HRE 313

Highway and Railroad

Engineering

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PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
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HRE 313 – Highway and Railroad Engineering
First Edition, 2021

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Course Overview
Introduction
Highway and Railroad Engineering presents the methods and underlying principles for the
design and control of the elements of road and railroad infrastructure. Students also become
familiar with transportation system terminology, flow analysis, driver, vehicle and road
characteristics, and aspects of road geometrics, road construction, drainage, pavements and
maintenance.

Course General Objectives

At the end of the semester, 90% and above of the class obtaining at least passing rate of 75%
and above.
1. Define the basic concept of highway and railroad transportation and present
how to apply them in civil engineering practices.
2. Recognize the concepts associated with the geometric and structural design of
highway and railway engineering systems.
3. Explain the basic service requirements of highway and detail the procedure to
conduct level of service analysis
4. Develop basic traffic stream parameters and models, traffic flow models, and
apply the queuing theory

Course Details:

 Course Code: HRE 313

 Course Title: Highway and Railroad Engineering
 No. of Units: 3 units lecture
 Classification: Lecture-based
 Pre-requisite / Co-Requisite: Fundamentals of Surveying
 Semester and Academic Year:
 Schedule:
 Name of Faculty:
 Contact Details
Email:
FB Account:
 Consultation
Day:
Time:

Assessment with Rubrics

Students will be assessed in a regular basis thru quizzes, long/unit/chapter tests,
individual/group outputs using synchronous and/or asynchronous modalities or submission of
SLM exercises. Rubrics are also provided for evaluation of individual/group outputs.

Major examinations will be given as scheduled. The scope and coverage of the examination
will be based on the lessons/topics as plotted in the course syllabus.
Module Overview
Introduction
(A short discussion of the module as to what to expect by the learners, including topics
included in this particular learning module as well as the scope and coverage.)

Sample:
A region’s social and economic fabric is weaved through intricate movements of people,
goods and services. Roadways are the capillaries, veins, and arteries of life, carrying the
pedestrians, bicycles, cars, buses, and cargo trucks to their intended destinations. In the
conventional approach to the planning of road systems, the growth of travel demand is
largely addressed by adding capacity, including widening existing roads and building new
roads. However, every time capacity is added, additional traffic is generated, especially in
situations where traffic demand controls are minimal or absent.
The planning process striving to balance the provision of direct links to communities
simultaneously ensuring the smooth and safe flow of traffic in the road system is broadly
termed Access Management. It involves aspects of planning of road design in terms of the
number and form of links to major roads, as well as the management of the flow of traffic
between these roads

Table of Contents

Chapter/Lesson 1: Introduction to highway development and planning

Chapter/Lesson 2: Environmental impact assessment
Chapter/Lesson 3: Classification of roads
Chapter/Lesson 4: Road patterns
Chapter/Lesson 5: Planning surveys
Chapter/Lesson 6: Highway alignment and surveys
Highway and Railroad Engineering

Chapter 1

Introduction of Highway
Development and Planning
Chapter 1

Importance of Highway Development and Planning

Introduction:
The planning process striving to balance the provision of direct links to communities
simultaneously ensuring the smooth and safe flow of traffic in the road system is broadly
termed Access Management.
It involves aspects of planning of road design in terms of the number and form of links to
major roads, as well as the management of the flow of traffic between these roads. Various
techniques are used to manage entrances and exits and related turning movements onto and
off the major roadways, as well as maintain design criteria and standards necessary to
preserve the operational capacity, speed and safety of the roadways. Every access point can
contribute to the deterioration of traffic level of service and these impacts increase
geometrically over time as both the traffic volumes and number of access points increase.
Access management must therefore accommodate not only the current condition but also the
future growth. Systematic application of planning, design, and operation of access
management features includes approaches (driveways and street connections to a roadway),
medians, median openings, signals, auxiliary lanes, and interchanges.
1.1 IMPORTANCE
- The ultimate goal of road planning is to ensure safe and smooth flowing traffic
conditions through the entire system of roads. While it is important that the roadways
must have sufficient capacity to accommodate the traffic demand, it is critical to
recognize that road design and management should be undertaken to ensure that the
available capacity is not unduly affected by creation of unnecessary bottlenecks and
conflicts.
- A long-term land-use transport plan should be developed to determine not only the
functional class of a particular roadway but also to establish the estimated life of that
roadway within the class. An area may avoid expensive modifications of existing
roadways to sustain its functional position within a particular class if it is clear from the
long-term plan that the roadway may be displaced to an access function when a
proposed new roadway is built later on. In the process, planners also avoid dealing with
the fallout negative impacts of road modifications, perceived or real, on the adjacent
communities.
- Poor access management design leads to increased delays and also causes unnecessary
air pollution and fuel consumption (time spent idling at red lights or in stop-and-go
traffic). A study by Ohio – Kentucky – Indiana Regional Council of Governments
concluded that 40% of all fuel consumption in highway transportation was attributable
to vehicles stopped and idling at traffic signals (OKI, 1999). Frequent and poorly
spaced traffic signals can reduce roadway capacity to over 50%. Furthermore, access
management is also a safety issue as 50 to 60% of crashes are access related.

1.2 PRINCIPLES OF ACCESS MANAGEMENT

- A systematic access management policy addresses the questions of why, when, where,
and how access should be provided or denied, and what legal or institutional changes
are needed to enforce these decisions (AASHTO, 2001: 89). Depending on the function
of the road, access may be fully controlled where priority is given to through-traffic or
partially controlled to preserve a desirable balance between access and mobility.
Building on traffic engineering concepts and ideas, access management seeks to reduce
and separate conflict points in a roadway system and minimize interference to traffic
flow. A carefully conceived and well implemented access management plan can help to
preserve the capacity, speed, and safety of traffic on a road system extending its life
span and reducing the need to build new roadways.
- The access management principles can be broadly summarized into the following:
1. Develop a functional system of classification of roadways, and define the
roadways in the system in terms of these classes:
The classification scheme will show where each roadway in an area is placed in
its functional range between access and mobility, and provide framework for
assessment of need for different types of access management & control measures.
2. Provide a balanced road circulation system:
The functional integrity of a highway system at the city and regional scales rests
on the development of a graduated system of roadways that facilitates a balanced
and well distributed circulation of traffic. This establishes a sound framework for
the effective functioning of roadways in accordance with their defined categories
in the classification system.
3. Establish access control to roadways with higher functional classifications:
Freeways and expressways are reserved for the mobility function. Direct property
access should be restricted and the entrances to these higher-class roadways need
to be carefully planned in terms of location, spacing, and other design features.
4. Establish standards on driveways that feed into collector and arterial roads:
Junctions between driveways and the main roads represent conflict points that can
affect smooth traffic flow and increase the potential for accidents. Regulations
and guidelines on driveway spacing, frequency, design, and location will help to
reduce the severity of these conflicts.
5. Plan the location and design of major intersections:
The flow of traffic through intersections needs to be carefully coordinated to
allow for smooth progression. Driveways need to be located at a reasonable
distance away from intersections to reduce traffic interferences.
6. Promotes development of dedicated turning lanes & other special turning
treatments:
If the lanes on a roadway carry both through-flow and turning traffic, disruptions
and conflicts arise, and these can result in bottle-necks that pose congestion and
potential accident problems. By separating turning traffic from through-flow
traffic, these conflicts can be reduced, resulting in the safe and effective
functioning of the roadway.
7. Consider the application of median treatments including raised medians and two-
way left turn lanes (TWLTL):
These are among the most controversial measures of access management but are
highly effective in reducing conflicts along roadway stretches brought about by
turning and crossing traffic.
8. Assess economic impacts and involve public participation in access management
policy initiatives:
This helps to assess level of acceptance, create awareness of the long-term
benefits of access management, and evaluate the effectiveness of measures.

1.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF RAODWAYS

- The first question that is asked when a road is built relates to the function that it is
going to serve. At the lowest level, there is a local road that provides access to
individual housing units in small residential neighborhood. The local roads feed into
collector roads that link up multiple neighborhoods. The collector roads feed into the
minor arterial roads, which in turn link to the major arterials that provide connections
between large scale community networks. At the highest level, there are the freeways
and expressways that carry regional and intercity traffic. The size of roads in each
road class depends on the density of the activities, be it housing, industrial, office, or
other activities, as this will have a bearing on the volume of traffic generated. This
will be discussed more in Content #2 of this Module 2.

1.2.2 BALANCED ROAD CIRCULATION SYSTEM

- Once a long-term plan is mapped out with a clear functional hierarchy of existing &
proposed roadways, planners can develop standards & controls on number of access
points & adopt various techniques to improve the form of access at each point.
- In his landmark study, Marks (1974) proposed a graduated system of roadways in
which each functional class of roads was served by the next class in the hierarchy.
This concept of graduated access represents one useful foundation for guiding the
practice of access management. Such a system of roadways allows a driver to make a
smooth transition from a lower speed roadway to a higher speed one in a way that
promotes safety and efficient traffic flow.
- If, for instance, there is a collector road with a design speed of 40 km/h feeding
directly into a freeway with a speed of 90 km/h, it would be difficult and dangerous
for the driver to increase the vehicle speed as he enters the freeway or reduce the
speed as he leaves the freeway. Unless special provisions are made, this large speed
differential will create bottleneck situations in the ramp area and potentially impede
smooth traffic flow.
- A graduated system of roadways will provide good circulation of traffic only if the
supply of roadways at each level is adequate and if the roadways of different regions
are well-connected. The inadequate provision of secondary roads, for example, will
result in the arterial roads accommodating both local and through traffic, when they
are functionally designed primarily for the latter. If a large percentage of drivers
intending to travel from one traffic zone to an adjacent zone, go into a freeway & then
take the next exit to enter the adjacent zone, the function of the freeway to provide a
through-link for travel between spatially distant zones becomes compromised.

1.2.3 ESTABLISH STANDARDS ON ACCESS CONTROLS TO

FREEWAYS, EXPRESSWAYS, AND MAJOR ARTERIALS
- The availability of good internal circulation between neighboring districts may still
not deter drivers from using the high-speed roadways for short trips. Access controls
to the major roadways is therefore necessary to encourage drivers to use the system of
minor arterials and other lower order roadways for short distance commutes, and take
the freeway only for long distance rides.
- The key considerations for access management into high-speed freeways relate to
the design or form of access points and the spacing between them. Freeways serve
continuous traffic flow &, as such, should not encounter any signalized intersections.
Opposing traffic movements must be separated by physical medians or concrete rail
barriers, & cross traffic should be separated by grade separation structures.
Directional ramps, in the form of interchanges, limit the access to freeways.
1.2.4 STANDARDS ON NUMBER, LOCATION AND DESIGN OF
DRIVEWAYS, AND SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
- While access to freeways and principal arterials is generally restricted, access to
smaller arterials and collector streets also needs to be regulated and properly
designed. In the local development guide plans or ordinances, special conditions
could be stipulated to limit the number of driveways to one per parcel, and to
encourage the use of side roads or shared driveways. Geometric design has a direct
impact on vehicle operating speed, traffic engineering, and the eventual safety of low
speed urban streets.
- Geometric design must balance access, pedestrian or bicycle use, and right-of-way
issues with speed and safety. If vehicles operate above the intended speed, speed
differentials can result between vehicles and increase the risk and severity of potential
accidents. The potential for speed differential between vehicles also increases with the
number of conflict points created when vehicles enter streets from driveways and
intersections. This will be further discussed in the coming modules.

1.2.5 PROMOTING THROUGH-FLOW AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

- For major at-grade signalized intersections such as between an arterial and a
collector street, minimum distance standards need to be maintained to preserve traffic
flow, improve safety and sustain the functional hierarchy of the road system. A
corollary effect of increasing the distance between signals is the improvement of air
quality in heavily traveled high-density corridors. Traffic signals serve to assign right-
of-way to conflicting movements of traffic at intersections. While they reduce the
number of right-angle collisions at an intersection, they can cause an increase in rear-
end collisions. A balance therefore needs to be achieved with due safety
considerations to maintain a smooth traffic flow. It is important that signalized access
points on major roadways must be considered in a total city or region wide traffic
coordination scheme.
- The appropriate spacing between signalized intersections on a particular arterial
stretch depends on the speed of the road and density of traffic, but it is noted that
“anything greater than two per mile has a significant impact on congestion and safety”
(FHWA, 2003). However, depending on the density of land use, this spacing standard
may be reduced but a minimum spacing of at least 1/4 mile should be maintained, as
any further reduction will lead to unacceptable disruptions in traffic flow in the form
of delays and queues at intersections.
- Apart from the spacing of signalized intersections, the quality of flow along a street
is also affected by the speed of traffic on the street, and length of the traffic signal
cycle. Synchronization of adjacent traffic signals (green waves) helps to reduce stops
and delays. This can be best achieved using a system of traffic-actuated signals, which
adjusts the green time according to the volume of traffic, optimizing flow at the
intersections. It is more difficult to achieve in two-way streets because of the need to
coordinate opposing traffic movements. Several cities have implemented some variant
of this system on their arterial road network. Access and mobility management efforts
can be optimized when they are complemented with such road management measures
that use intelligent transportation system (ITS) tools.
1.2.6 TREATMENTS ON TURNING LANES
- Access controls to major arterials in the form of driveway consolidation and other
management measures facilitate the speedier movement of through-flow traffic.
However, when if a lane on the roadway serves both turning and through-flow traffic,
disruptions referred to as “side friction” may be encountered because of the sudden
deceleration of speeds of the traffic intending to turn at intersections. This creates
conflicts or bottlenecks under heavy traffic flow bringing about long queues of traffic
waiting to turn left & right, & constrictions in the passageway of through-flow traffic.
- As left-turning vehicles are provided a separate space to slow down and wait for
gaps in traffic, the interference to through-traffic in the remaining lanes is minimized
(AASHTO, 2001: 479). The construction of dedicated lanes for traffic turning at
intersections can therefore help to separate turning traffic from through-flow traffic,
reduce conflicts and promote safety and improved traffic flow. Major arterials with
high traffic volumes and relatively high posted speeds can benefit most from such
lanes, including right-turn acceleration lanes, auxiliary left-turn lanes, and auxiliary
right-turn lanes.
- A traffic impact study will have to be carried out to determine the need for turning
lanes based on the existing traffic volumes, speed and the projected impact of the
proposed use, and make recommendations on the design of the turning lane. In
general, the length of the turning lane should be a minimum two car-lengths and
based on the number of vehicles likely to arrive in a 2-minute period at peak hour
(unsignalized) or the signal length and timing.

1.2.7 MEDIAN TREATMENTS

- Traffic flow on an arterial is often impeded by the intermittent stoppage of vehicles
intending to turn left into small driveways, but this does not generally pose severe
problems when the traffic volume is low. When the flow becomes heavy, for example,
during peak hours serious bottleneck situations may arise, and such turning traffic
may contribute to massive congestion and safety problems.
- Median treatments for roadways represent one of the most effective means to control
access to small driveways. They serve a dual role of separating opposing traffic
movements and managing left turns and crossing movements between driveways and
arterials. By controlling left turning movements, conflicts between through and
turning traffic can be reduced, resulting in improved safety. Medians are most
effective in roadways with high volumes and four or more lanes of traffic.

1.2.8 ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF ACCESS MANAGEMENT AND PUBLIC

PARTICIPATION
- From the point of view of a business enterprise located along an arterial, direct
access of the property to the roadway is often desired as it is perceived to contribute to
higher levels of customer flow, increased sales and higher property value. Businesses
become naturally concerned about the negative impact of the reduced accessibility
resulting from the need to make circuitous trips following various access management
measures such as driveway consolidation, median treatments, and the conversion of
streets from two-way to one-way driveways. Such perceived negative impacts can
sometimes lead to a stalemate in proposed access management projects.
- The resistance to such measures is more pronounced when existing roadways where
the businesses are already located become earmarked for new access management
treatments. It is likely that when the roadway was first built, the high growth rates in
the traffic volumes was perhaps not expected, and the land use and access standards
were not that tightly regulated. However, the surge in traffic and, consequently, the
serious congestion and safety problems may leave city and state authorities with little
choice and they have to take these measures to improve the efficiency of movement of
traffic along major roads. In newly developed land, the problem of acceptance is less
serious but still prevails. It is easier to review and modify the local ordinances and
building plans to ensure that access management standards and guidelines are
followed in the development of new residential and business districts. However,
“considerable political pressure is often exerted to reduce the amount of access
control because of fears that developers may be turned off and decide to build
elsewhere or that voters may object to perceived inconvenience and risks.”

Take note of these following surveys:

1) In 1995, a survey was conducted both on drivers and business owners in
Florida on the impact of raised medians on specific corridors and the results
indicated that while the general perception was an additional inconvenience
would be caused by the median, it was more than compensated by smoother
traffic flow and improved safety. Results of the survey show that:
 78% of the drivers surveyed felt safety had improved while
 84% felt traffic moved better.
 30% of the business owners noted that they had experienced some
negative impacts such as delivery difficulties and reduction in business
volume e (Ivey et al., 1995).
2) Another study looking at impacts of access management projects in
southeast Florida found that:
 26% of the business owners reported a loss in profits after the
measures were implemented
 5% reported a gain;
 the remaining large majority of businesses saw little or no negative
impact of their profitability, number of customers, or property values
(Vargas and Gautam, 1989).

- It is apparent that a reduction in level of direct access is a real cause for concern for
owners of businesses & other developments. However, it is often not appreciated that
the conflicts resulting from poor or excessive access points contribute to congestion
and delays in the community’s roadway system, making the very region where the
businesses are located inaccessible and unattractive. In the long term, the region will
lose its economic vitality and businesses will move out to higher quality locations.
Clearly, there is a need for transportation authorities to engage with the community in
its access management policy, to explain the rationale, demonstrate the community-
scale and long-term benefits by drawing from similar projects elsewhere, and ensure
that the project is planned and designed in a way that incorporates the more critical
concerns of the stakeholders.
Highway and Railroad Engineering

Chapter 2

Environmental Impact of
Highway Development
Chapter 2

Environmental Impact of Highway Development

Introduction:
Highway development enhances mobility and is critical to the economic growth of a
community and a country as a whole. Unfortunately, inappropriately planned, designed, and
constructed highways can aggravate the conditions of the poor, and harm the natural and
socio-economic environment.
The common adverse impacts of highway development include:
 damage of natural landscape,
 habitat and bio-diversity,
 destruction of cultural and social structure of affected communities,
 creation of air and water pollution, and
 generation of noise and vibration

Environmental impacts of highway development can be grouped under the following

categories:
a) direct and indirect d) short- and long-term
b) cumulative e) temporary and permanent
c) local and widespread f) random and predictable

In highway development projects, it is useful to distinguish between highly probable impacts

from random or unpredictable impacts with a low probability of occurring but may have
serious consequences. For example, the construction of a highway through a large, densely
populated area will result in population displacement and business loss. On the other hand,
incidents such as accidental pollution, fire, or spillage of toxic products are, by nature,
unpredictable.

To minimize adverse environmental and socio-economic impacts, highway infrastructure

must be built to a high quality and maintained to a high standard. This can be achieved by
integrating environmental considerations into highway development planning, design, and
construction. The process consists of three key elements:
 Identification of the full range of possible impacts on the natural and socio-
economic environment;
 Evaluation and quantification of these impacts and
 Formulation of measures to avoid, mitigate & compensate for anticipated impacts

The possible mitigation measures include:

 changing project sites, routes, processes, raw materials, construction methods,
operating methods, and disposal locations of wastes and spoils
 introducing pollution controls, waste treatments, monitoring, phased
implementation, landscaping, personnel training, special social services, or public
education
 offering (as compensation) restoration of damaged resources, money to affected
persons, concessions on other issues, or off-site programs to enhance some other
aspects of the environment or quality of life for the community.

Cost of all mitigation measures must be quantified. Various mitigation measures are then
compared and trade-offs between alternative measures are weighed. Several analytical
techniques are available for this purpose:
a) Cost-benefit analysis in which all quantifiable factors are converted to monetary
values, and actions are assessed for their impacts on the highway project costs and
benefits. However, the unquantifiable factors can be equally important, and need to be
taken into account in the decision-making process;
b) Explaining what course of actions would follow from various broad value
judgments (e.g., those socio-economic impacts are more important than resources);
c) A simple matrix of environmental and socio-economic parameters vs. mitigation
measures, containing brief descriptions of the effects of each measure;
d) Pair wise comparisons, whereby the effects of an action are briefly compared with
the effects of each of the alternative actions, one pair at a time.
The process which systematically deals with these elements is called Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA). The end results are presented in an EIA report including an
Environmental Management Plan (EMP). It must be emphasized that an EIA process is not
solely aimed at identifying, quantifying, and mitigating the negative impacts of a highway
development project. It should also be used to optimize positive impacts of the project
(World Highways, 2001).
Highway and Railroad Engineering

Chapter 3

Classification of Roads
Chapter 3

Classification of Roads
Introduction:
Roadways are a major component of the traffic system and the specifics of their design have
a significant impact on traffic operations.
Two primary categories of service provide by roadways and roadway systems are:

1. Accessibility – refers to the direct connection to abutting lands and land uses
provide by roadways. This accessibility comes in the form of curb parking, driveway
access to off-street parking, bus stops, taxi stands, loading zones, driveway access to
loading areas, and similar features. The access function allows a driver or passenger
(or goods) to depart the transport vehicle to enter the particular land use in question.

2. Mobility – refers to the through movement of people, goods, and vehicles from
Point A to Point B in the system.

On the two extremes, the design of local streets emphasizes access with little consideration
for mobility, while the design of freeways emphasizes mobility with limited access. The
design of collectors and arterials falls in between, with collectors emphasizes more for access
and arterials favors mobility.

3.1 TRIP FUNCTIONS

The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) defines
up to six distinct travel movements that may be present in a typical trip:\

1. Main movement – is the through portion of trip, making the primary connection
between the area of origin and the area of destination.
2. Transition – occurs when a vehicle transfers from the through portion of the trip to
the remaining functions that lead to access and termination. A vehicle might, for
example, use a ramp to transition from a freeway to a surface arterial.
3. Distribution – involves providing drivers and vehicles with ability to leave a major
through facility and get to the general area of their destinations.
4. Collection – brings the driver and vehicle closer to the final destination.
5. Access and 6. Termination – provides the driver with a place to leave his or her
vehicle and enter the land parcel sought.

The hierarchy of trip functions should be matched by the design of the roadways provided to
accomplish them. A typical trip has two terminals, one at the origin and one at the destination.
At the origin end, the access function provides an opportunity for the trip-maker to enter a
vehicle and for the vehicle to enter the roadway system. The driver may go through a series
of facilities, usually progressively favoring higher speeds and through movements, until a
facility – or set of facilities – is found that will provide the primary through connection. At
the destination end of the trip, the reverse occurs, with the driver progressively moving
toward facilities favoring access until the specific land parcel desired is reached.

3.2 HIGHWAY CLASSIFICATION

All highway systems involve hierarchal classification by the mix of access and mobility
functions provided. Four major classes of highways may be identified:
1. Limited-access facilities – provides for 100% though movement, or mobility. No direct
access to abutting land uses is permitted.
2. Arterials – surface facilities designed primarily for through movement but permit some
access to abutting lands.
3. Collectors – is an intermediary category between arterials and local streets. Some measure
of mobility and access is provided. The term collector comes from a common use of such
facilities to collect vehicles from a number of local streets and deliver them to the nearest
arterial or limited access facility.
4. Local streets – designed to provide access to abutting land uses with through movement
only a minor function, if provided at all.

The typical trip starts on a local street. The driver seeks the closest collector available, using
it to access the nearest arterial. If the trip is long enough, a freeway or limited-access facility
is sought. At the destination end of the trip, the process is repeated in reverse order.
Depending on the length of the trip and specific characteristics of the area, not all of the
component types of facilities need to be included in every trip.
Freeways and expressways are designed for maximum mobility with high speeds and
capacities. If there are limited or no controls on the access points to a major freeway or
expressway, the capacity, efficiency of travel, and safety levels of the roadway may be
compromised. This is why access to the large regional highways needs to be strictly
controlled to interchanges spaced many kilometers apart. On the other hand, a local street,
which has individual links to adjacent properties cannot be expected to serve a long-distance
mobility function. With a significant reduced volume of traffic flowing at low speeds, the
function of these local roadways is primarily one of access. The remaining roadways, the
collectors and arterials serve a mix of access and mobility functions, and the land use and
traffic characteristics would largely determine where they are placed between the access –
mobility continuum.
It must be emphasized that the descriptions in the table are presented as typical. Each
highway agency has its own highway classification system, and many have features that are
unique to the agency.
3.3 PRESERVING THE FUNCTION OF A FACILITY
Highway classification systems enable traffic engineers to stratify the highway system by
functional purpose. It is important that the intended function of a facility be reinforced
through design and traffic controls.
The arterials have their function strengthened by limiting the number of points at which
vehicles can enter or leave the arterial. Other aspects of an arterial that could also help
reinforce their function include the following:
 Parking prohibitions
 Coordinated signals providing for continuous progressive movement at appropriate
speeds
 Median dividers to limit midblock left turns
 Speed limits appropriate to the facility and its environment

Figure 2 illustrates how the design and layout of streets

within a suburban residential subdivision can reinforce
the intended purpose of each facility.

The character of local streets is assured by

incorporating sharp curvature into their design and
though the use of cul-de-sacs. No local street has direct
access to an arterial; collectors within the subdivision
provide the only access to arterials. The nature of
collectors can be strengthened by not having any
residence on the front of collector.

In many older cities, it is difficult to separate the

function served by various facilities due to basic design
and control problems. The historic development of
many older urban areas has led to open-grid systems. In
such systems, local streets, collectors and surface
arterials all form part of the grid.
Every street is permitted to intersect every other street, and all facilities provide some land
access. The only thing that distinguishes an arterial in such system is its width and provision
of progressive signal timing to encourage through movement.
Highway and Railroad Engineering

Chapter 4

Road Patterns
Chapter 4

Road Patterns
Introduction:
Systems often experience difficulties when development intensifies, and all classes of facility
including arterials are subjected to heavy pedestrian movements, loading and unloading of
commercial vehicles, parking and similar functions. Because local streets run parallel to
collectors and arterials, drivers experiencing congestion on arterials often reroute themselves
to nearby local streets, subjecting them to unwanted and often dangerous heavy through
flows.
4.1 RECTANGULAR OR BLOCK PATTERN
In this pattern, the whole area is divided into rectangular blocks of plots, with streets
intersecting at right angles. The main road which passes through the center of the area should
be sufficiently wide and other branch roads may be comparatively narrow. The main road is
provided a direct approach to outside the city.

Advantages:
1) The rectangular plots may be further divided into small rectangular blocks for
construction of buildings placed back to back, having roads on their front.
2) In this pattern has been adopted for the city roads.
3) The construction and maintenance of roads of this pattern is comparatively easier.
Limitations:
1) This pattern is not very much convenient because at the intersections, the vehicles
face each other since the roads are perpendicular to each other. This increases the rate
of accidents due to poor visibility at a perpendicular junction.
4.2 RADIAL OR STAR AND BLOCK PATTERN
In this pattern, the entire area is divided into a network of roads radiating from the business
outwardly. In between radiating main roads, the built-up area may be planned with
rectangular block.

Advantage:
1) Less risky as compared to the rectangular pattern.
2) Reduces level of congestion at the primary bottleneck location.
3) Prevents traffic from accessing local flow routes in the direction of the event venue
that operate in favor of egress traffic flow.
4) If one is blocked then other side can be used as an alternative.
Limitations:
1) Proves particularly effective if two-lane ramp traffic does not have to merge at
downstream end of ramp.
2) Lack if safety appurtenances like rail transitions, crash attenuators & post support
bases.

4.3 RADIAL OR STAR AND CIRCULAR PATTERN

In this system, the main radial roads radiating from central business area are connected
together with concentric roads. In these areas, boundary by adjacent radial roads and
corresponding circular roads, the built-up area is planned with a curved block system.
Advantages:
1) At traditional intersections with stop signs or traffic signals, some of the most
common types of crashes are right-angle, left-turn, and head-on collisions. These
types of collisions can be severe because vehicles may be traveling through the
intersection at high speeds. With circular pattern, these types of potentially serious
crashes essentially are eliminated because vehicles travel in the same direction.
2) Roundabouts present in this pattern improves the efficiency of traffic flow. This
also reduces fuel consumption and emission of the vehicle.
3) Installing circular pattern in place of traffic signals can also reduce the likelihood
of rear-end crashes.
Limitations:
1) Approach roads should be sufficiently curved, far enough in advance of circular
pattern, to reduce vehicle speeds of entering drivers.
2) It affects the driving ability. Mainly old drivers face this problem due to decline in
vision, hearing and cognitive functions. Intersections can be especially challenging for
older drivers.
3) Splitter islands should be extended far enough to provide pedestrian refuge
(crosswalk) and to delineate the roundabout.
4) Traffic signs, pavement markings, and lighting should be adequate so that drivers
are aware that they are approaching a roundabout and that they should reduce their
travel speed.

4.4 RADIAL OR STAR AND GRID PATTERN

Change in direction, and because street patterns are the most enduring physical element of
any layout, it could potentially contribute to systematic site planning &, consequently,
deserves a closer look. Though the network is entirely interconnected, north-south movement
becomes circuitous, indirect, & inconvenient, making driving an unlikely choice & vividly
illustrating that interconnections by itself is insufficient to facilitate movement.

Advantages:
1) Keep vehicular traffic safe with a high proportion of 3-way intersections.
2) Reduce cut-through traffic by similar or other means.
3) Improve traffic flow in both directions using Savannah’s cellular structure.
4) Improve land use efficiency and unit density.
Limitations:
1) Islands separating the approach and exit lanes, known as splitter islands, should
extend far enough.
2) Traffic signs, pavement markings, and lighting should be adequate so that drivers
are aware that they should reduce their travel speed.
4.5 HEXAGONAL PATTERN
In this, the entire area is divided into hexagonal patterns. Three roads meet the build-up area
boundary by the sides of the hexagons at every corner of the hexagon which can be further
divided into suitable sizes.

Advantages:
1) Three roads meet the built-up area boundary by the sides of the hexagons.
Limitations:
1) Traffic signs, pavement markings, and lighting should be adequate so that drivers
are aware that they should reduce their travel speed.

4.6. MINIMUM TRAVEL ROAD PATTERN

In this road pattern, the town is contented by sector centers, suburban facilities and
neighborhood centers by the highway which required minimum time reach the city center.

Advantage:
1) This type of road pattern ends potentially serious crash.
Limitations:
1) Traffic signals, pavement marking and lighting should be sufficient, so that drivers
know that they should reduce their travel speed.
2) Intersections can be particularly challenging for older drivers.
Highway and Railroad Engineering

Chapter 5

Planning Surveys
Chapter 5

Planning Surveys

Introduction:
Planning with respect to road construction takes into account present and future uses of the
transportation system to assure maximum service with a minimum of financial and
environmental cost. The main objective of this initial phase of road development is to
establish specific goals and prescriptions for road network development along with the more
general location needs. These goals must result from a coordinated effort between the road
engineer and the land manager, forester, geologist, soil scientist, hydrologist, biologist and
others who would have knowledge or recommendations regarding alternatives or solutions to
specific problems. The pattern of the road network will govern the total area disturbed by
road construction.
The route planning phase is the time to evaluate environmental and economic tradeoffs and
should set the stage for the remainder of the road development process. Although inclusion of
design criteria for sediment control may increase initial capital outlay, it does not necessarily
increase total annual cost over the life of the road which might come from reductions in
annual maintenance, reconstruction, and repair costs. If an objective analysis by qualified
individuals indicates serious erosional problems, then reduction of erosional impacts should
be a primary concern. In some areas, this may dictate the location of control points or may in
fact eliminate certain areas from consideration for road construction as a result of unfavorable
social or environmental costs associated with developing the area for economic purposes.

Planning surveys consists of following studies:

1) Economic Studies
It is important to find the service given by each road system to the population and products.
Before estimation the requirement such that economic justification can be made details
pertaining to the existing facilities should be available.
The details to be collected include the following:
 Population & its distribution in each village town or other locality with the area
classified in groups
 Trend of population growth
 Agricultural and industrial products and their listing in classified groups, area wise.
 Industrial and Agricultural development and future trends
 Existing facility with regards to communication recreation and education
 Per capita income

2) Financial Studies
The financial studies are essential to study the various financial aspects like source of income
and the manner in which funds for the project may be mobilized.
 Source of income and estimated revenue from taxation on road transport
 Living Standard
 Resources at local level, toll taxes, vehicle registration and fines.
 Future trends in financial aspects.

3) Traffic or Road use Studies

All the details of the existing traffic their volume and pattern of flow should be known before
any improvement could be planned. Traffic surveys should be carried out in the whole area
and on selected routes and locations in order to collect the following particulars.
 Traffic volume in vehicles per day, annual average daily traffic, peak and design
hourly traffic volume
 Origin and Destination Studies
 Traffic flow patterns
 Mass transport facilities
 Accidents, their cost analysis and causes
 Future trend and growth in traffic volume and goods traffic, trend in traffic pattern.
 Growth of passenger trips and the trend in the choice of modes.
4) Engineering studies
All details of the topography, soil and other problems such as drainage, construction and
maintenance problems should be investigated before a scientific plan or program is
suggested. The studies include.
 Topographic survey
 Soil Survey
 Location and classification of existing roads
 Estimation of possible developments in all aspects due to the proposed highway
development
 Road life Studies
 Special Problems in drainage, construction and maintenance of roads.

Interpretation of planning survey

1) To arrive at the road network, out of the several alternate possible systems, which has
maximum utility
2) To fix up priority of construction projects, so as to phase the road development plan of an
area in different periods of time such as five-year plan and annual plans
3) To assess the actual road use by studying the traffic flow patterns. This data may therefore
show areas of congestion, which need immediate relief.
4) Based on the traffic type and intensity and performance of existing type of pavements and
cross drainage structures, a new structure may be designed using the data and past experience
Highway and Railroad Engineering

Chapter 6

Highway Alignment and

Surveys
Chapter 6

Highway Alignment and Surveys

Introduction:
The alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional problem measured in x, y, and z
coordinates. This is illustrated, from a driver’s perspective, in Fig. 10. However, in highway
design practice, three-dimensional design computations are cumbersome, and, what is
perhaps more important, the actual implementation and construction of a design based on
three-dimensional coordinates has historically been prohibitively difficult. As a consequence,
the three-dimensional highway alignment problem is reduced to two two-dimensional
alignment problems, as illustrated in Fig. 11. One of the alignment problems in this figure
corresponds roughly to x and z coordinates and is referred to as horizontal alignment. The
other corresponds to highway length (measured along some constant elevation) and y
coordinates (elevation) and is referred to as vertical alignment. Referring to Fig. 11, note that
the horizontal alignment of a highway is referred to as the plan view, which is roughly
equivalent to the perspective of an aerial photo of the highway. The vertical alignment is
represented in a profile view, which gives the elevation of all points measured along the
length of the highway (again, with length measured along a constant elevation reference).
Aside from considering the alignment problem as two two-dimensional problems, one further
simplification is made: instead of using x and z coordinates, highway positioning and length
are defined as the distance along the highway (usually measured along the centerline of the
highway, on a horizontal, constant elevation plane) from a specified point. This distance is
measured in terms of stations, with each station consisting of 100 ft of highway alignment
distance. This will be further discussed in the next modules.
The growth of direct access links to arterials and highways and the poor management of
roads in relation to turning and through traffic contribute to the deterioration of the functional
integrity of the roadway system. The development of new land uses and access points
coupled with the traffic volumes reduces the speed and capacity of the adjacent roadways and
increases congestion and accidents. Access management can ameliorate these problems by
reducing and separating the conflict points through various techniques such as creating
dedicated turn lanes, limiting the number of left-turn access points by installing medians, and
promoting driveway consolidation.
The discussion on different types of access management measures has highlighted the
significant positive impacts on capacity, speed, and safety of roadways that have undergone
some form of partial or full access control. There are also benefits in the form of improved
pedestrian safety, better aesthetic quality of the community, and significant environmental
benefits.
References/Additional Resources/Readings
(list down all references/additional resources/readings used; you may also provide links)
 This includes all third-party materials or sources in developing the material. It shall
follow the American Psychological Association (APA) Manual of Style 6th or 7th Edition.

Roess, Roger P., Prassas, Elena S. and MCShane, William R. (2011). Traffic Engineering 4th
Edition

Hwa, T. F. (2006). The Handbook of Highway Engineering. Taylor & Francis Group.

Mannering Fred, Washburn Scott, Kilaresky Walter. (2004). Principles of Highway

Engineering & Traffic Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Garber, Nicholas & Hoel, Lester. (2001). Traffic and Highway Engineering. Brookes/Cole
Publishing

Wright, Paul H. (2003). Highway Engineering.

Wiley and Sons. (2011). Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

Roess Roger P., Prassas Elena S., McShane, William R., Traffic Engineering.

Gurjar, Rohit. Various Road Patterns. Retrieved from: https://medium.com/@rohitgurjar009/

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