Walt Disney University

Calculus
Ca

∫
𝑑𝑥

=
M. Abdurrahim

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 Contents

1. Function properties …………………………………………….3

2. Graphing functions ………………………………………….…8
3. Domain of functions…………………………………….……..15
4. Combination of functions…………………………….…….18
5. The inverse function………………………………………. …23
6. Limits ..………………………………………………………………..31
7. Existence of limit & continuity………………………….. 36
8. Differentiability at a point ……………………………….…40
9. Differentiation rules ………………………………………..….45
10.Higher Derivatives ……………………………………………...57
11. Integration …………………………………………………….……59
12. Geometry ……………………………………………………….……71

)‫صالح ادلين حسني (رمحه هللا‬/ ‫مث جتميع هذا العمل اجملاىن اهداءا اىل روح الاس تاذ ادلكتور‬
‫نسألمك ادلعاء هل ابملغفرة والرمحه‬

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 1. functions’ properties
Function property Graphically Algebraically
Use vertical line test: any vertical line
How to verify that 𝒇(𝒙) Let 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 try to prove that
must intersects with 𝑓(𝑥) graph in at
is a function 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 )
most one point
Increasing:
• let 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 then prove that 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 )
Go from left to right on 𝑥-axis • or 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0
• Increasing : the graph goes from
Increasing &
down to up decreasing:
decreasing
• Decreasing : the graph goes from up • let 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 then prove that 𝑓(𝑥1 ) >
to down 𝑓(𝑥2 )
• or 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0

Odd: symmetric about origin Odd: 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

Odd & even
Even : symmetric about 𝑦-axis Even: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
Horizontal line test: any vertical line
One to one function Let 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) then try to prove that
must intersects with 𝑓(𝑥)graph in at
(injective) 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
most one point
• domain of rational function 𝑃(𝑥)/𝑄(𝑥) is
ℝ − {𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑄(𝑥)}
• domain of root function √∎ is
𝑛

(i) ℝ if 𝑛 is odd
(ii)∎ ≥ 0 if 𝑛 is even
Project the graph on 𝑥-axis then write • domain of logarithmic function log 𝑎 ∎ is
Domain of 𝒇
the resulting interval ∎>0
• the domain of piecewise-defined functions
is the union between the domain of its
branches
• domain of combined functions is the
intersection between their domains
• try to graph 𝑓 then find rang
Project the graph on 𝑦-axis then write • or, find 𝑓 −1 then find it’s domain
Rang of 𝒇
the resulting interval • or, find domain of 𝑓 then construct
the possible values of 𝑓(𝑥)
Functions types:

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
Note that: 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) is called difference of 𝑓 but ℎ
is called the difference quotient

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Exercise:
1. the graph of a function 𝑓 is given
(a) state the value of 𝑓(1)
(b) estimate the value of 𝑓(−1)
(c) for what values of 𝑥 is 𝑓(𝑥) = 1?
(d) Estimate the value of 𝑥 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
(e) state the domain and the range of 𝑓
(f) on what interval is 𝑓 increasing ?

answer:

(a) 𝑓(1) = 3
(b) 𝑓(−1) ≈ −1/4
(c) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 ⟹ 𝑥 = 0
(d) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 , means that the graph intercept with x-axis which occurs at 𝑥 ≈ −3/4
(e) Domain of 𝑓 is [−2,4]
Rang of 𝑓 is [−1,3]
(f) The function 𝑓 ,is increasing on [−2,1]

2. The graph of 𝑓 and 𝑔 are given

(a) state the values of 𝑓(−4) and 𝑔(3)
(b) For what values of 𝑥 is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)?
(c) Estimates the solution of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = −1
(d) on what interval is 𝑓 decreasing?
(e)state the domain and rangew of 𝑓
(f) state the domain and the range of 𝑔

Answer:

(a) 𝑓(−4) = −2, 𝑔(3) ≈ 1

(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) when 𝑓 and 𝑔 intercepts which each other which occurs at 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 2
(c) If 𝑓(𝑥) = −1 ⟹ 𝑥 = 3
(d) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = −2.5 and 𝑥 = 3.5
(e) Domain of 𝑓 is [−4,4] and the range of 𝑓 is [−2,3]
1
(f) Domain of 𝑔 is [−4,3] and the range of 𝑔 is [ , 4]
2

3. Determine whether the curve is the graph of a function of 𝑥. If it is, state the domain and the
range of the function:

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Answer:
(a)not a function because of the vertical line test (for example the line 𝑥 = 0 intercept with
the graph in 3 pionts )
(b)it is a function with domain [−2,3] and rang [−1,2]
(c)it is a function with domain [−3,2] and rang
(d)it’s not a function (for example the vertical line 𝑥 = 1 intercept with the graph in infinite
points)

4. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 find 𝑓(2), 𝑓(−2), 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑓(−𝑎), 𝑓(𝑎 + 1), 2𝑓(𝑎), 𝑓(2𝑎), 𝑓(𝑎2 ), [𝑓(𝑎)]2 and
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ)

Answer:
- if 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 then

• 𝑓(2) = 3(2)2 − 2 + 2 = 12
• 𝑓(−2) = 3(−2)2 − (−2) + 2 = 12 + 4 = 16
• 𝑓(𝑎) = 3𝑎2 − 𝑎 + 2
• 𝑓(−𝑎) = 3(−𝑎)2 − (−𝑎) + 2 = 3𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 2
• 𝑓(𝑎 + 1) = 3(𝑎 + 1)2 − (𝑎 + 1) + 2
= 3(𝑎2 + 2𝑎 + 1) − 𝑎 − 1 + 2
= 3𝑎2 + 5𝑎 + 4
• 2𝑓(𝑎) = 2(3𝑎2 − 𝑎 + 2)
• 𝑓(2𝑎) = 3(2𝑎)2 − (2𝑎) + 2 = 12𝑎2 − 2𝑎 + 2
• 𝑓(𝑎2 ) = 3(𝑎2 )2 − 𝑎2 + 2 = 3𝑎4 − 𝑎2 + 2
2
• (𝑓(𝑎)) = (3𝑎2 − 𝑎 + 2)2
• 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 3(𝑎 + ℎ)2 − (𝑎 + ℎ) + 2

4
5. A spherical balloon with radius 𝑟 inches has volume 𝑉(𝑟) = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 . Find the function that
represents the amount of air required to inflate the ballon from a radius of 𝑟 inches to a radius
of 𝑟 + 1 inches.

Answer: the required volume is

4 4
𝑉(𝑟 + 1) − 𝑉(𝑟) = 𝜋(𝑟 + 1)3 − 𝜋𝑟 3
3 3
4 4
= 𝜋(𝑟 3 + 3𝑟 + 3𝑟 2 + 1 − 𝑟 3 ) = 𝜋(3𝑟 2 + 3𝑟 + 1)
3 3
6. Evaluate the difference quotient for the given function, simplify your answer
𝑓(3+ℎ)−𝑓(3)
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 , ℎ
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
(b)𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , ℎ
1 𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
(c)𝑓(𝑥) = ,
𝑥 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥+3 𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(1)
(d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+1 , 𝑥−1

Answer:

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 (a)since 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 then
𝑓(3 + ℎ) − 𝑓(3)
ℎ
4 + 3(3 + ℎ) − (3 + ℎ)2 − (4 + 3(3) − 32
=
ℎ
1 1
= (9 + 3ℎ − 9 − 6ℎ − ℎ2 ) = (−3ℎ − ℎ2 ) = −(ℎ + 3)
ℎ ℎ
(b) since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 then
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) (𝑎 + ℎ)3 − 𝑎3 1 3
= = [𝑎 + 3𝑎2 ℎ + 3ℎ2 𝑎 + ℎ3 − 𝑎3 ] = 3𝑎2 + 3ℎ𝑎 + ℎ2
ℎ ℎ ℎ
1
(c)Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 then
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑎−𝑥 −1
= = =
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑎𝑥(𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑎𝑥
𝑥+3
(d) since 𝑓(𝑥) = then
𝑥+1
𝑥+3
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(1) 𝑥 + 1 − 2 (𝑥 + 3) − 2(𝑥 + 1) 1−𝑥 −1
= = = =
𝑥−1 𝑥−1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1)

7. Graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 are shown. Decide whether each function is evenm odd, or neither. Explain
your reasoning

Answer:

(a). the function 𝑔 is even because it’s symmetric about 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

the function 𝑓 is odd because it’s symmetric about the origin

(b). the function 𝑔is even (symmetric about 𝑦-axis)

the function 𝑓 is neither odd nor even

8. A function 𝑓 has domain [−5,5] and a portion of its graph is shown (with blue color)
(a) complete the graph of 𝑓 if it is known that 𝑓 is even
(b) compelter the graph of 𝑓 if it is known that 𝑓 is odd

Answer:

(a) (b)

9. Classify each function as a power function, root function, polynomial(state its degree), rational
function, algebraic function, trigonometric function, exponential function or logarithmic
function.

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 2𝑥 2
1. (a) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 2 𝑥 (b) 4√𝑥 (c) ℎ(𝑥) = 1−𝑥2
(d) 𝑢(𝑡) = 1 − 1.1𝑡 + 2.5𝑡 2 (e) 𝑣(𝑡) = 5𝑡 (f) 𝑤(𝜃) = sin 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃
2. (a) 𝑦 = 𝜋 𝑥 (b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝜋 (c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 (2 − 𝑥 3 )
𝑠 √𝑥 3 −1
(d)𝑦 = tan 𝑡 − cos 𝑡 (e)𝑦 = 1+𝑠 (f)𝑦 = 3
1+ √𝑥

Solution:

1. (a)logarithmic function (b) root function

(c) rational function (d) polynomial function of degree 2
(e) exponential function (f) trigonometric functions

2. (a) exponential function (b) power function

(c) polynomial function of degree 5 (d) trigonometric function
(e) rational function (f) algebraic function

10. an open rectangular box with volume 2 m has a square base. Express the surface area of the
box as a function of the length of the side of the base.

Solution:

Let ℎ be the hight of the rectangular box and 𝑙 is the length of its base then the surface area is
given by
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4𝑙ℎ + 𝑙 2
But the volume is given by 𝑙 2 ℎ = 2 𝑚3 so,
2
ℎ=
𝑙2
So, the required surface area is given by
8
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4𝑙ℎ + 𝑙 2 = 4𝑙(2/𝑙 2 ) + 𝑙 2 = + 𝑙2
𝑙

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 2. Graphing functions
1- You should be familiar with the graph of essential functions

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑛 is even 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑛 is odd 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 3

𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥

1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 < 1 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1
𝑥

𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥

𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥

2- Apply the transformations

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Exercise:
1. Given the graph of √𝒙 then graph the following:
𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 − 𝟐, 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 − 𝟐, 𝒇(𝒙) = √−𝒙, 𝒇(𝒙) = −√𝒙, 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐√𝒙

Answer:
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 2
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 2

𝑓(𝑥) = √−𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = −√𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = 2√𝑥

2. match each equation with its graph.

3
(i) (a)𝑦 = 𝑥 2 (b)𝑦 = 𝑥 5 (c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 8 (ii)(a)𝑦 = 3𝑥 (b)𝑦 = 3𝑥 (c)𝑦 = 𝑥 3 (d)𝑦 = √𝑥

answer:
(i) if 𝑦1 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦2 = 𝑥 5 , 𝑦3 = 𝑥 8

So, 𝑦1 is ℎ and 𝑦2 is 𝑓 and 𝑦3 is 𝑔

(ii)

• the equation 𝑦 = 3𝑥 represents the linear function 𝐺

• the equation 𝑦 = 3𝑥 represents the exponential function 𝑓
• the equation 𝑌 = 𝑥 3 represents the cubic function 𝐹
•
3
so, the equation 𝑌 = √𝑥 represent the remaining curve 𝑔

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2. Graph the following functions by applying the appropriate transformation
𝟏
1. 𝒚 = 𝒙+𝟐 2. 𝒚 = (𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟑 3. 𝒚 = − 𝟑√𝒙

4. 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟒 5. 𝒚 = √𝒙 − 𝟐 − 𝟏 6. 𝒚 = 𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒙
𝟐
7. 𝒚 = 𝒙 − 𝟐 8. 𝒚 = −𝒙𝟑 9. 𝒚 = |𝒙 + 𝟏| − 𝟐
𝟏 12. 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧(𝒙 − 𝟐) − 𝟏
10. 𝒚 = 𝟏 − 𝟐√𝒙 + 𝟑 11. 𝒚 = 𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙)

13. 𝒚 = 𝟏 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 𝟏
14. 𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 (𝒙 − )
𝝅 15. 𝒚 = (𝟎. 𝟓)𝒙 − 𝟐
𝟒 𝟒

16. 𝒚 = 𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙 17. 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒙+𝟐

Solution:
1
1. We draw the graph 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 then by shifting left with 2 unites we get the graph of 𝑦 =
𝑥+2

1
1 𝑦=
𝑦= 𝑥+2
𝑥

2. we draw the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 then by shifting right 1 unite we get the graph of 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)3

𝑦 = 𝑥3 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)3

3 3
3. we draw the graph of 𝑦 = √𝑥 then by reflecting with respect to 𝑥-axis we get 𝑦 = − √𝑥

4. if 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 4 then by completing squares we get 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3)2 − (3)2 + 4 = (𝑥 + 3)2 − 5

So we draw the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 then we shift left by 3 unites to get 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3)2 then we shift
down by 5 unites we get 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3)2 − 5

𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3)2 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3)2 − 5

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5. we draw the graph of √𝑥 then we shift right by 2 unites to get 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 2 then by shift down by
1 unite we get 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 2 − 1

𝑦 = √𝑥 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 2 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 2 − 1

6.we draw 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 then you can show shrinking and stretching in the function 𝑦 = 4 sin 3𝑥by
showing new domain and range. The domain is ℝ and the range is given by −1 ≤ sin 3𝑥 ≤ 1 ⟹
−4 ≤ 4 sin 3𝑥 ≤ 4 𝑦 = 4 sin 3𝑥
𝑦 = sin 𝑥

1 2
7.we draw the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 then by stretching vertically we get 𝑦 = 𝑥 then by shifting down by 2
2
unites we get 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2

1 2 2
𝑦= 𝑦= 𝑦= −2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

8. we draw the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 then by reflecting vertically (about x-axis) we get 𝑦 = −𝑥 3

𝑦 = 𝑥3 𝑦 = −𝑥 3

9. we draw the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥| then by shifting left by 1 we get 𝑦 = |𝑥 + 1| then by shifting down
by 2 unites we get 𝑦 = |𝑥 + 1| − 2

𝑦 = |𝑥|
𝑦 = |𝑥 + 1| 𝑦 = |𝑥 + 1| − 2

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10. 𝑦 = 1 − 2√𝑥 + 3 we draw graph of √𝑥 then by shifting left by 3 unites we get 𝑦 = √𝑥 + 3 then
by stretching vertically we get 𝑦 = 2√𝑥 + 3 then by reflecting vertically (about 𝑥-axis) we get 𝑦 =
−2√𝑥 + 3 then by shifting up by 1 we get 𝑦 = 1 − 2√𝑥 + 3

𝑦 = −2√𝑥 + 3 𝑦 = 1 − 2√𝑥 + 3

𝑦 = √𝑥 𝑦 = √𝑥 + 3 𝑦 = 2√𝑥 + 3

11. 𝑦 = (1 − cos 𝑥) we draw the graph of 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 then by reflecting vertically (about 𝑥-axis)
we get 𝑦 = − cos 𝑥 then by

1
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 𝑦 = − cos 𝑥 𝑦 = 1 − cos 𝑥 𝑦= (1 − cos 𝑥)
2

12. draw the graph of 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 then shift left 2 unites to get 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 − 2) then shift down one
unite to get 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 − 2) − 1

𝑦 = ln 𝑥 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 − 2) 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 − 2) − 1

15.draw 𝑦 = (0.5)𝑥 then shift right 2 units to get 𝑦 = (0.5)𝑥 − 2

𝑦 = (0.5)𝑥 − 2

𝑦 = (0.5) 𝑥

16. draw 𝑦 = 2𝑥 then reflect about 𝑥 axis to get 𝑦 = −2𝑥 then shift up 3 units to get 𝑦 = 3 − 2𝑥

𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑦 = −2𝑥 𝑦 = 3 − 2𝑥

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3.Graph the following functions using table of values:
𝟒−𝒕𝟐
(a)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝒙 (b)𝑭(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 (c)𝑯(𝒕) = 𝟐−𝒕
(d) 𝒈(𝒙) = √𝒙 − 𝟓 (e) 𝒇(𝒙) = |𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏|
𝟑𝒙+|𝒙|
(f)𝑮(𝒙) = (g)𝒈(𝒙) = |𝒙| − 𝒙
𝒙
𝒙 + 𝟗 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < −𝟑
𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < 𝟎
(h)𝒇(𝒙) = { (i)𝒇(𝒙) = { −𝟐𝒙 𝒊𝒇 |𝒙| ≤ 𝟑
𝟏 − 𝒙 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
−𝟔 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 > 𝟑

Answer :

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 0.4𝑥 (we need only 2 points)

let 𝑥 = 0 then 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
let 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 then 𝑥 = 0
and the graph is the straight-line passing throw (0,2), (5,0)

(b) 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 Represents polynomial of degree 2

𝑥 0 1 2 −1 3
𝐹(𝑥) 1 0 1 4 4

4−𝑡 2
(c) 𝐻(𝑡) = 2−𝑡
Represents rational function.
the graph can be drawn by simplifying the form of the function
4−𝑡 2 (2−𝑡)(2+𝑡)
say 𝐻(𝑡) = = = 2 + 𝑡 if 𝑡 ≠ 2
2−𝑡 2−𝑡
which is an equation of straight line except that it’s not defined at 𝑡 = 2

(d) 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 5 is the root function defined for 𝑥 ≥ 5

sothe function can be graphed using a table of values of 𝑥 ≥ 5

𝑥 5 6 7 8 9
𝑔(𝑥) 0 1 ≈ 1.4 ≅ 1.7 2

(e) Since
2𝑥 + 1; 𝑖𝑓 2𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0 2𝑥 + 1; 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ −1/2
𝐹(𝑥) = { ={
−(2𝑥 + 1); 𝑖𝑓 2𝑥 + 1 < 0 −(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < −1/2
So, To graph the function we graph each branch on its domain
(a) for 𝒙 ≥ −𝟏/𝟐 the function is defined by 𝐹(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1
1
which is a straight line passing through the points (− , 1) and (0,1)
2
(b) for 𝒙 < −𝟏/𝟐 the function is defined by 𝐹(𝑥) = −(2𝑥 + 1)
1
which is straight line passing through the points (2 , −2) and (1, −3)

Page | 13
 3𝑥+𝑥
𝑥
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
(f) 𝐺(𝑥) = {3𝑥−𝑥
𝑥
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
here we have a restriction that 𝑥 must not equal zero. So the domain is ℝ − {0}
and the function may be simplified to
4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
𝐺(𝑥) = {
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
(g) 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥| − 𝑥
𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
={
−𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
0 𝑥≥0
={
−2𝑥 𝑥<0

(h) , (i) [graph it yourself]

4. write a suitable function for each of the following graphs:

Answer:
(a)𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 1 (b)𝑓(𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 + 1 (c) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2 (d) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 3)2 + 1
(e)𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 (f)𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 (g)𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 1|

Page | 14
 3. Domain of functions
• The domain of polynomial, exponential, sin, cos function is ℝ
• domain of rational function 𝑃(𝑥)/𝑄(𝑥) is ℝ − {𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑄(𝑥)}
• domain of root function √∎ is
𝑛

(i) ℝ if 𝑛 is odd
(ii)∎ ≥ 0 if 𝑛 is even
• domain of logarithmic function (log 𝑎 ∎ )is ∎ > 0
• the domain of piecewise-defined functions is the union between the domain of its branches
• domain of combined functions is the intersection between their domains
• two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are equal if (1) they have the same domain
(2) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in their domain

Exercise
1- (a)if 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 + √𝟐 − 𝒙 and 𝒈(𝒖) = 𝒖 + √𝟐 − 𝒖, is it true that 𝒇 = 𝒈?
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙
(b) If 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙−𝟏
and 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙 is it true that 𝒇 = 𝒈?

Answer:

(a)- since domain of 𝑓 is 2 − 𝑥 ≥ 0 ⟹ 2 ≥ 𝑥 ⟹] − ∞, 2]

and the domain of 𝑔 is 2 − 𝑢 ≥ 0 ⟹ 2 ≥ 𝑢 ⟹] − ∞, 2]
in addition,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + √2 − 𝑥
⟹ 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑢 + √2 − 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑢)
So the two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 have the same domain and same range so 𝑓 = 𝑔

(b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 is linear function⟹ domain of 𝑔 is ℝ

𝑥 2 −𝑥
, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
is rational function⟹ the domain of 𝑓 is ℝ − {1}

So, 𝑓 ≠ 𝑔

2- Find the domain of the following functions:

𝒙+𝟒 𝟐𝒙𝟑 −𝟓
(a) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐−𝟗 (b)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐+𝒙−𝟔
𝟑
(c)𝒇(𝒕) = √𝟐𝒕 − 𝟏 (d) 𝒈(𝒕) = √𝟑 − 𝒕 − √𝟐 + 𝒕
𝟏 𝒖+𝟏
(e) 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝟒 (f) 𝒇(𝒖) = 𝟏
√𝒙𝟐 −𝟓𝒙 𝟏+
𝒖+𝟏

(g)𝒇(𝒑) = √𝟐 − √𝒑

Answer:

Page | 15
 𝑥+4
(a)since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −9 is rational function , then the domain of 𝑓 is ℝ − {𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2 − 9}
and to find the zeros let
𝑥 2 − 9 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3
So, the domain is ℝ − {−3,3}
3𝑥 2 −5
(b)Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 is rational function then the domain is ℝ − {𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6}
and to find the zeros let
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3
so, the domain of 𝑓 is ℝ − {2, −3}
3
(c)The function 𝑓(𝑡) = √2𝑡 − 1 has domain ℝ (note that the order of the root 𝑛 = 3 is odd )

(d)- Here, we have two necessary restrictions

3−𝑡 ≥0 2+𝑡 ≥0
⟹3≥𝑡 ⟹ 𝑡 ≥ −2
So the domain is
] − ∞, 3] ∩ [−2, ∞[= [−2,3]
(e)Since we are not allowed to divide over zero and to take root with an even order for negative values
4
we have two restrictions: √𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 ≠ 0 and 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 ≥ 0. These conditions together imply that
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 > 0
⟹ 𝑥(𝑥 − 5) > 0

0 0
++++ −−−− ++++
0 5

So, the domain is ] − ∞, 0[ ∪ ]5, ∞[

(f) in this function we have two restrictions

1 𝑢+1≠0
1+ ≠0
𝑢+1 ⟹ 𝑢 ≠ −1
⟹ (𝑢 + 1) + 1 ≠ 0
⟹ 𝑢 + 2 ≠ 0 ⟹ 𝑢 ≠ −2
So the domain is ℝ − {−1, −2}

(g) in this function we have two square roots so we have two restrictions

𝑝≥0 2 − √𝑝 ≥ 0
⟹ 2 ≥ √𝑝
⟹4≥𝑝>0
So the domain is [0, ∞[ ∩] − ∞, 4] = [0,4]

3- find the domain of the following functions

𝟒−𝒕𝟐
(a)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝒙 (b)𝑯(𝒕) = 𝟐−𝒕

Page | 16
 (c) 𝒈(𝒙) = √𝒙 − 𝟓 (d) √|𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏|
𝟑𝒙+|𝒙| 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < 𝟎
(e)𝑮(𝒙) = (f) 𝒇(𝒙) = {
𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒙 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
𝒙 + 𝟗 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < −𝟑
(g)𝒇(𝒙) = { −𝟐𝒙 𝒊𝒇 |𝒙| ≤ 𝟑 (h)𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧(𝒙 + 𝟑)
−𝟔 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 > 𝟑

Answer:

(a) Represents linear function so the domain is ℝ

4−𝑡 2
(b) 𝐻(𝑡) = Represents rational function. So the domain is ℝ − {2}
2−𝑡
(c) the domain is obtained by setting 𝑥 − 5 ≥ 0 ⟹ 𝑥 ≥ 5. So, the domain of 𝑔 is [5, ∞[
(d) we have no restrictions the domain is ℝ
3𝑥+𝑥
𝑥
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
(e) 𝐺(𝑥) = {3𝑥−𝑥
𝑥
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
here we have a restriction that 𝑥 must not equal zero. So the domain is ℝ − {0}

(f),(g) The domain is ℝ

(h) the domain is given by 𝑥 + 3 > 0 or, 𝑥 > 3

3-find the domain of each function:

𝟐
Extra advanced
𝟏−𝒆𝒙 𝟏+𝒙
(a) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐 (b) 𝒇(𝒙) = questions on domain
𝟏−𝒆𝟏−𝒙 𝒆𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
−𝒕 )
(c)𝒈(𝒕) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒆 (d) 𝒈(𝒕) = √𝟏 − 𝟐𝒕

Answer:
2
(a) the domain is ℝ − {𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 − 𝑒 1−𝑥 }. To find the zeros let,
2 2
1 − 𝑒 1−𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑒 1−𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 1 − 𝑥 2 = ln 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 2 = 1 ⟹ 𝑥 = ±1
so, the domain is ℝ − {1, −1}
(b) since. −1 ≤ cos 𝑥 ≤ 1 so
𝑒 −1 ≤ 𝑒 cos 𝑥 ≤ 𝑒
so, 𝑒 cos 𝑥 can’t equal to zero. Thus the domain of 𝑓 is ℝ
(c) here, we have no restrictions on values of 𝑥 then the domain is ℝ
(d) let 1 − 2𝑡 ≥ 0 then we can prove that 𝑡 ≤ 0 so the domain of 𝑔 is ] − ∞, 0]

Page | 17
 4. combination of functions
How to combine functions and what’s the domain of the new function
Operation How Domain of the new function
Adding (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷(𝑔)
subtracting (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷(𝑔)
Multiplication 𝑓𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷(𝑔)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
Division ( ) (𝑥) = [𝐷(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷(𝑔) ] − {𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔(𝑥)}
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥)
{𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷(𝑔), 𝑔(𝑥) ∈ 𝐷(𝑓)}

Or, simply obtain the composition first and then ,

composition 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
without simplifying the new function, Find the
domain like the regular way

Exercise
1. Find (a)𝒇 + 𝒈 (b)𝒇 − 𝒈 (c) 𝒇𝒈 (d)𝒇/𝒈 and state their domians for
(i)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 , 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
(ii)𝒇(𝒙) = √𝟑 − 𝒙, 𝒈(𝒙) = √𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏

Answer:

(i) Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 then, the domain of 𝑓 is ℝ,

since 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 1 then, the domain of 𝑔 is ℝ

Therefore,
(a) 𝑓 + 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 1 = 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 1
so, the domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 is ℝ

(b)𝑓 − 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 1

so, the domain of 𝑓 − 𝑔 is ℝ

(c)𝑓𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 )(3𝑥 2 − 1)

which is polynomial of degree 5 so the domain of 𝑓𝑔 is ℝ
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2
(d)𝑔 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 −1
𝑓
so, the domain of 𝑔 is ℝ − {𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 3𝑥 2 − 1}

To find these zeros Let

1 1
3𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 2 = ⟹ 𝑥 = ±√
3 3

Page | 18
 𝑓 1 1
So, the domain of is ℝ − {− , }
𝑔 √3 √3

(ii) Since 𝑓(𝑥) = √3 − 𝑥 the domain of 𝑓 is 3 − 𝑥 ≥ 0 or simply is ] − ∞ ,3]

since 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 1 the domain of 𝑔 is given by
𝑥 2 − 1 ≥ 0 ⟹ |𝑥| ≥ 1
so, either 𝑥 ≥ 1 or 𝑥 ≤ −1. So, the domain of 𝑔 if ] − ∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞[

Therefore,
(a) 𝑓 + 𝑔(𝑥) = √3 − 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1
domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 is
] − ∞, 3] ∩ ( ] − ∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞[ ) =] − ∞, −1] ∪ [1,3]

(b) 𝑓 − 𝑔(𝑥) = √3 − 𝑥 − √𝑥 2 − 1
domain of 𝑓 − 𝑔 is ] − ∞, −1] ∪ [1,3]

(c) 𝑓𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = √(3 − 𝑥)(𝑥 2 − 1)

and the domain of 𝑓𝑔 is ] − ∞, −1] ∪ [1,3]
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) √3−𝑥
(d) 𝑔 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) =
√𝑥 2 −1
since the zeroes of denominator is given by
𝑥 2 − 1 = 0(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = −1
𝑓
So, the domain of is
𝑔
] − ∞, −1] ∪ [ 1,3] − {1, −1} =] − ∞, −1[ ∪]1,3[

2.Find the functions (𝒂)𝒇 ∘ 𝒈 (𝒃)𝒈 ∘ 𝒇 (c)𝒇 ∘ 𝒇 and (d)𝒈 ∘ 𝒈 and their domains if
(i)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏, 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏
(ii)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 − 𝟐, 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒
(iii)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏 − 𝟑𝒙, 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝟑
(iv)𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙, 𝒈(𝒙) = √𝟏 − 𝒙
𝟏 𝒙+𝟏
(v) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 + 𝒙 , 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙+𝟐

Answer:

(i) since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1, 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1then,

(a) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(2𝑥 + 1) = (2𝑥 + 1)2 − 1

(b) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑥 2 − 1) = 2(𝑥 2 − 1 ) + 1 = 2𝑥 2 − 2 + 1

(c) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 2 − 1) = (𝑥 2 − 1)2 − 1

(d) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑔(2𝑥 + 1) = 2(2𝑥 + 1) + 1

(ii) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4

Page | 19
(a) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) − 2
clearly the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is ℝ

(b) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑥 − 2) = (𝑥 − 2)2 + 3(𝑥 − 2) + 4

the domain is ℝ

(c)𝑔 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4)2 + 3(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) + 4

(iii) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 3𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 then

(a) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(cos 𝑥) = 1 − 3 cos 𝑥
and the domain is ℝ

(b) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(1 − 3𝑥) = cos(1 − 3𝑥)

and the domain is ℝ

(c) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑔(𝑥)) = cos(cos 𝑥)

and the domain is ℝ

(d) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 1 − 3(1 − 3𝑥)

and the domain is ℝ
3
(iv) since 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) = √1 − 𝑥 therefore,
3 3 6
(a) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(√1 − 𝑥 ) = √ √1 − 𝑥 = √1 − 𝑥
and the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is given by
1−𝑥 ≥ 0 ⟹ 𝑥 ≤ 1
3
(b) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(√𝑥) = √1 − √𝑥
and the domain of 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is given by 𝑥 ≥ 0
3
3
(c) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑔(𝑥)) = √1 − √1 − 𝑥 and the domain is ℝ

(d) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = √√𝑥 = 4√𝑥

and the domain is given by 𝑥 ≥ 0
1 𝑥+1
(v) since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥+2 therefore,
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 1 𝑥+1 𝑥+2
(a)𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ( ) = + 𝑥+1 = +
𝑥+2 𝑥+2 ( ) 𝑥+2 𝑥+1
𝑥+2
so, the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is ℝ − {−1, −2}
1
1 (𝑥+ )+1
𝑥
(b)𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔 (𝑥 + 𝑥
) = 1
(𝑥+ )+2
𝑥
to find the zeros of all denominators let

Page | 20
 𝑥=0 1
And 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2 = 0
⟹ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
⟹ (𝑥 + 1)2 = 0
⟹ 𝑥 = −1

so, the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 is ℝ − {0, −1}

1 1 1
(c)𝑓 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 (𝑥 + ) = 𝑥 + + 1
𝑥 𝑥 (𝑥+ )
𝑥
since the zeros of the denominator is given by

𝑥=0 1
And 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0
⟹ 𝑥2 + 1 = 0
but, this equation has no
real solutions “rejected”
So, the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 is ℝ − {0}
𝑥+1
𝑥+1 ( )+1
𝑥+2
(d)𝑔 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑔 (𝑥+2) = 𝑥+1
( )+2
𝑥+2
since the zeros of the denominators is given by

𝑥+2=0 𝑥+1
And +2=0
𝑥+2
⟹ 𝑥 = −2 5
⟹ 3𝑥 + 1 + 4 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = −
3
5
so, the domain is ℝ − {−2, − 3}

3.Express the following functions in the form 𝒇 ∘ 𝒈 ∘ 𝒉

𝟑
(i)(𝒙) = √√𝒙 − 𝟏 (𝒊𝒊)𝑯(𝒙) = √𝟐 + |𝒙| (iii)𝑯(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟒 (√𝒙)

Answer: (i)For the function 𝑅(𝑥) = √√𝑥 − 1 we can notice that

𝑥 √𝑥 √𝑥 − 1 √√𝑥 − 1

ℎ(𝑥) = √𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥

3
(ii) For the function 𝐻(𝑥) = √2 + |𝑥| we can notice that:
3
𝑥 |𝑥| |𝑥| + 2 √2 + |𝑥|

3
ℎ(𝑥) = |𝑥| 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥

Page | 21
(iii) For the function 𝐻(𝑥) = sec 4(√𝑥) we can notice that
4
𝑥 √𝑥 sec(√𝑥) (𝑠𝑒𝑐 √𝑥)

ℎ(𝑥) = √𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = sec 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4

4. Use the table to evaluate each expression

(a)𝒇(𝒈(𝟏)) (𝒃)𝒈(𝒇(𝟏)) (c)𝒇(𝒇(𝟏)) (d)𝒈(𝒈(𝟏)) (e)(𝒈 ∘ 𝒇)(𝟑) (f)(𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝟔)

𝒙 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔
𝒇(𝒙) 𝟑 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐 𝟓
𝒈(𝒙) 𝟔 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

Answer:

(a) 𝑓(𝑔(1)) = 𝑓(6) = 5 (b) 𝑔(𝑓(1)) = 𝑔(3) = 2

(c) 𝑓(𝑓(1)) = 𝑓( 3) = 4 (d) 𝑔(𝑔(1)) = 𝑔(6) = 3
(𝑒)𝑔(𝑓(3)) = 𝑔(2) = 3 (f) 𝑓(𝑔(6)) = 𝑓(3) = 4

5. A stone is dropped into a lake, creating a circular ripple that travels at a speed of 60 cm/s.
(a)Express the radius 𝑟 of this circle as a function of the time 𝑡 (in seconds)
(b) if 𝐴 is the area of this circle as a function of the radius, find 𝐴 ∘ 𝑟 and interpret it

Answer:
(a) since the radius 𝑟 increases with constant rate =60 cm/s . So it can be Modeled by a linear
function given by
𝑟 = 60𝑡 + 𝑏
where, 𝑏 is any constant ∈ ℝ

(b) Since 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 . So,

𝐴 ∘ 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝐴(𝑟(𝑡)) = 𝐴(60𝑡 + 𝑏) = 𝜋(60𝑡 + 𝑏)2
and this composition represents the area as a function of time

6. Find 𝒇 ∘ 𝒈 ∘ 𝒉, if
𝒙
(i)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙+𝟏, 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟏𝟎 and 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝒙 + 𝟑
𝒙
(ii) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙+𝟏, 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟏𝟎𝒙 and 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝒙 + 𝟑

Answer:
((𝑥+3)10 )
(i)𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ∘ ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑔(ℎ(𝑥))) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 + 3)) = 𝑓((𝑥 + 3)10 ) = ((𝑥+3)10 )+1
(10)𝑥+3
(ii) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ∘ ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑔(ℎ(𝑥))) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 + 3)) = 𝑓(10𝑥+3 ) =
10𝑥+3 +1

Page | 22
 5. The inverse function
When 𝒇−𝟏 exists?
If the function 𝑓 is one-to-one function

• To prove it’s 1-1: let 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) then try to prove that 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
• To prove it’s not 1-1 : find an example in which 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) but 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2
• You can test that a function is 1-1 or not through the horizontal line test:
if all horizontal lines intersect with the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) with at most one point then it’s 1-1.
If one of these horizontal line intersect with the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) with more than one point ,
ten 𝑓(𝑥) not one to one

How to Find 𝒇−𝟏 ?

1. Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
2. Find 𝑥 as a function of 𝑦
3. Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦
4. Replace 𝑦 by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

How to verify that 𝒇−𝟏 defines the inverse function?

Try to prove that 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥

The domain and range of 𝒇−𝟏

• The domain of 𝑓 −1 is the range of the function 𝑓
• The range of 𝑓 −1 is the domain of the function 𝑓

Exponential Vs. Logarithms

Exponential laws Logarithmic laws

1. log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦

1. 𝑎 𝑥 . 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦
𝑎𝑥 2. log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥/𝑦
2. 𝑎𝑦
= 𝑎 𝑥−𝑦 3. log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑦 log 𝑎 𝑥
3. (𝑎 𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥𝑦
Special case: (if 𝑎 = 𝑒)
Special case: (if 𝑎 = 𝑒) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥

• The exponential function and the logarithmic function are inverses to each other that’s
𝑒 ln 𝑥 = ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥

Page | 23
Exercise
1. A function is a given by a graph. Determined whether is one-to-one.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Answer:

(a)this function is not one to one

(b)this function is one to one
(c)this function is one to one
(d)is not one to one

2. Determined whether the following functions are one-to-one

(a) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 (b)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟑𝒙
(c)𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟏/𝒙 (d) 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

answer:

(a)since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 by completing squares we get

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)2 − 1
which is just the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 but shifted to right by 1 and shift down by 1 (which is not one
to one function from the graph)

(b)𝑓(𝑥) = 10 − 3𝑥 Represent straight line which is one to one function from its graph

Another method: by letting

𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 )
⟹ 10 − 3𝑥1 = 10 − 3𝑥2
⟹ −3𝑥1 = −3𝑥2
⟹ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
so, 𝑓 is 1 − 1 function.

(c) if 𝑔(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 by letting 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) then

1 1
= ⟹ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
𝑥1 𝑥2
so, 𝑓 is one to one function

(d) if 𝑔(𝑥) = cos 𝑥

not one to one function from the graph
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
(for example cos = cos − but ≠ − )
2 2 2 2

3. if 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟓 + 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙, find 𝒇−𝟏 (𝟑) and 𝒇 (𝒇−𝟏 (𝟐))

Answer:

Page | 24
let 𝑓 −1 (3) = 𝑥 then 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
which means that we search for 𝑥 satisfying the equation
𝑥5 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥 = 3
clearly 𝑥 = 1 is a solution to the equation , therefore 𝑓 −1 (3) = 1
and 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (2)) = 2 “ from definition of the inverse function ”

4. the graph of 𝒇 is given

(a) why is 𝒇 one to-one?
(b) what are the domain and rang of 𝒇−𝟏 ?
(c) what is the value of 𝒇−𝟏 (𝟐)?
(d)estimate the value of 𝒇−𝟏 (𝟎).

Answer:
(a) because of horizontal line test
“any horizontal lie intersect with the graph with at most one point”

(b) the domain of 𝑓 −1 is the rang of 𝑓 which is [−1,3]

the Rang of 𝑓 −1 is the domain of 𝑓 which is [−3,3]

(c) 𝑓 −1 (2) = 0 (d) 𝑓 −1 (0) ≈ −1.75

5. Find a formula for the inverse of the following functions:

𝟒𝒙−𝟏
(a)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏 + √𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 (b)𝒇(𝒙) =
𝟐𝒙+𝟑
(c)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝟑𝒙−𝟏 (d)𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙, 𝒙 ≥ 𝟏/𝟐
𝒆𝒙
(e)𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧(𝒙 + 𝟑) (g)𝒚 =
𝟏+𝟐𝒆𝒙

Answer:

(a)Put 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) we get

𝑦 = 1 + √2 + 3𝑥
then we write 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦
𝑦 − 1 = √2 + 3𝑥
⟹ (𝑦 − 1)2 = 2 + 3𝑥 [squaring both sides]
⟹ (𝑦 − 1)2 − 2 = 3𝑥
1
⟹ 𝑥 = 3 [(𝑦 − 1)2 − 2]

Interchanging 𝑥 and 𝑦 then

1
𝑦 = 3 [(𝑥 − 1)2 − 2]

Then,
1
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = [(𝑥 − 1)2 − 2]
3

(b) Let
4𝑥 − 1
𝑦=
2𝑥 + 3

Page | 25
then we try to write 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦 as follows
4𝑥 − 1
𝑦= 𝑦(2𝑥 + 3) = 4𝑥 − 1
2𝑥 + 3
⟹ 2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 1
⟹ 2𝑥𝑦 − 4𝑥 = −3𝑦 − 1
⟹ 𝑥(2𝑦 − 4) = −(3𝑦 + 1)
(3𝑦 + 1)
⟹𝑥=−
2𝑦 − 4
interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦 then
3𝑥 + 1
𝑦=−
2𝑥 − 4
then,
3𝑥 + 1
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = −
2𝑥 − 4
(c) let
𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥−1
we write 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥−1
⟹ ln 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1
⟹ ln 𝑦 + 1 = 2𝑥
1
⟹ 𝑥 = [ln 𝑦 + 1]
2
we interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦 then we get
1
𝑦 = [ln 𝑥 + 1]
2
therefore,
1
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = [ln 𝑥 + 1]
2
(d) let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 then by compeleting squares we have
1 2 1 2
𝑦 = (𝑥 − ) − (− )
2 2
write 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦 as follows
1 1 2
𝑦 + = (𝑥 − )
4 2
1 1
⟹ √𝑦 + = |𝑥 − |
4 2
1
Since 𝑥 > 2 we can find

1 1 1 1
√𝑦 + = 𝑥 + ⟹ 𝑥 = √𝑦 + −
4 2 4 2

Interchanging 𝑥 and 𝑦 then

Page | 26
 1 1
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = √𝑥 + −
4 2

(e) let 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 + 3) then

𝑦 = ln(𝑥 + 3)
⟹ 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3
⟹ 𝑒𝑦 − 3 = 𝑥
Interchange between 𝑥 and 𝑦 then
𝑒𝑥 − 3 = 𝑦
then
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 3
𝑒𝑥
(g) let 𝑦 = 1+2𝑒 𝑥 then by multiplying up and down by 𝑒 −𝑥 we get
𝑒𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 1
𝑦= . =
(1 + 2𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑒 −𝑥 + 2)
1 1
⟹ 𝑒 −𝑥 + 2 = 𝑒 −𝑥 = − 2
𝑦 𝑦
1
⟹ −𝑥 = ln ( − 2)
𝑦
1
⟹ 𝑥 = − ln ( − 2)
𝑦
interchanging 𝑥 and 𝑦 then,
1
𝑦 = − ln ( − 2)
𝑥
Then
1
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = − ln ( − 2)
𝑥
6. express the given quantity as a single logarithms
(a)𝐥𝐧 𝟓 + 𝟓 𝐥𝐧 𝟑
(b) 𝐥𝐧(𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝐥𝐧(𝒂 − 𝒃) − 𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝒄
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
(c) 𝟑 𝐥𝐧(𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟑 + 𝟐 [𝐥𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐥𝐧(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐) ]

Answer:

ln 5 + 5 ln 3 = ln 5 + ln 35 = ln 5(35 )
(𝑎+𝑏)(𝑎−𝑏) 𝑎 2 −𝑏2
24-ln(𝑎 + 𝑏) + ln(𝑎 − 𝑏) − ln 𝑐 2 = ln = ln
𝑐2 𝑐2
1 1
25-3 ln(𝑥 + 2)3 + 2 [ln 𝑥 − ln(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2)2 ]
1 1 1
= ln((𝑥 + 2)3 )3 + ln 𝑥 − ln(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2)2
2 2
1
= ln(𝑥 + 2) + ln 𝑥 2 − ln(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2)

Page | 27
 1
𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 2)
= ln [ 2 ]
𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2

7. solve the following equation for 𝒙

(a)𝒆𝟕−𝟒𝒙 = 𝟔 (b)𝐥𝐧(𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟐
𝟐
(c)𝐥𝐧(𝒙 − 𝟏) = 𝟑 (d)𝒆𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝒆𝒙 + 𝟐 = 𝟎
(e)𝟐𝒙−𝟓 = 𝟑 (f)𝐥𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐧(𝒙 − 𝟏) = 𝟏
(g) 𝒍𝒏 (𝒍𝒏 𝒙) = 𝟏 (h)𝒆𝒂𝒙 = 𝑪𝒆𝒃𝒙 , where 𝒂 ≠ 𝒃

Answer:

(a) if 𝑒 7−4𝑥 = 6 then, by taking 𝑙𝑛 of both sides we have

ln 𝑒 7−4𝑥 = ln 6
⟹ 7 − 4𝑥 = ln 6
⟹ −4𝑥 = ln 6 − 7
1 1
⟹ 𝑥 = − (ln 6 − 7) = (7 − ln 6)
4 4
(b)if ln(3𝑥 − 10) = 2 Then by taking 𝑒 of both sides we have
𝑒 ln(3𝑥−10) = 𝑒 2
⟹ 3𝑥 − 10 = 𝑒 2
⟹ 3𝑥 = 𝑒 2 + 10
1
⟹ 𝑥 = [𝑒 2 + 10]
3
(c) if ln(𝑥 2 − 1) = 3 then
𝑥2 − 1 = 𝑒3
⟹ 𝑥2 = 𝑒3 + 1
⟹ 𝑥 = ±√𝑒 3 + 1

(d) if 𝑒 2𝑥 − 3𝑒 𝑥 + 2 = 0 then
(𝑒 𝑥 )2 − 3𝑒 𝑥 + 2 = 0
let 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 then
𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 + 2 = 0
(𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 − 2) = 0
therefore,

either Or,
𝑦=1 𝑦=2
⟹ 𝑒𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑒𝑥 = 2
⟹ 𝑥 = ln 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = ln 2

(e) if 2𝑥−5 = 3 then

𝑥 − 5 = ln 3 ⟹ 𝑥 = ln 3 + 5

Page | 28
(f) ln 𝑥 + ln(𝑥 − 1) = 1 Then
ln 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) = 1
Taking 𝑒 of both sides
𝑥(𝑥 − 1) = 𝑒 1
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 𝑒 = 0
Then,
1 ± √1 − 4(−𝑒) 1 ± √1 + 4𝑒
𝑥= =
2(1) 2

(g) if ln(ln 𝑥) = 1 then taking exponential of both sides two times we have
ln(ln 𝑥) = 1 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑒

c(h)if 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑏𝑥 then
𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑐 𝑒 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑐+𝑏𝑥
taking logarithms of both sides then
ln 𝑐
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥 + ln 𝑐 ⟹ (𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑥 = ln 𝑐 ⟹ 𝑥 =
𝑎−𝑏
8. solve each inequality for 𝒙
(a)𝐥𝐧 𝒙 < 𝟎 (b)𝒆𝒙 > 𝟓 (c) 𝟏 < 𝒆𝟑𝒙−𝟏 < 𝟐 (d)𝟏 − 𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 < 𝟑

Answer:
Remark: both 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 and 𝑒 𝑥 are increasing
(a)if ln 𝑥 < 0 then functions in 𝑥 which means that we can
𝑥 < 𝑒0 ⟹ 𝑥 < 1 take logarithms or exponential pf both
so, the solution is given by the interval ] − ∞, 1] sides of inequalities without changing the
inequality direction
(b)if 𝑒 𝑥 > 5 then 𝑥 > ln 5

(c)if 1 < 𝑒 3𝑥−1 < 2 then

1 1
ln 1 < 3𝑥 − 1 < ln 2 ⟹ 0 + 1 < 3𝑥 < ln 2 + 1 ⟹ < 𝑥 < (1 + ln 2)
3 3
(d) if 1 − 2 ln 3 < 3 then
2 ln 𝑥 > 1 − 3 ⟹ ln 𝑥 > −1
taking 𝑒 of both sides we have 𝑥 > 𝑒 −1

9.if 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 and 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟕, find the function 𝒇 such that 𝒇 ∘ 𝒈 = 𝒉

Solution:
since,
𝑓∘𝑔 =ℎ
−1
so,if 𝑔 exists, we have
𝑓 = ℎ ∘ 𝑔−1
To find 𝑔−1 let 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) so,
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1

Page | 29
 𝑦−1
⟹𝑥=
2
interchanging 𝑥 and 𝑦 we have
𝑥−1
𝑦=
2
so,
𝑥−1
𝑔−1 (𝑥) =
2
Now,
−1 (𝑥) −1 (𝑥))
𝑥−1 𝑥−1 2 𝑥−1
𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ ∘ 𝑔 = ℎ(𝑔 = ℎ( ) = 4( ) + 4( )+7
2 2 2
2 2
= (𝑥 − 1) + 2(𝑥 − 1) + 7 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 2𝑥 − 2 + 7
= 𝑥2 + 6

Page | 30
 6. limits
How to find 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂

Substitute by 𝒂
Case 1: Value Problem is done

Case 2:
If the limit involve quadratic form 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄

𝟎 1- Factorize the quadratic form

2- Divide up and down by the zero factor (𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝟎 3- Substitute by 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝟎. ∞
∞−∞ If we have roots involved

1-Multiply by conjugate
2-cancel the zero factor (𝑥 − 𝑎) up and down
3- substitute by 𝑥 = 𝑎

Apply the theorem (if possible)

𝑥 𝑚 − 𝑎𝑚 𝑚 𝑚−𝑛
lim 𝑛 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑛

If we have trigonometric
Or
functions
Applying squeeze theorem:
1-Write the trig. fn’s in terms of
sin 𝑥, tan 𝑥 if 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝒇(𝒙) ≤ ℎ(𝑥)
with lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿
2- Apply the following theorems 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥 then, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
lim = 1, lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

Case 3: (𝒙 → ∞)

∞ 1- Divide both denominator and numerator by the highest power

2- Substitute by 𝑥 = ∞
∞

Page | 31
General remarks:
if lim 𝑓(𝑥) , lim 𝑔(𝑥) exists then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1. lim (𝑐𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
2. lim (𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
3. lim (𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) . lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
4. lim [ ] = 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑛 𝑛
5. lim (𝑓(𝑥)) = (lim 𝑓(𝑥))
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Exercise: find the following limits

3𝑥 3 +2𝑥+5 1−sin 𝑥 1 1
• lim • lim • lim (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )
𝑥→1 𝑥^5𝑥 2 +8 𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 𝑥→∞
𝑥 3 +𝑥+16 5𝑥 2 +𝑥+6 2𝑥−1
• lim • lim 3 • lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 +𝑥+3 𝑥→∞ 7𝑥 +3𝑥+9 𝑥→∞ √𝑥 2 +3
𝑥+3
• lim
|𝑥|
•
√9𝑥 6 −𝑥
lim • lim
𝑥→−3 2 −9
𝑥
𝑥→∞ |𝑥+1| 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 +1
𝑥 3 +1
•
𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
lim
1 1
+ • lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥+3 • lim 4 𝑥 𝑥→−1 𝑥+1
𝑥→−4 𝑥+4
𝑥 5 −32
• lim
𝑥+3
𝑥 2 −81 • lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥 2 −9 • lim 𝑥−3 𝑥→2 𝑥 3 −8
𝑥→9 √
𝑥 4 −16 √1+ℎ−1
• lim √𝑥+2−√2 • lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −4 • lim ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
• lim √9𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3𝑥 1 1 • lim sin 3𝑥 tan 5𝑥
𝑥→∞ • lim ( − ) 𝑥→0 2
𝑥
𝑡→0 √𝑡 1+𝑡 𝑡
sin2 3𝑥 tan 5𝑥 sin(𝑚𝑥)
• lim 𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥 • lim
𝑥→0 • lim cot 2𝑥 csc 3𝑥 𝑥→0 sin(𝑛𝑥)
𝑥→0
tan2 3𝑥 1
• lim 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 • lim𝜋 [sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥] • lim 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 tan2 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→∞
𝑥→
2
𝑥 tan(𝑥−2)
• lim
sin 2𝑥
𝑥 csc2 2𝑥 • lim 𝑥 2 −4
𝑥→0 2𝑥 2 +𝑥 • lim cot 3𝑥 𝑥→2
𝑥→0 1−cos 𝑥
• lim
cos 𝑥−1
1 • lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 • lim 𝑥 2
sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥
𝑥→0

Answer:
3𝑥 3 +2𝑥+5 3(1)+2(1)+5 10
1- lim = = 13
𝑥→1 𝑥^5𝑥 2 +8 5(1)+8

1−sin 𝑥 1−sin 0 1−0

2-lim = = =1
𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 cos 0 1

Page | 32
 1 1 1 1
3- lim ( − ) = + =0+0=0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥2 𝑥3 ∞ ∞

1 16 1 16
𝑥 3 +𝑥+16 ∞ 1+ 2 + 3 1+ + 1
𝑥 𝑥 ∞ ∞
4- lim = ∞ = lim 1 1 3 = 1 1 3 =0=∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 +𝑥+3 𝑥→∞ 𝑥+ 2 + 3 + +
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑥 𝑥

5 1 6
5𝑥 2 +𝑥+6 ∞ + + 0+0+0
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
5- lim = = lim 3 9 = 7+0+0 = 0
𝑥→∞ 7𝑥 3 +3𝑥+9 ∞ 𝑥→∞ 7+ 2 + 3
𝑥 𝑥

1
2𝑥−1 ∞ (2𝑥−1)/𝑥 2− 2−0
𝑥
6- lim = ∞ = lim = lim = =2
𝑥→∞ √𝑥 2 +3 𝑥→∞ (√𝑥 2 +3)/𝑥 𝑥→∞ 3
√1+ 2 √1+0
𝑥

|𝑥| ∞ 1 1
7- lim = ∞ = lim 1 = 1+0 = 1
𝑥→∞ |𝑥|+1 𝑥→∞ 1+|𝑥|

1
√9𝑥 6 −𝑥 (√9𝑥 6 −𝑥)/𝑥 3 √9− 5
√∞−∞ 𝑥 √9−0
8- lim 𝑥 3 +1 = ∞
= lim (𝑥 3 +1)/𝑥3 = lim 1 = 1+0
=3
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 1+ 3
𝑥

𝑥+3 0 (𝑥+3) 1 1 1
9- lim = 0 = lim = lim = −3−3 = − 6
𝑥→−3 2 −9
𝑥 𝑥→−3 (𝑥+3)(𝑥−3) 𝑥→−3 𝑥−3

𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 0 (𝑥+3)(𝑥−2)
10- lim = 0 = lim = lim (𝑥 − 2) = −5
𝑥→−3 𝑥+3 𝑥→−3 𝑥+3 𝑥→−3

1 1 𝑥+4
+ 0 [ ] 1 1
4 𝑥 4𝑥
11- lim = = lim = lim =
𝑥→−4 𝑥+4 0 𝑥→−4 𝑥+4 𝑥→−4 4𝑥 16

𝑥 3 +1 (−1)3 +1 0 (𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 −𝑥+1)

12- lim = (−1)+1
= = lim (𝑥+1)
= lim 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 0 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

𝑥 3 +1 𝑥 3 −(−1)3 3
Or, lim = lim = 1 (−1)2 = 3
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 𝑥→−1 𝑥−(−1)

𝑥+3 0 𝑥−(−3) 1 1
13- lim = 0 = lim = 2 (−3)−1 = − 6
𝑥→−3 𝑥 2 −9 𝑥→−3 𝑥 2 −(−3)2

𝑥 2 −81 𝑥 2 −92 2 3
14-lim = lim 1 1 = 1/2 93/2 = 4(√9)
𝑥→9 √𝑥−3 𝑥→9 𝑥 2 −92

𝑥 5 −32 0 𝑥 5 −25 5 5 20
15-lim = = lim = (2)5−3 = (4) =
𝑥→2 𝑥 3 −8 0 𝑥→2 𝑥 3 −23 3 3 4

√𝑥+2−√2 0 √𝑥+2−√2 (√𝑥+2+√2) (𝑥−2)−2 1 1

16-lim 𝑥
= 0 = lim 𝑥
. 𝑥+2+ 2 = lim 𝑥( = lim =2
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 √ √ 𝑥→0 √𝑥+2+√2) 𝑥→0 √𝑥+2+√2 √2

√1+ℎ−1 0 √1+ℎ−1 (√1+ℎ−1) 1+ℎ−1 1 1 1

17-lim ℎ
= 0 = lim ℎ
= lim ℎ( = lim ℎ( = 1+1 = 2x
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 (√1+ℎ−1) ℎ→0 √1+ℎ+1) ℎ→0 √1+ℎ+1)

Page | 33
 √9𝑥 2 +𝑥+3𝑥 9𝑥 2 +𝑥−9𝑥 2
18- lim √9𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3𝑥 = ∞ − ∞ = lim √9𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3𝑥 . = lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ √9𝑥 2 +𝑥+3𝑥 𝑥→∞ √9𝑥 2 +𝑥+3𝑥
𝑥
𝑥 ∞ 𝑥 1 1 1
= lim = ∞ = lim = lim = =6
𝑥→∞ √9𝑥 2 +𝑥+3𝑥 𝑥→∞ (√9𝑥2+𝑥+3𝑥) 𝑥→∞ √9+1+3 √9+0+3
𝑥 𝑥

1 1 1 1 1−√1+𝑡 0 (1−√1+𝑡)(1+√1+𝑡)
19-lim (𝑡 1+𝑡
− 𝑡 ) = 0 − 0 = ∞ − ∞ = lim ( ) = 0 = lim
𝑡→0 √ 𝑡→0 𝑡√1+𝑡 𝑡→0 𝑡√1+𝑡(1+√1+𝑡)

1−(1+𝑡) −1 −1
= lim = lim =
𝑡→0 (𝑡√1+𝑡)(1+√1+𝑡) 𝑡→0 √1+𝑡(1+√1+𝑡) 2

1 0 1 sin 3𝑥 tan 5𝑥 sin 3𝑥 tan 5𝑥

20-lim 𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥 tan 5𝑥 = 0 = lim 𝑥 2 [ 3𝑥
] 3𝑥 [ 5𝑥 ] 5𝑥 = 15 lim [ 3𝑥
] [ 5𝑥 ]
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
sin 3𝑥 sin 5𝑥
= 15 ( lim ) ( lim ) = 15(1)(1) = 15
3𝑥→0 3𝑥 5𝑥→0 5𝑥

tan 5𝑥 tan 5𝑥
sin2 3𝑥 tan 5𝑥 0 1 sin 3𝑥 2 [ ]5𝑥 32 (5) sin 3𝑥 2 𝑥→0
lim 45
21-lim = 0 = lim 𝑥 2 ( ) (3𝑥)2 sin5𝑥2𝑥 = (lim ) 5𝑥
sin 2𝑥 =
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥 [ ]2𝑥 2 𝑥→0 3𝑥 lim 2
2𝑥 𝑥→0 2𝑥

0 1 1 1 1
22-lim 𝑥 2 cot 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (3𝑥) = 0 = lim 𝑥 2 tan 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥 = lim 𝑥 2 ( tan 2𝑥 ) ( sin 3𝑥 )
𝑥→0 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ [ ](2𝑥) [ ]3𝑥
2𝑥 3𝑥

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= lim = =
2(3) 𝑥→0 [tan 2𝑥] [sin 3𝑥] 6 [lim tan 2𝑥] [lim sin 3𝑥] 6
2𝑥 3𝑥 𝑥→0 2𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥

1 2 1 2
1 2 sin 1 tan( ) 2 sin tan( )
23-lim 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = ∞. 0 = lim 𝑥 2 [ 1
𝑥
] (𝑥) [ 2
𝑥
] (𝑥) = 2 [lim 1
𝑥
] [lim 2
𝑥
] = 2.1.1 = 2
𝑥→0 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
( ) 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥→0 ( )
𝑥 𝑥

tan2 3𝑥 0 1 tan 3𝑥 2 1
24-lim 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 = 0 = lim 𝑥 ( 3𝑥
) (3𝑥)2 sin 2𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 ( )(2𝑥)
2𝑥

9𝑥 2 tan 3𝑥 2 1 9 tan 3𝑥 2 1 9
= lim 2𝑥2 [ 3𝑥
] sin 2𝑥 = 2 [ lim ] sin 2𝑥 =2
𝑥→0 [ ] 3𝑥→0 3𝑥 [lim ]
2𝑥 𝑥→0 2𝑥

𝑥 csc2 2𝑥 0 𝑥 tan 3𝑥 tan 3𝑥 1

25-lim = 0 = lim = lim 𝑥 [ ] (3𝑥) sin 3𝑥 2
𝑥→0 cot 3𝑥 𝑥→0 sin2 2𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥 ( ) (2𝑥)2
3𝑥

3𝑥 2 tan 3𝑥 1 3 tan 3𝑥 1 3
= lim [ ] sin 3𝑥 2 = [ lim ] sin 3𝑥 2
=
𝑥→0 4𝑥 2 3𝑥 ( ) 4 3𝑥→0 3𝑥 ( lim ) 4
3𝑥 2𝑥→0 3𝑥

1−sin 𝑥 (1+sin 𝑥) 1−sin2 𝑥

26-lim𝜋[sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥] = ∞ − ∞ = lim𝜋 . = lim𝜋
𝑥→ 𝑥→ cos 𝑥 1+sin 𝑥 𝑥→ cos 𝑥(1+sin 𝑥)
2 2 2

cos2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 0
= lim𝜋 cos 𝑥(1+sin 𝑥) = lim𝜋 1+sin 𝑥 = 1+0 = 0
𝑥→ 𝑥→
2 2

sin 𝑚𝑥 sin 𝑚𝑥
sin 𝑚𝑥 0 ( )𝑚𝑥 lim [
𝑚 𝑚𝑥→0 ] 𝑚
𝑚𝑥 𝑚𝑥
27-lim = = lim sin 𝑛𝑥 = sin 𝑛𝑥 =
𝑥→0 sin 𝑛𝑥 0 𝑥→0 ( )𝑛𝑥 𝑛 lim [ ] 𝑛
𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑥→0 𝑛𝑥

Page | 34
 𝑥 tan(𝑥−2) 0 𝑥 tan(𝑥−2) 𝑥 tan(𝑥−2) 2 tan(𝑥−2) 1
28-lim 𝑥 2 −4
= 0 = lim 𝑥+2 ( 𝑥−2
) = lim 𝑥+2 lim = 4 lim =2
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 (𝑥−2)→0 𝑥−2

sin 2𝑥 0 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 1 sin 2𝑥

29-lim 2𝑥 2 +𝑥 = 0 = lim 𝑥(𝑥+1) [ 2𝑥
] = 2 lim 𝑥+1 lim ( 2𝑥
) = 2(1)(1) = 2
𝑥→0 ‫ء‬−.0 𝑥→0 2𝑥→0

1
30- to evaluate lim 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 we observe that the theorems is not applicable here, so we may try to
𝑥→0
use squeeze theorem as follows; since
1
−1 ≤ sin ≤ 1
𝑥
1
−𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 2 sin ≤ 𝑥 2
𝑥
where, lim 𝑥 2 = 0 = lim −𝑥 2 therefore,
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
1
lim 𝑥 2 sin = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥
1−cos 𝑥 0 (1−cos 𝑥)(1+cos 𝑥) 1−cos2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 0
31-lim = 0 = lim = lim sin 𝑥(1+cos 𝑥) = lim sin 𝑥(1+cos 𝑥) = lim 1+cos 𝑥 = 1+1 = 0
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

cos 𝑥−1 0 (cos 𝑥−1)(cos 𝑥−1) cos2 𝑥−1

32-lim = = lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 0 𝑥→0 𝑥2 (cos 𝑥+1) 𝑥→0 𝑥 2 (cos 𝑥+1)
− sin2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 2 1 1 1
= lim 2 (cos = − [lim ( ) lim ] = − [1. ] = −
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥+1) 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 cos 𝑥+1 2 2

Page | 35
 7. Existence of limits & continuity

How to study the existence of 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)

𝒙→𝒂
If

1- lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists. [“ 𝑥 → 𝑎+ " means that 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎 through values > 𝑎]
𝑥→𝑎 +
2- lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists. [“ 𝑥 → 𝑎− " means that 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎 through values < 𝑎]
𝑥→𝑎 −
3- lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 + 𝑥→𝑎

Then we say that the required limit exists. And if one of the last 3 conditions does not satisfied
then we say that the limit does not exist

To study continuity of 𝒇(𝒙) at some point 𝒙 = 𝒂

We have to prove that

1- lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists [that’s both right and left limits are exists and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
2- 𝑓(𝑎) exists
3- lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎

If one of the conditions does not satisfied, we say that 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎

Exercise
1.study the existence of the following limits at each corresponding point.
𝟒, 𝒙 ≥ 𝟑
(i) 𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟑
𝟐, 𝒙 < 𝟑
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓, 𝒙 ≥ 𝟐
(ii)𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟐
𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏, 𝒙 < 𝟐
(iii)𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 at 𝒙 = 𝟏 and at 𝒙 = −𝟏
𝒙+|𝒙|
(iv)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙
, at 𝒙=𝟎
𝟐
|𝒙 −𝟑𝒙−𝟐|
(v)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙−𝟐
, at 𝒙 = 𝟐 and 𝒙 = 𝟏
(vi)𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙, at 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝒙 = 𝒂 > 𝟎

(i) since ,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 4 = 4,
𝑥→3+ 𝑥→3
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 2 = 2
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
so,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→3− 𝑥→3
thus, lim 𝑓(𝑥) doesn’t exist
𝑥→3

Page | 36
(ii) Since,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 2𝑥 + 5 = 4 + 5 = 9
𝑥→2+ 𝑥→2
since,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(3𝑥 + 1) = 7
𝑥→2− 𝑥→2
So, lim 𝑓(𝑥) doesn’t exist
𝑥→3

(iii) Since lim− √𝑥 2 − 1 doesn’t exist (as 𝑥 → 1− the quantity 𝑥 2 − 1 becomes negative and then
𝑥→1
the square root is not defined ) so lim √𝑥 2 − 1 does not exist.
𝑥→1

Moreover, lim + √𝑥 2 − 1 does not exist (as 𝑥 → −1+ the quantity 𝑥 2 − 1 becomes negative and
𝑥→−1
then the square root is not defined) so, lim √𝑥 2 − 1 does not exist.
𝑥→−1

(iv) since
𝑥+𝑥
𝑥≥0
𝑥 2 𝑥>0
𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥 − 𝑥 ={
0 𝑥<0
𝑥<0
𝑥
Now,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 2 = 2,
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 0 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

So, lim 𝑓(𝑥) doesn’t exist.

𝑥→0

(v) since
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0 𝑥 ≥ 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2 = 𝑥−2
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2
{ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 { 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑥−2 𝑥−2
Studying at 𝒙 = 𝟐
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ = lim+ = 1,
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 2)
−(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− = −1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 2)
so, the limit does not exist at 𝑥 = 2

Studying at 𝒙 = 𝟏
−(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2) −(1 − 3 − 2)
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ = = −4,
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥−2 −1
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 −4
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− = =4
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥−2 −1
So, limit doesn’t exist.

Page | 37
(vi) Since lim− √𝑥 does not exist (when we approach to 0 through negative values the square root
𝑥→0
is not defined), So, lim √𝑥 does not exist.
𝑥→

2.study the continuity of the following functions at the corresponding points:

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙
𝟐− , 𝒙≠𝟎 𝟐+ , 𝒙≠𝟎
(i)𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝒙 ,𝒙 = 𝟎 (ii)𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝒙 ,𝒙 = 𝟎
𝟑, 𝒙=𝟎 𝟑, 𝒙=𝟎
𝒙𝟑 −𝟖
𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓, 𝒙 > 𝟏
(iii)𝒇(𝒙) = { ,𝒙 = 𝟏 (iv)𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝒙−𝟐 , 𝒙 ≠ 𝟐, 𝒙=𝟐
𝟖𝒙, 𝒙≤𝟏 𝟔𝒙, 𝒙 = 𝟐
|𝒙−𝟐|
(v)𝒇(𝒙) = |𝒙|, 𝒙 ∈ ℝ (vi)𝒇(𝒙) = , 𝒙≠𝟐 (vii)𝒇(𝒙) = ⟦𝒙⟧, 𝒙 = 𝒏
𝒙−𝟐

Answer:

(1) since 𝑓(0) = 3 and

sin 𝑥
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim [2 − ]=2−1=1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥
so, 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 0

(ii) since 𝑓(0) = 3 and

tan 𝑥
lim [2 + ]=2+1=3
𝑥→0 𝑥
so, 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0

(iii)since 𝑓(1) = 8(1) = 8 and

lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+(3𝑥 + 5) = 8 , lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 8𝑥 = 8
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1

So, 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 3

(iv) since 𝑓(2) = 6(2) = 12 and

𝑥3 − 8 𝑥 3 − 23 3
lim= lim = (2)3−1 = 12
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 1
so, 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 2

(v) The two branches of the given piece wise function are polynomials which are continuous on
their domain so it is enough to study at 𝑥 = 0 .

In fact,
𝑓(0) = 0, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− −𝑥 = 0, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0− 𝑥→0 𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0

So the function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on ℝ

𝑥−2
𝑥≥2 1 𝑥>2
𝑥−2
(vi) since 𝑓(𝑥) = {−(𝑥−2) ={
𝑥<2 −1 𝑥<2
𝑥−2
which clearly not defined at 𝑥 = 2 .So 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous function at ℝ − {2}

Page | 38
(vii) the function 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑥] gives the value of the greatest integer ≤ 𝑥 so
𝑓(𝑛) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛
𝑥→𝑛
but,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛 − 1
𝑥→𝑛−

hence, 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑛

3. Find the values of the constants 𝒂 and 𝒃 such that the following functions are
continuous
𝒂𝒙 𝒙≤𝟏 𝒙𝟑 𝒙 ≤ −𝟏
(i)𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝟑𝒙 𝟏 < 𝒙 < 𝟐 (ii)𝒇(𝒙) = {𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 −𝟏 < 𝒙 < 𝟏
𝒃𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂 𝒙 ≥ 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒙≥𝟏
Answer:

(i) since 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 1 then

𝑓(1) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎 = lim− 3𝑥 = 3𝑎 = 3
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

Moreover, 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 2 then

𝑓(2) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2
⟹ lim− 3𝑥 = 6 ⟹ 4𝑏 − 𝑎 = 6 ⟹ 4𝑏 − 3 = 6 ⟹ 𝑏 = 9/4
𝑥→2

(ii) since 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = −1 then

𝑓(−1) = lim + 𝑓(𝑥) (−1)3 = −𝑎 + 𝑏 ⟹ 𝑏 − 𝑎 = −1 … (1)
𝑥→−1

If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 1 then,

𝑓(1) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ⟹ 1 + 2 = lim−(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) ⟹ 3 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 … (2)
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

Adding equations (1) and (2) we get

2𝑏 = 2 ⟹ 𝑏 = 1
Substituting in (2) we get 𝑎 = 2

(ii) do it yourself

4.Find the numbers at which the functions 𝒇 is discontinuous. At which of these numbers
is continuous from the right, from the left, or neither?, where,
𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒙≤𝟎
𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟎 < 𝒙 ≤ 𝟐
(𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐 𝒙 > 𝟐
Answer: it is enough to study continuity at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2

At 𝒙 = 𝟐
𝑓(0) = 1 + 02 = 1
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim (2 − 𝑥) = 2 − 0 = 2
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(1 + 𝑥 2 ) = 1 (so 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 2)(continouse from ledt only)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

And at 𝑥 = 2 we can easily prove that 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous

Page | 39
 8. Differentiability
To study differentiability of the function at some general point 𝒙
(or to Find 𝒚′ using definition )
Use the definition:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
If this limit exists then we say that the function 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑥

To study the differentiability of a function at some point 𝒙 = 𝒂

Use the definition:
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
If this limit exists then we say that the function is differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎

Exercise:
1. Find the derivative of the function using definition. State the domain the domain of the
function and its derivative
(i)𝒇(𝒙) = −𝟑𝒙 + 𝟔 (𝒊𝒊)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 (iii)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟏
𝟏
(iv)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 , 𝒙 ≠ 𝟎 (v)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑√𝒙, 𝒙 > 𝟎

Answer:

1- (i) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 6 then the domain of 𝑓 is ℝ. So,

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim [−3(𝑥 + ℎ) + 6 − (−3𝑥 + 6)]
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
1 −3ℎ
= lim [−3𝑥 − 3ℎ + 6 + 3𝑥 − 6] = = −3
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ
Hence domain of 𝑓 ′ is ℝ

(ii)if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 the domain of 𝑓 is ℝ and

(𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 𝑥 2 1 2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2 ℎ(ℎ + 2𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim [𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2 − 𝑥 2 ] = lim = lim = 2𝑥
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
Hence the domain of 𝑓′ is ℝ

(iii) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 1 the domain of the function is ℝ

(𝑥 + ℎ)3 + 1 − (𝑥 3 + 1)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim [𝑥 3 + 3ℎ𝑥 2 + ℎ3 + 1 − 𝑥 3 − 1 ]
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0
ℎ
= lim (3ℎ𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + ℎ2 ) = 3𝑥 2
ℎ→0 ℎ

Hence the domain is ℝ

Page | 40
(iv) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 the domain of the function 𝑓 is ℝ − {0}.
1 1
−𝑥 1 𝑥 − (𝑥 + ℎ) 1 −ℎ −1 −1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim 𝑥 + ℎ = lim [ ] = lim [ ] = lim = 2
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→ ℎ 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ) ℎ→0 ℎ (𝑥 + ℎ)𝑥 ℎ→0 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ) 𝑥

The domain of 𝑓 ′ is ℝ − {0}

(v) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 3√𝑥 then,the domain is 𝑥 ≥ 0 and

3√𝑥 + ℎ − 3√𝑥 3 (√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥) 3 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim (√𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥). = lim ( )
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ (√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥) ℎ→0 ℎ √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥

3 ℎ 1 3
= lim ( ) = 3 lim =
ℎ→0 ℎ √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥 ℎ→0 √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥 2√𝑥
The domain is 𝑥 > 0

Prove using definition that

𝒅 𝒅
(i)𝒅𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 (ii)𝒅𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

Answer:
(i) if 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 then
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) sin(𝑥 + ℎ) − sin 𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
(𝑥 + ℎ) + 𝑥 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑥
2 cos ( 2 ) sin ( 2 )
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ
2𝑥 + ℎ sin (2)
= 2 lim cos ( )
ℎ→0 2 ℎ
ℎ
(2𝑥 + ℎ) sin (2) 2𝑥 + 0
= lim cos ( ) lim = cos ( ) (1) = cos 𝑥
ℎ→0 2 ℎ→0 ℎ 2
2
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 then
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) cos(𝑥 + ℎ) − cos 𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
(𝑥 + ℎ) + 𝑥 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑥
−2 sin ( 2 ) sin ( 2 )
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
2𝑥 + ℎ sin(ℎ/2)
= −2 lim sin ( )
ℎ→0 2 ℎ
ℎ
2𝑥 + ℎ sin (2) 2𝑥 + 0
= − lim sin ( ) . lim = − sin ( ) . 1 = − sin 𝑥
ℎ→0 2 ℎ→0 ℎ 2
2

𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
• sin 𝑎 − sin 𝑏 = 2 cos ( 2
) sin ( 2 )
𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
• cos 𝑎 − cos 𝑏 = −2 sin ( 2 ) sin ( 2 )

Page | 41
3. study the differentiability of each function at te corresponding point
𝒙 𝟎≤𝒙<𝟏 𝒙𝟑 +𝟑
(i)𝒇(𝒙) = { , 𝒙=𝟏 (ii)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙−𝟏 , 𝒙 = 𝟐
𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟏 < 𝒙 < 𝟐
𝟒 + 𝒙, 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
(iii)𝒇(𝒙) = { , 𝒙=𝟎 (iv)𝒇(𝒙) = ⟦𝒙 + 𝟑⟧, 𝒙 = 𝟐
𝟒 − 𝒙, 𝒙 < 𝟎
Answer:

3-(i) since
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(1) 𝑥−1
lim− = lim− =1
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1
and,
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(1) (2𝑥 − 1) − 1 2(𝑥 − 1)
lim+ = lim+ = lim+ =2
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 (𝑥 − 1)

Therefore, the limit does not exist. Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥) is not differentiable at 𝑥 = 1
(𝑖𝑖) since,
𝑥3 + 3 8+3
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(2) (𝑥−1)− 1 𝑥 3 + 3 − 11(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 + 14
lim = lim = lim = lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 2) 𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)

Using long division method to factorizing 𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 + 14 we have

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 7

𝑥−2 𝑥3 − 11𝑥 + 14
3 2
𝑥 − 2𝑥
2𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 14
2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
−7𝑥 + 14
−7𝑥 + 14
0
Thus,
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(2) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 7) 4 + 4 − 7 1
lim = lim = = =1
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 2−1 1
(iii) since,
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(0) 4+𝑥−4 𝑥
lim+ = lim+ = lim = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥−0 𝑥→0 𝑥−0 𝑥→0 𝑥

And,
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(0) (4 − 𝑥) − 4
lim− = lim− = −1
𝑥→0 𝑥−0 𝑥→0 𝑥−0
Therefore, the limit doesn’t exist and hence, 𝑓′(𝑥) doesn’t exist at 𝑥 = 0

(iv) This function is not continuous at 𝑥 = 2 therefore, it’s not differentiable at 𝑥 = 2

Page | 42
4.detremine whether 𝒇′ (𝟎) exists if:
𝟏 𝟏
𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 , 𝒙 ≠ 𝟎 𝒙𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 , 𝒙 ≠ 𝟎
(i)𝒇(𝒙) = { (𝒊𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = {
𝟎, 𝒙=𝟎 𝟎, 𝒙=𝟎
Answer:

(i) since
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(0) 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 0 1
′ (0)
𝑓 = lim = lim = lim = lim sin
𝑥→0 𝑥−0 𝑥→0 𝑥−0 𝑥→0 𝑥−0 𝑥→0 𝑥
This limit does not exist. Therefore, 𝑓 ′ (0) doesn’t exist.

(ii) since
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(0) 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 − 0 1 sin (𝑥 )
′ (0)
𝑓 = lim = lim = lim 𝑥 sin = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥−0 𝑥→0 𝑥−0 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 (1)
𝑥
but you can see that if 𝑥 → 0 thefore, 1/𝑥 → ∞ so we can’t find this limit by usual way using
theroems. So we try to apply squeeze theorem as follows,
1 1
−1 ≤ sin ≤ 1 ⟹ −𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 sin ≤ 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
Since
lim −𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Consequently,
1
lim 𝑥 sin = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥
Hence 𝑓 ′ (0) exists and equal to 0

Evaluate the following limits using the definition of derivative: [This question is +hard ]
𝟒
(𝟏+𝒉)𝟏𝟎 −𝟏 √𝟏𝟔+𝒉+𝟐
(i) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉
(ii) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉→𝟎
𝟐𝒙 −𝟑𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙−𝟏
(iii)𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙−𝟓 (iv)𝐥𝐢𝐦𝝅 𝝅
𝒙→𝟓 𝒙→ 𝒙−
𝟒 𝟒

Solution:

(i)comparing the given limit

(1 + ℎ)10 − 110
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
With the following
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
We have 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 10 . So
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 10𝑥 9
⟹ 𝑓 ′ (1) = 10(1)9 = 10

Page | 43
(ii) comparing the given limit
4 4 4
√16 + ℎ − 2 √16 + ℎ − √16
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
With the following definition
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
4
We have 𝑎 = 16 and (𝑥) = √𝑥 . So

1 −3 1 1 3
′ (𝑥)
𝑓 = 𝑥 4 = (4 )
4 4 √𝑥
1 1 3 1 1 1
⟹ 𝑓 ′ (16) = ( ) = ( ) =
4 2 4 8 32

(iii) Comparing the given limit

2𝑥 − 32 2 𝑥 − 25
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = lim = lim
𝑥→5 𝑥 − 5 𝑥→5 𝑥 − 5

Comparing with the following definition

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
So, 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 and 𝑎 = 5. Thus,
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 (ln 2)
⟹ 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 25 (ln 2)

(iv) Comparing the given limit

𝜋
tan 𝑥 − 1 tan 𝑥 − tan 4
′ (𝑎)
𝑓 = lim𝜋 𝜋 = 𝑥→𝜋/4
lim 𝜋
𝑥→
4 𝑥 − 4 𝑥−4

With the definition of the derivative given by

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝜋
We can see that 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 and 𝑎 = 2 . Thus,
2 2

𝜋 𝜋 1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑓 ′ ( ) = sec 2 = ( 𝜋 ) =( ) =2
4 4 cos 4 1
( )
√2

Page | 44
 9. Differentiation rules

Differentiation Table
𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇′ (𝒙) Implicite differentation
𝑐 0
𝑛 When? If you can’t obtain 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) explicitly
𝑥 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
1 How? (1) diff. both sides of equation w.r.to 𝑥
√𝑥
2√𝑥 (2) obtain 𝑦 ′ = ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) explicitly
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
cos 𝑥 −sin 𝑥
tan 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥
Logarithmic differentation
cot 𝑥 − csc 2 𝑥
sec 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 When? (i)to simplify diff. complicated functions
csc 𝑥 − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)
(ii)to differentiate forms like (𝑓(𝑥))
1
sin−1 𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2 How? (1) take logarithms of both sides
1 (2)differentiate both sides w.r.to 𝑥
cos−1 𝑥 −
√1 − 𝑥 2 (3)obtain 𝑦 ′ = ℎ(𝑥) explicitly
1
tan−1 𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
1
cot −1 𝑥 − Tangent & Normal lines at 𝒙 = 𝒂
1 + 𝑥2
1 1- Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) call it 𝑚
sec −1 𝑥
|𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1 2- equation of the tangent is given by
1 (𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 ) = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )
csc −1 𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 −1
3- equation of the normal is given by
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥

𝑎𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 (ln 𝑎) 𝟏
(𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 ) = − (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )
1 𝒎
ln 𝑥
𝑥
1
log 𝑎 𝑥
𝑥(ln 𝑎)

𝑑
For a constant 𝑐 we have : [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Distribution over sum :𝑑𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓′(𝑥) ± 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑
Product rule : 𝑑𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)−𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)
Quotient rule: 𝑑𝑥 [𝑔(𝑥)] = [𝑔(𝑥)]2
𝑑
Chain rule 1: 𝑑𝑥 [𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))] = 𝑓 (𝑔(𝑥)). 𝑔′ (𝑥)
′

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 The 7 Dragon ball

Chain Rule 2: if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑧), 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥) then 𝑑𝑥 = ( 𝑑𝑧 ) (𝑑𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 diff. rules
Chain rule 3: if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑡) then 𝑑𝑥 = ( 𝑑𝑡 ) / ( 𝑑𝑡 )

Page | 45
In the following exercises you may find the following rules is useful
Some powers’ rules. Some Logarithms’ rules. Some Trig. Identities:
•
1 1
𝑛
1. √𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 ln(𝑥𝑦) = ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 ∎sec 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
𝑥
1
2. 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 −𝑛 • ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦 1
∎csc 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
3. (𝑥 𝑛 )𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑚 • 𝑟
ln 𝑥 = 𝑟 ln 𝑥 1
∎cot 𝑥 =
4. 𝑥 𝑛 . 𝑥 𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑛+𝑚 tan 𝑥
sin 𝑥
𝑥𝑛 ∎tan 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
5. 𝑥 𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑛−𝑚
∎ sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 = 1
6. (𝑥𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛
∎ tan2 𝑥 + 1 = sec 2 𝑥
∎1 + cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥
∎ sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
∎cos 2𝑥 = cos2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥

Exercise
Q1: find 𝒇′ (𝒙) for each of the following functions:
𝒙−𝟐 𝟓 𝟏
(i)𝒇(𝒙) = (𝒙+𝟏) (ii)𝒇(𝒙) = (𝟐𝒙𝟐−𝟑𝒙+𝟓)𝟗 (iii)𝒇(𝒙) = (𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟓 √𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓

Answer:
𝑥−2 4 1(𝑥+1)−1(𝑥−2) 𝑥−2 4 15
(i) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5 (𝑥−1) . (𝑥+1)2
= (𝑥−1) ((𝑥+1)2 )
(2𝑥 2 −9
(ii) Since 𝑓(𝑥) = − 3𝑥 + 5) then
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −9(2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5)−10 . (4𝑥 − 3)
1
(iii) Since 𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥 2 + 5)5 then
1 𝑑 𝑑 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (2𝑥 2 + 5)5 [3𝑥 + 2] + (3𝑥 + 2) [(2𝑥 2 + 5)5 ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1 −
4
= 3(2𝑥 2 + 5)5 + (2𝑥 2 + 5) 5 (4𝑥)(3𝑥 + 2)
5

Q2: Find 𝒚′ from each of the following: (implicit differentiation)

(i)𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝟒 = 𝟎 (ii)𝒚𝟐 + √𝒙𝒚 + 𝟑𝒙=2, (iii)𝒙 − √𝒙𝒚 = 𝟐𝒚
𝟐𝒙𝟐 +𝟑𝒙−𝟔
(iv) 𝒚 = 𝒙−𝟐
(v) 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓) . 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏)
(vi) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙𝒚 − 𝟓𝒙𝒚 = 𝟎 (viii) 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙 + 𝒚) − 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒙𝒚) = 𝟎

Answer:

(i) If 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 0
differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
3𝑥 2 + 3(𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦′) + 2𝑦𝑦 ′ = 0
then we try to get write 𝑦 ′ as a function of 𝑥 and 𝑦 as follows
3𝑥 2 + 3(𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 ′ ) + 2𝑦𝑦 ′ = 0
⟹ 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦𝑦 ′ = 0
⟹ 𝑦 ′ (3𝑥 + 2𝑦) = −(3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦)

Page | 46
 −(3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦)
⟹ 𝑦′ =
(3𝑥 + 2𝑦)

(ii) Since 𝑦 2 + √𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑥 = 2

differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
1
2𝑦𝑦 ′ + (𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 ′ ) + 3 = 0
2√𝑥𝑦
𝑦 𝑥𝑦 ′
⟹ 2𝑦𝑦 ′ + + +3=0
2√𝑥𝑦 2√𝑥𝑦
𝑦
− (3 + )
𝑥 𝑦 2√𝑥𝑦
⟹ 𝑦 ′ (2𝑦 + ) = − (3 + ) ⟹ 𝑦′ = 𝑥
2√𝑥𝑦 2√𝑥𝑦 2𝑦 +
2√𝑥𝑦
(iii) if 𝑥 − √𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑦
differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
1
1− (𝑦 + 𝑦 ′ 𝑥) = 2𝑦 ′
2√𝑥𝑦
𝑦 𝑥𝑦
⟹1− − = 2𝑦 ′
2√𝑥𝑦 2√𝑥𝑦
𝑦 2+𝑥 ′
⟹1− =( )𝑦
2√𝑥𝑦 2√𝑥𝑦
𝑦
[1 − ]
2√𝑥𝑦
⟹ 𝑦′ =
2+𝑥
[ ]
2√𝑥𝑦
2𝑥 2 +3𝑥−6
(iv) if 𝑦 = then
𝑥−2
(4𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2) − 1(2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6)
𝑦′ =
(𝑥 − 2)2
(v) if 𝑦 = sin(2𝑥 − 5) . cos(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)
𝑑 𝑑
𝑦 ′ = sin(2𝑥 − 5) . [cos(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)] + cos(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) [sin(2𝑥 − 5)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= sin(2𝑥 − 5) [− sin(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)](2𝑥 − 2) + cos(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) . cos(2𝑥 − 5) (2)
(vi) sin 𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑥𝑦 = 0
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 then
cos 𝑥𝑦 (𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 ′ ) − 5(𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 ′ ) = 0
⟹ 𝑦 cos 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 ′ cos 𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑦 − 5𝑥𝑦 ′ = 0
⟹ 𝑦 cos 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 ′ (𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑥) − 5𝑦 = 0
⟹ 𝑦 ′ (𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑥) = 5𝑦 − 𝑦 cos 𝑥𝑦
5𝑦 − 𝑦 cos 𝑥𝑦
⟹ 𝑦′ =
𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑥

Page | 47
(vii) if cos(𝑥 + 𝑦) − sin(𝑥𝑦) = 0
differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
sin(𝑥 + 𝑦). (1 + 𝑦 ′ ) − cos 𝑥𝑦 (𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 ′ ) = 0
⟹ sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑦 ′ sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝑦 cos 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 ′ cos 𝑥𝑦 = 0
⟹ 𝑦 ′ (sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑦) + sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝑦 cos 𝑥𝑦 = 0
𝑦 cos 𝑥𝑦 − sin(𝑥 + 𝑦)
⟹ 𝑦′ =
sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑦
Q3: find 𝒚′ for each of the following:
(i)𝒚 = 𝒛𝟐 + 𝟐; 𝒛 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 (ii)𝒚 = 𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛 ; 𝒛 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐
(iii)𝒙 = 𝟔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒕 ; 𝒚 = 𝟔 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕

Solution:

(i) since 𝑦 = 𝑧 2 + 2, 𝑧 = 3𝑥 2 + 1 then

𝑦 = (3𝑥 2 + 1)2 + 2
Therefore,
𝑦 ′ = 2(3𝑥 2 + 1)(6𝑥)
Another method:
𝑑𝑦
if 𝑦 = 𝑧 2 + 2 then = 2𝑧
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧
if 𝑍 = 3𝑥 2 + 1 then = 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥

therefore using chain rule we have

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑦′ = = ( ) = (2𝑧)(6𝑥) = 2(3𝑥 2 + 1)(6𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
(ii)If 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑧 , 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 2 then
𝑦 = 3 sin(𝑥 2 + 2)
therefore,
𝑦 ′ = 3 cos(𝑥 2 + 2) . (2𝑥)
Another method:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= ( ) = (3 cos 𝑧)(2𝑥) = 3 cos(𝑥 2 + 2) (2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(iii) if 𝑥 = 6 cos 2𝑡 then 𝑑𝑡
= −6(2) sin 2𝑡
𝑑𝑦
if 𝑦 = 6 sin 2𝑡 then = 6.2 cos 2𝑡 then
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 1 1
𝑦′ = = ( )( ) = . = 12 cos 2𝑡 . = − cos 2𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 (𝑑𝑥 ) −12 sin 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒚
Q4: (i) 𝒚𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 − 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 then show that 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏
(ii)Find 𝒚′ and 𝒚′′, if 𝒙𝒚 − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐 = 𝟎

Answer:

Page | 48
(i) if 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑥 3 = 10
differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥
3𝑦 2 𝑦 ′ + 3(2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 ′ 𝑥 2 ) − 3(𝑦 2 + 2𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑥) − 3𝑥 2 = 0

⟹ 3𝑦 2 𝑦 ′ + 6𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 ′ − 3𝑦 2 − 6𝑦𝑥𝑦 ′ − 3𝑥 2 = 0
⟹ 𝑦 ′ (3𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑦𝑥) + 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 = 0
−6𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2
⟹ 𝑦′ = =1
3𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦
(ii) if 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2 = 0 then
differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥 then
(𝑦 + 𝑦 ′ 𝑥) − 2𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 ′ + 0 = 0
⟹ 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 ′ − 2𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 ′ = 0
⟹ 𝑦 − 2𝑥 + (𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑦 ′ = 0 … (𝟏)
⟹ (𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 − 𝑦
2𝑥 − 𝑦
⟹ 𝑦′ =
𝑥 − 2𝑦
To find 𝑦 ′′ we differentiate (𝟏) with respect to 𝑥
𝑦 ′ − 2 + 𝑦 ′′ (𝑥 − 2𝑦) + 𝑦 ′ (1 − 2𝑦 ′ ) = 0
⟹ 𝑦 ′ − 2 + 𝑦 ′′ (𝑥 − 2𝑦) + 𝑦 ′ − 2(𝑦 ′ )2 = 0
⟹ 𝑦 ′′ (𝑥 − 2𝑦) + 2𝑦 ′ − 2(𝑦 ′ )2 − 2
⟹ 𝑦 ′′ (𝑥 − 2𝑦) = 2 + 2𝑦(𝑦 ′ )2 − 2𝑦 ′
2𝑥 − 𝑦 2 2𝑥 − 𝑦
2 + 2(𝑦 ′ )2
− 2𝑦′ 2 + 2 (𝑥 − 2𝑦 ) − 2 (𝑥 − 2𝑦)
⟹ 𝑦 ′′ = =
𝑥 − 2𝑦 (𝑥 − 2𝑦)

Q5: (a)Find equations of the tangent and the normal line to the curve at the given point
𝟐
(i)𝒚 = (𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟑) at 𝑷(𝟐, 𝟖𝟏)
(ii)𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒙 at 𝒑(𝟎, 𝟎)
(b) Find the points at which the graphs have horizontal tangent lines

Answer:

part(a) (i)if 𝑦 = (4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3)4 then,

𝑦 ′ = 4(4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3)3 (8𝑥 − 3)
At the point 𝑃(2, 81)
𝑦 ′ = 4(16 − 16 + 3)3 (16 − 3) = 468
Then the slope of the tangent line at this point is 𝑚 = 468 and the equation of the line is given by
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
⟹ 𝑦 − 81 = 468(𝑥 − 2)
⟹ 𝑦 = 468𝑥 − 2(468) + 81
= 288𝑥 + 855
And the equation of the Normal line is given by

Page | 49
 1
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = − (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
𝑚
1
⟹ 𝑦 − 81 = − (𝑥 − 2)
468
(ii) if 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + sin 3𝑥
𝑦 ′ = 3 + 3 cos 3𝑥
At 𝑥 = 0 we have
𝑦 ′ = 3 + 3 cos 0 = 6
So, the slope of tangent line at this point is 𝑚 = 6 and the equation of the tangent line is given by
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
⟹ 𝑦 − 0 = 6(𝑥 − 0)
⟹ 𝑦 = 6𝑥
And the equation of the Normal line is
−1
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
𝑚
1
⟹ 𝑦 − 0 = − (𝑥 − 0)
6
1
⟹𝑦=− 𝑥
6
Part (b)

(i) for 𝑦 = (4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 8)4 then,

𝑦 ′ = 4(4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 8)(8𝑥 − 8)
to find the point at which we have a horizontal tangent let 𝑦 ′ = 0 we get
4(4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
⟹ 4(2𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
1 3
⟹ 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 =
2 2
therefore, at these point we will find a horizontal line

(ii) let 𝑦 ′ = 0 we get

3 + 3 cos 3𝑥 = 0
⟹ cos 3𝑥 = −1
⟹ 3𝑥 = 𝜋
𝜋
⟹𝑥=
3
6-if 𝒌(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒈(𝒙)) and if 𝒇(𝟐) = −𝟒, 𝒈(𝟐) = 𝟐, 𝒇′ (𝟐) = 𝟑 and 𝒈′ (𝟐) = 𝟓, find 𝒌(𝟐) and 𝒌′ (𝟐)

Answer: if 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) then,

𝑘(2) = 𝑓(𝑔(2)) = 𝑓(2) = 4

Since 𝑘 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)). 𝑔′ (𝑥) then,

𝑘 ′ (2) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(2))𝑔′ (2) = 𝑓 ′ (2)𝑔′ (2) = 3(5) = 15

Page | 50
7- find 𝒚′ = 𝒇′ (𝒙) for each of the following functions:
1
(1) 𝑦 = log 3 |sec 𝑥| (14) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin−1 (𝑥 2 ) (27)𝑦 = tan−1(2𝑥 − 3)
(2) 𝑦 = |3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3| (28) 𝑦 = ln √sin−1 5𝑥 2
(15) 𝑦 = cos(2𝑥 2 + 1)
(3) 𝑦 = ln|tan−1 (𝑥 + 1)| (29) 𝑦 = cos −1 √1 + 𝑥 2
𝑦 (16) 𝑦 = (cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)3
(4) = ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) 1−cot2 𝑥
𝑥 (17) 𝑥 = cos(sin 𝑦) (30) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+cot2 𝑥
(5) 𝑦 = tan−1 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) (18) 𝑦 = tan(ln 𝑥)
(6) 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 (19) 1 = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 (31) 𝑓(𝑥) = √1 + 𝑥 3
(7)
3
𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 𝑒 tan 𝑥 (20) 𝑥 = cos(ln 𝑦) (32) 𝑓(𝑥) = csc(𝑥 3 − 5𝑥)
𝑥 𝑥
(8) 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 5)√𝑥 (21) 𝑦 = tan−1 (tan 𝑥) (33) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos sin
2 2
3
𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 +1 (22) 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥 2 (34)𝑓(𝑥) = sin2 𝑥
(9) 𝑦 = (3𝑥+1)5 (23) 𝑥 = 𝑒 sin 𝑥
2
(35)𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 2
(10) 𝑦 = tan −1 (sin
𝑥) −1
(24) 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥 2 )tan 𝑥 (36)𝑓(𝑥) = cos 4 √𝑥
4 1+tan 𝑥 (25) 𝑦 = log|cos 2𝑥| (37)𝑥 2 + sin−1 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦
(11) 𝑦 = √
1−tan 𝑥 (26) 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥 sin 4𝑥 (38) tan−1(𝑥 − 𝑦) + 𝑥𝑦 = 1
−1 (2𝑥 2
(12) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos + 1) (39)𝑦 = sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥
(13) 𝑓(𝑥) = cot −1 (tan 𝑥)

Answer:

1- if 𝑦 = log 3 |sec 𝑥| then

1
𝑦′ = sec 𝑥 (tan 𝑥)
sec 𝑥 (ln 3)
2- in this example I noticed that the quantity 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 is always positive; in fact by
completing the squares we have
2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 8
3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 = 3 (𝑥 2 − 3 𝑥) + 3 = 3 ((𝑥 − 3) − 9) + 3 = 3 (𝑥 − 3) − 3 + 3 = 3 (𝑥 − 3) + 3 > 0

Thus,
𝑦 = |3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3| = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3
Hence,
𝑦 ′ = 6𝑥 − 2

(3) if 𝑦 = ln|tan−1 (𝑥 + 1)|

1 1
𝑦′ = .
tan−1 (𝑥 + 1) 1 + (𝑥 + 1)2
(4) if 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
1
𝑦 ′ = ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 ′ )
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
2𝑥 2 2𝑥𝑦𝑦 ′
𝑦 ′ = ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 2 +
𝑥 + 𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
2𝑥𝑦 ′ 2 2)
2𝑥 2
[1 − ] 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 + 𝑦 +
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

Page | 51
 2𝑥 2
ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) +
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑦′ =
2𝑥𝑦
[1 − 2 ]
𝑥 + 𝑦2
(5) if 𝑦 = tan−1 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) then,

1 3𝑒 3𝑥
𝑦′ = (𝑒 3𝑥 )(3)
=
1 + (𝑒 3𝑥 )2 1 + (𝑒 3 )2
(6) since 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 taking logarithms of both sides we get
ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
𝑦′ 1
= ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 ( ) = 1 + ln 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥
⟹ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦(1 + ln 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑥 (1 + ln 𝑥)
3
(7)if 𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 𝑒 tan 𝑥 then
3
𝑦 ′ = 5𝑥 (3𝑥 2 ) + 𝑒 tan 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥)

(8) 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 5)√𝑥
taking logarithms of both sides we get
ln 𝑦 = √𝑥 ln(𝑥 + 5)
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
𝑦′ 1 1
= ln(𝑥 + 5) + √𝑥 ( )
𝑦 2√𝑥 𝑥+5
ln(𝑥 + 5) √𝑥 ln(𝑥 + 5) √𝑥
𝑦′ = 𝑦 [ + ] = (𝑥 + 5)√𝑥 [ + ]
2√𝑥 𝑥+5 2√𝑥 𝑥+5
3
𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 +1
(9) if 𝑦 = (3𝑥+1)5
then by taking logarithms of both sides we get
3
𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 + 1 3/4 2
1 3 1
ln 𝑦 = ln ( ) = ln 𝑥 + ln(𝑥 + 1)2 − ln(3𝑥 + 1)5 = ln 𝑥 + ln(𝑥 2 + 1) − 5 ln(3𝑥 + 1)
(3𝑥 + 1)5 4 2

Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥 then,

𝑦′ 3 1 1 1 1
= ( )+ ( 2 ) 2𝑥 − 5 ( ) (3)
𝑦 4 𝑥 2 𝑥 +1 3𝑥 + 1
3 𝑥 15
⟹ 𝑦′ = 𝑦 ( + 2 − )
4𝑥 𝑥 + 1 3𝑥 + 1
3
𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 + 1 3 𝑥 15
⟹ 𝑦′ = 5 [ + 2 − ]
(3𝑥 + 1) 4𝑥 𝑥 + 1 3𝑥 + 1
(10) if 𝑦 = tan−1 (sin 𝑥) then

Page | 52
 1
𝑦′ = . cos 𝑥
1 + (sin 𝑥)2
4 1+tan 𝑥
(11) if 𝑦 = √1−tan 𝑥 then taking logarithms of both sides
1 1 + tan 𝑥 1
ln 𝑦 = ln ( ) = [ln(1 + tan 𝑥) − ln(1 − tan 𝑥)]
4 1 − tan 𝑥 4
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
𝑦′ 1 1 1
= [ (sec 2 𝑥)−= (−1) sec 2 𝑥]
𝑦 4 1 + tan 𝑥 1 − tan 𝑥
𝑦 sec 2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 1 4 1 + tan 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥
𝑦′ = ( + )= √ ( + )
4 1 + tan 𝑥 1 − tan 𝑥 4 1 − tan 𝑥 1 + tan 𝑥 1 − tan 𝑥

(12) since 𝑓(𝑥) = cos −1 (2𝑥 2 + 1) then

−1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (4𝑥)
√1 − (2𝑥 2 + 1)2

(13)since 𝑓(𝑥) = cot −1(tan 𝑥) then

1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = . sec 2 𝑥
1 + (tan 𝑥)2
1
(14) since 𝑓(𝑥) = = [sin−1(𝑥 2 )]−1 then
sin−1(𝑥 2 )
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −[sin−1(𝑥 2 )]−2 . (2𝑥)
√1 − (𝑥 2 )2
2𝑥
=−
(sin−1 𝑥 2 )2 √1 − 𝑥 4
(15) if 𝑦 = cos(2𝑥 2 + 1) then
𝑦 ′ = sin(2𝑥 2 + 1) (4𝑥)
(16) since 𝑦 = (cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)3 then
𝑦 ′ = 3(cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)2 (− sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥)
(17) if 𝑥 = cos(sin 𝑦)
differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 then
1 = − sin(sin 𝑦) . (cos 𝑦)𝑦 ′
1
⟹ 𝑦′ = −
sin(sin 𝑦) cos 𝑦
where, 𝑦 = sin−1 (cos−1 𝑥) so,
1
𝑦′ = −1 −1
sin(sin sin (cos 𝑥)) cos sin−1(cos−1 𝑥)
1
=
sin(cos −1 𝑥) cos sin−1(cos −1 𝑥)
(18) if 𝑦 = tan(ln 𝑥) then
1
𝑦 ′ = sec 2 (ln 𝑥)
𝑥
Page | 53
(19) differentiating both sides with respect to
0 = cos 𝑥 (cos 𝑦) + sin 𝑥 (− sin 𝑦)𝑦′
then
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑦′ =
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦

(20) If 𝑥 = cos(ln 𝑦)
differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
1
1 = sin(ln 𝑦) . . 𝑦 ′
𝑦
′
𝑦
⟹𝑦 =
sin(ln 𝑦)

(21) 𝑦 = tan−1 (tan 𝑥) = 𝑥 then 𝑦 ′ = 1

Another method: by direct differentiation we have

1 1 + tan2 𝑥
𝑦′ = . sec 2
𝑥 = =1
1 + (tan 𝑥)2 1 + (tan 𝑥)2
(22) if 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥 2 then
𝑦 ′ = cos 2𝑥 2 (4𝑥)
2
(23) if 𝑦 = 𝑒 sin 𝑥
differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
2
𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 2 (2𝑥)
−1
(24) if 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥 2 )tan 𝑥
we take logarithms of both sides we get
ln 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 ln(1 + 𝑥 2 )
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
𝑦′ 1 1
=[ 2 ] ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + tan−1 𝑥 ( ) (2𝑥)
𝑦 1+𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
′
ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) 2𝑥 tan−1 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑦( + )
1 + 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2
−1 ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) 2 + tan−1 𝑥
𝑦 ′ = (1 + 𝑥 2 )tan 𝑥 ( + )
1 + 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2

(25)if 𝑦 = log|cos 2𝑥| then

1 −2 sin 2𝑥
𝑦′ = (− sin 2𝑥)(2) =
cos 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥
(26) if 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥 sin 4𝑥 then
𝑦 ′ = − sin 2𝑥 (4 cos 4𝑥) + (sin 4𝑥)(2 cos 2𝑥)
= 4 cos 4𝑥 sin 2𝑥 + 2 cos 2𝑥 sin 4𝑥

(28) if 𝑦 = ln √sin−1 5𝑥 2 then

Page | 54
 1 1 1
𝑦′ = .( )( ) (10 𝑥)
√sin−1 5𝑥 2 2√sin−1 5𝑥 2 1 − (5𝑥 2 )2

(29) since 𝑦 = cos−1 √1 + 𝑥 2 then

−1 1
𝑦′ = ( ) (2𝑥)
2 2√1 + 𝑥 2
√1 − (√1 + 𝑥 2 )

1−cot2 𝑥
(30) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+cot2 𝑥 then

′ (𝑥)
(−2 cot 𝑥 (− csc 2 𝑥))[1 + cot 2 𝑥] − (2 cot 𝑥 csc 2 𝑥)[1 − cot 2 𝑥]
𝑓 =
[1 + cot 2 𝑥]2
1
(31)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 )
2√1+𝑥 3

(32)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = csc(𝑥 3 − 5𝑥) cot(𝑥 3 − 5𝑥) . (3𝑥 2 − 5)

𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥 1
(33)since 𝑓(𝑥) = cos sin = (2 sin cos ) = sin 𝑥 then
2 2 2 2 2 2
′ (𝑥)
1
𝑓 = cos 𝑥
2
Another method:
𝑥 1 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − (sin ) ( ) sin + cos (cos ) = − sin2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 = [cos2 − sin2 ] = cos 𝑥
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(34)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = sin 2𝑥

(35)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 2 (2𝑥)

1
(36)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4 cos3 √𝑥 (sin √𝑥) (2 𝑥)
√

(37) differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to 𝑥 we get

𝑦′
2𝑥 + = 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦′
√1 − 𝑦 2
1
⟹ 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = (𝑥 − ) 𝑦′
√1 − 𝑦 2
2𝑥 − 𝑦
⟹ 𝑦′ =
1
𝑥−
√1 − 𝑦 2

(38) differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to 𝑥 we get

1
[1 − 𝑦′] + (𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑦) = 0
1 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)2
1 𝑦′
⟹ − + 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 0
1 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 1 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)2
1 1
⟹ 𝑦′ ( 2
− 𝑥) = 𝑦 +
1 + (𝑥 − 𝑦) 1 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)2

Page | 55
 1
𝑦+
1 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)2
⟹ 𝑦′ =
1
−𝑥
1 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)2

(39)𝑦 ′ = (sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥 (2))[tan 2𝑥] + (sec 2 2𝑥 (2))[sec 2𝑥]

= 2 tan2 2𝑥 sec 2𝑥 + 2 sec 3 2𝑥
8- [Assignment questions]

1. Multiple Choice Questions:

1. For 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒙 , 𝒚′ = ⋯

A. 2 sin 𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥 B.2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 C.4 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 D.0

2. For 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 , 𝒚′ = ⋯
A. 𝑥 cos 𝑥 B.𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 1 C.cos 𝑥 D.𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥

𝒅𝒚 𝟒
3. (
𝒅𝒙 √𝟑+𝟐𝒙
) =⋯
A.−4(3 + 2𝑥)−3/2 B.4(3 + 2𝑥)−3/2 C.−2(3 + 2𝑥)−3/2 D.2(3 + 2𝑥)−3/2

4. Which of the following is true of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙?

A.𝑓 is increasing on (−∞, 1) B. 𝑓 is decreasing on (−∞ ,2)
C. 𝑓 is increasing on (1, ∞) D. 𝑓 is decreasing on (−∞, 1]

𝒅𝒚
5. If 𝒚𝟑 = 𝒙𝟐 , then 𝒅𝒙 = ⋯
2𝑥 2𝑋 𝑥2 𝑥2
A. B. C. D.
𝑦3 3𝑌 2 3𝑦 2 3𝑦

6. The slope of the tangent line to the circle 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 at the point (−𝟔, 𝟖) is…
3 3 4 4
A.4 B.− 4 C. 3 D. − 3

𝒅𝒚
7. If 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒚 = 𝟐, then 𝒅𝒙 = ⋯
cos 𝑥
A. − cot 𝑥 B.− cot 𝑦 C. sin 𝑦 D. − csc 𝑦 cos 𝑥

2. for each of the following, find the 1st derivative (Simplify answers)
1. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙𝟑 4. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) 7. 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙
−𝟏
2. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 5. 𝒇(𝒙) = (𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
3. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟑 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒙 6. 𝒇(𝒙) = (𝟏 + 𝒙) 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝒙)

Solution:

Page | 56
 10. Higher Derivatives
Exercise:
1- If 𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 prove that 𝒚′′ = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒚
2- If 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙) prove that (𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )𝒚′′ − 𝒙𝒚′ + 𝒎𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎
3- If 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒌 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 show that (𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )𝒚′′ − 𝒙𝒚′ = 𝟎
𝒏
4- If 𝒚 = (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏) prove that (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏)𝒚′′ − 𝟐(𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒙𝒚′ − 𝟐𝒏𝒚 = 𝟎
5- If 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝒏 + 𝒃𝒙−𝒏 prove that 𝒙𝟐 𝒚′′ + 𝒙𝒚′ − 𝒏𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎

Solution:
Remark:
If 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 then
𝑦′′ denotes the 2nd
tan 𝑦 = 𝑥
derivative of 𝑦 with
So, by differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get respect to 𝑥
𝑦 ′ sec 2 𝑦 = 1
1
𝑦′ = = cos 2 𝑦
sec 2 𝑦
Differentiating again both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
𝑦 ′′ = 2 cos 𝑦 (− sin 𝑦)𝑦 ′
= −2 cos 𝑦 . sin 𝑦 (cos2 𝑦)
= − sin 2𝑦 (cos 2 𝑦)

2- if 𝑦 = sin(𝑚 sin−1 𝑥) then

1
𝑦 ′ = cos(𝑚 sin−1 𝑥) . 𝑚
√1 − 𝑥 2
Multiplying both sides by √1 − 𝑥 2 we get
√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚 cos(𝑚 sin−1 𝑥)

Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥

2𝑥 1
− 𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 ′′ √1 − 𝑥 2 = −𝑚 sin(𝑚 sin−1 𝑥) . 𝑚 ( )
2√1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
Multiplying both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦 ′′ − 𝑥𝑦 ′ = 𝑚2 sin(𝑚 sin−1 𝑥)

⟹ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦 ′′ − 𝑥𝑦 ′ = −𝑚2 𝑦
⟹ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦 ′′ − 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑚2 𝑦 = 0

3- if 𝑦 = 3𝑘 sin−1 𝑥 then
1
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑘 ( )
√1 − 𝑥 2
Therefore,
√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′ = 3𝑘

Page | 57
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
−2𝑥
+ 𝑦 ′′ √1 − 𝑥 2 = 0
2√1 − 𝑥 2

Multiplying both sides by √1 − 𝑥 2 we get

⟹ −𝑥𝑦′ + 𝑦 ′′ (1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 0

4- if 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛 then,
𝑦 ′ = 𝑛(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛−1 (2𝑥)
= 2𝑛𝑥(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛−1
Therefore,
𝑦 ′′ = 2𝑛[(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛−1 + (𝑛 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛−2 (2𝑥)(𝑥)]
= 2𝑛[(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛−1 + 2𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛−2 (𝑛 − 1)]
Therefore,
(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑦 ′′ − 2(𝑛 − 1)𝑥𝑦 ′ − 2𝑛𝑦
= 2𝑛(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛 + 4𝑛𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1) − 2(𝑛 − 1)𝑥(2𝑛𝑥(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛−1 ) − 2𝑛(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛
= 2𝑛(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛 + 4𝑛𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1) − 4𝑛𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1) − 2𝑛(𝑥 2 − 1)𝑛 = 0
5- If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥 −𝑛 then
𝑦 ′ = 𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑛−1 − 𝑛𝑏𝑥 −𝑛−1 ,
𝑦 ′′ = 𝑎𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑏𝑥 −𝑛−2
Therefore,
𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑥𝑦 ′ − 𝑛2 𝑦
= 𝑎𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑏𝑥 −𝑛 + 𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑏𝑥 −𝑛 − 𝑛2 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 −𝑛 )
= 𝑎𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑏𝑥 −𝑛 + 𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑏𝑥 −𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑏𝑛2 𝑥 −𝑛
= 𝑎𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑏𝑥 −𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛(1 − 𝑛)𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛(−1 − 𝑛)𝑥 −𝑛
= 𝑎𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑏𝑥 −𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑏𝑥 −𝑛 = 0

Page | 58
 10. Integration
integration table of basic functions Idea multiplication of two related functions
Idea
1 2
[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1
• ∫ 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑥 • ∫[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑛+1
𝑥 𝑛+1
• ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = • ∫ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑛+1
𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)
• ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
• ∫ 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑎
𝑎𝑥
• ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑎 • ∫
𝑓′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑓(𝑥)|
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
• ∫𝑥 = ln|𝑥| • ∫ sin 𝑓(𝑥) . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −cos 𝑓(𝑥)
• ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 • ∫ cos 𝑓(𝑥) . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑓(𝑥)
• ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 • ∫ sec 2 𝑓(𝑥) . 𝑓 ′(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑓(𝑥)
• ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 • ∫ csc 2 𝑓(𝑥) . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −cot 𝑓(𝑥)
• ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 • ∫ sec 𝑓(𝑥) tan 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑓(𝑥)
• ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 • ∫ csc 𝑓(𝑥) cot 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − csc 𝑓(𝑥)
• ∫ csc 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥

Remark:
if we Idea integration by parts
by 𝑎𝑥 +𝑥𝑏 in the table we
if we replace 𝑥 replace 3
should divide the 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 by 𝑎 for example:
by answer ‫نطبق االتى‬
in the
• ∫ (𝑎𝑥 +table
𝑛+1
we= (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 ‫الدالة سهلة التفاضل )𝑥(𝑓سميها 𝑢 واشتقها‬-1
should𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑎(𝑛+1) ‫ والدالة سهلة التكامل 𝑥𝑑)𝑥(𝑔 سميها 𝑣𝑑 وكاملها‬-2
• ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏divide
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑐 :‫ طبق المقص األتى‬-3

• the 2𝑎𝑥+𝑏
∫ 2𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎(ln 2) + 𝑐 ∴ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
1
answer
1
• ∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥
by =
𝑎 𝑎 ln|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝑐
•
1 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫ sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 cos(𝑎𝑥 +
• ∫ (𝑎𝑥 +
𝑏) + 𝑐 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 −∫ 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛+1
𝑎(𝑛+1)
+
𝑐
• ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 =
Some useful Trig. Identities:
𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
1
+ 1 1 sin 𝑥
𝑎
∎sec 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 ∎csc 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 ∎cot 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 ∎tan 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
𝑐
∎ sin2 𝑥 + cos•2 𝑥∫= 11 𝑑𝑥 = ∎ tan2 𝑥 + 1 = sec 2 𝑥 ∎1 + cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
∎ sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥1 cos 𝑥 ∎cos 2𝑥 = cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 = 2 cos2 𝑥 − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥
𝑎
ln|𝑎𝑥 +
𝑏| +
𝑐
• ∫ sin(𝑎𝑥 +
𝑏)𝑑𝑥 =
cos(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
Page | 59 − 𝑎
+
𝑐
General remarks:

1- ∫ 𝑐1 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑐2 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐1 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑐2 ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

2- ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
3- You should notice which variable you integrate with for example:
𝑡 𝑥+1
(a) ∫ 𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡 𝑥 + 𝑐 (b) ∫ 𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑡 = +𝑐 (c) ∫ 𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑡 𝑥 𝑢 + 𝑐
𝑥+1

Idea 1: integration using table.

Exercises: evaluate the following integrals

1
1-∫ 4𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥 = 4 (2 𝑥 2 ) + 3𝑥 + 𝑐
1
2-∫0 4𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥 = (2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥)10 = 5 − 0 = 5

1 4𝑥 3/2 𝑥 2/3 𝑥3
3-∫ 4√𝑥 + + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥=∫ 4𝑥 1/2 + 𝑥 −1/3 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = + + +𝑐
3 √𝑥 3/2 2/3 3

3 1 1
2𝑥 2 −𝑥−3 2𝑥 2 −𝑥−3 𝑥 5/2 𝑥 3/2 𝑥 1/2
4-∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1/2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 − −3 +𝑐
√𝑥 𝑥 5/2 3/2 1/2
1 2𝑥 2 −𝑥−3 1 (2𝑥−3)(𝑥+1) 1
5-∫0 𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑥+1
𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 2𝑥 − 3 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 2 − 3𝑥]10 = −2 − 0 = −2

𝑥𝑒 𝑥 +1 1
6-∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + ln|𝑥| + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑥

𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑒 𝑥 −2 (𝑒 𝑥 )2 −𝑒 𝑥 −2 (𝑒 𝑥 +1)(𝑒 𝑥 −2)
7-∫ 𝑑𝑥 =∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑒 𝑥 +1 𝑒 𝑥 +1 𝑒 𝑥 +1
sec 𝑡
8-∫ cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫(sec 𝑡) (1/ cos 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ sec 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = tan 𝑡 + 𝑐

(1+cot2 𝑧) cot 𝑧 (csc2 𝑧) cot 𝑧

9-∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ csc 𝑧 cot 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = −csc 𝑧 + 𝑐
csc 𝑧 csc 𝑧

10-∫ tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sec 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 1
11-∫ 1−sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑥 (cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑐

Remark : if we replace 𝒙 by 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 in the table

Exercises:
1 1
1-∫ sin(1 + 6𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 6 ∫ 6sin(1 + 6𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 6 [− cos(1 + 6𝑥)] + 𝑐
1 1
2-∫ 𝑒 5𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 = 5 ∫ 5𝑒 5𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 = 5 𝑒 5𝑥+1 + 𝑐

54𝑡+3
3-∫ 54𝑡+3 𝑑𝑡 = 4(ln 5) + 𝑐

1 1 (7𝑥+5)11
4-∫ (7𝑥 + 5)10 𝑑𝑥 = 7 ∫ 7(7𝑥 + 5)10 𝑑𝑥 = 7 11
+𝑐

Page | 60
 1 1 (8𝑥+5)2/3
5-∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(8𝑥 + 5)−1/3 𝑑𝑥 = 8 [ 2/3
]+ 𝑐
√8𝑥+5

𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥
6-∫ sec ( ) tan ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = sec ( ) + 𝑐
3 3 3 3

1 1 1 1 1 9
7-∫−2 2𝑥+7 𝑑𝑥 = 2 (ln|2𝑥 + 7|)1−2 = 2 (ln 9 − ln 3) = 2 ln 3 = ln 31/2 = ln √3

(2𝑥 +1)2 (2𝑥 )2 +1+2(2𝑥 ) 2𝑥 2−𝑥 2𝑥 3(2𝑥 )−2−𝑥

8-∫ 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑥 + 2−𝑥 + 2(2𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛2 + −(ln 2) + 2 ln 2 = ln 2

1 2
2 2 2 (1+𝑥)5/2 (1+𝑥)3/2
9-∫1 𝑥√1 + 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 (1 + 𝑥 − 1)(1 + 𝑥)1/2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 (1 + 𝑥)3/2 − (1 + 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = [ 5/2
− 3/2
]
1
𝑥 1+𝑥−1 1
10-∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 − 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − ln|1 + 𝑥| + 𝑐
1+𝑥 1+𝑥 1+𝑥

𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
11- Given 𝑑𝑥
= cos(𝑥 + 1) , 𝑓(−1) = 1 Find 𝑓(1)? (H. W.)

Idea 2 : integration of multiplication of two related functions

Exercises; Find the following integrals:

8
(2𝑥 3 +1)
1- ∫(2𝑥 3 + 1)7 (6𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 = 8
+𝑐
8
1 1 (2𝑥 3 +1)
2-∫(2𝑥 3 + 1)7 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 6 ∫ 6𝑥 2 (2𝑥 3 + 1)7 𝑑𝑥 = 6 8
+𝑐
3
1
1 2 )2 1 (7−6𝑥 2 )2
3-∫ 𝑥√7 − 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = − 12 ∫ −12𝑥(7 − 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 12 3 +𝑐
2

𝑥 2 −1
4-∫ (𝑥3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1)−6 𝑑𝑥
−3𝑥+1)6
−5
1 1 (𝑥 3 −3𝑥+1)
= ∫ 3(𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1)−6 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
3 3 −5

sin √𝑥 1
5- ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2∫2 sin √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −2 cos √𝑥 + 𝑐
√𝑥 √𝑥

sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 −(cos 𝑥)−1

6-∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ − sin 𝑥 (cos 𝑥)−2 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑐
1−sin2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 −1

sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
7-∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝑐 = ln|sec 𝑥| + 𝑐

(ln 𝑥)3 1 1
8-∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [ln 𝑥]3 𝑑𝑥= (ln 𝑥)4 + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑥 4
1 1 1
9-∫ 𝑥(ln 𝑥)3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 (ln 𝑥)−3 𝑑𝑥 = − 2 (ln 𝑥)−2 + 𝑐
1
1
10-∫ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ln𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|ln 𝑥| + 𝑐

sin−1 𝑥 1
11-∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 (sin−1 𝑥)2 + 𝑐
√1−𝑥 2

Page | 61
 1 1
−
1 √1−𝑥2 √1−𝑥2
12-∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos−1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ cos−1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = − ln|cos −1 𝑥| + 𝑐
√1−𝑥 2 cos−1 𝑥
1
1 1
5𝑥 2 − 5 − 5 (𝑥 2 −3)2
13-∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 5𝑥(𝑥 − 3)
√𝑥 −3
2 = 2
∫ 2𝑥(𝑥 2 − 3) 𝑑𝑥 = 2
2 (1/2)
+𝑐
3 4
(1+√𝑥) 1 3 (1+√𝑥) 1 4
14-∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 2 (1 + √𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 + 𝑐 = 2 (1 + √𝑥) + 𝑐
√𝑥 √𝑥 4
1
3 1 1 (8𝑡+5)2/3
15-∫ √8𝑡 + 5𝑑𝑡 = 8 ∫ 8(8𝑡 + 5)3 𝑑𝑡 = 8 2/3
+𝑐

1 −2
1 −3 1 1 −3 1 (1+ )
𝑥 1 1 −2
16-∫ (1 + 𝑥
) (𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ (1 + 𝑥
) (− 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 =− −2
+ 𝑐 = 2 (1 + 𝑥) +𝑐

−2 4 4
4 1 4 1 −3 (√𝑥+1) 1 1 1 5
17-∫1 3 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫1 (√𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 [ ] = −[ 2 ] = − [9 − 4] = 36
√𝑥(√𝑥+1) 2√𝑥 −2 (√𝑥+1)
1 1

cos3 𝑥 cos 𝑥(cos2 𝑥) cos 𝑥(1−sin2 𝑥)

18-∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥 (sin 𝑥)−1
= ∫ sin2 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑥 (sin 𝑥)−2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −1
− sin 𝑥 + 𝑐
3 1 3 1 3
19-∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 9𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑐
9 9

𝑥−2 1 2(𝑥−2) 1
20-∫ 𝑥 2 −4𝑥+9 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑥 2 −4𝑥+9 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ln|𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 9| + 𝑐

(2+ln 𝑥)10 1 1
21-∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (2 + ln 𝑥)10 𝑑𝑥 = (2 + ln 𝑥)11 + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑥 11

5tan 𝑥 1 5tan 𝑥
22-∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 5tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sec 2 𝑥 . 5tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 ln 5

Page | 62
Idea 3: integration by parts

Exercise:

1-∫ 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Let: 𝑢=𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥
So,
∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

= −𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + 𝑐

2- ∫ 𝒙𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Let: 𝑢 = 𝑥2 𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥
so,
∫ 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

= −𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 2𝐼1 … (1)
To find the integral 𝐼1 we integrate by parts again with
: 𝑢=𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
so,
𝐼1 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐
Now, substitute in (1) we get
∫ 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 2(𝑥 sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐)

3- ∫ 𝒙 𝒆𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Let : 𝑢=𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 3 𝑒 3𝑥
so,
∫ 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
1 1
= 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 3

Page | 63
 1 1 𝑒 3𝑥
= 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 − +𝑐
3 3 3

4-∫ 𝒙𝟑 𝒆𝟒𝒙+𝟏 𝒅𝒙
this example is left as an exercise by integrating by parts 3 time just as the previous example

5-∫ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Let : 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 3 𝑥3
so,
∫ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
1 1 1
= 𝑥 3 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 3 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
3 3 𝑥
1 3 1 1 3
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ( ) 𝑥 + 𝑐
3 3 3
6-∫ 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
let: : 𝑢=𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = tan 𝑥
so,
∫ 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ln|sec 𝑥| + 𝑐
sin 𝑥
Remember that : ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ln|cos 𝑥| = ln|sec 𝑥|
tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥
OR: ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sec 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥|

7-∫ 𝒙 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
cos 𝑥
This example is left as an exercise remembering that ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sin 𝑥|

8- ∫(𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟏𝟎 (𝒙 + 𝟐) 𝒅𝒙

Let: 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑣 = (𝑥 + 1)10 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 11 (𝑥 + 1)11

So,
∫(𝑥 + 1)10 (𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
(𝑥 + 1)11 1
= (𝑥 + 2) − ∫(𝑥 − 1)11 𝑑𝑥
11 11
1 1 1
= (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1)11 − ( ) (𝑥 + 1)12 + 𝑐
11 11 12

Page | 64
9-∫ 𝒍𝒏𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Let: 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑣=𝑥

So,
∫ ln 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

10-∫(𝐥𝐧 𝒙)𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Let: 𝑢 = (ln 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥

1
𝑑𝑢 = 2(ln 𝑥) (𝑥) 𝑣=𝑥

So,
∫(ln 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥(ln 𝑥)2 − 2 ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥(ln 𝑥)2 − 2(𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐)

11-∫ 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
let 𝑢 = tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=𝑥
1+𝑥 2

So,
𝑥
∫ tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 tan−1 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
2𝑥
= 𝑥 tan−1 𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
= 𝑥 tan−1 𝑥 − 2 ln|1 + 𝑥 2 | + 𝑐

12-∫ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 √𝜽𝒅𝜽

Let: 𝑢 = sec −1 √𝜃 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝜃
1 1
𝑑𝑢 = ( ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=𝜃
√𝜃(√𝜃−1) 2√𝜃

So,
𝜃
∫ sec −1 √𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 𝜃 sec −1 √𝜃 − ∫ 𝑑𝜃
2𝜃√𝜃 − 1
1 1
= 𝜃 sec −1 √𝜃 − ∫(𝜃 − 1)2 𝑑𝜃
2
1
1 (𝜃 − 1)2
= 𝜃 sec −1 √𝜃 − +𝑐
2 (1) (1)
2

Page | 65
13-∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Let 𝑢 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
therefore,
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 𝐼1 … (1)
To find the integral 𝐼1 we integrate by parts again using
𝑢 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥
Therefore,
𝐼1 = −𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝐼 … (2)
Substituting from (2) into (1) we get
𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − [−𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝐼 ]
= 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 𝐼
thus,
2𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥
consequently,
𝑒𝑥
𝐼= [sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥] + 𝑐
2
14-∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) 𝒅𝒙
let 𝑢 = sin(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑢 = cos(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=𝑥
𝑥

So,
𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (ln 𝑥) + ∫ cos(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 sin(ln 𝑥) − 𝐼1 … (1)
To find 𝐼1 we integrate by parts again using
𝑢 = cos(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑢 = sin(ln 𝑥) ( ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=𝑥
𝑥
Therefore,
𝐼1 = 𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥) + ∫ sin(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥) + 𝐼 … (2)
Substituting from (2)into (1) we get
𝑥
𝐼= [sin(ln 𝑥) − 𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥)]
2

Page | 66
Properties of definite integrals
𝑏
• ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥]𝑏𝑥=𝑎 (F. T. C.)
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
• ∫𝑎 [𝑐1 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑐2 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐1 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐2 ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑎
• ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (changing integration order)
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
• ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (separation of integral)
𝑎
• ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =0
𝑎
𝑎 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
• ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
• Relation to derivative:
𝑑 ℎ(𝑥)
∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(ℎ(𝑥)). ℎ′ (𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)). 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)

Exercise:
3 6
1-Given ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 4 and ∫3 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −1 Find:
6 3 6
(a)∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫3 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 4 − 1 = 3
3 6
(b)∫6 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫3 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −(−1) = 1
3
(c)∫3 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0
6
(d)∫3 −5𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −5(−1) = 5
6 6
2- Given ∫2 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 10 and ∫2 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −2 Find:
6
(a)∫2 [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 10 − 2 = 8
6
(b) ∫2 [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 10 − (−2) = 12
6
(c) ∫2 3𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 3(−2) = −6
6
(d)∫2 4𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 4(10) = 40

3- Express as one integral

6 2 6 −2 6
(a) ∫−2 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫−2 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫−2 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫2 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫2 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
1 4 1
(b)∫4 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫6 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫6 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
6
4-Evaluate ∫−3|𝑥 − 4|𝑑𝑥

𝑥 − 4; 𝑥≥4
Since, |𝑥 − 4| = { therefore,
−(𝑥 − 4); 𝑥<4
6 4 6
∫ |𝑥 − 4|𝑑𝑥 = ∫ |𝑥 − 4|𝑑𝑥 + ∫ |𝑥 − 4|𝑑𝑥
−3 −3 4
4 6
= ∫ −(𝑥 − 4)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 − 4)𝑑𝑥
−3 4

Page | 67
 4 6
1 2 1 2
= − ( 𝑥 − 4𝑥) + ( 𝑥 − 4𝑥) = ⋯
2 −3 2 4

5-Evaluate (without evaluate the integrals):

𝑑 𝑥 1 1
(a) ∫ 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑑𝑥 1 √1−𝑡 2 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑 1 2
(b) 𝑑𝑥 0
∫ 𝑥√𝑥 + 4𝑑𝑥 = √5(0) − 0(0) = 0
𝑑 𝑥2 3
(c) ∫ (𝑡 + 1)10 𝑑𝑡 = (𝑥 6 + 1)10 (2𝑥) − (27𝑥 3 + 1)10 (3) = 2𝑥(𝑥 6 + 1)10
𝑑𝑥 3𝑥
− 3(27𝑥 3 + 1)10
𝑑 𝑥2 3 4 3
(d) 𝑑𝑥 0
∫ √𝑡 + 1𝑑𝑡 = (2𝑥)√𝑥 8 + 1
𝑑 0
(e) ∫
𝑑𝑡 6𝑡−1
√4𝑥 + 9𝑑𝑥 = −√4(6𝑡 − 1) + 9. (6) = −6√24𝑡 + 5
𝑑 tan 𝑥 1
(f) ∫
𝑑𝑡 2 1+𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑑 2 𝑡 𝑑 𝑑 𝑡 𝑑 2𝑡
(g) (∫ √𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥) = 𝑑𝑡 [𝑑𝑡 (∫2 √𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥)] = 𝑑𝑡 [√𝑡 2 + 1] =
𝑑𝑡 2 2 2√𝑡 2 +1

𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 𝝅
5-If 𝒇(𝒙) = ∫𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒕 , then prove that 𝒇′ ( ) = 𝟎
𝒕 𝟒
Solution:
1
𝑑 cos 𝑡 cos(sin 2𝑥) 𝑑 cos(sin 2𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (∫ 𝑑𝑡) = − (sin 2𝑥) = −2 cos 2𝑥 [ ]
𝑑𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑡 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sin 2𝑥
so,
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 cos (sin 2 ) cos 1
𝑓 ′ ( ) = −2 cos [ 𝜋 ] = −2(0) =0
4 2 sin 1
2
𝑥
6-Given ∫1 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = (𝑥 + 5) ln|𝑥 + 5|, Find 𝑓(−4) [H. W.]

𝒙
6-if 𝑭(𝒙) = (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐) ∫𝟐 (𝒕 + 𝟑𝑭′ (𝒕))𝒅𝒕. Find 𝑭′ (𝒙) at 𝒙 = 𝟐
Solution:
𝑥 𝑥
𝑑
𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 (∫ 𝑡 + 3𝐹 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡) + [ (∫ 𝑡 + 3𝐹 ′ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡)] (𝑥 2 − 2)
2 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑥
1
= 2𝑥 ( (𝑡 2 )2𝑥 + 3 ∫ 𝐹 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡) + (𝑥 + 3𝐹 ′ (𝑥))(𝑥 2 − 2)
2 2
𝑥
= 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4) + 6𝑥 ∫ 𝐹 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 2) − 3(𝑥 2 − 2)𝐹 ′ (𝑥)
2

Therefore,
𝑥
(1 + 3(𝑥 2 − 2))𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4) + 6𝑥 ∫ 𝐹 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 2)
2

Thus,
𝑥
′ (𝑥)
𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4) + 6𝑥 ∫2 𝐹 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 2)
𝐹 =
1 + 3(𝑥 2 − 2)
So,

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 8 − 4 + 2(0) + 12(0)
𝐹 ′ (2) = =4
1 + 3(0)
𝒙
∫𝝅/𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕𝒅𝒕 𝝅
7-If 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙
Find 𝒈′ ( 𝟐 )
solution:
𝑑 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
[𝑑𝑥 (∫𝜋 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡)] 𝑥 − ∫𝜋 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫𝜋 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
′ (𝑥)
𝑔 = =
𝑥2 𝑥2
Therefore,
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 2 sin 2 − 0 2
′
𝑔 ( )= =
2 𝜋 2 𝜋
( )
2
𝒙𝟐
8-if 𝑮(𝒙) = ∫𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 then Find 𝑮′′ (𝒕)
solution:
𝐺 ′ (𝑥) = tan 𝑥 2 (2𝑥) − tan 1 = 2𝑥 tan 𝑥 2 − tan 𝑥
𝐺 ′′ (𝑥) = 2(tan 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 2 (2𝑥)) − sec 2 𝑥
𝟒 𝟐 𝟓
9-Given ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝟓, then prove that ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝟐𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐
solution:

using the substitution 𝑢 = 2𝑥 then, 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥 and the new integration limits will be from𝑢 = 0 to
𝑢 = 4 therefore,
2 4
1 1 4 1 4 5
∫ 𝑓(2𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =
0 0 2 2 0 2 0 2

Applications:

• Calculating areas:
𝑏
(a)Total Area under curve= ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥

𝑏
(b)Area between two curves= ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥

• Mean value theorem: if 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] then there exist 𝑐 ∈]𝑎, 𝑏[ such that
𝑏
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑐)(𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑎
𝑏
1
(𝑏)𝑓𝑎𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑐) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 [𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑏−𝑎 𝑎

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Exercise:

1- Find area under curve 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟒 between 𝒙 = −𝟏 and 𝒙 = 𝟒.

Solution:
4 2 4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ |2𝑥 − 4|𝑑𝑥 = ∫ −(2𝑥 − 4)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (2𝑥 − 4)𝑑𝑥 = ⋯
−1 −1 2

2-Find the area between the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2 and bounded by 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 2.

Solution: from the graph

2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ [(𝑥 2 + 1) − (𝑥 − 2)] 𝑑𝑥
−2
2
= ∫ 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥
−2
2
1 3 1 2
= [ 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 3𝑥] = ⋯
3 2 −2

3-Sketch the region bounded by the graphs of 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 and 𝒚 = 𝟒𝒙 then find its area.

Solution: to find intersection points we solve the equations 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 4𝑥 together. So

𝑥 2 = 4𝑥
⟹ 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 = 0
⟹ 𝑥(𝑥 − 4) = 0
⟹ 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 4
so, from graph the area is given by
4 4
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ (4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 = [2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ]
0 3 0
64
= 2(16) −
3

4- evaluate the following definite integrals by regarding it as the area under the graph of a
function:
3 4 2
(a)∫−2 4𝑑𝑥 (b)∫−1|𝑥| 𝑑𝑥 (c) ∫−2(3 − √4 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥

5- (MCQ) the number 𝑐 that satisfies the conclusion of the mean-value theorem for definite
integral for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥on [𝛼, 𝛽] such that 𝛼 < 𝛽 is:
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼+𝛽
(a) 𝛼 (𝑏)𝛼 + (𝑐) (d) 𝛽
2 2
0 3
6-Given ∫−2 √𝑥 + 1𝑑𝑥
(a) Find a number 𝑐 that satisfies the conclusion of the mean-value theorem
(b) Find the average value of 𝑓 on [𝑎, 𝑏]

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