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 "Bureau du Roi," the masterpiece of Riesener 183
apter VIII.—French Furniture. Louis XVI.
Jewel Cabinet, "J. H. Riesener," Mounts by Gouthière 193
Commode, by Riesener 197
apter IX.—French Furniture. The First Empire Style.
Portrait of Madame Récamier, after David 203
Detail of Tripod Table found at Pompeii 205
Servante, French, late Eighteenth Century 206
Jewel Cabinet of the Empress Marie Louise 207
Armchair, rosewood, showing Empire influence 210
apter X.—Chippendale and his Style.
Table made by Chippendale 213
Oliver Goldsmith's Chair 215
Chippendale Settee, walnut, about 1740 217
" " oak, about 1740 219
Chippendale Chair-back, ribbon pattern 222
Ribbon-backed Chippendale Chair, formerly at Blenheim 223
Chippendale Corner Chair, about 1780 224
Gothic Chippendale Chair-back 225
Mahogany Chippendale Chair, about 1740 226
" " " about 1770 227
Chippendale Mirror 229
Chippendale Bureau Bookcase 231
Mahogany Chair, Chippendale Style 232
Cottage Chairs, beechwood, Chippendale style 233
Interior of Room of about 1782, after Stothard 235
apter XI.—Sheraton, Adam, and Heppelwhite Styles.
Heppelwhite Settee, mahogany 241
Sheraton, Adam, and Heppelwhite Chairs 243
Old English Secrétaire 250
Shield-back Chair, late Eighteenth Century 251
apter XII.—Hints to Collectors.
Design for Spurious Marquetry Work 259
"Made-up" Buffet 261
Cabinet of Old Oak, "made-up" 267
Design for Spurious Marquetry Work 273
Piece of Spanish Chestnut, showing ravages of worms 274
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL.

ient Furniture, Specimens of. H. Shaw. Quaritch. 1836. £10 10s., now
worth £3 3s.
ient and Modern Furniture. B. J. Talbert. Batsford. 1876. 32s.
que Furniture, Sketches of. W. S. Ogden. Batsford. 1889. 12s. 6d.
ved Furniture and Woodwork. M. Marshall. W. H. Allen. 1888. £3.
ved Oak in Woodwork and Furniture from Ancient Houses. W. B.
Sanders. 1883. 31s. 6d.
orative Furniture, English and French, of the Sixteenth, Seventeenth
and Eighteenth Centuries. W. H. Hackett. 7s. 6d.
esiastical Woodwork, Remains of. T. T. Bury. Lockwood. 1847. 21s.
nch and English Furniture. E. Singleton. Hodder. 1904.
niture, Ancient and Modern. J. W. Small. Batsford. 1883. 21s.
niture and Decoration. J. A. Heaton. 1890-92.
niture and Woodwork, Ancient and Modern. J. H. Pollen. Chapman.
1874-5. 21s. and 2s. 6d.
niture and Woodwork. J. H. Pollen. Stanford. 1876. 3s. 6d.
niture of the Olden Time. F. C. Morse. Macmillan. 12s. 6d.
hic Furniture, Connoisseur. May, 1903.
tory of Furniture Illustrated. F. Litchfield. Truslove. 25s.
quetry, Parquetry, Boulle and other Inlay Work. W. Bemrose. 1872
and 1882.
Furniture, English and Foreign. A. E. Chancellor. Batsford. £1 5s.
Furniture from Twelfth to Eighteenth Century. Wyman. 1883. 10s. 6d.
e in Furniture and Woodwork. R. Brook. Privately printed. 1889. 21s.

PARTICULAR.

GLISH.—Adam R. & J., The Architecture, Decoration and Furniture of

R. & J. Adam, selected from works published 1778-1822. London.
1880.
m, The Brothers. Connoisseur. May, June and August, 1904.
ient Wood and Iron Work in Cambridge. W. B. Redfern. Spalding.
1887. 31s. 6d.
ppendale, T. Cabinet Makers' Directory. Published in 1754, 1755 and
1762. (The best edition is the last as it contains 200 plates as
against 161 in the earlier editions. Its value is about £12.)
ppendale and His Work. Connoisseur, January, July, August,
September, October, November, December, 1903, January, 1904.
ppendale, Sheraton and Heppelwhite, The Designs of. Arranged by J.
M. Bell. 1900. Worth £2 2s.
ppendale's Contemporaries. Connoisseur, March, 1904.
ppendale and Sheraton. Connoisseur, May, 1902.
fers and Cupboards, Ancient. Fred Roe. Methuen & Co. 1903. £3 3s.
 lish Furniture, History of. Percy Macquoid. Published by Lawrence &
Bullen in 7s. 6d. parts, the first of which appeared in November,
1904.
lish Furniture and Woodwork during the Eighteenth Century. T. A.
Strange. 12s. 6d.
niture of our Forefathers. E. Singleton. Batsford. £3 15s.
field House, History of. Q. F. Robinson. 1883.
dwicke Hall, History of. Q. F. Robinson. 1835.
ppelwhite, A., Cabinet Maker. Published 1788, 1789, and 1794, and
contains about 130 plates. Value £8 to £12. Reprint issued in 1897.
Worth £2 10s.
e and Mayhew. Household Furniture. N.d. (1770). Worth £20.
obean Furniture. Connoisseur, September, 1902.
le House, Its State Rooms, &c. (Elizabethan and other Furniture.) S.
J. Mackie. 1858.
nwaring, R., Cabinet and Chairmaker's Real Friend. London. 1765.
nsions of England in the Olden Time. J. Nash. 1839-49.
English Houses and Furniture. M. B. Adam. Batsford. 1889. 25s.
English Oak Furniture. J. W. Hurrell. Batsford. £2 2s.
English Furniture. Frederick Fenn and B. Wyllie. Newnes. 7s. 6d. net.
Oak, The Art of Collecting. Connoisseur, September, 1901.
raton, T. Cabinet Maker's Drawing Book. 1791-3 edition contains 111
plates. Value £13. 1794 edition contains 119 plates. Value £10.
raton T. Cabinet Directory. 1803.
rcases and Handrails of the Age of Elizabeth. J. Weale. 1860.
holsterer's Repository. Ackermann. N.d. Worth £5.
ENCH.—Dictionnaire de l'Ameublement. H. Havard. Paris. N.d. Worth
£5.
ionnaire Raisonné. M. Viollet-le-Duc. 1858-75. 6 vols. Worth £10.
nch Furniture. Lady Dilke. Bell. 1901.
nch Eighteenth Century Furniture, Handbook to the. Jones Collection
Catalogue. 1881.
nch Eighteenth Century Furniture, Handbook to the. Wallace
Collection Catalogue. 1904.
tory of Furniture. A. Jacquemart. Chapman. 1878. 31s. 6d. Issued in
Paris in 1876, under the title Histoire du Mobilier.
Meuble en France au XVI Siècle. E. Bonnaffe. Paris. 1887. Worth 10s.
PANESE.—Lacquer Industry of Japan. Report of Her Majesty's Acting-
Consul at Hakodate. J. J. Quin. Parliamentary Paper. 8vo. London.
1882.
OTTISH.—Scottish Woodwork of Sixteenth and Seventeenth
Centuries. J. W. Small. Waterston. 1878. £4 4s.
ANISH.—Spanish and Portuguese. Catalogue of Special Loan
Exhibition of Spanish and Portuguese Ornamental Art. 1881.
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED
Armoire.—A large cupboard of French design of the dimensions
of the modern wardrobe. In the days of Louis XIV. these
pieces were made in magnificent style. The Jones
Collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum has several
fine examples. (See illustration, p. 165.)
Baroque.—Used in connection with over ornate and
incongruous decoration as in rococo style.
Bombé.—A term applied to pieces of furniture which swell out
at the sides.
Boule.—A special form of marquetry of brass and tortoiseshell
perfected by André Charles Boule in the reign of Louis XIV.
(See Chapter VI., where specimens of this kind of work
are illustrated.) The name has been corrupted into a trade
term Buhl, to denote this style of marquetry. Boule or
Première partie is a metal inlay, usually brass, applied to a
tortoiseshell background. See also Counter-boule.
Bureau.—A cabinet with drawers, and having a drop-down
front for use as a writing-table. Bureaux are of many
forms. (See illustration, p. 231.)
Cabriole.—Used in connection with the legs of tables and
chairs which are curved in form, having a sudden arch
outwards from the seat. (See illustration, p. 143.)
Caryatides.—Carved female figures applied to columns in
Greek architecture, as at the Erectheum at Athens. They
were employed by woodcarvers, and largely introduced
into Renaissance furniture of an architectural character.
 Elizabethan craftsmen were especially fond of their use as
terminals, and in the florid decoration of elaborate
furniture.
Cassone.—An Italian marriage coffer. In Chapter I. will be
found a full description of these cassoni.
Commode.—A chest of drawers of French style. In the
chapters dealing with the styles of Louis XIV., Louis XV.,
and Louis XVI., these are fully described and illustrations
are given.
Counter-Boule. Contre partie.—See Chapter VI., where
specimens of this work are illustrated. It consists of a
brass groundwork with tortoiseshell inlay.
French Polish.—A cheap and nasty method used since 1851 to
varnish poor-looking wood to disguise its inferiority. It is
quicker than the old method of rubbing in oil and
turpentine and beeswax. It is composed of shellac
dissolved in methylated spirits with colouring matter
added.
Gate-leg table.—This term is self-explanatory. The legs of this
class of table open like a gate. They belong to Jacobean
days, and are sometimes spoken of as Cromwellian tables.
An illustration of one appears on the cover.
Gothic.—This term was originally applied to the mediæval
styles of architecture. It was used as a term of reproach
and contempt at a time when it was the fashion to write
Latin and to expect it to become the universal language.
In woodcarving the Gothic style followed the architecture.
A fine example of the transition between Gothic and the
oncoming Renaissance is given (p. 44).
Inlay.—A term used for the practice of decorating surfaces and
panels of furniture with wood of various colours, mother-
 of-pearl, or ivory. The inlay is let into the wood of which
the piece inlaid is composed.
Jacobean.—Strictly speaking, only furniture of the days of
James I. should be termed Jacobean. But by some
collectors the period is held to extend to James II.—that is
from 1603 to 1688. Other collectors prefer the term
Carolean for a portion of the above period, which is
equally misleading. Jacobean is only a rough
generalisation of seventeenth-century furniture.
Lacquer. Lac.—A transparent varnish used in its perfection by
the Chinese and Japanese. (See "Consular Report on
Japanese Lacquered Work," in Bibliography.) Introduced
into Holland and France, it was imitated with great
success. Under Louis XV. Vernis-Martin became the rage
(q.v.).
Linen Pattern.—A form of carving panels to represent a folded
napkin. This particular design was largely used in France
and Germany prior to its adoption here. (See illustration,
p. 60.)
Marquetry.—Inlays of coloured woods, arranged with some
design, geometric, floral, or otherwise, are classed under
this style. (See also Parquetry.)
Mortise.—A term in carpentry used to denote the hole made in
a piece of wood to receive the end of another piece to be
joined to it. The portion which fits into the mortise is
called the tenon.
Oil Polish.—Old furniture, before the introduction of varnishes
and French polish and other inartistic effects, was polished
by rubbing the surface with a stone, if it was a large area
as in the case of a table, and then applying linseed oil and
polishing with beeswax and turpentine. The fine tone after
 centuries of this treatment is evident in old pieces which
have a metallic lustre that cannot be imitated.
Parquetry.—Inlays of woods of the same colour are termed
parquetry work in contradistinction to marquetry, which is
in different colour. Geometric designs are mainly used as
in parquetry floors.
Reeded.—This term is applied to the style of decoration by
which thin narrow strips of wood are placed side by side
on the surface of furniture.
Renaissance.—The style which was originated in Italy in the
fifteenth century, supplanting the Mediæval styles which
embraced Byzantine and Gothic art; the new-birth was in
origin a literary movement, but quickly affected art, and
grew with surprising rapidity, and affected every country
in Europe. It is based on Classic types, and its influence
on furniture and woodwork followed its adoption in
architecture.
Restored.—This word is the fly in the pot of ointment to all
who possess antiquarian tastes. It ought to mean, in
furniture, that only the most necessary repairs have been
made in order to preserve the object. It more often means
that a considerable amount of misapplied ingenuity has
gone to the remaking of a badly-preserved specimen.
Restorations are only permissible at the hands of most
conscientious craftsmen.
Rococo.—A style which was most markedly offensive in the
time of Louis XV. Meaningless elaborations of scroll and
shell work, with rocky backgrounds and incongruous
ornamentations, are its chief features. Baroque is another
term applied to this overloaded style.
Settee.—An upholstered form of the settle.
Settle.—A wooden seat with back and arms, capable of seating
three or four persons side by side.
Splat.—The wooden portion in the back of a chair connecting
the top rail with the seat.
Strapwork.—This is applied to the form of decoration employed
by the Elizabethan woodcarvers in imitation of Flemish
originals. (See p. 68.)
Stretcher.—The rail which connects the legs of a chair or a
table with one another. In earlier forms it was used as a
footrest to keep the feet from the damp or draughty rush
floor.
Tenon.—"Mortise and Tenon joint." (See Mortise.)
Turned Work.—The spiral rails and uprights of chairs were
turned with the lathe in Jacobean days. Prior to the
introduction of the lathe all work was carved without the
use of this tool. Pieces of furniture have been found where
the maker has carved the turned work in all its details of
form, either from caprice or from ignorance of the
existence of the quicker method.
Veneer.—A method of using thin layers of wood and laying
them on a piece of furniture, either as marquetry in
different colours, or in one wood only. It was an invention
in order to employ finer specimens of wood carefully
selected in the parts of a piece of furniture most
noticeable. It has been since used to hide inferior wood.
Vernis-Martin (Martin's Varnish).—The lacquered work of a
French carriage-painter named Martin, who claimed to
have discovered the secret of the Japanese lac, and who,
in 1774, was granted a monopoly for its use. He applied it
successfully to all kinds of furniture, and to fan-guards
and sticks. In the days of Madame du Pompadour Vernis-
 Martin had a great vogue, and panels prepared by Martin
were elaborately painted upon by Lancret and Boucher. To
this day his varnish retains its lustre undimmed, and
specimens command high prices.
Woods used in Furniture.
High-class Work.—Brazil wood, Coromandel, Mahogany, Maple,
Oak (various kinds), Olive, Rosewood, Satinwood,
Sandalwood, Sweet Cedar, Sweet Chestnut, Teak, Walnut.
Commoner Work.—Ash, Beech, Birch, Cedars (various), Deals,
Mahogany (various kinds), Pine, Walnut.
Marquetry and Veneers.—Selected specimens for fine figuring
are used as veneers, and for marquetry of various colours
the following are used as being more easily stained: Holly,
Horsechestnut, Sycamore, Pear, Plum Tree.
Woods with Fancy Names.
King Wood, Partridge Wood, Pheasant Wood, Purple
Wood, Snakewood, Tulip Wood.
These are more rare and finely-marked foreign woods used sparingly
in the most expensive furniture. To arrive at the botanical names of
these is not an easy matter. To those interested a list of woods used
by cabinet-makers with their botanical names is given in Mr. J.
Hungerford Pollen's "Introduction to the South Kensington Collection
of Furniture." At the Museum at Kew Gardens and in the Imperial
Institute are collections of rare woods worth examination.
I

THE RENAISSANCE
ON THE
CONTINENT

Portion of carved cornice of pinewood, from the

Palazzo Bensi Ceccini, Venice.
Italian; middle of sixteenth century.

(Victoria and Albert Museum.)

CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE
 I

THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT

Italy. Flight of Greek scholars to Italy upon capture of

Constantinople by the Turks—1453.
Rediscovery of Greek art.
Florence the centre of the Renaissance.
Leo X., Pope (1475-1521).
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1520). Raphael (1483-1520). Michael
Angelo (1474-1564).
France. Francis I. (1515-1547).
Henry IV. (1589-1610).
Spain. The crown united under Ferdinand and Isabella (1452-
1516).
Granada taken from the Moors—1492.
Charles V. (1519-1555).
Philip II. (1555-1598).
Germany. Maximilian I., Emperor of Germany (1459-1519).
Holbein (1498-1543).
In attempting to deal with the subject of old furniture in a manner
not too technical, certain broad divisions have to be made for
convenience in classification. The general reader does not want
information concerning the iron bed of Og, King of Bashan, nor of
Cicero's table of citrus-wood, which cost £9,000; nor are details of
the chair of Dagobert and of the jewel-chest of Richard of Cornwall
of much worth to the modern collector.
It will be found convenient to eliminate much extraneous matter,
such as the early origins of furniture and its development in the
Middle Ages, and to commence in this country with the Tudor period.
Broadly speaking, English furniture falls under three heads—the Oak
Period, embracing the furniture of the sixteenth and early
seventeenth centuries; the Walnut Period, including the late
seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries; the Mahogany Period,
beginning with the reign of George III. It may be observed that the
names of kings and of queens have been applied to various styles of
furniture as belonging to their reign. Early Victorian is certainly a
more expressive term than early nineteenth century. Cromwellian
tables, Queen Anne chairs, or Louis Seize commodes all have an
especial meaning as referring to styles more or less prevalent when
those personages lived. As there is no record of the makers of most
of the old English furniture, and as a piece of furniture cannot be
judged as can a picture, the date of manufacture cannot be precisely
laid down, hence the vagueness of much of the classification of old
furniture. Roughly it may in England be dealt with under the Tudor,
the Stuart, and the Georgian ages. These three divisions do not
coincide exactly with the periods of oak, of walnut, and of
mahogany, inasmuch as the oak furniture extended well into the
Stuart days, and walnut was prevalent in the reigns of George I. and
George II. In any case, these broad divisions are further divided into
sub-heads embracing styles which arose out of the natural
development in taste, or which came and went at the caprice of
fashion.
 Frame of wood, carved with floral
scrollwork, with female terminal
figures.
Italian; late sixteenth century.

(Victoria and Albert Museum.)

The formation of a definite English character in the furniture of the
three periods must be examined in conjunction with the prevailing
styles in foreign furniture showing what influences were at work.
Many conditions governed the introduction of foreign furniture into
England. Renaissance art made a change in architecture, and a
corresponding change took place in furniture. Ecclesiastical buildings
followed the continental architecture in form and design, and foreign
workmen were employed by the Church and by the nobility in
decorating and embellishing cathedrals and abbeys and feudal
castles. The early Tudor days under Henry VII. saw the dawn of the
Renaissance in England. Jean de Mabuse and Torrigiano were invited
over the sea by Henry VII., and under the sturdy impulse of Henry
VIII. classical learning and love of the fine arts were encouraged. His
palaces were furnished with splendour. He wished to emulate the
château of Francis at Fontainebleau. He tried to entice the French
king's artists with more tempting terms. Holbein, the great master of
the German school, came to England, and his influence over Tudor
art was very pronounced. The florid manner of the Renaissance was
tempered with the broader treatment of the northern school. The
art, too, of the Flemish woodcarvers found sympathetic reception in
this country, and the harmonious blending of the designs of the
Renaissance craftsmen of the Italian with those of the Flemish
school resulted in the growth in England of the beautiful and
characteristic style known as Tudor.

FRONT OF COFFER. CHESTNUT WOOD. ITALIAN;

LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
With shield of arms supported by two male demi
figures terminating in floral scrollwork.

(Victoria and Albert Museum.)

The term Renaissance is used in regard to that period in the history
of art which marked the return to the classic forms employed by the
Greeks and Romans. The change from the Gothic or Mediæval work
to the classic feeling had its origin in Italy, and spread, at first
gradually but later with amazing rapidity and growing strength, into
Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, France, and finally to England.
 By permission of the proprietors of the
"Connoisseur."

BRIDAL CHEST. GOTHIC DESIGN.

MIDDLE OF FIFTEENTH CENTURY.

(Munich National Museum.)

The Renaissance was in origin a literary movement, and its influence
in art came through literature. The enthusiasm of the new learning
acting on craftsmen already trained to the highest degree of
technical skill produced work of great brilliance.
Never did the fine arts rise to such transcendent heights as in Italy
from the fourteenth to the middle of the seventeenth centuries. The
late John Addington Symonds, in his work on "The Renaissance in
Italy," deals in a comprehensive manner with this memorable period,
during which every city in Italy, great or small, was producing
wonderful works of art, in painting, in sculpture, in goldsmiths' work,
in woodcarving, in furniture, of which now every civilised country
struggles to obtain for its art collections the scattered fragments of
these great days. "During that period of prodigious activity," he says,
"the entire nation seemed to be endowed with an instinct for the
beautiful and with the capacity for producing it in every conceivable
form."
In the middle of the fourteenth century the Renaissance style in
woodwork was at first more evident in the churches and in the
palaces of the nobility in the Italian states. Some of the most
magnificent examples of carved woodwork are preserved in the
choir-stalls, doorways and panelling of the churches and cathedrals
of Italy. The great artists of the day gave their talents to the
production of woodwork and furniture in various materials. Wood
was chiefly employed in making furniture, usually oak, cypress,
ebony, walnut, or chestnut, which last wood is very similar in
appearance to oak. These were decorated with gilding and paintings,
and were inlaid with other woods, or agate, lapis-lazuli, and marbles
of various tints, with ivory, tortoiseshell, mother-of-pearl, or with
ornaments of hammered silver.
The Victoria and Albert Museum contains some splendid examples of
fourteenth and fifteenth century Italian Renaissance furniture, which
illustrate well the magnificence and virility of the great art movement
which influenced the remainder of Europe. In particular, carved and
gilded frames, and marriage coffers (cassoni) given to brides as part
of their dowry to hold the bridal trousseau, are richly and effectively
decorated. The frame of carved wood (illustrated p. 35), with fine
scroll work and female terminal figures, is enriched with painting and
gilding. The frame on the title-page of this volume is of carved
wood, decorated with gold stucco. Both these are sixteenth-century
Italian work. In fact, the study of the various types and the different
kinds of ornamentation given to these cassoni would be an
interesting subject for the student, who would find enough material
in the collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum to enable him to
follow the Renaissance movement from its early days down to the
time when crowded design, over-elaboration, and inharmonious
details grew apace like so many weeds to choke the ideals of the
master spirits of the Renaissance.
The front of the late fifteenth-century coffer (illustrated p. 38) is of
chestnut wood, carved with a shield of arms supported by two male