CHEMICAL

BONDING
 Pair Activty
Define Ionic bond.
Draw dot and cross diagram – NaCl
Define covalent bond.
Draw dot and cross diagram – Chlorine
Explain why solid ionic compounds doesn’t
conduct electricity?
Explain why MgO has a higher melting point
than NaCl?
 STRUCTURE AND BONDING
 The physical properties of a substance depend on its structure and type of bonding
present. Bonding determines the type of structure.

 Basic theory
• the noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) are in Group VIII
• they are all relatively, or totally, inert
• their electronic structure appears to confer stability
• they have just filled their ‘outer shell’ of electrons
• atoms without the electronic structure of a noble gas try to get one
• various ways are available
• the method depends on an element’s position in the periodic table
 STRUCTURE AND BONDING

 The physical properties of a substance depend on its structure and type of

bonding present. Bonding determines the type of structure.

TYPES OF BOND

 CHEMICAL BONDS ionic (or electrovalent)

 covalent
 dative covalent (or co-ordinate)
 metallic
 the electrostatic attraction between
IONIC BONDS oppositely charged ions (positively
charged cations and negatively charged
anions)
electrostatic attraction between the
COVALENT BONDS nuclei of two atoms and a shared pair
of electrons
the electrostatic attraction between
METALLIC BONDING positive metal ions and delocalised
electrons
A co-ordinate bond (or dative covalent
CO-ORDINATE COVALENT BOND bond) is formed when one atom
provides both the electrons needed for
a covalent bond.
 IONIC
BONDING
 THE IONIC BOND

Ionic bonds tend to be formed between elements whose atoms need to “lose” electrons to
gain the nearest noble gas electronic configuration and those which need to gain
electrons. The electrons are transferred from one atom to the other the resulting ions are
held together in a crystal lattice by electrostatic attraction.

Sodium Chloride

Na ——> Na+ + e¯ and Cl + e¯ ——> Cl¯

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3p6
or 2,8,1 2,8 2,8,7 2,8,8
 THE IONIC BOND

FORMATION OF MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE

e¯

Cl

ELECTRON
Mg
TRANSFER

Cl

e¯

Mg ——> Mg2+ + 2e¯ and 2Cl + 2e¯ ——> 2 Cl¯

 GIANT IONIC CRYSTAL LATTICE
Oppositely charged ions held in a regular
3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction
The arrangement of ions in a crystal lattice depends on the relative sizes of the ions

Cl-
Chloride ion

Na+
Sodium ion

The Na+ ion is small enough relative to a Cl¯ ion to fit in the
spaces so that both ions occur in every plane.
 GIANT IONIC CRYSTAL LATTICE
Oppositely charged ions held in a regular
3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction
The arrangement of ions in a crystal lattice depends on the relative sizes of the ions

Coordination Number
The coordination number is the number of ions
that immediately surround an ion of the opposite
charge within a crystal lattice.

Each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl¯ (co-ordination number = 6)

and each Cl¯ is surrounded by 6 Na+ (co-ordination number = 6).
 GIANT IONIC CRYSTAL LATTICE
Oppositely charged ions held in a regular
3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction
The arrangement of ions in a crystal lattice depends on the relative sizes of the ions

Each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl¯ (co-ordination number = 6)

and each Cl¯ is surrounded by 6 Na+ (co-ordination number = 6).
 Physical properties of ionic compounds
Melting point
very high A large amount of energy must be put in to overcome the
strong electrostatic attractions and separate the ions.

Strength
Very brittle Any dislocation leads to the layers moving and similar
ions being adjacent. The repulsion splits the crystal.

Electrical don’t conduct when solid - ions held strongly in the lattice
conduct when molten or in aqueous solution - the ions
become mobile and conduction takes place.

Solubility Insoluble in non-polar solvents but soluble in water

Water is a polar solvent and stabilises the separated ions.

Much energy is needed to overcome the electrostatic attraction and separate

the ions stability attained by being surrounded by polar water molecules
compensates for this
 IONIC BONDING

BRITTLE IONIC LATTICES

- + - + - + - +

+ - + - - + - +

IF YOU MOVE A LAYER OF IONS, YOU GET IONS OF THE SAME

CHARGE NEXT TO EACH OTHER. THE LAYERS REPEL EACH
OTHER AND THE CRYSTAL BREAKS UP.
 IONIC COMPOUNDS - ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

SOLID IONIC Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ IONS ARE HELD STRONGLY TOGETHER
COMPOUNDS DO
Cl- Na+ Cl- + IONS CAN’T MOVE TO THE CATHODE
NOT CONDUCT Na+

ELECTRICITY - IONS CAN’T MOVE TO THE ANODE

Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+

MOLTEN IONIC IONS HAVE MORE FREEDOM IN A

COMPOUNDS DO Na+ Cl- LIQUID SO CAN MOVE TO THE
CONDUCT ELECTRODES

ELECTRICITY Na+
Cl-
Na+
SOLUTIONS OF IONIC Cl- DISSOLVING AN IONIC COMPOUND
COMPOUNDS IN Na+ IN WATER BREAKS UP THE
WATER DO CONDUCT STRUCTURE SO IONS ARE FREE TO
Cl- MOVE TO THE ELECTRODES
ELECTRICITY
 COVALENT BONDING
 Definition: electrostatic attraction between the nuclei of two
atoms and a shared pair of electrons

 atoms are held together because their nuclei which have

an overall positive charge are attracted to the shared
electrons.
 COVALENT BONDING
Activity
+ +

Formation: Examples:

between atoms of the same element

between atoms of different elements

on the RHS of the table;

when one of the elements is in the

middle of the table;

with head-of-the-group elements

with high ionisation energies;
 COVALENT BONDING

Formation:

+ +
between atoms of the same element N2, O2, diamond,
graphite

between atoms of different elements CO2, SO2

on the RHS of the table;

when one of the elements is in the CCl4, SiCl4

middle of the table;

with head-of-the-group elements BeCl2

with high ionisation energies;
Covalent bonds - molecules
 SIMPLE COVALENT MOLECULES – Properties
Bonding Atoms are joined together within the molecule by covalent bonds.

Electrical Don’t conduct electricity as they have no mobile ions or electrons

Solubility Tend to be more soluble in organic solvents than in water

Boiling point Low - intermolecular forces are weak;

e.g. CH4 -161°C C2H6 - 88°C C3H8 -42°C

 DOT AND CROSS DIAGRAM:
WATER
Each hydrogen
atom needs H
one electron to
complete its O
outer shell
H

H O Oxygen atom needs 2 electrons

to complete its outer shell

H
Lewis Structure: Oxygen can
H O only share 2 of its 6 electrons
otherwise it will exceed the
maximum of 8
H 2 LONE PAIRS REMAIN
 Types of covalent bond

Single
Double
Triple
 TERMS- COVALENT BONDING

Bonding electrons: Electrons involved in bond

formation.
Non-bonding electrons or lone pairs: Pair of
valence electrons not involved in bonding.
 Formation of Covalent Bonds

In forming chemical bonds, atoms tend to

achieve the stable noble gas electronic
Octet Rule configuration with 8 electrons in the
and its valence shell (except helium which has 2
Limitations electrons in the valence shell) by gaining,
losing or sharing of electrons.
 COVALENT BONDING

• atoms share electrons to get the nearest noble gas electronic

configuration

• some don’t achieve an “octet” as they haven’t got enough electrons

eg B in BF3, Al in AlCl3
Formation of Covalent Bonds

1. Boron Trifluoride (BF3)

not fullfilling
octet (electron
deficient)
B: small atomic size,
high I.E.’s required to
become a cation.

Why doesn’t B form ionic compounds with F?

 COVALENT BONDING

• atoms share electrons to get the nearest noble gas electronic

configuration

• some don’t achieve an “octet” as they haven’t got enough electrons

eg Al in AlCl3

Draw dot and cross diagram for AlCl3

 COVALENT BONDING

• atoms share electrons to get the nearest noble gas electronic

configuration

• some don’t achieve an “octet” as they haven’t got enough electrons

eg Al in AlCl3

• others share only some - if they share all they will exceed their “octet”
eg NH3 and H2O
 AMMONIA

H N H
Each hydrogen
atom needs
one electron to H
complete its
outer shell
Nitrogen can only share 3 of its
5 electrons otherwise it will
H N H exceed the maximum of 8
A LONE PAIR REMAINS
H

Nitrogen atom needs 3 electrons

to complete its outer shell
 COVALENT BONDING

• atoms share electrons to get the nearest noble gas electronic

configuration

• some don’t achieve an “octet” as they haven’t got enough electrons

eg Al in AlCl3

• others share only some - if they share all they will exceed their “octet”
eg NH3 and H2O

• atoms of elements in the 3rd period onwards can exceed their “octet” if
they wish as they are not restricted to eight electrons in their “outer
shell”
eg PCl5 and SF6
Formation of Covalent Bonds
2. Phosphorus Pentachloride (PCl5)
Coordinate Bonds /Dative Covalent
Bonds
A coordinate bond (also called a dative
covalent bond) is a covalent bond (a shared
pair of electrons) in which both electrons
come from the same atom.
A coordinate covalent bond is usually shown
with an arrow.
 DATIVE COVALENT (CO-ORDINATE) BONDING

A dative covalent bond differs from covalent bond only in its formation
Both electrons of the shared pair are provided by one species (donor) and it
shares the electrons with the acceptor

Donor species will have lone pairs in their outer shells

Acceptor species will be short of their “octet” or maximum.

Ammonium ion, NH4+

The lone pair on N is used to share
with the hydrogen ion which needs
two electrons to fill its outer shell.

The N now has a +ive charge as

- it is now sharing rather than
owning two electrons.
Learning objectives:

Coordinate covalent bonds – AlCl3

VSEPR – theory
Predicting shapes of molecules
 Coordinate Bonds /Dative Covalent
Bonds
Conditions:
1. An atom should have a lone pair of electrons
2. An atom in need of a pair of electrons

Donor: the atom that donates the pair of electrons

Acceptor: the atom that accepts the pair of
electrons (electron deficient)
Dative Covalent Bonds

B. Ammonium Ion (NH4+)

Dative Covalent Bonds

A. NH3BF3 molecule
8.2 Dative Covalent Bonds (SB p.219 – 220)

D. Aluminium Chloride Dimer (Al2Cl6)

Al: relative small atomic

size; high I.E.’s required
to become a cation of +3
charge.

AlCl3
Dative Covalent Bonds

D. Aluminium Chloride Dimer (Al2Cl6)

(a dimer of
AlCl3)
Learning objectives:

VSEPR – theory
Predicting shapes of molecules
 Valence-shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)
Theory

 A method to predict the shapes of molecules from their

electronic structures (Lewis structures do not depict shape)
 Basic principle: each group of valence electrons around
a central atom is located as far away as possible from the
others in order to minimize repulsions.
 Both bonding and non-bonding valence electrons
around the central atom are considered

• VSEPR (pronounced “vesper”) stands for Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
 ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY

MOLECULAR SHAPE /GEOMETRY

“The Shape Adopted By A Simple Molecule Or Ion Is That Which Keeps
Repulsive Forces To A Minimum”
Bonds are closer
Molecules contain covalent bonds. together so repulsive
As covalent bonds consist of a pair forces are greater
of electrons, each bond will repel Al
other bonds. Bonds are further
apart so repulsive
forces are less

Bonds will therefore push each other All bonds are

as far apart as possible to reduce the equally spaced
repulsive forces. out as far apart
Al as possible
Because the repulsions are equal,
the bonds will also be equally spaced
 ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY

“THE SHAPE ADOPTED BY A SIMPLE MOLECULE OR ION IS

THAT WHICH KEEPS REPULSIVE FORCES TO A MINIMUM”

All bonds are equally spaced

out as far apart as possible to
give minimum repulsive forces
O

Because of the equal repulsive forces between bond pairs, most simple
molecules, (ones with a central atom and others bonded to it), have
standard shapes with equal bond angles.
 REGULAR SHAPES

Molecules, or ions, possessing ONLY BOND PAIRS of

electrons fit into a set of standard shapes. All the bond
pair-bond pair repulsions are equal. C
All you need to do is to count up the number of bond
pairs and chose one of the following examples...
A covalent bond will repel
another covalent bond
Electron-group repulsions and the five basic molecular shapes

Ideal bond angles are shown for each shape.

 ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY

“THE SHAPE ADOPTED BY A SIMPLE MOLECULE OR ION IS

THAT WHICH KEEPS REPULSIVE FORCES TO A MINIMUM”

All bonds are equally spaced

out as far apart as possible to
give minimum repulsive forces
O

Because of the equal repulsive forces between bond pairs, most simple
molecules, (ones with a central atom and others bonded to it), have
standard shapes with equal bond angles.
However, the presence of lone pairs on the central atom affects the angle
between the bonds and thus affects the shape.

MOLECULES WITHOUT LONE PAIRS MOLECULES WITH LONE PAIRS

 The steps in determining a molecular
shape
Molecular Step 1
formula

Lewis Step 2 Count all e- groups around

structure the central atom A

Note lone pairs

Electron- Step 3
and
group
arrangement double bonds
Bond Step 4 Count bonding
angles and non-bonding
e- groups
Molecular separately.
shape
 IRREGULAR SHAPES

If a molecule, or ion, has lone pairs on the central atom, the shapes are slightly
distorted away from the regular shapes. This is because of the extra repulsion
caused by the lone pairs.

BOND PAIR - BOND PAIR < LONE PAIR - BOND PAIR < LONE PAIR - LONE PAIR

O O O

As a result of the extra repulsion, bond angles tend to

be slightly less as the bonds are squeezed together.
Valence-shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)
Theory
 AMMONIA

H
BOND PAIRS 3
N H H N H LONE PAIRS 1
TOTAL PAIRS 4

• Nitrogen has five electrons in its outer shell

• It cannot pair up all five - it is restricted to eight electrons in its outer shell
• It pairs up only three of its five electrons
• 3 covalent bonds are formed and a pair of non-bonded electrons is left
• As the total number of electron pairs is 4, the shape is BASED on a tetrahedron
 AMMONIA

H
BOND PAIRS 3
N H H N H LONE PAIRS 1
TOTAL PAIRS 4

• The shape is based on a tetrahedron but not all the repulsions are the same
• LP-BP REPULSIONS > BP-BP REPULSIONS
• The N-H bonds are pushed closer together
• Lone pairs are not included in the shape

N
H
107°
H
N N H
H H

H H ANGLE... 107°
H H
SHAPE... PYRAMIDAL
 AMMONIA

H
BOND PAIRS 3
N H H N H LONE PAIRS 1
TOTAL PAIRS 4
 WATER

H
BOND PAIRS 2
O H H O LONE PAIRS 2
TOTAL PAIRS 4

• Oxygen has six electrons in its outer shell

• It cannot pair up all six - it is restricted to eight electrons in its outer shell
• It pairs up only two of its six electrons
• 2 covalent bonds are formed and 2 pairs of non-bonded electrons are left
• As the total number of electron pairs is 4, the shape is BASED on a tetrahedron
 WATER

H
BOND PAIRS 2
O H H O LONE PAIRS 2
TOTAL PAIRS 4

• The shape is based on a tetrahedron but not all the repulsions are the same
• LP-LP REPULSIONS > LP-BP REPULSIONS > BP-BP REPULSIONS
• The O-H bonds are pushed even closer together
• Lone pairs are not included in the shape

104.5°
H
O O H

H H ANGLE... 104.5°
H H
SHAPE... ANGULAR
 XENON TETRAFLUORIDE

F F BOND PAIRS 4

F Xe LONE PAIRS 2
Xe
TOTAL PAIRS 6
F F

• Xenon has eight electrons in its outer shell

• It pairs up four of its eight electrons
• 4 covalent bonds are formed and 2 pairs of non-bonded electrons are left
• As the total number of electron pairs is 6, the shape is BASED on an octahedron
 XENON TETRAFLUORIDE

F F BOND PAIRS 4

F Xe LONE PAIRS 2
Xe
TOTAL PAIRS 6
F F

• As the total number of electron pairs is 6, the shape is BASED on an octahedron

• There are two possible spatial arrangements for the lone pairs
• The preferred shape has the two lone pairs opposite each other

F
F
Xe
F
F F
Xe F
F F ANGLE... 90°

SHAPE... SQUARE PLANAR

Learning objectives:
Shapes of ions

Multiple bonds: sigma and pi bonds

 The steps in determining a molecular
shape
Molecular Step 1
formula

Lewis Step 2 Count all e- groups around

structure the central atom A

Note lone pairs

Electron- Step 3
and
group
arrangement double bonds
Bond Step 4 Count bonding
angles and non-bonding
e- groups
Molecular separately.
shape
 MOLECULES WITH DOUBLE BONDS

The shape of a compound with a double bond is calculated in the same way.
A double bond repels other bonds as if it was single e.g. carbon dioxide

C O O C O

Carbon - needs four electrons to complete its shell The atoms share two electrons
Oxygen - needs two electron to complete its shell each to form two double bonds
 MOLECULES WITH DOUBLE BONDS

The shape of a compound with a double bond is calculated in the same way.
A double bond repels other bonds as if it was single e.g. carbon dioxide

C O O C O

Carbon - needs four electrons to complete its shell The atoms share two electrons
Oxygen - needs two electron to complete its shell each to form two double bonds

DOUBLE BOND PAIRS 2 180°

LONE PAIRS 0 O C O
Double bonds behave exactly as single BOND ANGLE... 180°
bonds for repulsion purposes so the
shape will be the same as a molecule with SHAPE... LINEAR
two single bonds and no lone pairs.
 CALCULATING THE SHAPE OF IONS

The shape of a complex ion is calculated in the same way a molecule by...
• calculating the number of electrons in the outer shell of the central species *
• pairing up electrons, making sure the outer shell maximum is not exceeded
• calculating the number of bond pairs and lone pairs
• using ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY to calculate shape and bond angle(s)

* the number of electrons in the outer shell depends on the charge on the ion
* if the ion is positive you remove as many electrons as there are positive charges
* if the ion is negative you add as many electrons as there are negative charges

e..g. for PF6- add one electron to the outer shell of P

for PCl4+ remove one electron from the outer shell of P
 EXAMPLE SHAPES OF IONS

Draw outer shell electrons of central atom N

 EXAMPLE SHAPES OF IONS

Draw outer shell electrons of central atom N

NH4+ NH2-
For every positive charge on the ion,
remove an electron from the outer shell...
N+ N
For every negative charge add an electron
to the outer shell...
for NH4+ remove 1 electron
for NH2-add 1 electron
 EXAMPLE SHAPES OF IONS

Draw outer shell electrons of central atom N

NH4+ NH2-
For every positive charge on the ion,
remove an electron from the outer shell
N+ N
For every negative charge add an electron
to the outer shell..
for NH4+ remove 1 electron
H H
for NH2-add 1 electron
H N+ H H N

H
Pair up electrons in the usual way
 EXAMPLE SHAPES OF IONS

Draw outer shell electrons of central atom N

NH4+ NH2-
For every positive charge on the ion,
remove an electron from the outer shell
N+ N
For every negative charge add an electron
to the outer shell..
for NH4+ remove 1 electron
H H
for NH2-add 1 electron
H N+ H H N

H
Pair up electrons in the usual way
BOND PAIRS 4 BOND PAIRS 2
Work out shape and bond angle(s) from LONE PAIRS 0 LONE PAIRS 2
number of bond pairs and lone pairs. TETRADHEDRAL ANGULAR
H-N-H 109.5° H-N-H 104.5°
 REVIEW SHAPES OF IONS

BOND PAIRS 3 PYRAMIDAL

NH3 N H N
LONE PAIRS 1 H-N-H 107°

NH4+ N+ H N+ H
BOND PAIRS 4 TETRAHEDRAL
LONE PAIRS 0 H-N-H 109.5°

NH2-
BOND PAIRS 2 ANGULAR
N N
H
LONE PAIRS 2 H-N-H 104.5°
 OTHER EXAMPLES

SO42- O O

O S O- S
O-
O
O- O-

BrF3 BrF5
 OTHER EXAMPLES

SO42- O O
BOND PAIRS 4
LONE PAIRS 0
O S O- TETRAHEDRAL S
O-
ANGLE 109.5°
O
O- O-

BrF3 F F
BOND PAIRS 3
LONE PAIRS 2
F Br ’T’ SHAPED F Br
ANGLE <90°

F F

BrF5
BOND PAIRS 5
F F Br
LONE PAIRS 1 F
Br F
‘UMBRELLA’ F
F F F
ANGLES 90° <90° F
F
Past Paper Practice