LIC QUESTIONS

1. Design a second-order high-pass Butterworth filter for cut-off

frequency of 1kHz.
Sketch its frequency response.
Choose the values of Capacitors = 0.01μF.

2. With the help of a neat diagram explain the working of R-C Phase
shift oscillator using op-amp. Derive the expression for its frequency
of oscillation.
i. A phase shift oscillator consists of an op-amp as the amplifying
stage and three RC cascaded networks as the feedback circuit.
ii. The feedback circuit provides feedback voltage from the output
back to the input of the amplifier.
iii. The op-amp is used in the inverting mode; therefore, any signal
that appears at the inverting terminal is shifted by 180° at the
output.
iv. An additional 180° phase shift required for oscillation is provided
by the cascaded RC networks.
v. Thus, the total phase shift around the loop is 360°.
vi. At some specific frequency when the phase shift of the cascaded
RC networks is exactly 180° and the gain of the amplifier is
sufficiently large, the circuit will oscillate at the frequency. This
frequency is called the frequency of oscillation, 𝑓 and is given by,
.
𝑓 = =
√
vii. At this frequency, the gain AV must be at least 29. That is,
𝑅
= 29
𝑅
RF = 29R1
viii. Thus, the circuit will produce a sinusoidal waveform of frequency
𝑓 if the gain is 29 and the total phase shift around the circuit is
exactly 360°.
ix. For a desired frequency of oscillation, choose a capacitor C, and
then calculate the value of R.
x. A desired output amplitude, however, can be obtained with back-
to-back Zener’s connected at the output terminal.
3. With the help of neat circuit diagram, input and output waveforms,
and voltage transfer characteristics explain the working of a non-
inverting Schmitt trigger. **
i. In non-inverting Schmitt Trigger, the input signal is applied at the
non-inverting terminal of Op-Amp.
ii. Positive feedback is applied from output to the input.
iii. The inverting terminal of Op-Amp is connected to the ground
terminal.

iv. In this circuit, the output of the Schmitt trigger will be high when
voltage V is greater than zero. And output will be low when
voltage V is less than zero.
V > 0, VOUT = VH
V < 0, VOUT = VL

v. Find the equation of voltage V.

For that, we apply KCL at the node.
+ =0
- + - =0

𝑅 +𝑅 𝑣 +𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑣 =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

V= Vin + Vout

vi. Assume that the output of Op-Amp is low. Hence, the output
voltage of the Schmitt trigger is VL. And voltage V is equal to V1.
In this condition,
VOUT = VL and V = V1
From the above condition,
 V1 = Vin + VL

vii. When the voltage V1 is greater than zero, the output will be high.
Vin > VL

Vin > VL

viii. When the above condition is satisfied, the output will be high.
⸫ This equation gives the value of the upper threshold voltage
(VUT)
VUT = VL

ix. Assume that the output of the Schmitt trigger is High. And the
voltage V is equal to V2.
VOUT = VH & V = V2
From the equation of v,
V2 = Vin + VH

x. The output of the Schmitt trigger will become low when the
voltage V2 is less than zero.

Vin + VH

Vin < VH
The above equation gives the value of the lower threshold voltage
(VLT)
VLT = VH
4. With the help of functional block diagram explain the working of
PLL IC 565.

The PLL IC 565 consists of several key components:

i. Phase Detector (PD)
This component compares the phase of two signals: the input
signal (Vin) and the feedback signal (Vfb). It produces an error
signal (Ve) proportional to the phase difference between Vin and
Vfb.

ii. Low-Pass Filter (LPF)

The error signal from the phase detector is filtered by a low-pass
filter to remove high-frequency noise and fluctuations, producing a
smooth control voltage (Vc).

iii. Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)

The VCO generates an output signal (VOUT) whose frequency is
determined by the control voltage (Vc) applied to it. The higher the
control voltage, the higher the output frequency, and vice versa.
iv. Divider (N)
The components divide the frequency of the output signal (Vout)
by a fixed integer value (N), producing a divided output signal
(Vdiv).

v. Phase Comparator (PC)

The phase comparator compares the phase of the divided output
signal (Vdiv) and the reference signal (Fref). It produces a control
voltage (Vc) based on the phase difference between the two
signals.
How the PLL IC565 works:
i. Initially, the loop is unlocked, and there’s no feedback to the phase
detector.
ii. When an input signal (Vin) is applied, the phase detector compares
it with the feedback signal (Vfb), generating an error signal (Ve)
proportional to the phase difference.
iii. The error signal is filtered by the low-pass filter to produce a
smooth control voltage (Vc).
iv. The control voltage is then applied to the VCO, causing it to
generate an output signal (Vout) whose frequency is adjusted to
minimize the phase difference between Vin and Vfb.
v. The output signal (Vout) is divided by the divider (N) and
compared with the reference signal (Fref) by the phase comparator.
vi. The phase comparator adjusts the control voltage (Vc) based on the
phase difference between the divided output signal (Vdiv) and the
reference signal (Fref), closing the loop and maintaining lock
between Vin and Vfb.
vii. The loop continues to adjust the output frequency of the VCO until
Vin and Vfb are in phase lock, maintaining a constant phase
relationship between them.
 5. Design an astable multivibrator using IC 555 frequency 1kHz & duty
cycle 50%. Assume C = 0.1μF. **

6. Draw a neat circuit of an instrumentation Amplifier using 3-Op-

Amps & Derive its output equation. **

It can be seen that the output state is a standard basic difference amplifier. So if
the output of the op-amp A1 is Vo1 and the output of the op-amp A2 is Vo2, we
can write,

Let us find out the expression for Vo2 and Vo1 in terms of V1, V2, Rf1 Rf2, and
RG.
The node A potential of op-amp A1 is V1. From the realistic assumption, the
potential of node B is also V1. And hence potential of G is also V1.

The node D potential of op-amp A2 is V2. From the realistic assumption, the
potential of node C is also V2. And hence potential of H is also V2.

The input current of op-amp A1 and A2 both are zero. Hence current I remain
same through Rf1, RG , and Rf2.

Applying Ohm’s law between the nodes E and F we get,

Let

Now from the Observation of nodes G and H,

Equating the two equations (5) and (6),

Substituting the Vo2 – Vo1, in the equation,

This is the overall gain of the circuit.

7. With the help of a neat circuit diagram and waveforms at relevant
points in the circuit, explain the working of a square and triangular
waveform generator. Derive the frequency of oscillation of the
generator. ***
A waveform generator is an electronic circuit, which generates a standard
wave. There are two types of Op-Amp-based waveform generators –
a. Square Wave Generator
b. Triangular Wave Generator
a. Square Wave Generator:
i. A square wave generator is an electronic circuit that generates
square wave.

ii. In the above circuit diagram, the resistor R1 is connected

between the inverting input terminal of the op-amp and its
output.
iii. So, the resistor R1 is used in the negative feedback. Similarly,
the resistor R2 is connected between the non-inverting input
terminal of the op-amp and its output. So, the resistor R2 is used
in the positive feedback path.
iv. A capacitor C is connected between the inverting input terminal
of the op-amp and ground.
So, the voltage across capacitor C will be the input voltage at
this inverting terminal of op-amp.
v. Similarly, a resistor R3 is connected between the non-inverting
input terminal of the op-amp and ground. So, the voltage across
resistor R3 will be the input voltage at this non-inverting
terminal of the op-amp.
vi. The above circuit diagram will produce a square wave as
output:
 vii. From the above fig. we observe that the output of square wave
generator will have one of the two values: +Vsat & -Vsat.
viii. So, the output remains at one value for some duration and then
transitions to another value and remains there for some
duration.

a. Triangular Wave Generator:

i. A triangular wave generator is an electric circuit, which
generates a triangular wave.
Block diagram of a triangular wave generator:

ii. The block diagram of triangular wave generator contains mainly

two blocks: a square wave generator and an integrator.
iii. These two blocks are cascaded. That means the output of square
wave generator is applied as an input of integrator.
Note that the integration of a square wave is nothing but a
triangular wave.
.0
 iv. We have already seen the circuit diagrams of a square wave
generator and an integrator.
v. We got the above circuit diagram of an op-amp-based triangular
wave generator by replacing the blocks with the respective
circuit diagrams in the block diagram of triangular wave.

8. Design a circuit using op-amp to perform Vo = 2V2 – 3V1, where V1

and V2 are inputs.

9. Design a voltage regulator using IC 723 to deliver an output voltage

of 15 V and load current up to 1.5 A.

10. List the Ideal characteristics of Operational amplifier and give the
practical values of Op-Amp IC 741.
Ideal characteristics of an operational amplifier (op-amp):
i. Infinite Open-Loop Gain:
An ideal op-amp has infinite open-loop gain, providing high gain
regardless of frequency.

ii. Infinite Input Impedance:

An ideal op-amp presents infinite input impedance, ensuring that it
draws no current from the input source.

iii. Zero Input Impedance:

It has zero output impedance, meaning it can drive any load
without affecting its output voltage.
iv. Infinite Bandwidth:
Ideal op-amps have infinite bandwidth, allowing them to amplify
signals of a frequency without distortion.

v. Zero Offset Voltage:

Ideal op-amps exhibit zero offset voltage, ensuring that the output
is zero when the input is zero.

vi. Infinite Common-Mode Rejection Ratio:

Ideal op-amps reject common-mode signals completely, amplifying
only the differential input.
The IC741 op-amp, a widely used device, doesn’t meet these ideal
characteristics but comes close.
Practical values for the IC741:
i. Open-Loop Gain: Around 1,00,000 (10dB)
ii. Input Impedance: Around 2 Megaohms.
iii. Output Impedance: Few tens to hundreds of ohms.
iv. Bandwidth: Typically ranges from a few Hz to a few MHz.
v. Offset Voltage: In the range of a few millivolts.
vi. Bias Current: In the range of tens of nanoamps.
vii. Common Mode Rejection Ratio: Typically, around 90dB.
11.Draw a neat circuit diagram for voltage to current converter with
grounded load. Derive its output current expression.
i. An electronic circuit that produces a current that is directly
proportional to the applied voltage is known as a voltage-to-current
converter.
ii. The voltage-to-current converters are used in instrumentation
circuits.
iii. Where the voltage-to-current converter produces a current
corresponding to the input voltage. Therefore, it can convert
electrical data from voltage to current form.
iv. Block diagram of V to I converter:

Transfer Ratio of V to I converter:

Transfer ratio,
( )
A=
( )

Circuit Diagram of V to I converter:

i. A voltage-to-current converter can be implemented using an
operational amplifier.
ii. In practice, IC LM741 operational amplifier is often useful for this
purpose.
iii. The operational amplifier can convert a voltage signal into a
corresponding current signal.
Types of V to I converter:
1. Floating Load V to I:
The type of voltage-to-current converter in which the load resistor
remains floating in the converter circuit is known as a floating load V
to I.
Here the ‘Floating Load’ means the load resistor is not connected to
the ground.

Output Current is
I0 =
The output current depends on the input voltage and input resistance
of circuit.
I0 α Vin
2. Ground Load V to I:
In the ground load, one end of the load resistor RL is always connected
to the ground.
The ground load voltage to current converter is also known as
Howland Current converter.

Output Load current is,

I0 =
 12.Differentiate between Inverting and Non-Inverting Comparator.

Inverting Comparator Non-Inverting Comparator

The input signal is applied to the The input signal is applied to the non-
inverting terminal of op-amp. inverting terminal of op-amp.
The reference voltage is applied to the The reference voltage is applied to the
non-inverting terminal of op-amp. inverting terminal of op-amp.
Output voltage is high for Vin less Output voltage is high for Vin higher
than Vref than Vref.
Transfer Characteristics: Transfer Characteristics:

13.Explain the functional block diagram of Timer IC555.

The 555 timer IC (Integrated Circuit) is one of the most versatile and
widely used ICs in electronics.
i. Voltage Divider
 The 555 timer IC requires a stable voltage reference for its
operation.
 Typically, it’s powered by a DC voltage source, and the
voltage divider network inside the DC divides this voltage to
provide a reference level for internal comparators.

ii. Comparator 1 (Trigger Comparator)

 Comparator 1 compares the voltage at the Trigger input (Pin
2) with a fraction of the supply voltage.
 When the voltage at the Trigger input falls below of the
supply voltage, Comparator 1 triggers the flip-flop, starting
the timing cycle.

iii. Comparator 2 (Threshold Comparator)

 Comparator 2 compares the voltage at the threshold input
(Pin 6) with a fraction of the supply voltage.
 When the voltage at the Threshold input rises above of the
supply voltage, Comparator 2 resets the flip flop, ending the
timing cycle.

iv. Flip-Flop (Bistable Multivibrator)

The flip flop, also known as S-R flip flop, is the core component of
the 555 timers. It toggles its output state (Q) based on the inputs
received from the comparators.

v. Control Voltage (Voltage Control Input)

This pin (pin 5) allows an external voltage to override the internal
voltage divider network.
By applying an external voltage to this pin, the timing intervals of
the 555 timers can be adjustable.

vi. Discharge Transistor

The discharge transistor is an open-collector NPN transistor used to
Discharge the timing capacitor (connected to pin 7) when the flip
flop is reset.
 vii. Output (OUT) and Reset (RESET) pins
 Output (OUT-pin 3)
This is the output pin of the 555 timers.
It switches between high and low states based on the state of
the flip-flop.
 Reset (RESET-PIN4)
This pin is used to reset the internal flip-flop when it’s often
left unconnected (floating) for most applications.

14.With the help of a functional block diagram explain the working of a

three-terminal fixed voltage regulator.
i. The function of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant DC
voltage at the output irrespective of voltage fluctuations at the
input and variations in the load current.
ii. Voltage regulators are also available in Integrated Circuits (IC)
forms. These are called as Voltage Regulator ICs.
Types of Voltage Regulators:
a. Fixed Voltage Regulators
b. Adjustable Voltage Regulators

a. Fixed Voltage Regulators:

i. It produces a fixed DC output voltage, which is either positive
or negative. In other words, some fixed voltage regulators
produce positive fixed DC voltage values, while others produce
negative fixed voltage values.
ii. 78XX voltage regulators ICs produce positive fixed DC voltage
values, whereas 79XX voltage regulators ICs produce negative
fixed DC voltage values.
The following points are to be noted while working with 78XX and
79XX
Voltage regulator ICs –
a. “XX” corresponds to a two-digit number & represents the amount of
voltage that voltage regulator IC produces.
b. Both 78XX and 79XX voltage regulator ICs have 3 pins each; the
third pin is used for collecting their output.
c. The purpose of the first and second pins of these two types of ICs is
different –
 The first and second pins of 78XX voltage regulator ICs are
used for connecting the input and ground respectively.
 The first and second pins of 79XX voltage regulators ICs are
used for connecting the ground and input respectively.

Examples:
i. 7805 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of + 5V.
ii. 7905 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of – 5V.
The following fig. shows how to produce a fixed positive voltage at
the output by using a fixed positive voltage regulator with necessary
connections.

In the above figure that shows a fixed positive voltage regulator, the
input capacitor Ci is used to prevent unwanted oscillations, and the
output capacitor, C0 acts as a line filter to improve transient response.
b. Adjustable Voltage Regulators
i. An adjustable voltage regulator produces a DC output voltage,
which can be adjusted to any other value of certain voltage
range. Hence, adjustable voltage regulator is also called a
variable voltage regulator.
ii. An adjustable voltage regulator's DC output voltage value can
be either positive or negative.
 LM317 voltage regulator IC
i. LM317 voltage regulator IC can used for producing a desired
positive fixed DC voltage value of the available voltage range.
ii. LM317 voltage regulator IC has 3 pins. The first pin is used for
adjusting the output voltage, second pin is used for collecting
the output and third pin is used for connecting the input.
iii. The adjustable pin (terminal) is provided with a variable resistor
which lets the output to vary between a wide range.

The above fig. shows a regulated power supply driving a LM317

voltage regulator IC, which is commonly used. This IC can supply a
low current of 1.5A over an adjustable output range of 1.25V to 37V.

15.Draw the block diagram of Voltage Controlled Oscillator and explain

its working.
i. VCO (Voltage Controlled Device) that produces such an oscillating
output signal whose frequency can be regulated or altered by the
input DC voltage.
ii. In other words, VCO generates an output signal having an
adjustable frequency range that is controlled by the DC input
voltage. It is a type of oscillator in which the output frequency
obtained is the function of the input signal.
iii. Usually, the frequency of an oscillator is measured by RC time
constant. However, there exist some applications where the
frequency is to be controlled by the input voltage.
iv. The output signal generated by VCO can typically be a square and
triangular wave.
Working of VCO using Op-Amp

i. A square wave is generated at the output of the above circuit whose

frequency is controlled by the input voltage.
ii. The Op-Amp at the beginning of the circuit works as an integrator.
As the control voltage is applied, at the input terminal of the op-
amp, due to the voltage divider arrangement only half of the
control voltage is applied at the positive terminal. The voltage at
the negative terminal is at the same level to maintain a voltage drop
across R1.
iii. The current from resistor R1 flows through MOSFET. The input
voltage charges the capacitor. Thus, providing steadily rising
output voltage.
iv. Now, when MOSFET is turned OFF, the current through R1
discharges the capacitor C1. Thus, we will have a falling output
voltage. So, we will have a triangular waveform at the output of
op-amp 1.
v. Here, op-amp 2 works a Schmitt trigger. The output of op-amp 1
serves as the input of op-amp 2. At the output of op-amp 2, a
square wave is obtained.
 Applications of VCO:
i. These are used in function generators.
ii. VCO is the elemental building block of phase-locked loops.
iii. In frequency shift keying techniques.
iv. In frequency modulation.
v. These are used in tone generators.
VCOs are the most commonly used electronic oscillator. But in the
category of VCO, a broad range of operating frequencies is provided by a
relaxation oscillator.

16.What are the limitations of an Ideal differentiator using op-amp?

Draw the circuit diagram of a practical differentiator and explain
how it overcomes the limitations. ***
Limitations of an Ideal Differentiator:
i. Capacitor more current from input source.
ii. Thus, at high frequency input source gets loaded by capacitor C.
iii. Therefore, noise signals at higher frequencies get amplified and
appear at output.
iv. The increase in gain due to high frequencies will make the circuit
unstable.
v. So, to avoid the mis-amplifications of the signal the ideal
differentiator is modified and referred to as practical differentiator.
Circuit Diagram of Practical Differentiator:
 i. To overcome these limitations, a practical differentiator
incorporates a resistor-capacitor (RC) network in parallel with the
feedback resistor.
ii. This RC network introduces a pole that limits the amplifier’s
bandwidth, reducing noise amplification and preventing the output
from reaching infinite values.
iii. Additionally, it helps stabilize the circuit by reducing the gain at
high frequencies, thus minimizing noise and distortion.

17.Design a voltage regulator using 723 to deliver an output voltage of

15 V and load current up to 50mA.

18.Draw the functional block diagram of IC565 and explain its

applications as FSK demodulator.

The IC565, a phase-locked loop (PLL) integrated circuit, serves as an

effective FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) demodulator due to its ability to
track and demodulate frequency variations in the input signal.
 Applications of IC565 as FSK Demodulator:
i. Frequency Tracking:
 The IC565 voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) generates an output
signal whose frequency is determined by the control voltage
applied to it.
 In FSK demodulation, the VCOs frequency tracks the variations in
the input signal frequency, corresponding to the transmitted binary
data.

ii. Phase Comparison:

 The input signal containing the FSK modulated data, is fed into the
phase detector along with the output of the VCO.
 The phase detector compares the phase of the input signal with the
VCO output.
 If the input signal frequency is higher, the VCO frequency
increases, and if the input signal frequency is lower, the VCO
frequency decreases.

iii. Filtering and Control:

 To ensure accurate demodulation and minimize noise, the output of
the phase detector typically passes through a low-pass filter (LPF).
 Additionally, the IC565 may include a voltage-controlled filter
(VCF) to provide control over the PLL loop’s bandwidth and center
frequency, further enhancing its performance in demodulation FSK
signals.

19.Draw a neat circuit diagram of an inverting summing amplifier using

op-amp to obtain the expression for its output voltages as Vo = -(V1 +
V2 + V3), where V1, V2, and V3 are input voltages. ***

20.With the help of a neat diagram explain the working of Wein bridge
oscillator using op-amp. Derive the expression for its frequency of
oscillation. What are the values of R&C if its frequency of oscillation
is 5kHz?
21.What is Pulse Width Modulation? With the help of a neat circuit
diagram and waveforms at trigger input, control voltage pin, across
the timing capacitor and at the output, explain the working of IC555
as Pulse Width Modulator.
i. In the PWM technique, the voltage that must be supplied to a DC
Motor or an LED is supplied in the form fast switching pulses
rather than a continuous analog signal. The “Duty Cycle” and the
“Frequency” of the PWM Signal determine the output voltage.
ii. The Duty Cycle of a PWM Signal describes the amount of time the
pulse stays HIGH in one cycle. It is usually represented as
percentage.
iii. If THIGH is the duration for which the pulse is HIGH in one cycle
and TLOW is the duration for which the pulse is LOW, then the
period of the pulse is

T = THIGH + TLOW

Duty Cycle = (THIGH / T) * 100

iv. Frequency of the PWM Signal describes the rate at which the
signal completes one cycle.

v. The above image shows different PWM Signals and different Duty
Cycles along with the output voltage.
vi. Generating a PWM Signal using 555 Timer IC is very easy. But
before seeing how 555 Timer PWM signal is generated.
Working of 555 Timer PWM Generation
i. Before understanding the working of 555 Timer PWM Generation
Circuit, if you want to calculate the Duty Cycle and Frequency of the
PWM Signal based on the chosen components, you can use the
formulas as mentioned above.
ii. Now proceeding with working, the capacitor charges through R1, D2
and right side of R2 and discharges through left side of R2 and D1. So,
as we slide the potentiometer’s wiper, we are controlling the charging
and discharging times of the capacitor.
iii. Since the charging and discharging of capacitor is directly associated
with the ON and OFF duration of the output pulse, we can easily vary
the duty cycle of the PWM Signal.
22.List characteristics of an ideal and practical operational amplifier.
The Ideal Characteristics of Operational Amplifier:
i. High Input Impedance (Zin)
ii. Low Output Impedance (Zout)
iii. Infinite Open-Loop Gain (AOL)
iv. Zero Common Mode Voltage (Vcm)
v. Zero Offset Voltage (Vos)
vi. Infinite Bandwidth
vii. Infinite Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
Practical Values for the Op-Amp IC741:
i. Input Impedance (Zin)
Typically, around 2 megaohms.
ii. Output Impedance (Zout)
Typically, around 75 ohms.
iii. Open-Loop Voltage Gain (AOL)
Typically, around 10,00,000
iv. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
Typically, around 90dB
v. Offset Voltage (VoS)
Typically, around 1-5mV
vi. Bandwidth
Typically, around 1MHz
vii. Slew Rate
Typically, around 0.5V/μs
viii. Input Common Mode Range (CMR)
Around 12V or -12V
 23.How are Precision Rectifiers different from simple diode rectifiers?
Explain Half-Wave Precision Rectifiers.
Precision rectifiers, also known as super diodes, are circuits that use
operational amplifiers (op-amps) along with diodes to rectify signals with
high precision, even at very low voltage levels. They are designed to
overcome the limitations of simple diode rectifiers, especially the voltage
drops and nonlinearity issues associated with standard diodes.

Differences Between Precision Rectifiers and Simple Diode Rectifiers

Parameters Simple Diode Rectifiers Precision Rectifiers

Voltage Drop Standard diodes have a forward By incorporating an op-amp,
voltage drop (typically around precision rectifiers effectively
0.7V for silicon diodes and 0.3V eliminate the forward voltage
for Schottky diodes). This drop of the diode. The op-amp
voltage drop can be significant components for this drop, allow
when dealing with small rectification of very small
signals, causing inaccurate signals accurately.
rectification at low voltage
levels.
Linearity The output is non-linear due to The op-amp ensures that the
the diode’s I-V characteristics. output is linear, closely
This non-linearity can distort following the input signal
the signal, especially near the without distortion caused by the
threshold voltage. diode’s non-linearity.
Sensitivity They struggle with rectifying They can rectify signals of any
signals close to the diode’s small amplitude, making them
threshold voltage. suitable for applications
requiring high precision and
sensitivity.

Half-Wave Precision Rectifiers

A half-wave precision rectifier typically consists of an op-amp, a diode,
and a feedback resistor.
1. Circuit Configuration:
 Op-Amp:
The input signal is fed to the non-inverting input of the op-amp.
The inverting input is connected to the output through a diode.
 Diode:
A diode is placed between the op-amp output and the inverting
input, oriented to conduct when the op-amp output is positive.
 Feedback resistor:
Ba resistor is connected between the inverting input and the
output, ensuring feedback.

2. Operation:
 Positive Half-Cycle:
When the input signal is positive, the op-amp output swings
positive to forward bias the diode. This allows current to flow
through the diode, and the output follows the input signal with
negligible voltage drop.

 Negative Half-Cycle:
When the input signal is negative, the op-amp output swings
negative, reverse biasing the diode. This prevents current from
flowing through the diode, and the output remains at zero
(Ground level), effectively blocking the negative part of the
input signal.
3. Result:
The output of the half-wave precision rectifier is a rectified signal that
mirrors the positive half of the input signal with high accuracy, even
for signals as small as millivolts, without the 0.7V drop typical of
standard diode rectifiers.
24.Write a note on Pulse Width Modulator using IC555. **
Refer Q.21

25.Explain working of switching regulator. **

Switching regulators are power converters that efficiently manage the
voltage and current supplied to electronic circuits by using a combination
of inductors, capacitors, and switching elements. They are more efficient
than linear regulators because they do not dissipate excess power as heat
but instead use a switching element to transfer energy in discrete packets.

Components of Switching Regulator:

1. Switching Element:
Typically, a transistor (e.g., MOSFET) rapidly switches on and off.
2. Inductor:
Stores energy when current flows through it and releases energy when
the current flow is interrupted.
3. Capacitor:
Smooth out the voltage by storing and releasing energy.
4. Diode:
Allows current to flow in one direction and prevents reverse current
flow.
5. Controller IC:
Regulates the switching activity to maintain a stable output voltage.
Basic types of Switching Regulators:
1. Buck Converter (Step Down):
Converts a higher input voltage to a lower output voltage.
2. Boost Converter (Step-Up):
Converts a lower input voltage to a higher output voltage.
3. Buck-Boost Converter:
Can increase or decrease the input voltage to maintain a specific
output voltage.
4. Inverting Converter:
Produces a negative output voltage from a positive input voltage.

Working principle:
1. Buck Converter (Step-Down):
Operation Phases:
i. On Phase:
 The switch is turned on by the controller.
 Current flows through the inductor, storing energy in its
magnetic field.
 The inductor current ramps up linearly, and the voltage across
the load increases.
 The diode is reverse-biased and blocks the current.
ii. Off Phase:
 The switch is turned off.
 The inductor’s magnetic field collapses, and it releases its stored
energy.
 Current continues to flow through the load via the diode, which
becomes forward-biased.
 The inductor current ramps down linearly, but the output
capacitor smooths the voltage to maintain a stable output.

Duty Cycle:
 The controller adjusts the duty cycle (the ratio of the on-time to
the total cycle time) to regulate the output voltage.
 For a buck converter, the output voltage (Vout) is approximately
given by: Vout = Vin x D where Vin is the input voltage and D is
the duty cycle.
Feedback and Control:
 A feedback loop monitors the output voltage and adjusts the
switching duty cycle to maintain the desired output voltage.
 The controller compares the output voltage with a reference
voltage and generates a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) signal
to control the switch.
 This feedback mechanism ensures that variations in input
voltage or load conditions do not affect the output voltage.

Applications:
 Power supplies for computers, mobile devices, and other
electronic gadgets.
 Battery-operated devices where efficient power management is
crucial.
 Industrial and automotive applications requiring stable power
supplies.
Advantages:
 High efficiency and low heat generation.
 Ability to step up, step down, or invert the input voltage.
 Compact size due to smaller heat sinks and power components.

Disadvantages:
 More complex design compared to linear regulators.
 Potential for electromagnetic interference (EMI) due to high-
frequency switching.
 Requires careful filtering and layout considerations to minimize
noise.
 26.With a diagram explain how IC566 can be used as a voltage-
controlled oscillator.
The IC566, also known as the 566 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO),
can be configured to generate a waveform whose frequency is determined
by an input control voltage. Below is a step-by-step explanation along
with a diagram to illustrate the connections and components required.

Explanation

1. Power Supply: Connect the Vcc pin to the positive supply voltage and
the ground pin to the negative supply voltage or ground.
2. Resistor R1 and Capacitor C1: These components form the timing
network that determines the basic frequency range of the oscillator.
3. Resistor R2: This sets the current that charges and discharges the
capacitor C1, influencing the frequency.
4. Control Voltage (Vcontrol): The control voltage applied to the control
input of the 566 VCO modulates the frequency of the output waveform.
This voltage can be varied to control the oscillation frequency.
5. Output: The IC provides a square wave output, whose frequency is
controlled by the input voltage.

Operation

 The IC566 VCO generates a frequency that is a function of the control

voltage applied. The basic frequency is set by the values of R1, R2, and
C1.
 When the control voltage (Vcontrol) increases, the frequency of the output
waveform increases, and when the control voltage decreases, the
frequency decreases.
 Capacitor C2 ensures that the control voltage is smoothed out and stable.
Frequency Calculation

The frequency of the VCO can be approximately calculated using the formula:

where VCC is the supply voltage, Vcontrol is the control voltage, R1R1 is the
timing resistor, and C1C1 is the timing capacitor.

By adjusting R1R1, R2R2, and C1C1, and applying different control voltages,
the output frequency can be tuned over a wide range, making the IC566 a
versatile component in voltage-controlled oscillator applications.

27.Design a practical integrator using op-amp to integrate an input

signal where lowest desired frequency of Integration is 1kHz.

28.With the help of a circuit diagram, input and output waveforms and
voltage transfer characteristics explain the working of an inverting
Schmitt trigger. Derive the expressions for the Upper & Lower
threshold levels. Explain how these levels can be varied. **
An inverting Schmitt trigger is a comparator circuit with hysteresis
implemented using an operational amplifier (op-amp) or a dedicated
Schmitt trigger IC. It converts an analog input signal into a digital output
signal with well-defined threshold levels. Ensuring noise immunity and
clean switching.
Circuit Diagram:
Input and Output Waveforms:
Input waveform (Vin):
A continuous, noisy analog signal or a slow-rising signal.
Output waveform (Vout):
A clean digital signal (square wave) with well-defined transitions.

Transfer Characteristics of the circuit:

 Voltage Transfer Characteristics:
The voltage transfer characteristics of an inverting Schmitt trigger shown
how the output voltage changes with the input voltage. The key features
are the hysteresis, with two distinct threshold levels:
The upper threshold (Vut) and the lower threshold (Vlt).

Derivation of Threshold Levels

Upper Threshold (Vut):
When the output switches from low to high, the inverting input voltage
must exceed the upper threshold.
 Let Vut be the upper threshold voltage.
 The feedback voltage at the non-inverting input Vref when Vout =
0V is given by:
𝑅2
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅2
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = . 0 = 0𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Lower threshold (Vlt):

When the output switches from high to low, the inverting input voltage
must fall below the lower threshold.
 Let Vlt be the lower threshold voltage.
 The feedback voltage at the non-inverting input Vref when Vout =
Vcc is given by:
𝑅1
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅2
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = . 𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Expression for Upper and Lower Thresholds
Using superposition, the upper threshold Vut and lower threshold Vlt can
be derived as:
𝑅1
𝑉𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅2
𝑉𝑙𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
 Varying the Threshold Levels
The threshold levels can be adjusted by changing the vales of R1 and R2:
 Increase R1: Lowers both Vut and Vlt reducing the hysteresis width.
 Increase R2: Raises both Vut and Vlt increasing the hysteresis width.
By selecting appropriate resistor values, you can tailor the hysteresis
width to fit the specific requirements of your application. This ensures that the
Schmitt trigger responds only to significant changes in the input signal,
effectively filtering out noise and providing a stable digital output.

29.Explain monostable multivibrator using IC555 with a neat circuit

diagram and relevant waveforms. Calculate the value of timing
resistor R for pulse width of 11 ms. Assume C = 0.1μF.

30.Design an op-amp circuit to obtain Vo = 2V1 = 5V2 where, V1 & V2,

are input voltages. **

31.Design an adjustable output voltage regulator using IC317 to give 7

to 10 volts at IL = 1 Ampere. Given IADJ = 100μA. Choose R1 = 240 Ω.

32.With the help of a diagram explain the working of RC phase shift

oscillator using op-amp. Derive the expression for its frequency of
oscillation. What are the values of R & C of the frequency-
determining network if its frequency of oscillation is 1kHz?

33.Write a short note on:

A. Closed loop Inverting Amplifier using Op-amp **
i. An Operational amplifier can have either a closed-loop or an
open-loop operation.
ii. The operation (Closed-loop or open-loop) is determined by
whether or not feedback is used.
iii. In the closed-loop configuration, the output signal is applied
back to one of the input terminals. This feedback is always
negative.
iv. Closed-loop circuits can be of the inverting configuration or
non-inverting configuration. Since the inverting configuration is
used more often than the non-inverting configuration.
 a. Inverting Amplifier Configuration

The figure above shows an operational amplifier in a closed-loop, inverting

amplifier configuration.
i. Resistor R2 is used to feed part of the output signal back to the
input of the operational amplifier.
ii. At this point it is important to keep in mind the difference
between the entire circuit (or operational circuit) and the
operational amplifier.
iii. The operational amplifier is represented by the triangle-like
symbol while the operational circuit includes the resistors and
any other components as well as the operational amplifier.
iv. In other words, the input to the circuit is shown in the figure
above, but the signal at the inverting input of the operational
amplifier is determined by the feedback signal as well as by the
circuit input signal.
v. The output signal is 180 degrees out of phase with the input
signal. The feedback signal is a portion of the output signal and,
therefore, also 180 degrees out of phase with the input signal.
vi. Whenever the input signal goes positive, the output signal and
the feedback signal go negative. The result of this is that the
inverting input to the operational amplifier is always very close
to 0 volts with this configuration.
−𝑅2
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅1

b. Non-Inverting Amplifier Configuration

The figure above shows a noninverting configuration using an operational
amplifier.
i. The input signal (Vin) is applied directly to the noninverting (+)
input of the operational amplifier. Feedback is provided by
coupling part of the output signal (Vout) back to the inverting (-)
input of the operational amplifier.
ii. R1 and R2 act as voltage divider that allows only a part of the
output signal to be applied as feedback (Vfdbk).
iii. The input signal, output signal, and feedback signal are all in
phase. (Only the positive alternation of the signal is shown.)
iv. It may appear as if the feedback is regenerative (positive)
because the feedback and input signals are in phase.
v. The feedback is, in reality, degenerative (negative) because the
input signal is applied to the non-inverting input and the
feedback signal is applied to the inverting input.
vi. Just as in the inverting configuration, the feedback signal is
equal to the input signal (for all practical purposes). This time,
however, the feedback signal is in phase with the input signal.

𝑅2
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = + 1
𝑅1
B. Voltage to Current Converter **
Refer Q.11

C. Window detector
A window detector is an electronic circuit that determines if an input
voltage lies within a specific range, known as the “window”. This
circuit typically uses two comparators to define the upper and lower
bounds of the window.
Components and Operation:
 Comparators:
Two comparators are used. The first comparator (U1) is set with
a reference voltage (Vref) for the lower threshold, and the second
comparator (U2) is set with a reference voltage (Vref2) for the
upper threshold.

 Reference Voltages:
Vref1 and Vref2 are set using a voltage divider or external
reference sources. Vref1 < Vref2
 Input Voltage (Vin):
The voltage being monitored.

Functioning:
 If Vin is below Vref, the output of U1 is low.
 If Vin is above Vref2, the output of U2 is low.
 When Vin is between Vref1 and Vref2, the outputs of both
comparators are high, indicating that Vin is within the window.

Applications:
 Signal monitoring to ensure voltages stay within safe operating
ranges.
 Detection of signal presence or absence in communication
systems.
 Industrial control systems for threshold detection.

D. Peak Detector
A peak detector captures the highest value (peak) of an input signal
and holds this value until it is reset or a higher peak is detected.

Components and Operation:

  Diode
Allows current to flow in one direction, charging the capacitor
to the peak input voltage.

 Capacitor:
Stores the peak voltage.

 Operational Amplifier:
Used to buffer the signal, reducing loading effects on the
capacitor and improving performance.

Functioning:
 When the input signal rises, the diode conducts and changes the
capacitor to the peak voltage.
 The capacitor holds the peak voltage as the diode prevents it
from discharging.
 The operational amplifier buffers the output, providing a stable
peak voltage.
Applications:
 Audio signal processing for detecting amplitude peaks.
 RF signal measurements.
 Peak hold meters in instrumentation.

E. Astable Multivibrator using IC555

An astable multivibrator using the IC555 timer continuously oscillates
between high and low states, generating a square wave output without
the need for an external trigger.

Circuit Configuration:
 Resistors (R1 and R2):
Set the charging and discharging times of the capacitor.

 Capacitor (C):
Charges and discharges to create the timing intervals.

 IC555:
Configured in astable mode.
 Functioning:
 The capacitor charges through R1 and R2, causing the voltage
across it to increase.
 When the voltage reaches 2/3 of the supply voltage (Vcc), the
internal flip-flop of the IC555 resets, and the output goes low.
 The capacitor discharges through R2 until the voltage drops to
1/3 of Vcc, the flop-flop sets, and the output goes high.
 This cycle repeats, creating a continuous square wave.

Applications:
 Clock pulse generation for digital circuits.
 Flashing LED lights
 Tone generation in audio circuits.
F. Monostable Multivibrator using IC555
A monostable multivibrator using the IC555 timer produces a single
output pulse of a specified duration in response to an external trigger.
Circuit Configuration:
 Resistor (R):
Sets the timing along with the capacitor.

 Capacitor (C):
Determines the pulse width.

 Trigger Input:
An external signal that initiates the pulse.

Functioning:
 When a trigger pulse is applied, the voltage on the trigger pin
(pin 2) drops below 1/3 of Vcc, causing the output to go high.
 The capacitor begins charging through the resistors.
 The output remains high until the capacitor voltage reaches 2/3
of Vcc, at which point the output goes low.

Applications:
 Timer circuits for generating precise time delays.
 Pulse width modulation.
 Debouncing switches in digital circuits.
G. Three terminal adjustable voltage regulators
Refer Q.14

H. IC 566 Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

Refer Q.15

I. IC723 as a High Voltage Low Current regulator

The IC723 is a versatile voltage regulator that can be configured to
provide high voltage regulation with low current capability.
Features and Configuration:
 Wide Input Voltage Range:
Operates from 3V to 40V.

 Adjustable Output:
Output voltage can be set between 2V and 37V using external
resistors.

 Current Limiting:
Built-in current limiting protects the circuit from overcurrent
conditions.

 Thermal Shutdown:
Protects the IC from overheating.

Functioning:
 The IC contains an internal reference voltage, an error
amplifier, a series pass transistor, and a current limiter.
 External resistors set the desired output voltage.
 The error amplifier compares the reference voltage with a
fraction of the output voltage and adjusts the pass transistor to
maintain the set output voltage.
 Current limiting is achieved by sensing the current through an
internal or external resistor and reducing the output if the
current exceeds a set limit.
 Applications:
 Power supplies for laboratory equipment.
 High voltage regulators for instrumentation.
 Precision voltage reference sources.

J. IC565 Phase Locked Loop (PLL) **

Refer Q.18

34.Explain the block diagram of general-purpose op-amp.

A general-purpose operational amplifier (op-amp) is a versatile, high-gain
electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs and usually a single-
ended output. To understand its functionality.
Block diagram of a General-Purpose Op-Amp:

Since an op-amp is a multistage amplifier, it can be represented by a block

diagram as shown above.
Input Stage:
It is the dual-input, balanced o/p diff. amplifier. This stage generally provides
most of the voltage gain of the amplifier & also establishes the i/p resistance of
the op-amp.
Intermediate Stage:
It is usually another diff. amplifier which is driven by the output of the
intermediate stage is dual input, unbalanced (single-ended) output. Because
direct coupling is used, the DC o/p voltage at the o/p of intermediate stage is
well above ground potential.
Level Shifting:
The level shifter & translator are used to shift the DC level at the o/p of the
intermediate stage downward to zero volts to ground.
Output Stage:
This stage increases the o/p voltage swing & raises the current-supplying
capability of the op-amp.
It is usually a complimentary symmetry push-pull amplifier. A well-designed
o/p stage provides low o/p resistance.

Schematic Symbol:

Above fig., shows the most widely used such symbols for a circuit with two
inputs and one output.
Since the input differential amplifier stage of the Op-Amp is designed to be
operated in the differential mode, the differential inputs are designated by the
(+) & (-) notations.
The (+) input is the non-inverting input.
An AC signal (or DC voltage) to this input produces an in-phase (or same
polarity) signal at the output.
On the other hand, the (-) input in the inverting input because an AC signal (or
DC voltage).
Key Characteristics of an Op-Amp:
 High Gain:
Op-Amps typically have very high open-loop gain, often exceeding
1,00,000 or more.
 High Input Impedance:
Ensures minimal loading of the input signal source.
 High CMRR:
Effectively rejects common-mode signals and noise.
 Wide Bandwidth:
Allows amplification of a wide range of frequencies.
 Low Offset:
Minimal difference between the actual output and the expected output
when the inputs are zero.

35.With the help of a neat circuit diagram, input/output waveforms, and

transfer characteristics, explain the working of zero crossing
detector.
A zero-crossing detector is a type of comparator circuit that changes its
output state whenever the input signal crosses zero volts. This circuit is
commonly used in signal processing, phase-locked loops, and in
generating clock signals synchronized with the input signal.

Circuit Diagram:

Input/Output Waveforms:
The input waveform Vin is typically a sinusoidal signal that varies above
and below zero volts. The output waveform Vout is a square wave that
changes state at each zero crossing of the input signal.
 Transfer Characteristics
The transfer characteristics of a zero-crossing detector show the output
switching from high to low or low to high precisely when the input
crosses zero volts.
Working Principle
1. Input Signal:
The input signal Vin is fed to the inverting input of the op-amp through
resistor R1.
2. Reference Voltage:
The non-inverting input of the op-amp is connected to ground (0V),
setting the reference voltage to zero.
3. Comparison:
 When Vin is positive and greater than zero, the inverting input is at higher
potential than the non-inverting input. The output V out is driven to the
negative saturation voltage (-Vsat).
 When Vin is negative and less than zero, the inverting input is at lower
potential than the non-inverting input. The output V out is driven to the
positive saturation voltage (+Vsat).
4. Output Switching:
The output Vout switches state whenever Vin crosses zero volts,
producing a sharp transition in the output waveform.
Detailed explanation of Operation
1. Positive Input Voltage:
 As long as Vin is positive and above zero, the output Vout is in
the low state (-Vsat).
 This corresponds to the portion of the input waveform above the
zero crossing.
2. Negative Input Voltage:
 As Vin goes below zero, the output Vout switches to the high
state (+Vsat).
 This corresponds to the portion of the input waveform below
the zero crossing.
3. Zero Crossing:
At the exact point where Vin crosses zro, the op-amp rapidly switches
the output state from high to low or low to high.

Applications:
1. Phase Locked Loops (PLLs):
Zero-crossing detectors are used to synchronize a local oscillator with
the phase of an input signal.
2. Frequency Measurement:
They help in measuring the frequency of an AC signal by detecting
zero-crossings.
3. Waveform Generation:
Generating square waves from sinusoidal inputs.
4. Control Systems:
Detecting phase changes and generating triggers in control systems.
Adjustable Thresholds:
In practical applications, noise and slight offsets may cause false zero
crossings. To mitigate this, a small hysteresis can be added by introducing
positive feedback to the op-amp. This creates two distinct threshold levels
slightly above and below zero, improving noise immunity and stability .
 36.Design an astable multivibrator using IC 555 frequency 5kHz & duty
cycle 60%.

37.Design a voltage regulator using 723 to deliver an output voltage of

20 V and load current up to 500mA.

38.With the help of a diagram explain the working of RC phase shift

oscillator using op-amp. Derive the expression for its frequency of
oscillation. What are the values of R & C of the frequency-
determining network if its frequency of oscillation is 5kHz?

39.What is a precision rectifier? Write the advantages of precision

rectifier over normal diode rectifier. Explain full wave precision
rectifier with the help of diagram and relevant waveforms.
A precision rectifier, also known as a super diode, is a configuration that
allows for the rectification of signals with very low voltage levels. Unlike
standard diode rectifiers, which have a forward voltage drop (typically
around 0.7V for silicon diodes), precision rectifiers use operational
amplifiers (op-amps) to eliminate this voltage drop, making them ideal
for accurate signal processing applications.

Advantages of Precision Rectifiers over Normal Diode Rectifiers:

1. Zero Forward Voltage Drop:
Precision rectifiers eliminate the forward voltage drop of diodes
allowing for the rectification of very small signals.
2. High Accuracy:
They provide high accuracy and are capable of rectifying signals with
amplitudes less than the forward voltage drop of conventional diodes.
3. Improved Linearity:
Precision rectifiers have better linearity and can handle very low
signal levels without distortion.
4. Higher Frequency Response:
They can operate effectively at higher frequencies than conventional
diode rectifiers.
Full-Wave Precision Rectifier
A full-wave rectifier combines two precision half-wave rectifiers to
rectify both the positive and negative halves of the input signal.
Circuit Diagram:

Working principle:
Positive Half-Cycle:
 During the positive half-cycle of the input signal, D1 conducts, and
the op-amp A1 ensures that the voltage across D1 is zero by
providing the necessary feedback.
 The output of the first op-amp A1 follows the input voltage
directly.
 This positive voltage is then fed to the second stage where D3
conducts, allowing the output of the op-amp A2 to rectify the
positive half-cycle.
Negative Half-Cycle:
 During the negative half-cycle, D2 conducts. And the op-amp A1
again ensures zero voltage across D2.
 The output of A1 inverts the negative half-cycle, making it positive
at the output.
 This positive voltage is then processed by the second stage where
D4 conducts, and the op-amp A2 rectifies the inverted negative
half-cycle to make the overall output positive.
 Input and Output Waveforms:

Explanation of Output Waveform:

 Both positive and negative halves of the input waveform are
converted to positive outputs, effectively doubling the frequency of
the output signal compared to the input.
 The rectified output is smooth and continuous without the typical
0.7V drop seen in standard diode rectifiers.

Advantages of Full-Wave Precision Rectifier

 Accurate Rectification:
Handles low-voltage signals accurately.
 No Forward Voltage Drop:
No loss of signal due to diode forward voltage.
 High Linearity:
Preserves the integrity of the input signal.
 Improved Signal Quality:
Minimizes distortion and noise.
Applications:
1. Signal Processing:
In audio and RF signal processing where accurate rectification of low-
level signals is required.
2. Measurement Systems:
In precision AC voltmeters and other instrumentation.
3. Phase Detectors:
In phase-locked loops and other control systems.
4. Data Acquisition:
Where small signal rectification is necessary for accurate data
representation.