What Is Satellite Communication?

Satellite communication is transporting information from one place to another using a

communication satellite in orbit around the Earth. Watching the English Premier League
every weekend with your friends would have been impossible without this. A communication
satellite is an artificial satellite that transmits the signal via a transponder by creating a
channel between the transmitter and the receiver at different Earth locations.

Telephone, radio, television, internet, and military applications use satellite communications.
Believe it or not, more than 2000 artificial satellites are hurtling around in space above your
heads.

Satellite Communication Block Diagram

Advantages of Satellite Communication

The following are the advantages of satellite communication:

 Installments of circuits are easy.

 The elasticity of these circuits is excellent.
 With the help of satellite communication, every corner of the earth can be covered.
 The user fully controls the network.
Disadvantages of Satellite Communication
The following are the disadvantages of satellite communication:

 Initial expenditure is expensive.

 There are chances of blockage of frequencies.
 Propagation and interference.

Applications of Satellite Communication

 Telephone
 Television
 Digital cinema
 Radio broadcasting
 Amateur radio
 Internet access
 Military
 Disaster Management

How Satellite Communications Work?

The communication satellites are similar to the space mirrors that help us bounce signals such
as radio, internet data, and television from one side of the earth to another. Three stages are
involved, which explain the working of satellite communications. These are:

 Uplink
 Transponders
 Downlink

Let’s consider an example of signals from a television. In the first stage, the signal from the
television broadcast on the other side of the earth is first beamed up to the satellite from the
ground station on the earth. This process is known as uplink.

The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers, amplifiers, and transmitters.
These transponders boost the incoming signal and change its frequency so that the outgoing
signals are not altered. Depending on the incoming signal sources, the transponders vary.
The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to the other end of the receiver
on the earth. It is important to understand that usually, there is one uplink and multiple
downlinks.

What are the bands of frequency used for satellite communication? What are
the reasons for choosing these particular bands of frequency?

Satellite communication systems utilize specific frequency bands to transmit

signals between Earth-based stations and satellites in orbit. The choice of
frequency bands is based on various factors, including propagation
characteristics, interference, and regulatory considerations. The primary
frequency bands used for satellite communication are:

C Band (4 GHz to 8 GHz):

Reasons for Usage: C band was one of the earliest frequency bands used for
satellite communication. It offers relatively good propagation through adverse
weather conditions, including rain. It also has a wide coverage area.
Applications: C band is commonly used for satellite broadcasting, television
distribution, and some data communication services.
Ku Band (12 GHz to 18 GHz):
Reasons for Usage: Ku band offers higher data rates compared to C band,
making it suitable for high-capacity applications. It is less susceptible to rain
fade (signal degradation due to heavy rain) than C band but more susceptible
than Ka band.
Applications: Ku band is widely used for direct-to-home (DTH) satellite TV
services, broadband internet access, and VSAT (very-small-aperture terminal)
communication.
Ka Band (26 GHz to 40 GHz):
Reasons for Usage: Ka band provides even higher data rates and greater
bandwidth than Ku band. It is less susceptible to rain fade compared to Ku
band, making it suitable for high-throughput data communication.
Applications: Ka band is used for broadband internet services, military
communication, and some satellite-based Earth observation missions.
X Band (8 GHz to 12 GHz):
Reasons for Usage: X band offers a balance between C band and Ku band,
providing good propagation characteristics and moderate data rates. It is often
used for military and government communication, as well as some satellite
radar applications.
Applications: X band is employed for secure military communication, weather
radar, and some satellite tracking and telemetry applications.
L Band (1 GHz to 2 GHz):
Reasons for Usage: L band provides excellent penetration through various
atmospheric conditions and vegetation. It is also suitable for mobile and
handheld satellite communication terminals.
Applications: L band is used for global positioning system (GPS) signals, satellite
phone services, and aviation communication.
S Band (2 GHz to 4 GHz):
Reasons for Usage: S band is used in various applications due to its moderate
frequency range. It can penetrate fog and moderate rain conditions, making it
suitable for some Earth observation and weather satellites.
Applications: S band is used for weather radar, remote sensing, and some
satellite telemetry and control.

Why is the uplink and downlink frequency different in Satellite

Communication?
The primary reasons for using different frequencies for uplink and downlink is
to minimize interference between the two. In satellite communication, the
uplink is the transmission from a ground station to the satellite, and the
downlink is the transmission from the satellite to another ground station. By
using different frequency bands, the likelihood of interference between the
two directions of communication is greatly reduced.

Why is the uplink frequency generally higher than downlink frequency in

Satellite Communication?

In satellite communication systems, it is customary to configure the

uplink frequency to be higher than the downlink frequency. This is
because it’s assumed that the ground station (the station transmitting
the uplink signal to the satellite) is generally able to transmit at higher
power, given its access to ground power sources. The uplink frequency
will have slightly higher path loss than the downlink frequency, so extra
power may be needed to “close the link” and provide a sufficient signal
to the satellite’s receiver. In this arrangement, the power-limited
transmitter on the satellite can enjoy the slightly lower path loss of the
lower frequency on the downlink. There is greater attenuation due to
rain when the signal frequency is high, so downlink is also kept at lower
frequency.
Describe different types of satellite launch vehicles and also describe the
different steps for launching satellite to orbits?

called as ‘launch vehicle’ which is used to directly inject the satellite in a

low altitude orbits upto200km.

Launch vehicle is classified as:

I. Expendable launch vehicle (ELV)

ELV launches put the satellite in an inclined elliptical orbit called as

transfer orbit. The Apogee of this orbit is at altitude of about 42164 km
and Perigee is 185 to 370km.

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The ELV works in stages and first stage is to places the satellite in an
elliptical transfer orbit or Hohmann orbit near perigee. This orbit allows
adjustments to be made to the satellite before placing it in final orbit.

The satellite, after undergoing several revolutions in the transfer orbit, is

finally placed in a circular orbit around the equator by firing a rocket
engine called Apogee kick motor (AKM) at the Apogee of elliptical orbit
which coincides with the final orbit. This is the second stage.

If the launch is carried out at i=0° then it is a geostationary orbit, else in

the third stage if satellite is launched at non zero inclination, the jet
thrusters are to be fired to get the circular orbit first and then making
that circular orbit equatorial to place the satellite in the geostationary
orbit.

II. Reusable launch vehicle (RLV)

Example of this type of vehicle is Space Transportation System (STS) or

Space Shuttle. In this type of launching the part of launcher is used for
the launch purpose. At each stage a part of fuel is burnt and as a result
mass reduces and velocity increases.

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The satellite flies in a lower earth circular parking orbit at an altitude of
around 300km. This allows space check out and repair of satellite before
actual launch in orbit and also lowers gravitational force during launch.

A first velocity increment is provided by an additional stage called Pay

Assist Module (PAM) or Perigee Kick Motor (PKM) which puts the satellite
in the transfer orbit which is tangential to the parking orbit and transfer
orbit’s apogee coincides with the apogee of the final orbit which is at
42164km.

A second velocity increment is given by the Apogee Kick Motor (AKM)

which injects the satellite from transfer orbit to actual geostationary orbit
of satellite in the same way as that of ELV launch.

Discuss effects of atmospheric parameters on satellite communication?

Satellite communication systems rely on the transmission and reception

of electromagnetic signals between earth stations and orbiting satellites.
However, these signals are subject to various environmental and
atmospheric effects that can degrade their quality and performance.

Rain attenuation

Rain attenuation is one of the most significant effects of the atmosphere

on satellite communication signals, causing a reduction of signal power
due to absorption and scattering of raindrops. This phenomenon is
particularly severe for higher frequencies, such as Ku-band and Ka-band
satellites, and can cause signal outages or errors. To cope with rain
attenuation, you can choose a lower frequency band like C-band,
increase the transmit power or antenna gain, apply adaptive modulation
and coding schemes to adjust the data rate and error correction
according to the channel conditions, or use diversity techniques such as
site diversity, frequency diversity, or polarization diversity to combine
signals from different sources or paths that are less correlated by rain.
Ionospheric effects

The ionosphere, the upper layer of the atmosphere ionized by solar

radiation and cosmic rays, can affect satellite communication signals in
various ways. Refraction, for instance, can cause signal delay, phase shift,
or frequency shift, while scintillation can lead to signal fading, distortion,
or interference. Faraday rotation can result in signal mismatch or cross-
polarization, reducing the signal-to-noise ratio and increasing the error
rate. To address these ionospheric effects, you may choose a higher
frequency band such as Ku-band or Ka-band, use a geostationary orbit
(GEO) satellite to experience less variation in the ionospheric conditions,
apply ionospheric correction algorithms or models to estimate and
compensate for the ionospheric effects on the signal parameters, or use
circular polarization or dual polarization to reduce the impact of Faraday
rotation or cross-polarization.

Atmospheric gases

Attenuation and noise caused by atmospheric gases, such as oxygen and

water vapor, can affect satellite communication signals. These gases
absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation, leading to signal loss and
thermal noise. The effects of atmospheric gases are more severe at
higher frequencies and lower elevation angles, and can vary with the
weather and season. To cope with these effects, you can choose a lower
frequency band like C-band, increase the transmit power or antenna
gain, use a low-noise amplifier or a low-noise block downconverter to
amplify the signal before it is affected by the noise, or apply atmospheric
correction algorithms or models to estimate and compensate for the
atmospheric effects on the signal parameters.
Solar interference

Solar interference can happen twice a year during the equinoxes and can
lead to signal degradation or outage, depending on the frequency band,
antenna size, and sun's activity. To mitigate this risk, you can choose a
higher frequency band like Ka-band, use a larger antenna size or higher
antenna gain to improve the signal-to-noise ratio, apply filtering or
notch techniques to reject or attenuate the interference frequency or
bandwidth, or schedule operations or transmissions outside of solar
interference periods.

Justify the statement "all geostationary satellites are geosynchronous but

the reverse is not true".

The statement "All geostationary satellites are geosynchronous, but the

reverse is not true" is accurate and can be justified by examining the
definitions and characteristics of geosynchronous and geostationary
orbits:

Geosynchronous Orbit:

A geosynchronous orbit is one in which a satellite orbits the Earth at the

same rate that the Earth rotates on its axis.

This means that a geosynchronous satellite completes one orbit around

the Earth in approximately 24 hours, matching the Earth's rotational
period.

Geosynchronous orbits can have various inclinations and are not limited
to a specific orbital plane.
Geostationary Orbit:

A geostationary orbit is a specific type of geosynchronous orbit with

additional constraints.

In a geostationary orbit, a satellite is not only geosynchronous but also

positioned directly above the Earth's equator in the plane of the equator.

This means that a geostationary satellite appears stationary relative to an

observer on Earth, as it orbits at the same rotational speed and in the
same direction as the Earth's rotation. It remains fixed in the sky relative
to a fixed point on Earth's surface.

Hence ,all geostationary satellites are geosynchronous but the reverse is

not true.

What are three cosmic velocities in satellite launching?

In satellite launching and orbital mechanics, there are three primary

cosmic velocities.

These cosmic velocities are:

First Cosmic velocity also called orbital velocity is the minimum velocity
required for a spacecraft to achieve a stable orbit around a celestial
body, such as the Earth.

It depends on the altitude of the desired orbit and the mass of the
celestial body.
Second cosmic velocity also called Escape velocity is the minimum
velocity required for a spacecraft to escape the gravitational pull of a
celestial body (here Earth) entirely.

It is higher than orbital velocity and allows a spacecraft to leave the

gravitational influence of the body and travel into space.

Third cosmic velocity also called interstellar speed is the speed that a
spacecraft needs to attain in order to be able to leave our solar system.

Injection Velocity and Resulting Satellite Trajectories

->The horizontal velocity with which a satellite is injected into space by

the launch vehicle with the intention of imparting a specific trajectory
to the satellite has a direct bearing on the satellite trajectory. The
phenomenon is best explained in terms of the three cosmic velocities.
The general expression for the velocity of a satellite at the perigee point
(VP), assuming an elliptical orbit, is given by

Thus, irrespective of the distance r of the satellite from the centre of the
Earth, if the injection velocity is equal to the first cosmic velocity, also
sometimes called the first orbital velocity, the satellite follows a circular
orbit and moves with a uniform velocity equal to√(μ/r).

If the injection velocity happens to be less than the first cosmic velocity,
the satellite follows a ballistic trajectory and falls back to Earth. In fact, in
this case, the orbit is elliptical and the injection point is at the apogee
and not the perigee.

For injection velocity greater than the first cosmic velocity and less than
the second cosmic velocity, i.e. V > √(μ/r) and V < √(2μ/r), the orbit is
elliptical and eccentric. The orbit eccentricity is between 0 and1. The
injection point in this case is the perigee and the apogee distance
attained in the resultant elliptical orbit depends upon the injection
velocity. The higher the injection velocity, the greater is the apogee
distance.

When the injection velocity equals √ (2μ/r), the apogee distance R

becomes infinite and the orbit takes the shape of a parabola (Figure
2.29) and the orbit eccentricity is 1. This is the second cosmic velocity v2.
At this velocity, the satellite escapes Earth’s gravitational pull. For an
injection velocity greater than the second cosmic velocity, the trajectory
is hyperbolic within the solar system and the orbit eccentricity is greater
than 1.

If the injection velocity is increased further, a stage is reached where the

satellite succeeds in escaping from the solar system. This is known as the
third cosmic velocity and is related to the motion of planet Earth around
the sun.