are bad, and their failed to observe the correct rituals and traditional
punishments are often far more severe than a meal on Perchta’s night, would have the rather
lump of coal left in your stocking. brutal punishment of having their bellies split open
One such Christmas monster is the Krampus of and their guts replaced by straw and pebbles. In
Alpine folklore, who has seen a surge in popularity Austria, people still parade in costume as Perchta,
in modern times thanks to Hollywood depictions. donning masks known as Perchten, of either her
He serves as the antithesis of Saint Nikolaus (or beautiful or ugly form. Perchta in her beautiful
Nicholas), and is often depicted visiting houses form is said to bring luck and prosperity, while the
alongside him on Christmas Eve and assisting him ugly masks are to drive away evil spirits.
with the children who have misbehaved. Krampus Another German figure of Christmas is
is represented as a Christmas devil, Belsnickel, who by no means is as evil as
with horns, a forked tongue, a tail Krampus or Perchta, but he’s still
and cloven feet. Believed to fairly unsettling. In a similar
be a pagan deity who was fashion to the aforementioned
assimilated into the figure dealers of Christmas
of the Christian devil Scary justice, Belsnickel is a
in a similar fashion to cantankerous old man
Christmas
Pan and other horned who beats you if you have
gods. While Saint Nick
legends are thought misbehaved. Dressed in
offers gifts such as to represent the rags and fur, Belsnickel
oranges, dried fruits, deadly nature of sometimes supports a
chocolate and walnuts winter weather mask with a long tongue
to well-behaved children, to conceal his identity and
Krampus punished the bad carries a switch in his hand
by spanking them with birch to beat the disobedient. If you
rods, but that was by far the are good, however, he also has
mildest of his disciplinary actions. In pockets full of cakes, sweets and nuts
some vintage postcards, Krampus can be seen to hand out. He’s a creepy character, often being
with a sack or basket, with which he presumably “felt” before he is seen, and like Santa Claus or
A Perchtan mask paraded as part of an kidnaps children to eat, drown or transport to Father Christmas, adults would dress up as him
annual gathering in Germany with the
intention of scaring away evil spirits hell. Krampus is often shown to be accompanied for children. He remained a popular character in
by chains, which are thought to symbolise the areas of the northwestern USA in the early 1800s,
were able to hold the troublesome beings at bay binding of Lucifer by the church, and he often declining by the end of the 19th century.
simply by putting colanders outside their doors. thrashes them for added scares – as if his ghastly Perhaps the most terrifying of the fearsome
When the Kallikantzaros saw them, they spent the appearance isn’t terrifying enough. Christmas figures who punish naughty children,
whole night attempting to count the holes until Frau Perchta (or Bertha) is a Germanic and however, is Hans Trapp, also known as the
they had to retreat beneath ground before sunrise. Alpine female figure who appears in two forms Christmas Scarecrow. One reason he is so terrifying
In Norway and Sweden, the eve of St Lucia’s and is associated with the Germanic folklore is his origin story and the fact that he started out
Day (the night of 12 December) was similar to our figure Frau Holle, who is thought to be an ancient as an average human. The legend of Hans Trapp
modern idea of Halloween. Dubbed Lussi’s Night, supreme goddess of Celtic origin. Holle dwells at is based upon a real-life knight, named Hans
it was believed that evil spirits and demons rose the bottom of a well, rides a wagon, and teaches von Trotha, who at two metres tall, was a rather
up to wander upon the Earth, under the guidance the craft of making linen from flax. Her spinning imposing fellow. Trotha had some run-ins with
of Lussi – an ugly, tyrannical demon. Children and weaving has associated her with witchcraft an abbot, resulting in him being excommunicated

75
 Folklore

by the Pope, and inadvertently caused a flood been misbehaving. She has also been known to eat
in Weissenburg; all this could have soured his a husband once she tires of him! An 1896 Austrian newspaper
reputation, and paired with his powerful stature Unfortunately, Grylla has a lot of children, 13 of illustration depicting Saint Nikolaus
and Krampus visiting a home
gave inspiration to numerous tales of terror after whom make up the Yule Lads. Each Yule Lad has a
his death, including one in the Palatinate region of name that corresponds to a particular mischievous
Germany about a restless spirit dubbed the Black activity he likes to perform. Door-slammer likes
Knight. The tale of Hans Trapp, although entirely to slam doors during the night to wake people
fictitious, is by far the most damning though. Trapp up, Skyr-Gobbler will eat all your yogurt, Sausage-
was said to have sold his soul to the devil in order swiper will take your sausages, Spoon-licker only
to pursue a life of debauchery, wealth and power. eats the remnants of food that’s left on a spoon,
After being banished to the woods or mountains, and so on. Each Yule Lad is designated a day,
he became vengeful, his evil desires festered and so if you are a well-behaved child, the lads will
his life of sin and use of black magic caused him to leave you a treat for 13 days in a row, but if you’ve
develop an insatiable desire for human flesh. One misbehaved, they will plant a rotten potato in your
day he decided to disguise himself as a scarecrow shoe every day for 13 days. The Yule Lads were
by stuffing his clothing with straw, and wait apparently a lot more malevolent in the past, but in
alongside the road for a victim to eat. Unfortunately, 1746 there was a ban on the terrifying tales of the
a ten-year-old boy crosses his path and Hans stabs Yule Lads, and at a time when hangings were still a
him, dragging him back to his lair, chopping him form of entertainment across the world, it begs the
into pieces and roasting him for dinner. At this question: How disturbing could they have been?
point, God noticed, and before he could take a bite, Saving the scariest member of Iceland’s most
he is struck down by a bolt of lightning, splitting his frightening family of giants to last, the dreaded Yule
head open and instantly killing him. That wasn’t Cat is the final member of Grylla’s clan. A gigantic
the end for Hans Trapp, though, and he is said to black cat known as Jólakötturinn first appeared in
have accompanied Saint Nick in the French regions written folklore the 19th century, and sports razor-
of Alsace and Lorraine to punish naughty children. sharp whiskers, claws and teeth, and blazing eyes.
In some versions of the myth, he marks children It is likely the Yule Cat derives from legends of troll
he’d like to eat on Christmas Eve, so you’d better be cats, often conjured up by witches and wizards in
good – or else wind up as Hans Trapp’s dinner. Scandinavian legend. The Yule Cat only awakes
For children in Iceland, where the winters are from its typical lazy feline slumber once a year – on
particularly harsh, so are their Christmastide Christmas Eve – and he eats children who didn’t
legends. Rather than chestnuts roasting on an open receive new clothes for Christmas. It’s unclear how
fire, hanging stockings to be filled with gifts and this one serves to teach children or scare them
tales of Santa Claus getting stuck in the chimney, into submission, other than threatening not to buy
Christmas in Iceland is a terrifying time when you your child some new threads perhaps and thus
must be on your best behaviour, as you’ll be faced surrendering them to a fate of ending up as the
with not one, but many of the numerous monstrous Christmas kitty’s next meal. A bit harsh.
figures of Icelandic folklore. As with most Christmas
folklore, some of the characters might leave you
a gift or two, but none of them are particularly
friendly and any amount of naughtiness could
result in being eaten.
The characters of Icelandic Christmas folklore
are all depicted as one (not-so) happy family
and include Grylla the giantess and her husband
Leppalúði, the Yule Cat and the Yule Lads. Grylla
began life as a troll, according to the Prose Edda, but
her relationship with Christmas was first mentioned
in the 17th century. At Christmas time, she is said to
leave her home in the Dimmuborgir mountains and
go seeking food for her stew. Her favourite form of
protein? Children. She delights in a stew of naughty
children, but has been known to have one or two
just as a snack too. Grylla, just like the omniscient
Santa Claus or Frau Perchta, can detect whether a
child has been good or bad, and will throw you in
her giant sack to take back for the dinner she shares A not so scary representation of
the Yule Cat, in the form of a light
with her lazy third husband Leppalúði, if you’ve
sculpture annually placed during
Christmas in Reykjavík, Iceland

76
We Wish You a Scary Christmas

Seasonal
shapeshifting

All the creatures that are associated with

Halloween now were linked to the winter solstice
and Christmas in days gone by… witches, ghosts
and even werewolves! Being born on Christmas
Day could reportedly make you a werewolf. In
Poland and elsewhere in northeastern Europe,
babies born at Christmas are said to have a
greater chance of being a werewolf, and steps
were to be taken to prevent such an occurrence.
The myth is depicted in the 1961 Universal film,
The Curse of the Werewolf, with Oliver Reed’s
Leon suffering the werewolf curse despite
his mother being a victim of rape and himself
being an orphan. In Germany, it wasn’t just
being born on Christmas Day itself that would
increase your chances of lycanthropy, your
likelihood was automatically enlarged if you
entered the world on any day within the 12 days
of Christmas. Similarly, in Italy, being born on
the winter solstice meant you were likely to be
a shapeshifter. The reason? Blasphemy. Being
born on Jesus’ birthday was the ultimate insult to
God. According to 15th century Swedish traveller
and writer Olaus Magnus, in Prussia, Livonia and
Lithuania, Christmas night was the annual party
night for werewolves, after which they would be
left fired up and ready to charge up to houses,
bash down doors, and feast on humans and their
pets or livestock. Happy Christmas!

Folklore from Italy, Germany and Poland

states that someone born at Christmas had a
high chance of becoming a werewolf

77
 116

Traditions
80 Advent Calendars 108 What I Want
A Christmas countdown for Christmas
Christmas presents
82 St Lucia's Day
A Swedish celebration 110 The Burning
Log Festival
84 Who is Mary? The Yule Log
The importance of the nativity play
112 Christmas Dinners
86 Christmas Trees Festive feasts 86
Popularised by the Victorians
116 The King of
88 Baubles, Tinsel Crackers
& Holly Making Christmas go with a bang
The beauty of Christmas decorations
118 Junkanoo
90 From Fire Hazard A Caribbean Christmas carnival
to Fairy Light
The evolution of Christmas lights 120 Twelfth Night
Epiphany Eve
92 Christmas Cards
Season's greetings 122 Christmas in
Ethiopia
94 The Good Night Celebrating Genna
A Spanish-speaking celebration
124 Strangest Ways to
96 Light in the Celebrate Christmas
Darkness Bizarre traditions around the world
Midnight Mass

98 Songs of Christmas
Carols and hymns

100 From St Nicholas

to the Mantelpiece
Christmas stockings

102 From St Nicholas

to Santa Claus
How a 4th century bishop ended up
giving out Christmas presents

108
102
 98

118

84

92
80

124

90

120

79
 Today, many
people make
their own advent
calendars and
fill them with all
sorts of treats

80
 Advent Calendars

The excitement of the countdown to Christmas started as a religious

observance but is now focused on 24 little treats...
Written by Katharine Marsh

A
ll around the world, people little pictures, others sold ones with biblical tea, coffee and more. In 2007, Harrods broke
count down to Christmas from verses. They were banned, however, in the record for the most expensive advent
1 December by opening a little 1940s Germany – the Nazis called them ‘pre- calendar with a four-foot, Christmas-tree-
numbered door every day. But Christmas calendars’ and replaced the images shaped carved wooden structure that cost a
where did this tradition actually come from? and biblical verses with swastikas. But after whopping £30,000. Meanwhile the largest
One theory is that it came from 19th World War II, they made a resurgence and advent calendar ever created was at St Pancras
century Germany, when Lutherans would spread around the world. Station in London in 2007, measuring in at 71
mark every day from 1 to 24 December Chocolate advent calendars – staples of metres high and 23 metres wide.
with a chalk line on a door. Eventually, today’s Christmas celebrations in the Western
German bookshop owner Gerhard Lang world – began to appear on shop shelves in the
realised there was money to be made and late 1950s, but they weren’t popular at first.
began selling calendars counting down the Cadbury even started making them in 1971,
days to Christmas. But it was in 1902 that but it would take another two decades before
the real money maker was created – Lang’s they were put into continuous production. An advent calendar from
mother attached 24 biscuits onto a square of President Eisenhower had a part to play in the early 20th century
cardboard for her son to eat each day in the the popularisation of the advent calendar in
lead-up to the festivities. In 1908, Lang stole the United States. He was pictured opening
his mother’s idea and put the calendars in his them with his grandchildren, creating interest
shop, but changed it slightly – instead of sweet in the product.
treats, little pictures were hidden behind the Advent calendars (particularly chocolate
calendar doors. ones, or those holding other treats and
Needless to say, the idea caught on. While goodies) have now become commonplace.
Lang closed up shop in 1930, advent calendars Every year, companies strive to create more
had become popular. Some sold ones with innovative versions, with makeup, candles,
 Traditions

I
n winter, the nights in Scandinavia are
long, cold and bitter. Summer, and its
warmth and light, seem a very long way
away. But on 13 December, the feast of
St Lucia brings a foretaste of the light in the midst of
the encroaching darkness.
The original St Lucia was a 4th-century martyr
whose cult spread widely across the Mediterranean.
When, centuries later, monks arrived in Scandinavia
to convert the pagan Norse they brought the stories
of St Lucia with them, including one that told of how
she had taken supplies to Christians sheltering from
persecution in the Roman catacombs. As it was dark
underground and to keep her hands free to carry
more food, Lucia fashioned an early head torch by
fixing candles to a headdress and wearing it as she
made her way through the dark passages.
The story of the light-bearing maiden coming
through the darkness bringing the gifts necessary
for life resonated deeply with the pagan Norse –
and even more so because Lucia’s feast day was
The customs of St Lucia’s day in Scandinavia, 13 December. Before the Gregorian reform of the
calendar in 1582, 13 December fell on the winter
which take place on 13 December, are among the solstice, the shortest day of the year. The pagan

most charming of all Christmas celebrations Norse had celebrated the solstice with bonfires and
sacrifice: the Christian Norse celebrated it with light-
bearing maidens, feasting and cakes.
Written by Edoardo Albert

The traditional songs that

accompany the festival are
well-known and much loved by
Swedes at home and abroad

82
 St Lucia’s Day

Today, towns and schools throughout Sweden

and the rest of Scandinavia celebrate the festival by
electing – usually by lot – a young girl to be St Lucia
for the day. The St Lucia stand-in for the year wears
white robes and lights in her hair, battery powered or
traditional candles. She leads a procession of similarly
white-clad girls and young women through the
streets as they sing traditional songs while carrying
candles. Boys take part in the procession as well,
joining in with the singing. Some of the boys wear
white while others take the part of other people and
creatures associated with Christmas, ranging from
St Stephen to nisse. The nisse are creatures from
Scandinavian folklore who resemble gnomes and are
associated with Christmas and the winter solstice.
The traditional songs sung in the procession are
part of the common inheritance of Swedes and
almost all Swedes can sing them, although not always
very tunefully.
The feast is not solely public. Within the family, it
is traditional for the eldest daughter, also dressed in
white, to serve the rest of the family cakes, pastries
and coffee, in particular ginger snaps and lussekatter,
a type of saffron bread that looks like a curled-up cat.
The original Lucia might have been surprised, but
no doubt delighted, to learn how what she did in the
warm south endures in the cold north.

The boys wearing the

tall, pointed hats are
called stjärngossar (sta
r
boys), the one in brown
is a gingerbread man

83
 Traditions

The nativity play only became associated with

primary schools in Britain following World War
I but it has already became a favourite tradition

Southern Italy produces some

incredibly detailed crib scenes,
such as this one in the Certosa
di San Martino in Naples

84
 Who is Mary?

How the nativity play became one of the most

beloved parts of going to primary school in Britain
Written by Edoardo Albert

A
ccording to St Francis’ to the cemetery around the church and that they were mandated to teach. By
biographer, the friar from Assisi then to other public areas. With the move the 1970s, nativity plays had become an
was the first man to stage outside, the stories grew further, evolving apparently ancient tradition although, in their
a nativity play – although a into the great medieval mystery plays that modern form, they are comparatively recent.
nativity tableau might be a better description. were the precursors of Tudor and Jacobean Cancelled during the Covid-19 pandemic,
In 1223, Francis preached to the villagers of theatre. By the early 17th century, elaborate nativity plays across the country tentatively
Grecio in Italy on the baby of Bethlehem. To nativity scenes were set up in Germany, restarted in 2021. The coming years will no
bring the scene more vividly to life, Francis and the custom spread to other European doubt see many more staged, to the delight
had previously put a manger in a cave, with countries. In Catalonia, the caganer, a young of children, parents and grandparents around
an ox and an ass in attendance, and when he lad opening his bowels, became a customary the country.
Some schools even enlist
came to preach he showed the villagers this part of nativity dioramas. baby siblings to play the
representation of the nativity. Meanwhile, in northern Europe the part of the infant Jesus
It’s a fine story, but historians are dubious iconoclasm of the Reformation lead to
as to its veracity. Nor is it entirely clear the suppression of mystery plays. Indeed,
whether the papal permission that Francis during the Commonwealth, all theatres
received to stage this tableau included people were closed in England. However, the
playing any of the human, angelic and divine Victorian reimaging of Christmas as
characters in the scene. a family festival began to cement
But if Francis’ status as the director of the idea of children playing
the first nativity play is not proven, what grown-up roles in home-
is definite is that by the 9th century there based nativity tableaux. The
were already partial representations of the association of nativity plays
events of Easter during the liturgies of Holy with primary schools in the
Week. By the 11th and 12th centuries, these UK began in the decades
had become much more elaborate and had following World War I.
broadened to include the shepherds seeking With religious education a
the infant Jesus, who would be revealed by requirement of all schools,
a curtain being drawn back to show a crib whether state or religious,
containing a model of the infant Jesus. teachers discovered
These first religious dramas took place that staging a nativity
within churches but as the plays became play served to convey the
more elaborate they moved outdoors, first understanding of Christianity

85
 Traditions

Bringing evergreens into our homes is one of the oldest Christmas traditions
Written by Jessica Leggett

T
he tradition of bringing decorating a tree for Christmas. According in periodicals like the Illustrated London
evergreens into the home to the legend, Luther was making his way News, which helped the practice catch on all
during the winter solstice home one night when he turned to look up over the nation. These images also helped
dates all the way back to and was awed by the beauty of the night Christmas trees become more popular in
ancient Egypt and Rome. Evergreens were sky, which was framed by evergreen trees. the United States, where they had previously
highly symbolic and were thought to Luther brought a tree back to his house and been largely shunned due to the perception
symbolise the triumph of life over death and decorated it with lit candles because he had that they were associated with pagan rituals.
the expectation of another spring. They were been moved by the scene and wanted to Today, Christmas trees are an indisputable
also thought to guard the house and ward recreate it for his family. part of the festive season, with decorated
off evil spirits. It is generally accepted that Prince Albert, trees in homes and public spaces all around
The tradition of the Christmas tree, as Queen Victoria’s husband, was responsible the world. Some of the most famous
we recognise it today, originated in 16th for establishing the Christmas tree tradition Christmas trees include the Trafalgar Square
century Germany, where families would in Britain. This is a common misconception, Christmas Tree in London, a tree that has
decorate evergreen trees on Christmas though, as Queen Charlotte, King George been annually gifted to the people of Britain
Eve. Martin Luther, a German Protestant III’s German wife, introduced the first by Norway since 1947, and the Rockefeller
reformer, is typically given credit for starting Christmas tree to Britain four decades before Center Christmas Tree in New York City.
this tradition because he is Prince Albert. After marrying George in
thought to have 1761, Charlotte brought many of her German
been the first customs with her to Britain, and Christmas
to consider became a more public affair for the royals.
The installation of her first Christmas tree
at Queen’s Lodge in Winsdor, which was
The Rockefeller
Center Christmas decked out with tinsel, candies, and candles,
Tree in New York sparked a new tradition among the nobility.
is one of the most
iconic in the world It has been claimed that Queen Victoria
loved Christmas trees as a child, proving
that her husband was not the one who
brought them to Britain. However, Christmas
trees didn’t become a popular tradition
outside of the upper classes until images
of Victoria, Albert, and the rest of the royal
family gathered around their tree appeared Martin Luther and his family
around their Christmas tree c.1535

86
Christmas Trees

Christmas trees gained popularity

thanks to this image of Queen
Victoria and Prince Albert
gathered around their Christmas
tree with their children

87
 Traditions
While Christmas trees go back
at least five hundred years, the
baubles and tinsel that decorate
them date to the mid-19th century

Evergreen plants such as holly and ivy were

the very first forms of Christmas decoration,
symbolising new life at the darkest part of the year

This 1848 picture of Queen Victoria and Prince

Albert with their children around a Christmas
tree popularised the German tradition of
dressing a Christmas tree in the English-
speaking world

88
 Baubles, Tinsel and Holly

How we came to decorate our homes at Christmas

Written by Edoardo Albert

T
he use of greenery to adorn wafers and what may have been an early Christmas in Britain and America, and then
church and home at Christmas form of tinsel, in the city’s hospital. By the worldwide. As for the glass baubles hung
is very old. Almost all the early 16th century erecting a Christmas tree from the Christmas tree, they were a German
church records from the had become so popular in Germany that laws invention too. When FW Woolworth was
Middle Ages show entries recording the had to be passed to stop people chopping on a buying trip to Europe in the 1890s he
purchase of ivy and holly for decorations down too many trees. saw these glass baubles for sale and started
at Christmas. While we don’t have similar The first decorations hung from Christmas importing them to America to sell in his
records for private homes, by 1444 one trees were mainly edible: dried fruit, biscuits, Woolworths stores. Tinsel was also from
chronicler says of London that ‘every man’s gingerbread, even turnips. The first lights Germany, although it was developed by
house and also his parish church was decked attached to the tree were candles and a sort French Huguenot exiles. As metalworkers,
with holme, ivie, bayes, and whatever the of early tea light made from a nutshell filled they sometimes had leftover shavings which
season of the year afforded to be green.’ with oil. Not surprisingly, these decorations they twisted to make the first tinsel. When
The first mention of Deck the Halls with were a significant fire hazard. Starting in the it became popular as a decoration, they
Boughs of Holly is from 16th century Wales, 19th century, people began to decorate their started to make it from sheets of tin foil and
indicating that holly continued to be a trees with people and symbols of Christmas: it quickly became associated with Christmas
common domestic Christmas decoration. angels, the star, even the Baby Jesus. baubles. And so modern-Christmas
Advent wreaths were probably first wound Christmas trees remained largely a decorations were born.
in Germany in the 16th century by Lutherans, German custom until the mid-19th century
but the first unambiguous historical record when German emigré Prince Albert was
of their use is much later: 1833. The 19th pictured with his wife, Queen Victoria, and
century was also when advent wreaths were their children around a highly decorated
first hung on front doors to welcome visitors Christmas tree. With pictures of the
to the house. Royal Family gathered around their tree
The first Christmas trees were decorated appearing annually in the magazines of
in Germany. In 1419, in Freiburg, a document the day, a decorated Christmas tree rapidly
records a tree hung with gingerbread, apples, became a feature of the Victorian family

89
 Tradition
Traditions

From Fire Hazard to

During the darkest days of the year, Christmas

lights bring welcome illumination
Written by Edoardo Albert

90
 From Fire Hazard to Fairy Light

T
he first Christmas lights were It was another American, Edward H Johnson, Outdoor illuminations required electric light
as much fire hazard as festive who invented electric Christmas tree lights. bulbs that could safely weather rain and snow.
illumination. In Germany, where Johnson was a partner of Thomas Edison, the The first recorded set of outdoor Christmas
the tradition of decorating inventor of the light bulb, and on 22 December illuminations lit up Santa Rosa Avenue
Christmas trees began, people pinned candles to 1872 he strung 80 red, white and blue light bulbs (subsequently known as Christmas Tree Lane) in
their tree. This was a difficult procedure involving on to the tree he had set up in his parlour looking Altadena, California, in 1920. The street has been
pushing the heated pin into the base of the candle out over Fifth Avenue. Passers by stopped to stare lit up at Christmas every year since except during
and then pinning it to the tree. Other people half- at the wonder. Johnson, a consummate publicist, World War II. Regent Street in London was first lit
filled an empty nutshell with oil, put a wick in the also invited the press to see his tree. up for the Christmas of 1954 with Oxford Street
oil and hung that from the tree. Johnson turned his invention into a tradition, following in 1959. The practise has spread to non-
Whichever form of Christmas light people used, erecting a new tree with more lights each year. Christian countries too, providing a welcome burst
sensible families made sure to keep a bucket The lights, however, were expensive, far beyond of light in midwinter.
of water by the tree in case it caught fire. the reach of ordinary people. But by 1895 the With the introduction of LED lights in the
It took the invention of electricity practice had spread to the highest in the land: 2000s, ever more elaborate lighting displays
and electric lights for Christmas President Grover Cleveland unveiled the first have become common, with light sculptures
lighting to take off – although illuminated Christmas tree at the White House. the new trend. The largest displays can consist
one American inventor in Christmas trees lit by electric lights spread widely of thousands of lights and require their own
the 1870s did produce through America in the years following, but it generator. Indeed, during December, six per cent
a cast-iron simulation was only in the 1920s that the General Electric of America’s electricity consumption goes to
Christmas tree that Company started producing Christmas lights at a powering Christmas lights. It’s all come a long way
was lit by gas. price within the budget of ordinary families. from a couple of candles, flickering on a tree.

Every neighbourhood has the

household that really goes to
town with their Christmas lights

91
 Traditions
The first commercial
Christmas card, designed
by JC Horsley in 1843

Festive greeting cards

revolutionised the way we wish
our loved ones a happy holiday
Written by Jessica Leggett

C
hristmas cards are a beloved staple was not a commercial
of the festive season. The world’s success. However, many
first known Christmas card was of his friends realised
reportedly sent to King James I and that these cards were
his son, the Prince of Wales, by German physician a clever way to save
Michael Maier, in 1611. However, it was over two time and over the next
centuries later, in 1843, when the first commercial few years, several of
Christmas card was commissioned by Sir Henry them began sending
Cole, the first director of the Victoria & Albert out their own copies
Museum in London. of Cole and Horsley’s
Cole wanted to find a quick and easy way to original. Although it
send festive greetings to all of his loved ones. would take a while for the
He developed the idea of a Christmas card and Christmas card to become
asked his friend, illustrator John Callcott Horsley, more widespread in
to design it for him. Horsley illustrated a domestic Britain, it eventually became to the United States. Printer and lithographer Louis
scene with a family gathered around their table a beloved tradition and the cards became valued Prang was already creating festive greeting cards
celebrating Christmas, with scenes of charity keepsakes among the middle class. and exporting them to Britain when he decided to
depicted on either side. New Christmas card designs were released start producing them for the United States in 1875.
Cole had a thousand copies of this card printed throughout the late 19th century, with designs Prang had made Christmas cards more affordable
in London. Each one was hand-coloured with created by famous illustrators such as Henry for people to buy by mass producing them from
a generic message inside, so all Cole had left to Payne and Linnie Watts. During the time, his factory in Boston, and by the 1880s, Prang was
do was add the addressee’s name at the top and Christmas card designs varied and included printing more than five million cards annually.
sign his name at the bottom. He decided to sell themes such as animals, children, religion, Therefore, it should come as no surprise that
the cards that he had not used for one shilling flowers, dancing and celebrating. Eventually, the Prang is regarded as “the father of the American
each, which was expensive at the time and so popularity of Christmas cards crossed the Atlantic Christmas card” in history.

92
 Christmas Cards

A Christmas
card designed
by Louis Prang

Sir Henry Cole is credited with

introducing the world’s first
commercial Christmas card

93
 Traditions

Children also take part in Las

Posadas processions, often
dressed as angels or shepherds

Lechón, roast suckling pig, is

the traditional Noche Buena
meal in the Philippines

94
 The Good Night

The Christmas traditions of Spain, Latin America and the Philippines

concentrate on the night of Christ’s birth, Christmas Eve
Written by Edoardo Albert

A
dvent, the four weeks before together to the night of Christmas Eve. soup and seafood are the traditional dishes
Christmas, are, like Lent, a To commemorate the long journey of the for Noche Buena with turrón as dessert.
time of preparation. Although pregnant Mary and Joseph to Bethlehem, Turrón is a nougat made of honey, sugar, egg
difficult to discern today amid some Latin American countries have whites and roasted nuts. The Colombians
Christmas sales and office parties, advent celebrations called Las Posadas in the days prefer a traditional potato soup called ajiaco
is also supposed to be a time of fasting. leading up to Noche Buena. Las Posadas Bogotano and natilla, a dessert made from
In previous centuries, when this fasting means the inns or the lodgings, recalling milk and corn starch.
was more rigorously observed, the first the places where Mary and Joseph looked Wherever Noche Buena is celebrated, it is a
chance to properly eat was after attending for somewhere to stay, and the celebrations night filled with food, family,
Midnight Mass. By tradition, Jesus was involve an outdoor procession fellowship and festivity: truly
born at midnight as Christmas Eve became during which people sing villancios, a Good Night.
Christmas Day. Midnight Mass was timed to holiday songs, and make piñatas.
commemorate this. Noche Buena itself usually also Music is an important part of
Mass said, the church’s liturgical calendar involves singing and dancing, Las Posadas processions on
Noche Buena such as this one
moved from fasting to feasting. In Spain, with bands and speakers playing in Oaxaca, Mexico
Latin America and the Philippines, the merengue, bomba and salsa and
tradition of Noche Buena developed as a the celebrations continuing
result of this cycle of fast and feast. For hard- through the night.
working peasant farmers returning home The food eaten at the big
after Midnight Mass – called la Misa del Gallo family feast is a central part
or the Mass of the Rooster in Spanish – this of Noche Buena, although
was the first chance to eat properly after what people eat depends
the strict fast of the previous week. So the upon the local cuisine.
custom developed to prepare the food and In Cuba, Puerto Rico
then eat with all the family in the early hours and the Philippines,
of Christmas morning. lechón, roasted pig, is
Noche Buena means the Good Night. As traditional. For Mexicans,
the festival developed, it spilled over into the Noche Buena meal
the earlier parts of Christmas Eve. All the often includes tamales,
generations of the family gathered together pozole (a traditional stew)
and, as the rigour of advent has eased, and pavo (turkey). In the
some families moved the custom of eating mother country, Spain,

95
 Traditions

Being held at night, nature can

sometimes add to the mystery
and wonder of Midnight Mass

Light in the

There is something special about going to

church while all around the world sleeps:
Midnight Mass is a unique experience
Written by Edoardo Albert

96
 Light in the Darkness

T
he great feast for the first Christians medium, singing of his birth at that time. In the
was Easter. However, within a few following centuries, it became the custom for the
generations the number of festivals Pope to celebrate three masses for Christmas:
multiplied. By the early 200s, the at midnight, dawn and on Christmas morning.
Feast of Epiphany, which commemorates Jesus’s Dispensation was also given to other priests to say
baptism in the River Jordan, had been added to three masses on Christmas Day so long as each had
the liturgical calendar. Epiphany quickly became different readings.
associated with the earlier visit of the Magi to the While the mass is traditionally known as
infant Jesus, as recounted in the Gospel of Matthew Midnight Mass, it is not necessarily celebrated at
and by the early third century, Christians were the stroke of midnight. Its official liturgical name
dating Jesus’s birth to 25 December. is the ‘Mass During the Night’ and today it can be
The first evidence we have for Christians celebrated on the evening of Christmas Eve – Pope
celebrating Midnight Mass comes from a Benedict celebrated ‘Midnight Mass’ at 10pm twice
remarkable document written in the early 380s. and Pope Francis celebrated it at 9.30pm in 2013
Egeria, a wealthy Christian woman, went on a long and at 7.30pm in 2020 and 2021 because of Covid
pilgrimage to the Holy Land and wrote of what she curfews. In Latin America, Midnight Mass is known
had seen and done there to her circle of friends as la Misa del Gallo, or the Mass of the Rooster,
upon her return. Included among her observations and it was traditionally timed to begin when the
was the way that the Christians in Bethlehem held cock crowed for the first time, usually somewhere The light shining out into the dark
through the stained glass windows of
a service in Bethlehem at the location ascribed around 3 or 4am. a church makes for a memorable sight
by tradition as Jesus’s birthplace, followed by a At whatever time it is celebrated, Midnight on Christmas Eve
candlelit procession through the night to Jerusalem. Mass remains a celebration imbued with a special
By 440, the practice had spread at least to Rome reverence: children woken from their beds,
for in that year Pope Sixtus III installed a manger stumbling sleepy-eyed to church, the windows
in the chapel of the church of St Mary Major and glowing with light while outside everything is
celebrated mass at midnight. The belief that Jesus dark, all in memory of a baby born to a poor
was born at midnight had become widespread couple in a stable, the sort of people whom history
by the 4th century with a hymn, Quando noctis normally ignores.

Midnight Mass is celebrated

throughout the world: here
in Kolkata, India

Image source: Alamy

97
 Traditions

The evolution of dancing songs into the Christmas carols of today

Written by Edoardo Albert

W
hile Christmas music singing hymns: Charles Wesley wrote the spread quickly. The Chapel of King’s College,
is as old as the festival original version of Hark, the Herald Angels Sing Cambridge celebrated the service in 1918 and
itself, most Christmas around 1739. in 1928 the fledgling BBC broadcast the choir’s
carols are surprisingly Indeed, Christmas carols were so popular singing of the service to the nation. It so
recent. The word ‘carol’ itself derives from that the Church of England decided it needed perfectly fitted people’s ideas of what should be
the French word carole, which was the name to get in on the act, with music publishers sung and done at Christmas that Nine Lessons
of a dance. In their earliest usage in the putting out collections of Christmas carols and Carols quickly came to be seen as a
English language, carols were simply songs from 1822 onwards. William Sandys collection venerable tradition, even thought it is relatively
of celebration, songs that could be sung at of Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern recent. But then, words and music have
any glad occasion. However, the 12-day feast appeared in 1833, including the first publication always been fundamental to the celebration
of Christmas (which started at Christmas of what have become classics such as I Saw of Christmas, while the exact tunes and songs
and finished at Epiphany) provided plenty of Three Ships, The First Noel, God Rest Ye Merry, have changed through the centuries.
opportunity for singing and merrymaking. Gentlemen and Hark, the Herald Angels Sing,
Indeed, the earliest recorded English carol stripped down and rewritten from Wesley’s We Three Kings... was written in 1857 by John
(dating to 1200 and sung in Norman French) original eight-verse version. The Henry Hopkins Jr, rector of Christ Episcopal
Church, Williamsport, Pennsylvania
associated Christmas with drinking as firmly as popularity of these and similar
it did with Jesus. collections lead to the writing of new
However, as the Christmas feast loomed Christmas carols, many by American
larger in the calendar, carols became more songwriters, including O Little Town
and more associated with the festival. In of Bethlehem, Away in a Manger
1521, Wynkyn de Worde published the first and We Three Kings of Orient Are.
collection of ‘Christmasse carolles’ although not Jingle Bells was written in 1857 by
all the songs were religious. Carols themselves James Pierpoint.
remained largely songs to be sung at home or Faced with the popularity of
outside of church: carol singers going house Christmas carols, EW Benson,
to house is an old tradition. This tradition was Bishop of Truro, created the service
picked up enthusiastically by non-conformist of Nine Lessons and Carols in
congregations who specialised in writing and 1880. The service was popular and

98
 Songs of Christmas

Carolling started off as largely an

outdoor activity, only later moving to
the relative warmth inside churches

The Service of Nine Lessons and Carols

from King’s College, Cambridge is an
example of how a practice that has only
just past its centenary can seem much
more venerable than it is

99
 Traditions

Thomas Nast’s 1863 illustration

of Christmas customs for
Harper’s Weekly magazine

Clement Clarke Moore’s 1823

poem established much of the
modern Christmas folklore
although in his version, Santa
Claus was a diminutive figure
able to slide down chimneys
without the need for any
size-changing magic
Image source: Getty images / Alamy

100
 From St Nicholas to the Mantelpiece

From St Nicholas
to the Mantelpiece The origins of the Christmas stocking go back to the
stories of St Nicholas but carry on into the present day
Written by Edoardo Albert

I
t’s a bit odd, really. Hanging up 6 December, but by the start of the opening gifts
stockings, whether it be by the 19th century the tradition had started and taking
fireplace, on a mantelpiece shifting to Christmas Eve. down their
or at the bottom of the Then, in 1823, one of the most stockings from
bed, for Father Christmas to fill with small influential poems ever written the fireplace.
toys, gifts, and, of course, satsumas. The was published, anonymously George Webster’s
search for the historical origin of the tradition at first. The third line of The 1869 book, Santa
disappears into the undocumented past but Night Before Christmas runs Claus and his
scholars usually link the custom to one of the ‘The stockings were hung Works has many
stories that grew up around the figure of the by the chimney with care’ mentions of children
4th-century bishop of Myra, Nicholas. and, along with Santa hanging stockings and
According to the tale, Nicholas learned of an Claus, named reindeer Santa filling them.
impoverished widower with three daughters. and entry via the The idea that naughty
As the father did not have the money to fireplace, the modern children would find a lump
provide dowries for the girls, they were likely to folklore of Christmas of coal rather than gifts in their
spiral further into destitution, with prostitution was established. What stocking was a later variation on the
the likely end point of their descent. To save had previously been tale. Coal first appears in Christmas
them from such a fate, and mindful of their the custom of European tales as a welcome gift to help warm
dignity, Nicholas anonymously left gold coins countries with a particular poor family’s homes. But by the early
(or in some versions gold balls, hence the reverence for St Nicholas was 20th century, moralistic writers of
satsumas) in the stockings that the girls had transplanted across the Atlantic children’s stories were beginning to
left hanging from a washing line to dry in and then to the rest of the world. establish a link between bad behaviour
the Sun. By the mid-19th century, we have and lumps of coal and by the 1920s it
While the story itself is a later accretion to historical evidence for the spread of Christmas had become a common trope. As coal has
the legends surrounding Nicholas, it quickly stockings. The cartoonist and illustrator, disappeared as a method of home heating, so
became very popular and appears to have Thomas Nast, produced a triptych for the it has disappeared from our ideas of Christmas,
inspired the custom of leaving gifts for children Christmas 1863 edition of Harper’s Weekly a real life demonstration of how this most
in hung-up stockings. The custom was first showing contemporary Christmas customs: the flexible of festivals adapts itself to an
attached to the feast of St Nicholas on 5 or right-hand illustration is of delighted children ever-changing world.

101
 Traditions

The modern image of Santa

Claus owes most to American
writers and artists

From St Nicholas to

How an obscure bishop from Turkey

became the personification of Christmas
Written by Edoardo Albert

V
isitors to the small Turkish populations of Greece forcibly removed from their
town of Demre, situated on the ancestral homes.
Teke peninsula jutting into the The church of St Nicholas was built above the
Mediterranean, might wonder at tomb of the 4th century bishop of Myra, then a
the surprising amount of Orthodox iconography in major city of the ancient world. St Nicholas was
this Muslim settlement. But a visit to the church of first venerated for dying as a martyr, most probably
St Nicholas will provide the first clue. This ancient as a result of the Diocletian Persecution of the first
basilica, dating from 520 CE, remained a place of decade of the 4th century. As a martyr, Nicholas’s
worship until 1923 when the Greek residents of the remains, his relics, were treasured and kept at his
town were forced to leave during the population church. However, when Anatolia was conquered
exchange between Greece and Turkey that saw the by the Seljuk Turks in 1071 some enterprising
Christian populations of Turkey and the Muslim Italian sailors from Bari decided to liberate the

102
 From St Nicholas to Santa Claus

relics of holy St Nicholas from the heathen Turks. it’s safe to say that the original Santa Claus would In The Life of Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker,
The Orthodox monks guarding Nicholas’s relics put never have seen a sledge, let alone reindeer. So how written by Michael the Archimandrite in the first
up a robust defence but the Italians fought their did St Nicholas become Santa Claus? half of the 9th century, we find the first paper
way through and returned home with most of the evidence for the legend that would provide the
bishop’s bones, enshrining them in the Basilica di The wonder worker of Myra seed for Santa Claus. According to Michael, who
San Nicola in Bari. That Nicholas was remembered and revered in his may have been retelling an earlier story, a local
Scientific tests and measurements that were diocese is clear from the care paid to house and widower who had three daughters had fallen into
done on these remains, and some others that commemorate his relics for several centuries. But penury. With no money to provide dowries for
managed to make their way to America, have in terms of actual historical knowledge of what his daughters, the prospect was that they would
allowed us to say something more about Nicholas, he did, we have very little. If he did die in the descend into prostitution. When Nicholas heard of
Bishop of Myra. Radio-carbon dating confirmed Diocletian Persecution, then he would not have the girls’ plight, he secretly visited their house on
that the relics came from a man who died in been able to attend the great Church three successive nights, throwing a purse
the early 4th century – right at the time of the council of 325 in nearby Nicaea. with gold through the window on
Diocletian Persecution. Skeletal examination But Nicholas was one of those each visit. On the third night,
revealed that Nicholas had been of average height figures of the early church the girls’ father chased after
and that he had chronic arthritis in his spine and who attracted stories and
St their mysterious benefactor
pelvis. Finally, facial reconstruction showed that, legends. With the lack Nicholas is and discovered that it
when he died, Nicholas had a badly broken nose of hard information the patron saint was Nicholas.
– most probably as the result of the beatings he about him, storytellers of children, as well The story became
endured during his martyrdom. and hagiographers had as brewers, sailors, extremely popular,
It’s all a long way from kindly Santa Claus, free rein to fill in the being retold often, and it
and thieves who’ve
dealing out presents to children from the back of blanks. They did so featured in many works
his sledge. Given the climate in southern Turkey, with gusto.
turned their back of art, starting with an
on crime
Fresco from the Novalesa Abbey in Italy depicting
Nicholas on the right leaving money to provide dowries
for the daughters of the impoverished father on the left

103
 Traditions

Sundblom’s pictures of a jolly, red-robed Santa Claus

did much to fix his image in the American imagination

Coca-Cola
didn’t dress
Santa in red

In 1931, Haddon Sundblom (1899-1976) began

working for the Coca-Cola company as an artist.
Drawing on Clement Clarke Moore’s poem, The
Night Before Christmas, Sundblom drew a Santa
who was plump, jolly, bearded and dressed in red
with white fur trimming. So popular did Sundblom’s
advertising pictures of Santa Claus become that
he continued painting them for Coca-Cola for the
next 33 years. The image of the red-suited Santa
Claus knocking back a bottle of Coke in between
delivering presents to the nation’s children became
a staple of the American imagination, so much so
that an urban myth grew up that it was the Coca-
Cola advertising that first dressed Santa Claus
in red. In fact, the man responsible was Thomas
Haddon Sundblom’s Santa illustrations Nast (1840-1902). Nast was primarily a political
for Coca Cola were hugely influential in cartoonist but in his illustration for Harper’s
creating the modern idea of Santa Claus Magazine for Christmas, 1863, during the American
Civil War, he depicted ‘Santa Claus in Camp’ giving
gifts to soldiers separated from their families at
Christmas. Nast continued to draw Santa Claus
and, in 1869, Harper’s Magazine went colour. Nast
therefore had to decide what colour Santa’s clothes
should be. Ideally, a colour that would stand out
on the page. Red. Red with an edging of white fur.
So it was Nast who dressed Santa in red, although
Sundblom’s hugely popular drawings popularised
Santa’s fashion choice.

8th century fresco in Rome. Fra Angelico (1395-

1455) painted St Nicholas wearing a red cape.A key
element of the story appears for the first time in
a fresco in the church of Saints Constantine and
Helena in Ramaca, Serbia: Nicholas is on the roof
dropping money down the chimney.
Other tales of Nicholas’s wonder-working told of
his special regard for children. One story tells of
his reviving three boys who had been cut up and
put into a barrel: the story started off with the boys
being young men but, in retelling, the young men
gradually became younger. As well as children,
Nicholas had also become associated with sailors
and they were the people who took him out into
the wider world.

St Nicholas, the patron of sailors

By the time the Italians from Bari stole his relics
from Myra, St Nicholas had become known as a
particular patron of sailors. In part, this appears to
be the conflation of two different Saints Nicholas:
Nicholas of Myra and Nicholas of Sion, to whom

104
 From St Nicholas to Santa Claus

forsworn the papistical veneration of saints). But

while Washington Irving may have established the
idea of Santa Claus using a flying vehicle to deliver
presents, it was another American who filled in
most of the details of the modern Santa Claus.
Clement Clarke Moore (1779-1863) was a
professor at the General Theological Seminary of
the Protestant Episcopal Church in New York. In
the early 1820s he wrote a poem for his children.
The poem was copied and circulated among his
friends and in 1823 one of those friends sent the
poem to the Sentinel newspaper, which published
it on 23 December 1823. The poem was called A
Visit from St Nicholas but it has almost universally
come to be named for its first line: ‘Twas the
night before Christmas’ (or sometimes ‘The night
before Christmas’).

The most influential

poem in history
In one poem, Moore synthesised
the pre-existing elements
of the lore of Santa Claus
while adding some key
The Oude Kerk in Amsterdam, the oldest
building in the city, was originally dedicated Much of the new ingredients of his
to St Nicholas although its link to the saint
modern imagery own. The poem was
was largely lost following the Reformation
a huge success and
of Santa Claus
reprinted often in the
sailors prayed to change the wind. As such, Amsterdam became New
comes from 19th next decade, its author
churches dedicated to St Nicholas appeared in York when the British took and 20th century remaining anonymous
ports throughout the Mediterranean and onto the control of the island and its America until 1837, when Moore
Atlantic coast. surrounding area. The Dutch claimed authorship.
The saint’s feast day was 6 December and by colonists who had founded Moore had stayed silent
the 12th century it had become an occasion for New Amsterdam remained, for so long because he feared
processions and celebrations in northern Europe however, and they presumably it would reflect ill on his august
as well. Nicholas’s popularity with sailors led him continued to celebrate Sinterklaas by giving position as a professor of theology.
to having the first church in a new trading city gifts. While little trace of this found its way into The Night Before Christmas is almost certainly
dedicated to him: the Oude Kerk of Amsterdam the historical record, the lore of this gift giving the most influential lyric poem in history. It has
was consecrated to St Nicholas in 1306. wonder-worker percolated out into wider American stockings hanging from the mantelpiece. Snow
In Amsterdam, Saint Nikolaos became Santa society until, in 1809, it was published in A History covering the ground. St Nicholas driving a flying
Klaas and then Sinterklaas. As Sinterklaas, Nicholas of New York from the Beginning of the World to sledge pulled by eight reindeer. The delivery
was transformed from being the patron of sailors the End of the Dutch Dynasty. The author was of presents and St Nicholas arriving down the
to the giver of gifts – although these were edible ostensibly one Dietrich Knickerbocker but this was chimney with a sack of toys on his back. A white
gifts, such as nuts and dried fruit, given to children a pseudonym of the American writer, Washington beard and a twinkling smile.
on his feast day. The custom spread steadily Irving. (‘Knickerbocker’ was the name of the In one poem, Moore put together almost all the
throughout northern Europe and by the 16th knee-high trousers favoured by the Dutch settlers modern folklore of Santa Claus. But there were still
century a Swiss theologian, Rudolf Hospinian, which became so synonymous with New Yorkers two elements missing. There’s no mention of what
wrote of parents secretly leaving little gifts to their that the city’s basketball team is called the New colour his clothes are and, strikingly, in Moore’s
children on the feast of St Nicholas and telling York Knicks.) version Santa Claus is small, ‘a right jolly old elf’,
the children the gifts came from the saint. The In Irving’s fantastical history, St Nicholas could tiny enough to come down the chimney without
elements of the modern Santa Claus were slowly fly, driving his wagon and horses up into the sky getting stuck on the way, and his reindeer are as
falling into place. so that he could drop children’s gifts down the small as he is.
chimneys of their parents’ houses. Not one to The reindeer were not original to Moore. An 1821
Santa Claus crosses the ocean let historical fact get in the way of a good tale, picture in The Children’s Friend magazine shows a
In 1624, the Dutch West India Company founded a Irving claimed that the first church in New York little Santa Claus driving his reindeer-pulled sleigh
colony in America and named its capital, built on was dedicated to St Nicholas (in fact, New York’s between chimneys. The idea of Santa Claus and
Manhattan Island, New Amsterdam. In 1664, New first settlers were devout Protestants who had reindeer was in the general storytelling air. But

105
 Traditions

It was Moore who gave figure, disappearing

names to the reindeer: into the twilight
Dasher, Prancer, Vixen, of the wandering

Santa’s Comet, Cupid, Dunder

and Blixen. Dunder
mummers’ plays. His
first documented
helpers and Blixen have
gradually become
appearance is in a play
from the 1780s: “Here
Donner and Blitzen comes I, old Father
and the popularity of Christmas, welcome or
Robert L May’s 1939 welcome not, I hope
It was the writer Louisa M Alcott (Little Women)
story, Rudolph the old Father Christmas
who first gave Santa elfin helpers in a short
story she wrote in 1855. Before then, during his Red-Nosed Reindeer, will never be forgot.”
long journey to America, Santa had picked up and the 1949 song, of As the 18th century
many other strange associates. The Netherlands the same name, have turned into the 19th and
was the key stop in St Nicholas’s journey to
becoming Santa Claus and there he acquired as
led to the lead reindeer Victoria assumed the
his helper Zwarte Piet, Black Pete. St Nicholas’ Rudolph joining Santa’s throne, Father Christmas
Day processions in the Netherlands usually team. But the rest of the had become a figure
featured Zwarte Piet in the guise of somebody In Charles Dickens’ A Christmas
reindeers’ names still follow Carol, Christmas Present resembling a midwinter
in blackface makeup and with a wig. Germany
Moore’s original scheme. was the personification of Bacchus: a reveller in green.
produced a whole range of assistants for St Christmas, but with a distinctly
Nicholas, including Knecht Ruprecht, Hans Muff, bacchanalian flavour It was this figure that Charles
Hans Trapp, Rumpanz and Pelzmärte, as well as Christmas Eve Dickens turned to in his 1843 story,
hobby-horses and creatures that were half man
Perhaps the most influential line of A Christmas Carol. While Clement
and half goat.
The strangest of all these helpers is Moore’s poem is its first: ‘Twas the night Clarke Moore’s poem developed the trappings
undoubtedly Krampus, a fearsome folkloric before Christmas’. The Dutch gave presents on the of the modern Christmas, it was Dicken’s great
creature who figures in the Christmas tales feast of St Nicholas: 6 December. Other countries story that created its mythology.
of central and eastern Europe. Krampus is a
gave presents on different days. The British A Christmas Carol has three personifications
half-goat, half-demon monster, with horns,
who functions as St Nicholas’ dark half. On 6 favoured New Year’s Day. Italians, both in Italy of Christmas: Past, Present and Yet to Come.
December, St Nicholas’ Day, when St Nicholas and the emigrants in America, gave presents on The miser, Scrooge, encounters each of these
visits families, those children who have been Epiphany, the present giver being Befana, an old personifications of Christmas and, at the story’s
good receive small presents from the saint. But
woman with a broomstick and a big nose. It was end, he has been transformed from a flint-hearted
if the child has been bad during the year, then
Krampus will beat him or her with birch sticks. the Germans who favoured Christmas Day for man dead to all sympathy to someone who might
It’s enough to give a child nightmares. giving gifts, although in their case the present giver plausibly pass as a human being.
was the infant Jesus. Dickens wrote the book in a fever of creativity:
But The Night Before Christmas moved Santa’s he had the idea in October 1843 and it was in
present spree to Christmas and while there was bookshops by 19 December. According to his
some resistance to this shift – some reprints of account, Dickens wrote it in his head while walking
Moore’s poem began with the line ‘Twas the night for miles through the black streets of London while
before New Year’ – it was too late: commercial people were asleep. Christmas Present, a green-clad
and social forces were all pulling in the same giant, is an iteration of the English idea of Bacchus
direction. Christmas, in its modern form, was as Christmas.
almost complete. The book was a huge success. And it was a
success not just commercially but spiritually:
Father Christmas and Santa Claus it changed people. And it ensured that turkey
Although these two names are synonymous today, supplanted goose as the traditional fowl served
they once represented two distinct characters. In at Christmas. Clement Clarke Moore may have
Germany, although children were given presents at developed the trappings of Christmas but it was
Christmas, the present giver was the Christkind – Charles Dickens who defined its spirit.
the Christ child. Under the influence of Dickens and with the
Meanwhile, in Britain, the Reformation had Royal Family putting out portraits of themselves
broken links between saints’ days and the sitting around a decorated Christmas tree, the
calendar. However, the British had developed a festival vaulted into first place in popularity in
personification of the feast itself: Father Christmas. the Victorian era. With that popularity came
Father Christmas followed Nowell and he first an intermingling of the American idea of Santa
appears in a carol from the early 15th century as Sir Claus with the British notion of Father Christmas.
Christmas. Other songs and tales call him Captain So from about 1850 onwards there was a slow
Some stories said that in the case of the very
worst children the Krampus might steal them Christmas, Old Christmas and Mr Christmas. transformation in the way that artists depicted
away and eat them Whatever his name, he is usually described as Father Christmas. Previously, Father Christmas had
an old, thin man. As such, he remains a marginal often been depicted with a goat as his companion

106
 From St Nicholas to Santa Claus

and wearing Greek robes – a true holdover from the Santa live for the other 364 days of the year? In knowledge, bizarrely, as a result of the Soviet
figure of Bacchus. But the robes go, to be replaced 1866, Nast answered that question. In a drawing invasion of Finland in 1939. As part of the Molotov-
by a fur coat with a hood. The Christmas tree starts published in Harper’s Magazine, Nast gave Santa’s Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany, the two
to appear. address: Santaclaussville, N.P. (that is, the North countries had divided eastern Europe up between
Under the weight of imported American Pole). Coupled with reindeer and sleighs, the them and when Germany invaded Poland, the
culture, by the first decades of the 20th century answer made sense and soon other writers and Soviet Union attacked the Baltic States and Finland.
the transformation was all but complete. Father illustrators started depicting Santa Claus in the While the Germans made short work of Poland,
Christmas now wore red robes. He had reindeer frozen north. the Soviet invasion of Finland was met with stern
rather than a goat. His beard had grown and But where in the north? It was only in 1909 resistance by the hugely outnumbered Finns.
become pure white. But the old Father Christmas, that the first expedition, led by Robert Peary and When American journalists started reporting on
the personification of Nowell, still broke through in Matthew Henson, claimed to have reached the the invasion, to situate the countries for their home
the long echoing laugh, the “Ho, ho, ho,” that trailed North Pole (although there is now some dispute audience they invariably mentioned that Finland
behind him as he moved through the long dark of as to whether they truly reached the Pole). But was Santa’s home. So not only were the Soviets
Christmas night. exploration had revealed that the North Pole was the unprovoked aggressors, but on top of that they
actually in the middle of a sea: not the ideal place were attacking Santa Claus!
A home in the north for Santa’s home, while polar bears would have Ever since, Santa’s normal residence has been
The man who was most responsible for fixing the quickly finished off his reindeer. firmly fixed in Lapland, so much so that he now
modern idea of what Santa Claus looks like was the So in 1927, the Finns claimed that Lapland was figures largely in the region’s tourist literature and
American cartoonist and illustrator Thomas Nast Santa’s real home. After all, Lapland had snow, itineraries. It has been a long, long journey for the
(1840-1902). As Nast developed his visual ideas reindeer, and people that actually lived there: the man who began as an obscure 4th-century bishop
about Santa Claus, the question arose: where did Sami. Santa’s address in Lapland entered general on the warm shores of the Mediterranean.

Clement Clarke Moore’s poem,

The Night Before Christmas,
integrated most of the details of
the modern Santa Claus

107
 Traditions

Sir Gawain and the Gre

en
Knight, a classic of me
dieval
literature, was filmed
in 202
with Dev Patel as Sir Gaw 1
ain

ing of
Gentile da Fabriano’s exquisite paint
Magi prese nting their gifts to the Christ
the
now on
child was painted in 1423 and is
show in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence

Children, and their

parents, were not always
buried under the weight
of Christmas presents

108
 What I Want for Christmas

How Christmas became a time to give – and receive! – lots of presents

Written by Edoardo Albert

“
W
hat’s the true it had become common. In fact, it became so of the Magi to the infant Jesus. Since the Magi
meaning of ubiquitous that merchants were forced into came bearing gifts for the Messiah, the feast
Christmas?” placing adverts announcing that they would became an occasion to give gifts, particularly
asked the priest. not be giving Christmas boxes to customers’ to the young.
“Presents,” chorused the children. servants and nor were their own staff to ask for However, the publication in 1823 of
Not perhaps the answer the priest was presents from customers. the poem, The Night Before Christmas,
hoping for but the one that probably looms By the middle of the 1800s, Christmas changed everything. There’s more about
largest in the minds of the young and, indeed, presents had become expected in Britain. the extraordinary effect of this poem in the
their parents. But for most of its history, This was facilitated by Christmas becoming feature on Santa Claus but its effect was to
Christmas was not associated with giving a family occasion as well as a church pull everything towards Christmas. In Britain,
gifts: that was done at other times of the year. feast. Britain was also becoming and throughout the English-speaking world,
It varied by country but one of the earliest a commercial nation: people present giving shifted from other dates to
recorded gifting traditions, first attested in the were making and Christmas. Indeed, by the time Louisa
4th century, was the Roman custom of giving importing items that May Alcott’s novel, Little Women, was
presents at New Year. could be given published in 1868, it could begin
New Year presents were given in medieval as presents. with the line, “Christmas won’t
Britain too, although they were generally gifts Elsewhere in be Christmas without any
given by those lower in the social hierarchy Europe, present presents,” and
to those who were their superiors. In Sir giving had become all the readers
Gawain and the Green Knight, a 14th-century associated with the feast understood why.
poem, Arthur’s knights presented him with of Epiphany on 6 January. Our modern
presents at New Year. As the mercantile Originally instituted to Christmas,
class grew, little gifts came to be exchanged mark the baptism of Jesus loaded down
between merchants, customers and suppliers: in the River Jordan and with presents,
it all served to ensure good relationships. It’s the start of his public was pushing its
not entirely clear why this form of present ministry, Epiphany quickly way on to the
giving shifted to Christmas but by the 1700s synonymous with the visit world’s stage.

109
 Traditions

The Burning

What appears to be one of the hoariest of

Christmas traditions is not so ancient after all
Written by Edoardo Albert

The charred remnants of

the Yule log were stored
during the following year as
protection against ills and
then used to start the fire
on the following Christmas

110
 The Burning Log Festival

I
n our centrally heated world the see it said that the Yule log is a tradition going where it was much harder to find, let alone burn,
custom of the Yule log has fallen back to pagan antiquity. logs at Christmas, the tradition of the Yule log
somewhat out of favour. But when It isn’t. Of course, it’s likely that pagan changed from something flammable to something
people relied on wood for heating, they midwinter traditions included burning logs in edible: the Bûche de Noël. This chocolate log is
would bring the Yule log into the family home order to keep warm, but there is no record in any made from a rolled layer of sponge cake that is
on Christmas Eve and light it to mark the start of our sources for this being an integral part of then covered and frosted so that it looks as if it is
of Christmas. Some versions insist that the Yule pagan celebrations. In fact, the earliest records we made from wood. As the name suggests, it was
log should be kept burning throughout the 12 can find of Yule logs date from the 17th century. first baked in France.
days of Christmas – although for that you would However, the custom then became widespread In New York in 1966 the burning Yule log made
need a very large log indeed. Whatever remained in Britain and Europe, with many records of its a television comeback when Fred Thrower, general
of the log after Epiphany was carefully laid aside practice in northern and western England, France, manager of WPIX, had the idea of broadcasting
since it was believed to provide protection against Germany and Scandinavia (not surprisingly, it a video loop of logs burning in a fireplace on
lightning, evil spirits, housefires and ill luck before is a custom associated more with countries that Christmas Eve accompanied by Christmas music.
being used to help light next year’s Yule log. experience cold winters). Each country burned The idea proved so popular that many other TV
Since very few people nowadays have a timber from a traditional tree for their Yule log: stations adopted it and now, in the 21st century,
fireplace, let alone one that could accommodate a oak for England, cherry in France, and ash in the you can find high definition versions of log fires
log big enough to burn for 12 days, this has all the West Country of England. at any time of the year as a calming aid – another
appearances of a thoroughly venerable tradition. However, as coal supplanted wood as the main example of how Christmas traditions adapt to our
Indeed, in many places on the internet you will winter fuel, and as people moved to the cities changing world.

This 1855 illustration shows

people in Tudor dress dragging
in the Yule log but there is no
historical record of this being a
custom before the 17th century

The modern, edible

version of the Yule log

111
 Traditions

Around the World in

From roast turkey and fruitcake to fish platters and panettone,

Christmas dinner looks different depending where you are in the world
Written by Poppy-Jay St. Palmer

N
o matter where you’re from, usually consists of a long list of decadent dishes, made even more stodgy with sides of potato
a destination Christmas will including oysters, foie gras, a variety of cheeses dumplings, red cabbage, and apple and sausage
always look different to the one and a chestnut-stuffed turkey. The savoury course stuffing, and traditional decorated Christmas
you left behind. Centuries of is followed by bûche de Noël, or Yule log, the cookies called Weihnachtsplätzchen for dessert.
weird and wonderful traditions have led to each cakey Christmas dessert that has slowly become One festive German food that has become popular
country or region developing different ways of popular in neighbouring countries like Belgium in other parts of the world is, of course, Stollen,
celebrating. But wherever you go, one thing almost and Switzerland, as well as several former French the deliciously moist, spirit-soaked, marzipan-filled
always remains the same: eating to excess, as colonies like Canada, Vietnam and Lebanon. If fruitcake. As well as being a regular Christmas
contrasting cultures create their own festive food a French Christmas dinner sounds like a belly fixture, Stollen is also typically served at German
and beverage traditions. buster, the people of Provence like to go one weddings too.
Starting in Europe on Christmas Day, Britons further and traditionally eat 13 desserts In Hungary, traditions vary from
enjoy an extremely heartily meal featuring a to represent Jesus Christ and the province to province, but the
roast meat like turkey, ham or goose, mounds 12 apostles (although some most common Christmas
of potatoes, roasted vegetables, pigs in blankets of those ‘desserts’ are nuts, meal is something a little
(sausages wrapped in bacon), stuffing, yorkshire dried fruits and candied different. Hungarians join
Fish is
puddings and the ever-polarising brussel sprouts, citrus peels). the French in eating
served with cranberry sauce and generous lashings Over the border,
a popular their main meal on
of gravy. Dessert is just as filling, with sweet mince Germans keep things Christmas dish in Christmas Eve, although
pies and Christmas pudding (traditionally set alight simple on Christmas many places as the some even wait until
while diners sing We Wish You a Merry Christmas Eve before going all fish was an early after Midnight Mass to
as the flames disappear) served with brandy sauce out on Christmas Day, secret symbol of chow down. Fried fish
being longtime crowd pleasers. with a hearty plate of and fish soup are some
Christianity
Not all countries eat their main Christmas goose, rabbit, duck and of the most popular festive
meal on 25 December. In France, for example, the Krustenbraten, or pork roast dishes in the country, with
main feast is enjoyed on Christmas Eve. The meal with a crispy rind. Things are fish being viewed as a symbol

112
Christmas dinner traditions
look different around the
world, from turkey and
mince pies in the UK to sweet
spaghetti in the Philippines

of Christianity. The Czech Republic honours a

Many countries like to finish similar tradition, with fish soup or mushroom
Christmas dinner with a slice of
Yule log. The festive cake was kuba (a risotto-like dish made using barley) being
made popular by France, where consumed, followed by a main course of fried
it’s known as bûche de Noël
carp. In Hungary, the fish dish is accompanied by
a variety of meat, stuffed cabbage, kocsonya, or
meat jelly, and beigli, a traditional Hungarian
pastry dessert rolled with a bittersweet
poppy seed filling. Desserts also hang
on the Christmas trees in the form
of szaloncukor, made from fondant
covered in chocolate and
wrapped in bright
wrappers that double
as tree decorations.
Szaloncukor is
also popular
in Romanian
and Slovakian
households.
While some European
countries have long-standing
traditions, Christmas dinner in Iceland has
changed with the centuries. In times gone by,
many Icelandic people cooked slaughtered lamb

113
 Traditions

From offal
to turkey

For many households across Britain, roast

turkey with all the trimmings is a must-have
each Christmas, but that hasn’t always been the
case. Before seasonal turkey became popular,
medieval monks splashed out once a year on rare
and expensive spices to season otherwise bland
pies, fish and offal. Boar also became a popular
main course with the general public, and you
could often find a stuffed boar’s head proudly
displayed as the centrepiece of many a festive
dining table. For the Georgian era, most moved
on to elaborate roast goose dinners with an
assortment of vegetables.
Turkeys aren’t native to the UK, but
documentation shows they started being
imported in the early 16th century. British
merchants bought the birds from Spanish
conquistadors, who in turn brought them back
from Mexico, where indigenous Mexican people
had domesticated them. Henry VIII became the
first monarch to eat turkey with his Christmas
dinner, but the huge cost of the poultry meant
that it would be a few hundred years before
the notion of eating it for Christmas reached
peak popularity. As more and more turkey farms
popped up across the UK, it finally became a
staple Christmas dish in the 19th century.

Although most
British households
enjoy roast turkey
at Christmastime,
the poultry only
became popular for
Households in Japan enjoy
the festive period in
takeaway from KFC on Christmas
the 16th century
Day, following the fast food
chain’s ‘Kentucky Fried Christmas’
advertising campaign from 1974.

in a special meat broth called kjötsúpa, while decadently served with whipped cream, vanilla, In southern Italy, the yuletide traditional meal is
ptarmigan (a game bird from the grouse family) almonds and hot cherry sauce. To add a little fun to known as La Vigilia, which sees Southern Italians
was eaten by poorer families. Over time, ptarmigan the meal, a peeled almond is hidden in the serving spending Christmas Eve gathered with family
has become more popular than kjötsúpa and is bowl of each pudding, and whoever finds it wins around a spectacular multi-course dinner while
often eaten alongside ham and smoked lamb. The an extra present. waiting to mark the birth of Jesus at Midnight
meats are served with sides like potatoes, beans, Where much of Europe tends to serve heavy, Mass. The likes of octopus, salt cod, clams and
peas and lashings of gravy. nap-inducing meals, Finland’s Christmas offering is anchovies feature heavily throughout the meal.
The dinner situation in Denmark is similar: almost light in comparison. Eaten on 24 December, Italy is also the home of Panettone, a sweet and
traditionally, the Danes used to eat slow-cooked Finns usually serve up plates of traditional Finnish fluffy bread flavoured with raisins and candied
roast pork, known as Flæskesteg in Danish, on staples, including juicy oven-baked ham with sides orange, citron and lemon zest. The cake originally
Christmas Eve. Nowadays, however, you’d be of root vegetable – or rutabaga – casserole, mixed came from Milan, but has since found its way onto
more likely to find them enjoying roast duck or beetroot salad and sweet pea sauce. The collection tables all over Europe, South America, Australia,
goose with their main meal. As far as Danish side of dishes together make what is widely known as Canada and the United States, and is enjoyed from
dishes go, rodkal or red cabbage is a popular one, the Joulupöytä, which appropriately translates to Christmas all the way through to the New Year.
traditionally made with elderberry or currant juice, ‘Yule table’. Over to the west, the Portuguese follow the
salt, sugar and vinegar. The main course is often If red meat isn’t quite to your tastes, many Catholic tradition of fasting on 24 December
followed by ris à l’amande or risengrød – cold rice European countries remove meat from the and end the fast with a meal called Consoada,
pudding and hot rice pudding respectively, each Christmas menu and replace it with fish dishes. containing bacalhau (salt cod) or polvo (octopus),

114
 Around the World in Christmas Dinners

Germany’s traditional Christmas

fruitcake, Stollen, has steadily become
popular in other parts of the world,
and is made using nuts, spices, candied
fruit, spirits and often marzipan

to enjoy a festive late-night feast of traditional

chicken soup, roast duck or goose, sticky rice,
banh xeo (savoury fried rice pancakes) and cha
siu bao (steamed barbecue pork buns). Many also
serve bûche de Noël as a nod to Vietnam’s French
colonial past.
Venturing over to the Americas brings a whole
new bounty of festive goodies. Colombians
celebrate with batches of traditional buñuelos, deep
fried balls of queso fresco (fresh white cheese) and
cornflour. Buñuelos are enjoyed before Christmas
Day on 7 December, when friends
get together to light candles in
front of their houses and
honour the Virgin Mary.
While people in Chile
consume a meal akin
Traditionally to the classic Western
Advent would Christmas dinner,
have been a season they’re also all about
served with a mixture of boiled eggs, cabbage and beef bulgogi, sweet potato of fasting, with a big the drink. Chilean
potato. In Poland, Christmas is celebrated with a noodles and Korea’s Christmas meal at wine is a mainstay of
huge, entirely meatless 12-dish meal known as the most famous side dish, the Christmas spread
the end
Wigilia Feast, featuring staples like red borscht, kimchi. In Japan, those that of meat, potatoes and
carp, herring and pierogi. celebrate like to mark the roasted vegetables, while
It’s not just Europe that goes big on food during occasion with a bucket from the country’s traditional
the holiday period. Catholic and other Christian KFC. Yes, the popular American holiday drink, cola de mono, or
communities in India mark the occasion with fried chicken chain. The tradition began ‘tail of the monkey’, has also become
traditional festive sweets known as kuswar, which back in 1974 when KFC rolled out its ‘Kentucky for a favourite. Everyone has their preferred
include cookies, fruitcakes, cardamom and cashew Christmas’ advertising campaign, and has been a recipe, but most include base ingredients of
macaroons, gulab jamun (cakey syrup-soaked milk- festive country-wide sensation ever since. aguardiente, coffee, milk and sugar. Meanwhile, the
solid balls) and kidiyo, (delicious deep fried dough In the Philippines, the main Christmas spread United States’ festive meal is very similar to that
balls coated in icing sugar). Indian favourites like varies from household to household, but many eaten for Thanksgiving, leaning on Western classics
lamb biryani, mutton curry, aloo gobi and jeera enjoy things like lechon, a whole skewered pig like turkey, potatoes and stuffing. However, a few
pulao make up the main meal. roasted until crispy over a fire, and Filipino sweet original items also come into the mix, like boozy
Elsewhere in Asia, South Korea keeps things spaghetti served with sweetened tomato sauce. eggnog, made from milk, cream, sugar, egg yolks
simple with an annual potluck-style meal shared Across the ocean, Vietnamese Christians often and whipped egg whites, and different types of pie,
with loved ones. Popular yuletide dishes include attend Midnight Mass before heading home from apple and pumpkin to mincemeat and pecan.

115
 Traditions

The Tom Smith annual

catalogue of its products
was beautifully illustrated
and serves as a valuable
historical resource on the
fashions of its time

A surviving box of Tom

Smith crackers, showing
the craft that went into
making them

The scraps used to illustrate Tom Smith crackers were quite exquisite drawings
over a whole range of subjects, not all of them obviously to do with Christmas

116
 The King of Crackers

How a Victorian entrepreneur gave the world

Britain’s contribution to Christmas traditions
Written by Edoardo Albert

T
he Germans invented the according to Smith’s account, in 1860 while igniting saltpetre (potassium nitrate). Now silver
Christmas tree, the modern ruminating by the fire he heard one of the fulminate is used.
Santa Claus is all American, but logs crack and he decided there and then that Although Tom Smith may not have invented
the Christmas cracker is British. he should put a ‘crack’ in his creations. Smith the cracker, it was his genius for marketing that
Yes, a cardboard tube containing a paper hat, bought the method of making cracks from the sold it, first to Britain and then to the world.
a landfill gift and a bad joke is the gift of these firework company, Brocks, and marketed his When Smith died in 1869 at the young age
islands to the Christmas traditions of the world. new invention as ‘Cosaques’ since the crack of 45, his three sons took over their father’s
According to most sources, it was Tom was supposedly reminiscent of the cracking cracker company, adding the paper hats that
Smith, Victorian entrepreneur and confectioner, whips of Cossack cavalry. are now another integral part of the Christmas
who invented the cracker. Indeed, that’s what However, deeper investigation shows cracker experience. The company produced
his own advertising averred: that crackers predated Tom Smith. An 1847 themed crackers, ranging from Masonic,
drawing in the Illustrated London News Suffragette and Japanese crackers to the 1896
Tom Smith is the King of Crackers, shows a cracker while in 1850, journalist South African crackers that had as gifts tiny
He stands alone and needs no backers. Henry Mayhew interviewed an unnamed Gatling guns and pictures of Cecil Rhodes.
Italian in the Morning Chronicle who ran a The final part of the modern cracker – the
Smith set up in business in 1847 and, having ‘detonating cracker business’. While Mayhew corny joke – was added in the 1930s. The
discovered how the French sold sugared does not name his interviewee, it was probably custom of pulling the cracker with arms
almonds wrapped in twists of paper, he started Gaudente Sparagnapane, who had started his crossed had already arisen. Now all that was
making and selling them himself, adding business in 1846. left was to wait for the family to gather around
first rhymes and mottoes, and then little toys Whoever really invented the cracker, the key the table for dinner. The modern Christmas
and trinkets. Looking for a fresh angle and lay in the crack. That was first made by friction was complete.

117
 Traditions

Many of the original

participants in Junkanoo
wore masks reminiscent of
their African origin

These extraordinarily
intricate costumes are often
made by the participants
themselves, not professional
costume designers!

118
 A Caribbean Christmas: Junkanoo

A Caribbean Christmas:
Deriving from a slave festival, Junkanoo has
become an integral part of the Bahamian calendar
Written by Edoardo Albert

J
unkanoo is a Caribbean street theories agree that Junkanoo was originally a Junkanoo musicians and performers
festival, held on Boxing Day (26 slave festival, celebrated on 26 December and featured in the James Bond film Thunderball,
December), New Year’s Day and, 1 January because these were among the very although the film describes them as taking
latterly, during the summer too. few days the plantation slaves in the Caribbean part in a Mardi Gras festival rather than
It is celebrated throughout the English- were allowed some rest from their labours. Junkanoo. Although you would never guess
speaking Caribbean but with a particular Junkanoo has evolved into a major it from watching the magnificent costumes of
vibrancy, and considerable marketing, in the Caribbean festival, particularly in the Bahamas, the participants, most of the costumes started
Bahamas. During the festival people dressed in where as well as Boxing Day and New Year, it off as plain cardboard before being cut, painted
extraordinary costumes and masks parade and has been extended into the summer tourist and embellished to make the extraordinary
dance through the streets. season. Given how much work goes into the creations parading along the street.
The origins of the festival are obscure. costumes, the chance to parade in them again
Various theories have been proposed but none complements the marketing dreams of the
commands universal acceptance. One idea tourism office. Drums provide
is that the word derives from John Canoe, The accompanying music is as much a the driving pulse
moving the
an Akan warrior from Ghana who fought part of the celebration as the costumes. It’s festival onwards
European slave traders in the early 18th a powerfully rhythmic accompaniment,
century, establishing his base in the abandoned utilising polyrhythms and upbeat
coastal stronghold of Fort Fredericksburg. percussion, played on goatskin
According to Edward Long’s History of drums, cowbells, whistles, horns,
Jamaica (1774), when Fort Fredericksburg conch shells and sousaphones.
finally fell and its defenders were enslaved, As Junkanoo has become
they brought the story of John Canoe with more international, its musical
them to Jamaica where they established the elements have broadened
festival, incorporating elements of Akan battle to include brass sections
dress into Junkaroo (in Jamaica it is usually and electric and electronic
called Jonkonnu). instruments as well as
Other theories suggest links with traditional spawning a mainstream
Igbo or Yoruba festivals. However, all the musical style, Junka.

119
 Traditions

Mayhem and merriment reigned supreme at the end of Christmas celebrations

Written by Jessica Leggett

T
welfth Night, also called the Eve celebration filled with merriment and mischief. Although this custom was an important part of
of Epiphany, is a celebration held Plays, games, food and drink became a staple part Tudor celebrations, its popularity peaked during
on the final night of the 12 days of Twelfth Night during this period, particularly in the Georgian era, after which it began to decline.
of Christmas. It is held every year England – Shakespeare even wrote his aptly named Even though the celebration of Twelfth Night
on either 5 January or 6 January, depending on comedic play, Twelfth Night, to be performed for has decreased since the 19th century, it has not
whether you choose to count down from 25 or 26 the annual celebration. Interestingly, the world – disappeared. It is still celebrated in many areas
December, and marks the end of the festive season. including social hierarchies – was considered to be in England, with traditions such as wassailing –
The roots of Twelfth Night can be traced back upside down during Twelfth Night celebrations. blessing the orchard trees for the year ahead –still
to the pagan celebrations for the winter solstice, When it came to the Twelfth Night feast, the being performed, and it is also customary to take
and to the ancient Roman festival of Saturnalia, Twelfth Night cake was the centrepiece of the down the Christmas decorations on Twelfth Night.
which was celebrated at the end of December. With celebration. A dried bean was hidden within the Many Christians also choose to bless their homes
the rise of Christianity in Europe, Twelfth Night cake and the man who found the bean in his slice, by Chalking the Door, a tradition that involves
began to commemorate the Magi, also known as regardless of his social class, would be appointed writing the letters ‘CMB’ and the year on their
the Three Kings, visiting the Baby Jesus, from the the Lord or King of Misrule for the night to lead the doorway. It is said that the letters are either a
Middle Ages onwards. celebrations, as well as hold temporary power over reference to the traditional names for the Three
Despite being celebrated for many centuries, it all who were present. Likewise, a dried pea was Kings, Caspar, Melchior and Balthazar, or ‘Christus
was during the 16th and 17th centuries that Twelfth also hidden within the cake, and the woman who Mansionem Benedicat’, which means ‘May Christ
Night was at its most popular, becoming a bawdy found this would be appointed Queen of Misrule. bless this house’.

A scene from
Shakespeare’s
Twelfth Night

120
 Twelfth Night

Twelfth Night was a

celebration filled with
food, drink and fun

A Twelfth Night wassailing

ceremony in the village of
Orleton in 2016

This 19th century illustration depicts the

King of Misrule at the head of the table

121
 Traditions

Tired of Christmas commercialisation?

Celebrate Genna, the Ethiopian Christmas
Written by Edoardo Albert

Clergy and pilgrims

gather outside the church
of Bet Maryam in Lalibela
for Genna

122
 Christmas in Ethiopia

G
enna, also transliterated as Gena many Ethiopian Christians fast for 43 days but that will also be white. Having endured
and Ganna, is the Ethiopian before Genna, eating only one meal a day the 43-day fast of the prophets, Ethiopian
celebration of Christmas. during the fast and abstaining from meat, Christians break their fast on Christmas
Ethiopia vies with Armenia for dairy, eggs and wine. morning with a light meal, but later in the
the title of the oldest Christian country in the On their equivalent of Christmas Eve, day the family gathers to eat the traditional
world: both were officially Christian in the Ethiopians go to church at about 6pm and doro wat, a spicy chicken and vegetable
4th century. European scholars cast doubt the services continue until the early hours stew mopped up with injera, the Ethiopian
on this claim but recent excavations, which of Christmas morning. The congregation flatbread made from teff flour..
have uncovered a basilica dating from the carries candles and processes around the According to Ethiopian tradition, the
4th century, have confirmed the Ethiopian church three times, holding their candles, shepherds who attended the birth of Jesus
account of their origins. while the clergy conduct the liturgy, with played a game similar to hockey using their
Cut off from the rest of the Christian world chants and solemn drums, from the shepherds’ crooks. Another legend says
by the rise of Islam, Christianity in Ethiopia centre of the church. that the Three Kings invented the game. To
has a very distinct character. The Ethiopian On the morning of Christmas Day, commemorate this, boys and young men
Orthodox Church employs a calendar derived Ethiopians don all white clothing. play Yegena Chewata, abbreviated to Genna,
from the Coptic church in Egypt, consisting The traditional garment is a thin, on Christmas Day, wielding wooden sticks
of 12 months each of 30 days and an extra gauze cotton shawl, called netela and playing with a
five days, the Pagumen, added at the end for women and kuta for men. leather puck.
of the year (six in the case of a leap year). City dwelling Ethiopians
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church celebrates might now wear
Christmas, Genna, on 7 January. Unlike its Western clothing,
worldwide counterparts, the feast is a strictly
religious festival with no tradition of gift
giving, although food plays a large part. It’s
no surprise that food is important, since

A pilgrim praying by
candlelight at the Biete
Medhane Alem (House of
the Saviour) in Lalibela

wonders
ela are among the
churches of Lalib trance of
The rock carved pra ys at the en
a woman pilgrim
of the world: here s) during Genna
ouse of the Virgin
Biete Denagel (H

123
 Traditions

Not all Christmas

visitors are welcome, as
the traditional Krampus
runs of Germany show

Strangest Ways to

Most people have a clear idea of what a traditional

Christmas looks like – but some Christmas
traditions can look very weird from the outside
Written by Ben Gazur

C
hristmas can seem like an unchanging and horns of Satan, is covered in thick hair, and a ravening
eternal fixture in the year. The Christmases tongue lolls from his mouth. He sometimes wears a
of your childhood will be the benchmark basket on his back into which he will stuff naughty
against which all others are judged. It can children to carry them off to hell. Those wishing to see
seem like everyone partakes in exactly the same day a Krampus for themselves can visit any of the parades
year after year. But even considering our neighbours that happen on Krampusnacht. There they will see men,
reveals how variable Christmas traditions are. Do you often drunken, dressed in horrifying costumes running
open gifts first thing, or after breakfast, or worst of all, through the streets armed with birch rods with which
after dinner? Do you spend all day in pyjamas or go for to strike unwary children. Those wishing to mollify a
a bracing walk? Those minor differences are as nothing Krampus should keep some schnapps handy.
compared to the wild Christmas rituals in some places. In Iceland young people are taught to fear the
When most people think of a mysterious and bearded appearance of the evil giantess Grýla. She hungers for
stranger visiting children for Christmas they are human flesh and is always ready to carry off wicked
picturing a jolly Father Christmas. In parts of central children. Grýla owns a cat called Jólakötturinn who
Europe, however, many children live in fear of the will eat anyone who does not receive new clothes on
appearance of Krampus. On 6 December each year St Christmas Day, which perhaps explains why clothing
Nicholas does indeed travel around and hand out gifts is a traditional holiday gift. The giantess’ family is
but he is accompanied by Krampus, his horned helper. completed by her 13 sons known as the Yule Lads. These
While good children will get treats from the saint, mischievous boys visit homes starting on 12 December,
Krampus will beat the disobedient. with a new one arriving each day. They love to play
Just the appearance of Krampus should be enough pranks and eat food, but will also sometimes leave small
to keep children well behaved. He has the pointed gifts in shoes that have been placed on windowsills by

124
Strangest Ways to Celebrate Christmas

125
 Traditions

Cabbage
Patch Riots

Christmas is a time of peace and gift giving

– or at least it is supposed to be. Sometimes
though the demand for gifts makes it a less than
peaceful season for desperate parents. In 1983
in the United States there was only one toy that
every child was clamouring for and people would
stop at nothing to get their hands on one.
Cabbage Patch Dolls are instantly recognisable
with their soft round faces and little cloth
outfits. Each came with a birth certificate and
each was unique. America fell in love with
them, and they were on every list sent to Santa
Claus. Unfortunately it was left to parents to
actually shop for them. Such was the demand
that thousands would turn up to buy when only
hundreds of dolls were available. In news footage
of the time, shop owners can be seen wielding
baseball bats in an effort to keep shoppers in
line. Despite ticketing systems and early queuing,
some toy shops saw violence in the aisles.
The riots surrounding Cabbage Patch Dolls
have been repeated almost every Christmas
since as children all demand some popular toy,
whether it is a Furby or a Tickle Me Elmo.
it had grown into the finest Christmas tree they in origin, in practice it remains little known outside
had ever seen. The mother was ashamed, however, of the United States.
as she would not be able to afford decorations for British people may wax lyrical about the scent
it. At night a spider came in and began to spin its of chestnuts roasting on an open fire but in
webs along the branches. In the morning the whole Guatamala the aroma of Christmas is the burning
tree was covered. Instead of sweeping them corpse of Satan. 7 December is known as La
away and getting rid of the spider Quema del Diablo – The Burning of the
the family left it in peace. As Devil. At 6pm families will gather
the Sun rose the first rays around a bonfire and toss an
transformed the web into effigy of the devil into the
Desperate shoppers waited for hours for
stores to open and fought to grab one of strands of silver and Many flames. By burning an image
the sought after dolls
gold to the family’s joy. strange of evil the family home is
Today people hang Christmas purified for the coming
good children. Bad children get a rotten potato in tinsel in memory of the traditions are Christmas season.
their shoe. generous spider and associated with Not every effigy built
People who love books may want to visit Iceland put a spider ornament at Christmas is designed
on Christmas Eve. There is a tradition of giving on the tree.
invoking luck for to be burned; even if it
books to each other, putting on pyjamas, getting Not all Christmas
the coming year often is. The Yule Goat
cosy with a hot chocolate and reading late into the decorations have an is a common image in
night. This tradition is known as Jólabókaflóðið – easily explained origin. In Scandinavia. Small images
the Christmas Book Flood. the United States you may of the goat, made of straw, are
Decorating the house is a key part of Christmas notice a pickle nestling among hung from Christmas trees. It may be
in many countries. Not all decorations will be the branches of the Christmas tree. The that the goat represents an old pagan deity
familiar to some however. In Ukraine there is a pickle is usually made of glass and no one is quite involved in providing plenty. In the 18th century
tradition of decorating the tree with cobwebs and a certain why it was invented. One story links it to a member of a household would dress as a goat
spiders. This might seem more suited to Halloween a tale of children who had been slaughtered by a and bring presents into the home. Today the most
but there is a folk tale that explains why the cannibalistic butcher who stored their bodies in a famous, and famously flammable, Yule Goat is
Christmas spider is a welcome guest. pickle barrel. St Nicholas resurrected them and they found in Gävle, Sweden.
A poor family once brought a pine cone into hung the ornaments in memory of their rescue. Each year at the beginning of Advent the local
their home and decided to plant it. By Christmas Though the tradition is said to actually be German community comes together to built a huge Yule

126
 Strangest Ways to Celebrate Christmas

The Icelandic
giantess Grylla,
shown with her
husband, has a taste
for children’s flesh

Colonel Sanders dressed as

Father Christmas welcomes
Japanese diners for a
traditional festive meal

Goat that stands around 14m tall. It is made peel. Then on Christmas Eve they sing a song to hide all the brooms in a house on Christmas Eve.
of wood and straw and has become the target the log: This is because evil spirits are said to roam on that
of arsonists. Of the 56 goats that have been night and if a witch finds a broom she will take it
constructed 38 have been set on fire. It has become “Log of Christmas, as an excuse to ride it.
such a tradition for the goat to be burned down poop nougats, Brooms are not the only strange mode of
that some visitors think it is supposed to happen. pee white wine, transport some people use on Christmas Eve. In
One American who set fire to the Yule Goat don’t poop herrings, Caracas, Venezuela, you will find people spending
believed he was taking part in an ancient fire ritual. they are too salty, the night on roller-skates. Known as Las Patinatas
He was jailed for 18 days. In 2016 the goat stood for poop nougats, – the skating – the tradition sees families donning
just one hour before it was set alight. they are much better!” their skates and singing hymns and Christmas
Other Christmas traditions also involve treating songs throughout the night. Then as the sun
an ornament very badly. Christmas logs may be The children then beat the log with sticks. When rises they skate away to attend Misa de Gallo,
familiar as a cake to many but in Catalonia a log the blanket is removed from the log little sweet the cockerel’s mass, at church which takes place
really is a log. Known as Caga Tio – literally Pooping treats will have been excreted by the log. around 5am.
Log – these decorations are made from a log with a Caga Tio is not the only scatological Christmas Though most people think of Christmas
painted smiling face and four legs. Over the log is tradition from Catalonia. If you examine nativity traditions as ancient there are some that can be
draped a blanket to keep it warm. Throughout the scenes in the region you might spot a strange traced to an exact and modern moment. Though
Christmas period children are encouraged to feed character in the corner squatting to relieve Christians are a small minority of the Japanese
the log with crusts of bread and orange themselves. This is known as the Caganer – the population celebrations of Christmas are popular.
Pooper. The tradition of having such a weird guest One way millions celebrate is to buy a bucket of
at the birth of Jesus dates from the 18th century KFC chicken.
and may be related to ensuring a farm’s fertility. The idea came to the owner of the first KFC
One Catalan saying goes “Dung is no saint, but restaurant in the country when he woke up one
where it falls it works miracles.” night in 1970 and wrote down an idea that he had
Today Caganers are very popular with tourists. in a dream – a Christmas “party barrel” of chicken.
Versions can be bought that resemble everyone By 1974 the KFC company began marketing with
from the Pope, to Darth Vader, to any politician you the slogan “KFC for Christmas”. Now families will
care to name. order their Christmas meal weeks in advance and
If talk of Caganers makes you want to clean up queue for hours to get their traditional meal on
you should avoid Norway. There it is traditional to Christmas Day.
The Yule logs of Catalonia, known
as Pooping Logs, are beaten on
Christmas Eve to encourage them
to leave offerings of sweets
127
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 HISTORY OF

DISCOVER FESTIVE
FOLKLORE AND HOLIDAY
TRADITIONS FROM
YEARS GONE BY

THE NATIVITY STORY THE CHRISTMAS SEASON

Find out about the story and history Explore the significance of the 12
of the birth of Jesus as told in the days of Christmas, and discover
Bible and through historical and the Persian, Roman and European
archaeological research midwinter feasts that influenced it
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FESTIVE FOLKLORE CHRISTMAS TRADITIONS

Discover intriguing Christmas Learn more about the traditions that
legends and beliefs from around make Christmas, from the secret
the world, from talking animals to history of Santa Claus to Christmas
sacred trees and fairy rides trees, stockings, crackers and more
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