MODULE - II

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS.
2.1.1 Electrical Instruments are may be classified as
1. DC instruments
2. AC instruments
3. DC and DC instruments or universal instruments.
2.1.2 Analog Instruments are classified as
1. Indicating instruments
2. Recording instruments
3. Integrating instruments
2.1.3 Analog Instruments may also be classified on the basis of method of comparison the
unknown quantity
1. Direct measuring instruments
2. Comparison instruments
2.1.4 According to principle of operation
1. Magnetic effect – Ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter and integrating instruments.
2. Thermal effect - Ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter
3. Electrostatic effect - Voltmeter
4. Induction effect- AC Ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter
5. Hall effect- Flux meter, Ammeter, Poynting vector wattmeter
2.1.5 Essential Torques in Indicating Instruments.
1. Deflecting torque/force:
The defection of any instrument is determined by the combined effect of the
deflecting torque/force, control torque/force and damping torque/force. The value of
deflecting torque must depend on the electrical signal to be measured; this torque/force
causes the instrument movement to rotate from its zero position.
2. Controlling torque/force:
This torque/force must act in the opposite sense to the deflecting torque/force, and the
movement will take up an equilibrium or definite position when the deflecting and
controlling torque are equal in magnitude. Spiral springs or gravity usually provides the
controlling torque.
3. Damping torque/force:
A damping force is required to act in a direction opposite to the movement of the
moving system. This brings the moving system to rest at the deflected position reasonably
quickly without any oscillation or very small oscillation. This is provided by i) air friction ii)
fluid friction iii) eddy current. It should be pointed out that any damping force shall not
 influence the steady state deflection produced by a given deflecting force or torque. Damping
force increases with the angular velocity of the moving system, so that its effect is greatest
when the rotation is rapid and zero when the system rotation is zero. Details of mathematical
expressions for the above torques are considered in the description of various types of
instruments.
Air friction damping

1. A piston attached to the spindle of the moving system (pointer) is positioned to move inside an
air chamber.
2. When the spindle moves due to deflecting torque, piston moves inside the air chamber.
3. Suction & compression actions on the air inside the air camber produces necessary damping
torque.
4. Air chamber & piston are made of aluminum.
5. Used in hot wire & moving iron instruments.
Advantages:
Very simple & Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
Precaution must be taken against the bending of the vane.
Fluid friction damping

1. Moving vanes attached to the lower end of the spindle are dipped in oil.
2. Greater the viscosity of oil, greater is the opposition for motion of the vanes.
Applications:
 Instruments used in panel boards.
Disadvantages:
 Can not be used for portable instruments.
 Instruments are always kept in vertical position only due to creeping of oil.
Eddy Current Damping

1. Damping torque is produced based on the concept of eddy currents flowing in a closed path in
which emf is induced ( based on the principle of electro- magnetic induction).
2. With constant field strength, damping torque produced by eddy currents is proportional
to the velocity of the conductor.
3. Most efficient type of damping.
4. Used for hot wire, moving coil and induction type instruments.
Electromagnetic Damping
The movement of coil in magnetic field produces a current in the coil which interacts
with a magnetic field to produce a torque. This torque opposes the movement of the coil and
slows the response.
Supporting the moving element
1. Suspension
2. Taut Suspension
3. Pivot and jewel bearings
2.1.6 Principle and Types of Analog Voltmeters
Analog Instruments:
 Analog Ammeters & Voltmeters are classified together as there are no fundamental
differences in their operating principles.
 The action of all ammeters & voltmeters except electrostatic type instruments depends
upon a deflecting torque produced by an electric current.
 Ammeter-deflection torque is produced by measurand (current) or fraction of it.
 Voltmeter-deflection torque is produced by current which is proportional to the
measurand (voltage).
 All analog voltmeters & ammeters are essentially current measuring devices.
1. Moving Iron Voltmeter
2. Moving Coil Voltmeter

Controlling device -Principle of operation:

 Equal & opposite force to that of deflecting Force
  To bring the pointer back to its initial (Zero) position when the cause (I/V) is removed.
 Types of Control
1. Spring Control
 Spiral hair spring is attached to the spindle of the moving system
 Spring provides controlling force Flat spiral springs-preferred (space requirements
is less)
Properties of spring:
 Should be of non-magnetic material
 Should have low specific resistance
 Should have low resistance temperature co-efficient
 Should not be affected by mechanical fatigue. (Phosphor Bronze) Beryllium
Copper
2.Gravity Control

2.1.7 Types of Instruments

1. Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC).
2. Moving Iron
3. Electro-dynamometer type.
4. Hot wire type.
5. Thermocouple type.
6. Induction type.
7. Electrostatic type.
8. Rectifier type.
2.2 MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

We have mentioned earlier that the instruments are classified according to the principles
of operation. Furthermore, each class may be subdivided according to the nature of the movable
system and method by which the operating torque is produced. Specifically, the electromagnetic
instruments are sub-classes as
(i) moving-iron instruments
(ii) electro-dynamic or dynamometer instruments,
(iii) induction instruments.
In this section, we will discuss briefly the basic principle of moving-iron instruments that
are generally used to measure alternating voltages and currents. In moving –iron instruments the
movable system consists of one or more pieces of specially-shaped soft iron, which are so
pivoted as to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by the current in coil. There are two
general types of moving-iron instruments namely
(i) Repulsion (or double iron) type
 (ii) Attraction (or single-iron) type. The brief description of different components of a
moving-iron instrument is given below.

 Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod
 Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and also to
magnetize the iron pieces.
 In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized with the same
polarity.
 Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity)
 Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device consisting of an air
chamber and a moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.
 Deflecting torque produces a movement on an Aluminium pointer over a graduated
scale.
Construction of Moving-iron Instruments
The deflecting torque in any moving-iron instrument is due to forces on a small piece of
magnetically ‘soft’ iron that is magnetized by a coil carrying the operating current. In repulsion
(Fig.42.7) type moving–iron instrument consists of two cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted
within a fixed current-carrying coil. One iron vane is held fixed to the coil frame and other is free
to rotate, carrying with it the pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the magnetic field produced by the
coil that consists of only few turns if the instrument is an ammeter or of many turns if the
instrument is a voltmeter. Current in the coil induces both vanes to become magnetized and
repulsion between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a proportional rotation. The
deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current in the coil, making the instrument
reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity Rotation is opposed by a hairspring that produces the restoring
torque. Only the fixed coil carries load current, and it is constructed so as to withstand high
transient current. Moving iron instruments having scales that are nonlinear and somewhat
crowded in the lower range of calibration. Another type of instrument that is usually classed with
the attractive types of instrument is shown in Fig.2.2.
 Fig. 2.1 Repulsion type

Fig. 2.2 Attraction type

This instrument consists of a few soft iron discs (B) that are fixed to the spindle (D),
pivoted in jeweled bearings. The spindle (D) also carries a pointer (P), a balance weight (W1), a
controlling weight (W2) and a damping piston (E), which moves in a curved fixed cylinder (F).
The special shape of the moving-iron discs is for obtaining a scale of suitable form.

Consists of two cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted within a fixed current-carrying coil.
One iron vane is fixed to the coil frame and other is free to rotate, carrying with it the pointer
shaft. Two irons lie in the magnetic field produced by the coil Current in the coil induces both
vanes to become magnetized and repulsion between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a
proportional rotation. The deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current in the coil,
making the instrument reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity.
Applied voltage
d ( LI ) dL dI
v I L
dt dt dt
 The electric energy supplied to the coil in dt is
vIdt  I 2 dL  ILdI

Increase in energy stored in the magnetic field

1 1
 ( I  dI ) 2 ( L  dL)  I 2 L
2 2
1
 ILdI  I 2 dL
2
If T is the value of the control torque corresponding to deflection θ, the extra energy
stored in the control due to the change dθ is T dθ. Then, the increase in stored energy is,
1 2
 ILdI  I dL  Td
2
From the principle of conservation of energy, one can write the following expresssion
Electric energy drawn from the supply=increase in stored energy+mechanical work done
1 2
I 2 dL  ILdI  ILdI  I dL  Td
2
1 2 dL
T(torque) = I (Nm)
2 dθ
At equilibrium i.e., for steady deflection,
Deflecting torque = Controlling torque
Tc  Td
1 2 dL
K  I
2 d
 I 2
Advantages

1. The instruments are suitable for use in a.c and d.c circuits.

2. The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the moving parts.

3. The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.

4. Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.

5. Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.

Disadvantages

1. Scale is not uniform. Cramped at lower end.

2. Serious errors due to hysterisis, frequency changes, stray magnetic field.

3. Increase in temperature, increases resistance of coil, decreases stiffness of springs.

 4. Due to nonlinearity of BH Curve the deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to square
of current.
Errors in MI instruments

1. Hysterisis error- due to the different value of flux density for the same current for ascending
and descending values.

2. Temperature error- due to the effect of temperature on the temperature co-efficient of the
spring- cause self heating of coil –can be avoided by using Manganin material.

3. Stray magnetic fields-due to weak magnetic field.

4. Frequency error- due to change in frequency.

5. Eddy current error- due to the production of eddy current in the iron parts of the instrument-
affects change in deflection.
2.3 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS:

The general theory of moving-coil instruments may be dealt with considering a rectangular
coil of turns, free to rotate about a vertical axis. N

Fig. 2.3 Moving Coil Instrument

Fig. 2.3 shows the basic construction of a PMMC instrument. A moving coil instrument consists
basically of a permanent magnet to provide a magnetic field and a small lightweight coil is wound on
a rectangular soft iron core that is free to rotate around its vertical axis. When a current is passed
through the coil windings, a torque is developed on the coil by the interaction of the magnetic field
and the field set up by the current in the coil. The aluminum pointer attached to rotating coil and the
pointer moves around the calibrated scale indicates the deflection of the coil. To reduce parallax error
a mirror is usually placed along with the scale. A balance weight is also attached to the pointer to
counteract its weight. To use PMMC device as a meter, two problems must be solved. First, a way
must be found to return the coil to its original position when there is no current through the coil.
Second, a method is needed to indicate the amount of coil movement. The first problem is solved by
the use of hairsprings attached to each end of the coil as shown in Fig. 42.1(a). These hairsprings are
not only supplying a restoring torque but also provide an electric connection to the rotating coil. With
the use of hairsprings, the coil will return to its initial position when no current is flowing though the
coil. The springs will also resist the movement of coil when there is current through coil. When the
developing force between the magnetic fields (from permanent magnet and electro magnet) is exactly
equal to the force of the springs, the coil rotation will stop. The coil set up is supported on jeweled
bearings in order to achieve free movement. Two other features are considered to increase the
accuracy and efficiency of this meter movement. First, an iron core is placed inside the coil to
concentrate the magnetic fields. Second, the curved pole faces ensure the turning force on the coil
increases as the current increases.

It is assumed that the coil sides are situated in a uniform radial magnetic field of flux density
B wb/m2, let the length of a coil side (within the magnetic field) l be (meter), and the distance from
each coil side to the axis be r (meter).

Principle of operation

It has been mentioned that the interaction between the induced field and the field produced
by the permanent magnet causes a deflecting torque, which results in rotation of the coil. The
deflecting torque produced is described below in mathematical form:
Deflecting Torque:
If the coil is carrying a current of i A , the force on a coil side = Bi lN (newton, N).

∴Torque due to both coil sides =(2r)(BilN) Nm = Gi Nm

Where G is the Galvanometer constant and it is expressed as 2GrBlN (Nm/amp) =NBA (Nm/amp).
(note A= 2rl = area of the coil.)
N= no. of turns of the coil.
2
B = flux density in Wbm .
l = length of the vertical side of the coil, m.
2r= breadth of the coil, m
i= current in ampere.
2
A= 2rl= area, m
The equation is valid while the iron core is cylindrical and the air gap between the coil and
pole faces of the permanent magnet is uniform. This result the flux density B is constant and the
torque is proportional to the coil current and instrument scale is linear.
Controlling Torque
The value of control torque depends on the mechanical design of the control device. For spiral
springs and strip suspensions, the controlling torque is directly proportional to the angle of deflection
of the coil.
Ie., Control torque =Cθ
where, θ = deflection angle in radian, and
C= spring constant. Nm/rad
Damping Torque
It is provided by the induced currents in a metal former or core on which the coil is wound or
in the circuit of the coil itself. As the coil moves in the field of the permanent magnet, eddy currents
are set up in the metal former or core. The magnetic field produced by the eddy currents opposes the
motion of the coil. The pointer will therefore swing more slowly to its proper position and come to
rest quickly with very little oscillation. Electromagnetic damping is caused by the induced effects in
the moving coil as it rotates in magnetic field, provided the coil forms part of closed electric circuit.
Remarks: When the moving system reached at steady state i.e. at final deflected position, the
controlling torque becomes equal and opposite to the deflecting torque. The deflecting angle is
directly proportional to the current in the movable coil (see eq. 42.2). For this reason, the scale of
the moving coil instrument is calibrated linearly. Most accurate type for D.C measurements

Principle:

When a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field produced by the
permanent magnet, coil experiences a force and moves. As this moving the magnet is permanent,
this instrument is called as permanent moving coil instrument. This principle is called as
D’arsonval principle force experienced proportional to the current flowing coil.

It consists of

 Moving coil
 Many number of turns of fine wire
 Either rectangular or circular in shape
 Moves freely in the field of permanent magnet
 Magnet systems
 Control
Controlling torque is provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs
 Damping
Damping torque is produced by the aluminium former moving in the magnetic field of
the permanent magnet
 Pointer and scale
 Over a spindle over a graduated linear scale
 Light weight so that it deflect rapidly
 Mirror is placed below the pointer to reduce to get accurate reading to remove
parallel error
Torque Equation:

Let B = Flux density in the air gap

N = No. of turns in the coil
L = Active length of the coil in meters
d = Average width of the coil in meters
I = Line current
F = Force in Newton
Force acting on one side of coil = F
Deflecting Torque Td = Force * Radius * 2
= BILN d/2 * 2 taking account force on both sides
= BI.LN d Nm
Put L *d = area A
Then Td = NBAI Nm
Control Torque Tc = some constant * θ
Constant depends on quality of the spring.
Under steady state condition Tc = Td
Therefore θ is proportional to I (BAN are constants)
Advantages of PMMC Instrument:
 Linear scale
 Low power consumption
 High accuracy
 Torque to weight ratio is high
 Single instrument may be used for different ranges
 Errors due to stray magnetic field are small
Disadvantages of PMMC Instrument:
 Instruments are only used for d.c
 Higher cost compared moving iron instruments
2.4 WATT METERS: DYNAMOMETER TYPE
2.4.1 Electro dynamic wattmeter-Schematic
1. Fixed coil:
The magnetic field is produced by the fixed coil which is divided into two sections to
give more uniform field near the centre and to allow passage of the instrument shaft.
 Fig. 2.4 ElectroDynamo Meter

Fig. 2.5 Electro Dynamo Meter Wattmeter

Construction of Electro dynamometer wattmeter

Fig. 2.6 Construction of Electro dynamometer wattmeter

2. Moving coil:
The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining coil or else on a non-magnetic
former. A metallic former cannot be used, as eddy currents would be induced in it by alternating
field. Light but rigid construction is used for the moving coil. It should be noted that both fixed
and moving coils are air cored.
3. Springs:
The controlling torque is provided by two control springs
4. Dampers:
Air friction damping is employed for these instruments and is provided by a pair of
Aluminum-vanes attached to the spindle at the bottom.
5. Shielding:
Since the magnetic field produced by fixed coils is weaker than that in other types of
instruments, these meters need a special magnetic shielding. Electro-dynamic instruments are
effectively shielded from the effects of external magnetic fields by enclosing the mechanism in a
laminated iron hollow cylinder with closed ends.
Connections for wattmeter
For power measurement, one of the coils (usually the fixed coils) passes the load current
and other coil passes a current proportional to the load voltage.
Torque Equation
dM
Instantaneous torque Ti  i P ic
d
I1 and i2 are instantaneous values of currents in CC and PC voltage and current and RMS values of
voltage and current to be measured

Instantaneous voltage across PC, V  2V sin

V 2V sin
PC has high resistance, and current through PC is i P    2 I P sin
RP RP
Current through CC lags the voltage by an angle Φ
Instantaneous current through CC, iC  2 I sin(   )
dM dM
Hence Instantaneous torque, Ti  iP iC  I P I  cos   cos(2t   ) 
d d
T
1 VI dM
Average deflecting torque, Td 
T0 Ti d 
RP
cos 
d
Controlling torque by spring TC=Kθ
Under equilibrium TC=TD
VI dM
K  cos 
RP d
VI dM
 cos 
RP K d

dM
  K1 P
d
Where P is power being measured.
Advantages:
  Free from hysteresis and eddy current errors.
 Applicable to both dc and ac circuits.
 Precision grade accuracy for 40 Hz to 500 Hz.
 Electro-dynamic voltmeters give accurate r.m.s values of voltage irrespective of
waveforms.
Disadvantages:
 Low torque/weight ratio, hence more frictional errors.
 More expensive than PMMC or MI instruments.
 Power consumption is higher than PMMC but less than MI instruments.
 Cannot measure power in the circuit with low power factor
2.4.2 Induction type wattmeter-construction (Only for AC)

Fig. 2.7 Induction Type Watt Meter

Fig. 2.8 Phasor Representation

 It is clear that phase angle Ө between the two fluxes is 90-ϕ i.e. Ө=90-ϕ:
  Td∞ϕvϕc sinӨ∞VI (sin90-ϕ) ∞ VI (-sinϕ) ∞ VICosϕ ∞ a.c power.
 Since the instrument is spring controlled Tc∞Ө.
 For steady deflected position, Td=TcӨ = a.c power.
 Hence such instruments have uniform scale.
Advantages
 Free from effect of stray fields.
 Uniform scale.
 Provide good damping
Disadvantages
 Used for only AC power measurement
 Cause serious error due to temperature variations
 Power consumption is higher
2.5 INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METER
Construction of induction type energy meter:
Induction type energy meter essentially consists of following components (a) Driving
system (b) Moving system (c) Braking system and (d) Registering system.
• Driving system: The construction of the electro magnet system is shown and it consists of two
electromagnets, called “shunt” magnet and “series” magnet, of laminated construction.

Fig. 2.9 Energy Meter

A coil having large number of turns of fine wire is wound on the middle limb of the shunt
magnet. This coil is known as “pressure or voltage” coil and is connected across the supply
mains. This voltage coil has many turns and is arranged to be as highly inductive as possible. In
other words, the voltage coil produces a high ratio of inductance to resistance. This causes the
current, and therefore the flux, to lag the supply voltage by nearly 90. An adjustable copper
shading rings are provided on the central limb of the shunt magnet to make the phase angle
displacement between magnetic field set up by shunt magnet and supply voltage is
approximately090. The copper shading bands are also called the power factor compensator or
compensating loop. The series electromagnet is energized by a coil, known as “current” coil
which is connected in series with the load so that it carry the load current. The flux produced by
this magnet is proportional to, and in phase with the load current.
• Moving system: The moving system essentially consists of a light rotating aluminium disk
mounted on a vertical spindle or shaft. The shaft that supports the aluminium disk is connected
by a gear arrangement to the clock mechanism on the front of the meter to provide information
that consumed energy by the load. The time varying (sinusoidal) fluxes produced by shunt and
series magnet induce eddy currents in the aluminium disc. The interaction between these two
magnetic fields and eddy currents set up a driving torque in the disc. The number of rotations of
the disk is therefore proportional to the energy consumed by the load in a certain time interval
and is commonly measured in killowatt-hours (Kwh).
• Braking system: Damping of the disk is provided by a small permanent magnet, located
diametrically opposite to the a.c magnets. The disk passes between the magnet gaps. The
movement of rotating disc through the magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents
in the disc that reacts with the magnetic field and exerts a braking torque. By changing the
position of the brake magnet or diverting some of the flux there form, the speed of the rotating
disc can be controlled.
• Registering or Counting system: The registering or counting system essentially consists of gear
train, driven either by worm or pinion gear on the disc shaft, which turns pointers that indicate on
dials the number of times the disc has turned. The energy meter thus determines and adds
together or integrates all the instantaneous power values so that total energy used over a period is
thus known. Therefore, this type of meter is also called an “integrating” meter.
Basic operation
Induction instruments operate in alternating-current circuits and they are useful only
when the frequency and the supply voltage are approximately constant. The most commonly
used technique is the shaded pole induction watt-hour meter is shown.
 Fig. 2.10 Energy Meter Circuit Diagram
The rotating element is an aluminium disc, and the torque is produced by the interaction
of eddy currents generated in the disc with the imposed magnetic fields that are produced by the
voltage and current coils of the energy meter.
Let us consider a sinusoidal flux Φ(t) is acting perpendicularly to the plane of the
aluminium disc, the direction of eddy current ic by Lenz’s law is indicated in figure Fig.44.2. It is
now quite important to investigate whether any torque will develope in aluminium disc by
interaction of a sinusoidally varying flux Φ(t) and the eddy currents ic induced by itself.

Fig. 2.11 Eddy Current in Al disc and Phasor Diagram

Td  I e cos( , I e )   I e cos(90   )

 I e sin(  ) 0

where Φ and Ie are expressed in r.m.s and β=0 (because the reactance of the aluminium
disc is nearly equal to zero). Therefore, the interaction of a sinusoidally varying flux Φ(t) and its
own eddy current ei (induced) cannot produce torque any on the disc.
So in all induction instruments we have two fluxes produce by currents flowing in the
windings of the instrument. These fluxes are alternating in nature and so they induce emfs in a
aluminium disc or a drum provided for the purpose. These emfs in turn circulate eddy currents in
the disc. As in an energy meter instrument, we have two fluxes and two eddy currents and
therefore two torques are produced by
i) first flux (Φ1) interacting with the eddy currents(Ie1) generated by the second flux2()φ,
ii) second flux (Φ2)interacting with the eddy currents (Ie2) induced by the first flux (Φ1).
In the induction type single phase energy meter, the flux produced by shunt magnet
(pressure or voltage coil current) Φsh lags behind the applied voltage V by almost 90°. The flux
Φse is produced by the load current I and Φse is in the direction of I.
Let the supply voltage v(t)=V max sin (ωt) and load current i(t)=i max sin (ωt-θ) . So, the fluxes are
(i) Flux generated by current coil

(ii) Flux generated by voltage coil

The eddy e.m.f , induced by fluxΦse is

Eddy current generated in disc by the current coil

where Z is the eddy current path impedance and α is the phase angle. In general, the angle

is negligible because X=0

Also, note that

Eddy current generated in disc by the voltage coil

The instantaneous torque on the disc is then proportional to

where Φsh is the flux generated by the voltage coil, Φse is flux generated by the current coil, Ish
is the eddy current produced in the disc by the voltage coil, and Ise is the eddy current produced
in the disc by the current coil. The relative phases of these quantities are shown in fig.44.3.

Fig.2.12 Phasor Diagram

The flux generated by the current coil is in phase with the current and flux generated by
the voltage coil is adjusted to be exactly in quadrature with the applied voltage by means of the
copper shading ring on the voltage or shunt magnet. Theory of shaded pole is discussed in
Appendix. The average torque acting upon the disc
kk 1 1
Td ( av )  Vmax I max (cos(   )  cos(   ))
Z 2
kk 1
 2kk 1 
 Vmax I max cos  cos    cos   VI cos 
Z  Z 
VI cos 
= power in the circuit
One can write average torque expression directly from the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 2.12.
Td ( av )  sh ( rms ) I se cos(sh ( rms ) , I se )  se ( rms ) I sh cos(se ( rms ) , I sh ) 
 sh ( rms ) I se cos(   )  se ( rms ) I sh cos(180     ) 
 I V 
  k 1Vk cos(   )  k 1 Ik cos(   ) 
 Z Z 
 2kk 1 
 cos   VI cos 
 Z 
VI cos 
= power in the circuit
where Φse, Φsh, Ise ,Ish,V are I all expressed as r.m.s.
Remarks : (i) The torque expression shows that for a large torque the eddy current path
resistance must be low which in turn the value of cosαwill be nearly equal to 1. Consideration of
the torque-weight ratio shows that the choice of aluminium disc will be superior to copper and
further it can be improved by properly selecting aluminium disc thickness. (ii) Note, that the
torque expression does not involve tω and it has same value at all instants of time. (iii) The
resultant torque will act on the disc in such away so that it will move from the pole with the
leading flux towards the pole with lagging flux.
Opposing or Brake Torque:
Now the breaking torque is produced by the eddy currents induced in the disc by its
rotation in a magnetic field of constant intensity, the constant field being provided by the
permanent magnet (called brake magnet, see fig. 44.1(a) & (b)). The eddy current bi produced in
the aluminium–disc by the brake magnet flux φb is proportional to the speed (N) of rotation of the

disc N, as shown in Fig.2.13.

Thus braking torque
eb
Tb b ib b
r
N b
b
r
N b 2

where r= eddy current path resistance

Since Φb is constant, this implies that
Tb∞N
where N= speed of rotation of disc.
Now when the speed becomes steady, driving and braking torques become
Td=Tb
 Fig. 2.13 Torque Balance in a Energy Meter.
Therefore, VI cosN i.e. speed of the disc is proportional to the power consumed by the
load. The total number of revolution i.e. Ndt=∫VIcosθ dt ∞ Energy consumed. This means that
the speed of rotation of the disc is proportional to the average power. The integral of the number
of revolutions of the disc is proportional to the total energy supplied. The disc is connected via a
gearing mechanism to a mechanical counter that can be read directly in watt-hours.
Remarks: (i) For a given disc and brake magnet, the braking torque varies with the distance of
the poles from the center of the disc. The maximum braking torque occurs when the distance of
the center of the pole faces from the center of the disc is equal to 83% of the radius of the disc.
(ii) a movement of the poles of brake magnet towards the center of the disc reducing the braking
torque (as the distance of brake magnet reduces from the center of the disc), and vise versa.
Errors in the energy meter:
Assuming the supply voltage and frequency constant, the induction type energy may have the
following errors:
i Speed error: Due to the incorrect position of the brake magnet, the braking torque is not
correctly developed. This can be tested when meter runs at its full load current alternatively
on loads of unity power factor and a low lagging power factor. The speed can be adjusted
to the correct value by varying the position of the braking magnet towards the centre of the
disc or away from the centre and the shielding loop. If the meter runs fast on inductive load
and correctly on non-inductive load, the shielding loop must be moved towards the disc.
On the other hand, if the meter runs slow on non-inductive load, the brake magnet must be
moved towards the center of the disc.
ii Meter phase error: An error due to incorrect adjustment of the position of shading band
results an incorrect phase displacement between the magnetic flux and the supply voltage
(not in quadrature). This is tested with 0.5 p.f. load at the rated load condition. By adjusting
the position of the copper shading band in the central limb of the shunt magnet this error
can be eliminated.

iii Friction error: An additional amount of driving torque is required to compensate this error.
The two shading bands on the limbs are adjusted to create this extra torque. This
th
adjustment is done at low load (at about 1/4 of full load at unity p.f.).
iv Creep: In some meters a slow but continuous rotation is seen when pressure coil is excited
but with no load current flowing. This slow revolution records some energy. This is called
 the creep error. This slow motion may be due to (a) incorrect friction compensation, (b) to
stray magnetic field (c) for over voltage across the voltage coil. This can be eliminated by
drilling two holes or slots in the disc on opposite side of the spindle. When one of the holes
comes under the poles of shunt magnet, the rotation being thus limited to a maximum of
180ͦ. In some cases, a small piece of iron tongue or vane is fitted to the edge of the disc.
When the position of the vane is adjacent to the brake magnet, the attractive force between
the iron tongue or vane and brake magnet is just sufficient to stop slow motion of the disc
with full shunt excitation and under no load condition.
v. Temperature effect: Energy meters are almost inherently free from errors due to
temperature variations. Temperature affects both driving and braking torques equally (with
the increase in temperature the resistance of the induced-current path in the disc is also
increases) and so produces negligible error. A flux level in the brake magnet decreases with
increase in temperature and introduces a small error in the meter readings. This error is
frequently taken as negligible, but in modern energy meters compensation is adopted in the
form of flux divider on the break magnet.
Energy meter constant K is defined as
K=No. of revolutions/kwh
In commercial meters the speed of the disc is of the order of 1800 revolutions per hour at full
load.

2.6 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

Transformer:
 A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding.
 This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in
the secondary winding.
 If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load.
 In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in
proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in
the secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary.
Instrument Transformer:
 In power systems, currents and voltages handled are very large and therefore direct
measurements are not possible as these currents and voltages are too large to withstand
by any meter of reasonable size and cost.
  Stepping down these voltages and currents with the help of transformers so that they
could be measured with instruments of moderate sizes.
 The transformers used in conjunction with measuring instruments for measurement
purposes are called instrument transformers.
 Measurement of current - Current Transformer (CT)
 Measurement of voltage – Voltage/Potential Transformer (PT)
 Widely used in protection circuits of power systems for the operation of over
current, under voltage, earth fault and various other types of relays.
 Instrument transformers isolate measurement, protection and control circuitry
from the high currents or voltages present on the circuits being measured or
controlled.
 A current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its
secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary coil.
 A voltage transformer is intended to present a negligible load to the supply being
measured. The low secondary voltage allows protective relay equipment and
measuring instruments to be operated at a lower voltages.
 Both current and voltage instrument transformers are designed to have
predictable characteristics on overloads.
Current Transformer
 Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic
core, and a secondary winding.
 The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic field in the core,
which then induces current flow in the secondary winding circuit.
 A primary objective of current transformer design is to ensure that the primary and
secondary circuits are efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate
relationship to the primary current.
Advantage of Instrument Transformer:
 Instrument readings do not depend on constants.
 Standard CT > Secondary current 5A
 Standard PT > Secondary Voltage 100-120V
 Cheap and moderate rating instruments are used to measure large currents and high
voltages.
 Reduction in cost due to standardization of ratings.
 Provides electrical isolation between the measuring circuit and power circuit.

CT and PT symbols:

Fig. 2.14 Symbol of CT and PT

Instrument transformers
Current transformers
Current transformers used in metering equipment for three-phase 400 ampere electricity
supply

Fig. 2.15 Current Transformer

A current transformer is a type of "instrument transformer" that is designed to provide
a current in its secondary which is accurately proportional to the current flowing in its primary.
This accuracy is directly related to a number of factors including the following:
 burden,
 rating factor,
 load,
 external electromagnetic fields,
 temperature and
 physical CT configuration.
The burden in a CT metering circuit is essentially the amount of impedance (largely resistive)
present. Typical burden ratings for CTs are B-0.1, B-0.2, B-0.5, B-1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This
means a CT with a burden rating of B-0.2 can tolerate up to 0.2Ω of impedance in the metering
circuit before its output current is no longer a fixed ratio to the primary current. Items that
contribute to the burden of a current measurement circuit are switch blocks meters and
intermediate conductors. The most common source of excess burden in a current measurement
circuit is the conductor between the meter and the CT. Oftentimes, substation meters are located
significant distances from the meter cabinets and the excessive length of small gauge conductor
creates a large resistance. This problem can be solved by using CT with 1 ampere secondaries
which will produce less voltage drop between a CT and its metering devices. Rating factor is a
factor by which the nominal full load current of a CT can be multiplied to determine its absolute
maximum measurable primary current. Conversely, the minimum primary current a CT can
accurately measure is "light load," or 10% of the nominal current(there are, however, special CTs
designed to measure accurately currents as small as 2% of the nominal current). The rating factor
of a CT is largely dependent upon ambient temperature. Most CTs have rating factors for 35
degrees Celsius and 55 degrees Celsius. A CT usually demonstrates reduced capacity to maintain
accuracy with rising ambient temperature. It is important to be mindful of ambient temperatures
and resultant rating factors when CTs are installed inside pad-mounted transformers or poorly
Vent ilated mechanical rooms. Recently, manufacturers have been moving towards lower
nominal primary currents with greater rating factors. This is made possible by the development
of more efficient ferrites and their corresponding hysteresis curves. This is a distinct advantage
over previous CTs because it increases their range of accuracy. For example, a 200:5 CT with a
rating factor of 4.0 is most accurate between 20A (light load) and 800A (4.0 times the nominal
rating, or "full load," of the CT) of primary current. While previous revisions of CTs were on the
order of 500:5 with a rating factor of 1.5 yielding an effective range of 50A to 750A. This is an
11% increase in effective range for two CTs that would be used at similar services. Not to
mention, the relative cost of a 500:5 CT is significantly greater than that of a 200:5. Physical CT
configuration is another important factor in reliable CT accuracy. While all electrical engineers
are quite comfortable with Gauss' Law, there are some issues when attempting to apply theory to
the real world. When conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval)
void, slight inaccuracies may occur. It is important to center primary conductors as they pass
through CTs to promote the greatest level of CT accuracy. Afterall, in an electric metering
circuit, the most inaccurate component is the CT.
Current transformers (CTs) are commonly used in metering and protective relaying in the
electrical power industry where they facilitate the safe measurement of large currents, often in
the presence of high voltages. The current transformer safely isolates measurement and control
circuitry from the high voltages typically present on the circuit being measured. Current
transformers are often constructed by passing a single primary turn (either an insulated cable or
an uninsulated bus bar) through a well-insulated toroidal core wrapped with many turns of wire.
Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the operation of
the power grid. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary.
Common secondaries are 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output
current of 5 amperes when the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can
be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs. Typically, the
secondary connection points are labelled as 1s1, 1s2, 2s1, 2s2 and so on. The multi ratio CTs are
typically used for current matching in current differential protective relaying applications. Often,
multiple CTs will be installed as a "stack" for various uses (for example, protection devices and
revenue metering may use separate CTs). For a three-stacked CT application, the secondary
winding connection points are typically labelled Xn, Yn, Zn. Care must be taken that the
secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from its load while current is flowing in
the primary, as this will produce a dangerously high voltage across the open secondary and may
permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.
Specially constructed wideband current transformers are also used (usually with
anoscilloscope) to measure waveforms of high frequency or pulsed currents within pulsed power
systems. One type of specially constructed wideband transformer provides a voltage output that
is proportional to the measured current. Another type (called a Rogowski coil) requires an
external integrator in order to provide a voltage output that is proportional to the measured
current. Unlike CTs used for power circuitry, wideband CTs are rated in output volts per ampere
of primary current.
Voltage transformers
Voltage transformers (VTs) or potential transformers (PTs) are another type of
instrument transformer, used for metering and protection in high-voltage circuits. They are
designed to present negligible load to the supply being measured and to have a precise voltage
ratio to accurately step down high voltages so that metering and protective relay equipment can
be operated at a lower potential. Typically the secondary of a voltage transformer is rated for 69
or 120 Volts at rated primary voltage, to match the input ratings of protection relays.
 The transformer winding high-voltage connection points are typically labelled as H1, H2
(sometimes H0 if it is internally grounded) and X1, X2, and sometimes an X3 tap may be
present. Sometimes a second isolated winding (Y1, Y2, Y3) may also be available on the same
voltage transformer. The high side (primary) may be connected phase to ground or phase to
phase. The low side (secondary) is usually phase to ground. The terminal identifications (H1, X1,
Y1, etc.) are often referred to as polarity. This applies to current transformers as well. At any
instant terminals with the same suffix numeral have the same polarity and phase. Correct
identification of terminals and wiring is essential for proper operation of metering and protection
relays. While VTs were formerly used for all voltages greater than 240V primary, modern meters
eliminate the need VTs for most secondary service voltages. For new, or rework, meter
packages, VTs are typically only installed in primary voltage (typically 12.5kV) or generation
voltage (13.2kV) meter packages.
Current Transformer Theory of Operation.
In the typical current transformer application, the primary winding consists of one to a
few turns of wire. The primary wire size is much larger than the secondary wire size. The
number of secondary winding turns is a selected multiple of the primary turns. Figure 1 gives a
circuit schematic of a current transformer application. The current transformer shown represents
an ideal transformer. The ideal transformer has infinite no-load input impedance, 100% magnetic
coupling between transformer windings ( hence no leakage inductance), zero winding resistance,
zero core losses, and no capacitance. ( Capacitance, leakage inductance, winding resistance, and
core losses are considered to be parasitic components. ) The output voltage is exactly
proportional to the primary voltage times the turns' ratio. There is no regulation drop. There are
no losses. Since there are no parasitic components the ideal current transformer is 100%
accurate. The conservation of energy requires that the output power equals the input power,
hence Vp x Ip must equal Vs x Is. Since Vs = Vp x Ns / Np, it can be shown that Is = Ip x Np /
Ns. Is = Vs / RL, hence Ip = Ns x Vs / ( RL x Np ). With an ideal current transformer there is no
phase shift (except 180 degrees depending on the choice of output connections ).
The ideal transformer’s secondary resistive load consumes power equal to Is x Is x RL.
His same amount of power must be consumed at the primary terminals. The secondary load RL
can be replaced (commonly referred to as “reflected” ) with a resistor across the primary
terminals, RLr. By applying the conservation of energy, one can show that RLr equals Np x Np x
RL / ( Ns x Ns ), OR RLr equals RL times the turns ratio squared ( where turns ratio = Np / Ns ).
If Np / Ns is small, then the RLr is very small. The primary voltage drop is Ip x RLr. A very
small value for RLr means that the current transformer presents a low insertion loss to the
primary current and a low primary voltage drop.
 The reflected load impedance acts in parallel to the transformers own input impedance.
The ideal current transformer has infinite input impedance. This infinite impedance would
correlate to an infinite inductance inserted in series into the path of the primary conductor.
Without the load (or burden) the current transformer acts like an inductor and would completely
block the primary current flow. Any constant value of alternating current would, in theory,
produce an infinite primary voltage drop. In reality the current transformer’s input inductance
(hence also impedance) cannot be infinity. The current transformer has an inductance value
which acts in parallel to the reflected load. The core has losses, which can be represented as a
resistor in parallel with the reflected load and the transformer’s self-inductance (no load
inductance). Without the load resistor the inductance and core loss will place an upper limit on
the primary voltage, but this voltage could still be substantial. Core saturation is also a
possibility. A turns ratio step-up would result in even higher secondary voltage. Any circuitry
beyond the secondary load resistor could be subjected to high voltage, possibly resulting in
circuit damage. Because of this potential high voltage, the load resistor should never be removed
from the secondary when the current transformer is being powered. Figure 2A shows an
equivalent circuit schematic for a current transformer with load RL. The ideal (induced)
secondary voltage is now denoted as Vsi and Vs now denotes the voltage at the secondary
terminals. Notice that the schematic contains the ideal current transformer and load as before
plus transformer mutual inductance Lm, secondary winding resistance Rs, core loss resistor Rc,
secondary leakage inductance Lks, and primary leakage inductance Lkp. Just like for the load
resistor, the other secondary circuit components can be reflected to the primary side of the
transformer. This is illustrated in Figure 2C. The parasitic components, Rs, Lkp, and Lks, all act
to lower the output voltage across RL, hencethe output voltage, Vout, will not equal the induced
secondary voltage Vsi. Rs and Lks act inseries with RL and are reflected to the primary side
along with Rs. Their presence presents added impedance to the primary current hence an
increase in primary voltage in proportion to the impedance. Consequently, RL still has the same
voltage drop and current flow as it did without Lks and Rs even though Vs does not equal Vout.
The phase shift associated with Lks will cause some slight deviation from the ideal current ratio
(which equals the turns ratio).
The current transformer’s self (no-load) inductance Lm and the core loss Rc shunt current
away from the reflected load and reflected parasitic components. Their impedances act in parallel
to the reflected impedances, consequently lowering the impedance seen by the primary current
and the resulting primary voltage. Less primary voltage means less output voltage and less
secondary current. Consequently Lm and Rc also cause deviation from the ideal current ratio. As
long as Rc, Lm, Lkp, Lks, and Rs are constant in value, The actual current ratio will be some
fixed ratio times the ideal (or desired) current ratio. One can compensate for the deviation from
the desired current ratio by appropriate choice of secondary turns. The number of turns will be a
little lower than that for the associated ideal turns ratio. For constant values accuracy could be
100% except for any turn resolution limitations (full turns versus fractional turns).
Accuracy concerns arise from non-constant values for Rc, Lm, and to a lesser degree
from Lkp and Lks. These values usually vary with core induction levels; hence they vary over
the range of primary current being measured. (Air core transformers are stable but magnetic
coupling is relatively poor hence relatively large leakage inductances.) Since Rc and Lm
impedances act in parallel to the reflected load, higher Rc and Lm values have a smaller effect
and consequently increase accuracy. Cores materials with high permeability and low core loss
are preferred for high accuracy applications. At higher frequencies winding capacitance becomes
a concern. Figure 3 gives an equivalent circuit schematic, which includes winding capacitance.
Leakage inductance and winding capacitance are actually distributed components, but are shown
as lumped approximate equivalent components. Like Lm, winding capacitances shunt current
around the reflected load.
The inductances and capacitances can interact and consequently may produce spurious
oscillations. It is also possible to develop “parallel resonance”. High frequency coil designs seek
to minimize winding capacitances. If you need assistance with your current transformer design,
please contact Butler Winding and ask for Engineering.
TWO MARKS
1. Name the different essential torques in indicating instruments.
Deflecting torque
Controlling torque
Damping torque
2. Name the types of instruments used for making voltmeter and ammeter.
PMMC type
Moving iron type
Dynamometer type
 Hot wire type
Electrostatic type
Induction type.
3. State the advantages of PMMC instruments.
Uniform scale,
No hysterisis loss,
Very accurate
High efficiency.
4. State the disadvantages of PMMC instruments.
Cannot be used for ac measurements
Some errors are caused by temperature variations.
5. State the applications of PMMC instruments
Measurement of dc voltage and current used in dc galvanometer.
6. How the range of instrument can be extended in PMMC instruments.
In ammeter by connecting a shunt resister
In voltmeter by connecting a series resister.
7. State the advantages of Dynamometer type instruments
Can be used for both dc and acmeasurements.
Free from hysterisis and eddy current errors.
8. State the advantages of Moving iron type instruments
Less expensive
Can be used for both dc and ac
Reasonably accurate.
9. State the advantages of Hot wire type instruments
Can be used for both dc and ac
Unaffected by stray magnetic fields
Readings are independent of frequency and waveform.
10. What are the constructional parts of dynamometer type wattmeter?
Fixed coil
Moving Coil
Current limiting resister
Helical spring
Spindle attached with pointer
Graduated scale
11. Write down the deflecting torque equation in dynamometer type wattmeter.
Td=VI CosΦ
12. State the disadvantages of Dynamometer type wattmeter.
 Readings may be affected by stray magnetic fields.
At low power factor it causes error.
13. Name the errors caused in Dynamometer type wattmeter.
Error due to pressure coil inductance
Error due to pressure coil capacitance
Error due to methods of connection
Error due to stray magnetic fields
Error due to eddy current.
14. How the errors caused by PC inductance is compensated.
By connecting a capacitor in parallel to the resister.
15. How the errors caused by methods of connection is compensated
By using compensating coil.
16. Name the methods used for power measurement in three phase circuits.
(i)Single wattmeter method
(ii) Two wattmeter method
(iii) Three wattmeter method.
17. What are the special features to be incorporated for LPF wattmeter?
Pressure coil circuit Compensation for Pressure coil current Compensation for Pressure
coil inductance.
18. Define Phantom loading.
Method by which energizing the pressure coil circuit and current coil circuits separately
is called phantom loading.
19. State the use of phantom loading.
Power loss is minimized.
20. Name the methods used in Wattmeter calibration.
By comparing with stanard wattmeter.
By using voltmeter ammeter method.
By using Potentiometer.
21. What are the types of energy meters?
Electrolytic meters
Motor meters.
Clock meters
22. Name the constructional parts of induction type energy meter.
Current coil with series magnet, Voltage coil with shunt magnet Aluminium disc,
Braking magnet and Registering mechanism.
23. How voltage coil is connected in induction type energy meter.
It is connected in parallel to supply and load.
 24. How current coil is connected in induction type energy meter.
It is connected in series to the load.
25. Why Al disc is used in induction type energy meter.
Aluminum is a nonmagnetic metal.
26. What is the purpose of registering mechanism.
It gives a valuable number proportional to the rotations.
27. What is the purpose of braking mechanism.
It provides necessary braking torque.
28. Define creeping.
Slow but continuous rotation of disc when PC is energized and CC is not energized.
29. State the reason why holes are provided in Al disc.
To avoid creeping holes are provided on both sides of Al disc.

REFERENCES

1. Sawhney A.K. “A course in Electrical and Electronics, Measurement and

Instrumentation”, Dhanpal Rai & Sons, New Delhi, 2001.
2. H.S.Kalsi, “Electronic Instrumentation”, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd, New
Delhi, 2011.