Mathematics (II)

[Math 102]

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Sewalim Hamed

 Chapter 1

Limits and Continuity

Copyright
Copyright ©© 2019Pearson
2019 PearsonCanada
Canada Inc.
Inc. All
Allrights
rightsreserved.
reserved. 10 - 2
 Chapter Objectives
• To study limits and their basic properties.
• To study one-sided limits, infinite limits, and limits at infinity.
• To study continuity and to find points of discontinuity for a function.
• To develop techniques for solving nonlinear inequalities.
Chapter Outline
1.1) Limits
1.2) Limits (Continued)
1.3) Continuity
1.4) Continuity Applied to Inequalities
1.1 Limits (1 of 9)
The limit of f (x) as x approaches a is the number L, written
lim f ( x ) = L provided that we can make the values f (x) as
x®a
close as we like to L, and keep them that close, by taking x
sufficiently close to, but different from, a. If there is no such
number, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a does
not exist.
 1.1 Limits (2 of 9)
Example 1 – Estimating a Limit from a Graph

Estimate lim 𝑓 𝑥 , where the graph of 𝑓 is given below.

𝑥→1
 1.1 Limits (3 of 9)
Example 1 – Continued

Solution:

a. As 𝑥 gets closer and closer to 1, 𝑓(𝑥) appears to get closer

and closer to 2. Thus, we estimate that lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥→1

b. Although 𝑓(1) = 3, this has no bearing whatsoever on the

limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 1. We see that as 𝑥 gets closer
and closer to 1, 𝑓(𝑥) appears to get closer and closer to 2.
Thus, we estimate that lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥→1
 1.1 Limits (4 of 9)
Properties of Limits

1. If f (x) = c is a constant function, then

lim f ( x ) = lim c = c
x®a x®a
2. For any positive integer n,
lim x n = a n
x®a
If lim f ( x ) and lim g ( x ) exist and c is a constant then
x®a x®a
3. lim ( f (x) ± g(x)) = lim f ( x ) ± lim g ( x ) and
x®a x®a x®a
lim ( f (x)× g(x)) = lim f ( x ) × lim g ( x )
x®a x®a x®a
 1.1 Limits (5 of 9)
Properties of Limits, continued

4. lim ( cf (x)) = c × lim f ( x )

x®a x®a
If lim f ( x ) and lim g ( x ) exist and n is a positive integer then
x®a x®a

f (x) lim f ( x)
5. lim = x®a
if lim g ( x ) ¹ 0
x®a g(x) lim g ( x ) x®a
x®a

6. lim n f (x) = n lim f ( x )

x®a x®a
Finally, we note that if f and g are two functions for which
f (x) = g(x), for all x ¹ a, then lim f ( x ) = lim g ( x ) .
x®a x®a
 1.1 Limits (6 of 9)
Recall
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 is a constant function, then
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
2. For any positive integer 𝑛,
lim 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑛
𝑥→𝑎
Example 2 – Applying Limit Properties 1 and 2

a. lim 7 = 7; lim 7 = 7
𝑥→2 𝑥→−5
b. lim 𝑥 2 = 6 = 36
2
𝑥→6
c. lim 𝑡 4 = −2 4
= 16
𝑡→−2
 1.1 Limits (7 of 9)
Example 3 – Limit of a Polynomial Function
Let f (x) = cn x n + cn-1 x n-1 + ...+ c1 x + c0 define a polynomial
function. Then lim f ( x )
x®a

(
= lim cn x + cn-1 x n-1 + ... + c1 x + c0
x®a
n
)
= cn lim x n + cn-1 lim x n-1 + ...+ c1 lim + lim c0
x®a x®a x®a x®a

= cn a + cn-1a n-1 + ...+ c1a + c0

n

= f ( a)

Thus, we have the following property: If f is a polynomial

function, then lim f (x) = f (a)
x®a
 1.1 Limits (8 of 9)
Example 4 – Finding a Limit
𝑥2 − 1
Find lim .
𝑥→−1 𝑥 + 1
Solution: As 𝑥 → −1, both numerator and denominator approach
0, so we cannot use Property6 . However, we can assume that
𝑥 2 − 1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥 ≠ −1 and simplify the fraction: = = 𝑥 − 1 for 𝑥 ≠ −1.
𝑥 +1 𝑥+1
Now we recall the fundamental result that if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) for all
𝑥 ≠ 𝑎, then lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = lim 𝑔 (𝑥). Applying this gives
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥2 −1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
lim = lim = lim 𝑥 − 1 = −1 − 1 = −2.
𝑥→−1 𝑥 + 1 𝑥→−1 𝑥 +1 𝑥→−1
Notice that, although the original function is not defined at − 1,
it does have a limit as 𝑥 → 1.
 1.1 Limits (9 of 9)
Example 5 – Form 0/0
f ( x + h) - f ( x)
If f (x) = x 2 + 1, find lim .
h®0 h
Solution:
f ( x + h) - f ( x ) éë(x + h)2 + 1ùû - (x 2 + 1)
lim = lim
h®0 h h®0 h
As h ® 0, both the numerator and denominator approach 0.
Therefore, we will try to express the quotient in a different form, for h ¹ 0.
éë (x + h)2 + 1ùû - (x 2 + 1)
lim
h®0 h
éë x 2 + 2xh + h 2 + 1ùû - x 2 - 1
= lim
h®0 h
2xh + h 2
h(2x + h)
= lim = lim = lim (2x + h) = 2x.
h®0 h h®0 h h®0
1.2 Limits (Continued) (1 of 7)
The figure to the left shows the graph of
a function f . As x approaches 0 from the
right, f (x) approaches 1. We write this
as lim+ f (x) = 1. On the other hand, as x
x®0
approaches 0 from the left, f (x) approaches
-1, and we write lim- f (x) = -1.
x®0

As another example, consider f (x) = x - 3

as x approaches 3. We conclude that
lim+ x - 3 = 0.
x®3
 1.2 Limits (Continued) (2 of 7)
1
Consider the graph of y = f (x) =
x
for x ¹ 0. (See figure to the right.)
As x approaches 0 from the right,
1
becomes positively infinite; as x
x
1
approaches 0 from the left,
x
becomes negatively infinite.

Symbolically, these infinite limits are

1 1
written lim+ = ¥ and lim- = -¥
x®0 x x®0 x
 1.2 Limits (Continued)
Example 6 – Infinite Limits
(3 of 7)

Find the limit (if it exists)

2
a. lim +
𝑥→−1 𝑥 + 1
Solution: As 𝑥 approaches − 1 from the right, 𝑥 + 1 approaches 0 but is
always positive.
2
Thus, lim + = ∞ and the limit does not exist.
𝑥→−1 𝑥 + 1
𝑥+2
b. lim 2
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 4
Solution: Here we are dividing numbers near 4 by numbers near 0.
𝑥 +2
At this stage we can write lim 2 does not exist.
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 4
𝑥 +2 𝑥 +2 1
Notice that lim 2 = lim = lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 4 𝑥→2 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
1 1 1
Since lim+ = ∞ and lim− = −∞, lim is neither ∞ nor − ∞.
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
 1.2 Limits (Continued) (4 of 7)
1
Now let us examine the function 𝑓(𝑥) = as 𝑥 becomes infinite.
𝑥
We can see that as 𝑥 increases without bound through positive
values, the values of 𝑓(𝑥) approach 0. Likewise, as 𝑥 decreases
without bound through negative values, the values of 𝑓(𝑥) also
approach 0.

1 1
Symbolically we write lim = 0 and lim = 0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥
Both of these limits are called limits at infinity.
 1.2 Limits (Continued) (5 of 7)
Example 7 – Limits at Infinity
Find the limit (if it exists).
4
a. lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 − 5 3
Solution: As 𝑥 becomes very large, so does (𝑥 − 5)3 .
Dividing 4 by very large numbers results in numbers near 0.
Thus,
4
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 − 5 3
b. lim 4 − 𝑥
𝑥→−∞
Solution: As 𝑥 gets negatively infinite, 4 − 𝑥 becomes positively infinite.
We conclude that lim 4 − 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→−∞
 1.2 Limits (Continued) (6 of 7)
1
In general, for p > 0, lim p
= 0 and, if p is such that 1 / x p
is
x®¥ x

1
defined for x < 0, lim p = 0.
x®-¥ x

If f (x) is a rational function and an x n and bm x m are the terms

in the numerator and denominator, respectively, with the
an x n
greatest power of x, then lim f (x) = lim
x®±¥ x®±¥ b x m
m
 1.2 Limits (Continued) (7 of 7)
Example 8 – Limits at Infinity for Polynomial Functions

( )
a. lim x 3 - x 2 + x - 2 = lim x 3 . As x becomes very negative,
( )
x®-¥ x®-¥
so does x . Thus, lim x - x + x - 2 = lim x 3 = -¥
3 3 2
x®-¥ x®-¥

( )
b. lim -2x 3 + 9x = lim - 2x 3 = ¥ because - 2 times a very
x®-¥ x®-¥
negative number is very positive.
 1.3 Continuity (1 of 5)
A function 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎 if and only if the following three conditions are met:
1. 𝑓 𝑎 exists, 2. lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists, 3. lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Example 9 – Applying the Definition of Continuity
a. Show that f (x) = 5 is continuous at 7.
Solution: First, f (7) = 5, so f is defined at x = 7.
Second, lim f ( x ) = lim 5 = 5, thus, f has a limit as x ® 7.
x®7 x®7
Third, lim f ( x ) = 5 = f (7). Therefore, f is continuous at 7.
x®7
b. Show that g(x) = x 2 - 3 is continuous at - 4.
Solution: The function g is defined at x = -4 : g(-4) = 13.
Also, lim g ( x ) = lim (x 2 - 3) = 13 = g(-4). Therefore, g
x®-4 x®-4
is continuous at - 4.
 1.3 Continuity (2 of 5)
Example 10 – Discontinuities
 1.3 Continuity (3 of 5)
Example 11 – Locating Discontinuities in Case-Defined Functions
For each of the following functions, find all points of discontinuity.

a. f ( x ) = { x + 62 if x ³ 3
x if x < 3

Solution: Polynomials are continuous, so the only possible

place for a discontinuity is at x = 3, where the separation of cases
occurs. We know that f (3) = 9. So because
lim+ f ( x ) = lim+ ( x + 6 ) = 9 and
x®3 x®3

lim- f ( x ) = lim- x 2 = 9
x®3 x®3
 1.3 Continuity (4 of 5)
Example 11 – Continued

Solution, continued
We conclude that lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 9 = 𝑓(3) and the
𝑥→3
function has no points of discontinuity.

b. f ( x ) = { x + 22 if x > 2
x if x < 2
 1.3 Continuity (5 of 5)
Example 11 – Continued

Solution: since 𝑓 is not defined at 𝑥 = 2, it is

discontinuous at 2. Note, however, that
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim− 𝑥 2 = 4 = lim+ 𝑥 + 2 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
shows that lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists.
𝑥→2
 1.4 Continuity Applied to Inequalities (1 of 3)
Example 12 – Solving a Quadratic Inequality
Solve x 2 - 3x - 10 > 0.
Solution: If f (x) = x 2 - 3x - 10, then f is a polynomial (quadratic)
function and thus is continuous everywhere. To find the real roots
of f (x) = 0, we have
x 2 - 3x - 10 = 0
( x + 2)( x - 5) = 0
x = -2, 5. The roots - 2 and 5
determine three intervals: (-¥, - 2),
(-2, 5), (5, ¥). We construct the
sign chart below. We see that
x 2 - 3x - 10 > 0 on (-¥, - 2) ∪ (5, ¥).
 1.4 Continuity Applied to Inequalities (2 of 3)
Example 13 – Solving a Rational Function Inequality
x 2 - 6x + 5
Solve ³ 0.
x
x 2 - 6x + 5 (x - 1)(x - 5)
Solution: Let f (x) = = For a rational function
x x
f = g / h, we solve the inequality by
considering the intervals determined by both the roots of g(x) = 0
and the roots of h(x) = 0.Here, the roots of the numerator are
1 and 5 and the root of the denominator
is 0, which determine the open
intervals (-¥, 0), (0, 1),(1, 5), (5, ¥).
This, together with the observation
that 1 / x is a factor of f , lead to the
sign chart below.
 1.4 Continuity Applied to Inequalities (3 of 3)
Example 13 – Continued

Solution, continued
From the bottom row of the sign chart we can read that the
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5
solution of ≥ 0 is (0, 1] ∪ [5, ∞).
𝑥
 Chapter 2

Differentiation

Copyright
Copyright ©©2019
2019Pearson
Pearson Canada
Canada Inc.
Inc.All
Allrights
rightsreserved.
reserved. 10 - 29
 Chapter Objectives (1 of 2)

• To develop the idea of a tangent line to a curve, to define the slope of a curve,
and to define a derivative and give it a geometric interpretation. To compute
derivatives by using the limit definition.
• To develop the basic rules for differentiating constant functions and power
functions and the combining rules for differentiating a constant multiple of a
function and the sum of two functions.
 Chapter Objectives (2 of 2)
• To motivate the instantaneous rate of change of a function by means of velocity
and to interpret the derivative as an instantaneous rate of change. To develop the
“marginal” concept, which is frequently used in business and economics.
• To find derivatives by applying the product and quotient rules, and to develop the
concepts of marginal propensity to consume and marginal propensity to save.
• To introduce and apply the chain rule, to derive a special case of the chain rule,
and to develop the concept of the marginal-revenue product as an application of
the chain rule.
 Chapter Outline
2.1) The Derivative
2.2) Rules for Differentiation
2.3) The Derivative as a Rate of Change
2.4) The Product Rule and the Quotient Rule
2.5) The Chain Rule
 2.1 The Derivative (1 of 6)
• Below are examples of a tangent to a curve:

• The slope of a curve at a point P is the

slope, if it exists, of the tangent line at P.

The slope of the tangent line at (a, f (a )) is

f ( z) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
mtan = lim = lim
z →a z−a h →0 h
 2.1 The Derivative (2 of 6)
Example 1 – Finding the Slope of a Tangent Line
Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 at the point (1, 1).
Solution: The slope is
𝑓 1+ℎ −𝑓 1
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
1+ℎ 2− 1 2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
1 + 2ℎ + ℎ2 − 1
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
2
2ℎ + ℎ ℎ(2 + ℎ)
= lim = lim = lim ( 2 + ℎ) = 2.
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0
2
Therefore, the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑥 at (1, 1) has slope 2.
 2.1 The Derivative (3 of 6)
The derivative of a function 𝑓 is the function denoted by 𝑓′ (read
"𝑓 prime") and defined by
𝑓 𝑧 −𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓′ 𝑥 = lim = lim
𝑧→𝑥 𝑧−𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
provided that this limit exists. If 𝑓′(𝑎) can be found, 𝑓 is said to
be differentiable at 𝑎, and 𝑓′(𝑎) is called the derivative of 𝑓 at 𝑎 or the
derivative of 𝑓 with respect to 𝑥 at 𝑎. The process of finding the
derivative is called differentiation.
 2.1 The Derivative (4 of 6)
Example 2 – Finding an Equation of a Tangent Line
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3, find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of 𝑓
at (1, 7).
Solution: We have
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
2 𝑥 + ℎ 2 + 2 𝑥 + ℎ + 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
2𝑥 + 4𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ + 2𝑥 + 2ℎ + 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
2 2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
2
4𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ + 2ℎ
= lim = lim ( 4𝑥 + 2ℎ + 2)
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0
So 𝑓′(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 2 and 𝑓′(1) = 4(1) + 2 = 6. Thus, the tangent line
to the graph at (1, 7) has slope 6.
 2.1 The Derivative (5 of 6)
Example 3 – A Function with a Vertical Tangent Line
Find
d
dx
( )x .
Solution: Letting f (x) = x , we have
d
dx
( )x = lim
h®0
f (x + h) - f (x)
h
= lim
h®0
x+h - x
h
We can rationalize the numerator :
x+h - x x+h - x x+h + x (x + h) - x
= × =
h h (
x+h + x h x+h + x )
=
1
x+h + x
Therefore, ( )
d
dx
x = lim
h®0
1
x+h + x
1 1
= = .
x+ x 2 x
 2.1 The Derivative (6 of 6)
If 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑎, then 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎.

Example 4 – Continuity and Differentiability

a. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2. The derivative, 2𝑥, is defined for all values of 𝑥,

so 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 must be continuous for all values of 𝑥.

1
b. The function 𝑓(𝑝) = is not continuous at 𝑝 = 0 because
2𝑝
𝑓 is not defined there. Thus, the derivative does not exist at 𝑝 = 0.
 2.2 Rules for Differentiation (1 of 7)
Below are some rules for differentiation:
BASIC RULE 1 Derivative of a Constant:
𝑑
𝑐 =0
𝑑𝑥
BASIC RULE 2 Derivative of xn:
𝑑 𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 , for any real number 𝑎.
𝑑𝑥
COMBINING RULE 1 Constant Factor Rule:
𝑑
𝑐𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑓′ 𝑥 , for 𝑓 a differentiable function and 𝑐 a constant.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
COMBINING RULE 2 Sum or Difference Rule: = 𝑓 𝑥 ±𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓′ 𝑥 ± 𝑔′ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 2.2 Rules for Differentiation (2 of 7)
Example 5 – Derivatives of Constant Functions
𝑑
a. (3) = 0 because 3 is a constant function.
𝑑𝑥

b. If 𝑔(𝑥) = 5, then 𝑔′(𝑥) = 0 because 𝑔 is a constant function.

For example, the derivative of 𝑔 when 𝑥 = 4 is 𝑔′(4) = 0.

807.4
𝑑𝑠
c. If 𝑠 𝑡 = 1,938,623 , then = 0.
𝑑𝑡
 2.2 Rules for Differentiation (3 of 7)
Example 6 – Rewriting Functions in the Form xa

a. To differentiate 𝑦 = 𝑥, we write 𝑥 as 𝑥1/2 . Thus,

𝑑𝑦 1 1/2−1 1 −1/2 1 1
= 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 1/2 =
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2𝑥 2 𝑥

1
b. Let ℎ(𝑥) = . We rewrite ℎ(𝑥) as ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 −3/2 . We have
𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 −3/2
3 −3/2 −1
3 −5/2
ℎ′ 𝑥 = 𝑥 =− 𝑥 =− 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 2
 2.2 Rules for Differentiation (4 of 7)
Example 7 – Differentiating Sums and Differences of Functions

Differentiate the following functions:

a. 𝐹(𝑥) = 3𝑥 5 + 𝑥
Solution: Here 𝐹 is the sum of two functions, 3𝑥 5 and 𝑥.
𝑑 5
𝑑 1/2 𝑑 5 𝑑 1/2
Therefore, 𝐹′ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 𝑥 =3 𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4
1 −1/2 4
1
= 3 5𝑥 + 𝑥 = 15𝑥 + .
2 2 𝑥
 2.2 Rules for Differentiation (5 of 7)
Example 7 – Continued

𝑧4 5
b. 𝑓(𝑧) = − 1/3
4 𝑧
1 4
Solution: We rewrite 𝑓(𝑧) in the form 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 − 5𝑧 −1/3 .
4
𝑑 1 4 𝑑 −1/3
1𝑑 4 𝑑 −1/3
𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 5𝑧 = 𝑧 −5 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 4 𝑑𝑧 4 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1 3
1 −4/3 3
5 −4/3
= (4𝑧 ) − 5 − 𝑧 =𝑧 + 𝑧
4 3 3
 2.2 Rules for Differentiation (6 of 7)
Example 7 – Continued

c. 𝑦 = 6𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 8
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 3
𝑑 2
𝑑 𝑑
Solution: = (6𝑥 ) − (2𝑥 ) + (7𝑥) − (8)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 3 𝑑 2 𝑑 𝑑
= 6 (𝑥 ) − 2 (𝑥 ) + 7 (𝑥) − (8)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 6(3𝑥 2) − 2(2𝑥) + 7(1) − 0
= 18𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7
 2.2 Rules for Differentiation (7 of 7)
Example 8 – Finding an Equation of a Tangent Line
3x 2 − 2
Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y =
x
when x = 1.
3x 2 2
Solution: y = − = 3 x − 2 x −1
x x
dy 2
Thus, = 3 + 2 . The slope of the tangent line to the curve
dx x
dy 2
when x = 1 is = 3 + 2 = 5. To find the y-coordinate, we
dx x =1 1
3x 2 − 2 3(1) 2 − 2
evaluate y = at x = 1. This gives y = = 1.
x 1
Therefore an equation of the tangent line is y − 1 = 5( x − 1).
 2.3 The Derivative as a Rate of Change (1 of 7)
If s = f (t) is a position function of an object moving in a straight
line, then the average velocity of the object over the time interval
Ds f ( t + Dt ) - f ( t )
[t, t + Dt] is given by vave = = and the velocity at
Dt Dt
f (t + Dt) - f (t) ds
time t is given by v = lim = .
Dt®0 Dt dt
Example 9 – Finding Average Velocity and Velocity
Suppose the position function of an object moving along a number
line is given by 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡) = 3𝑡 2 + 5, where 𝑡 is in seconds and 𝑠 is in meters.
a. Find the average velocity over the interval [10, 10.1].
b. Find the velocity when 𝑡 = 10.
 2.3 The Derivative as a Rate of Change (2 of 7)
Example 9 – Continued
Solution:
a. Here 𝑡 = 10 and Δ𝑡 = 10.1 − 10 = 0.1. So we have
Δ𝑠 𝑓 𝑡 + Δ𝑡 − 𝑓 𝑡
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
𝑓 10 + 0.1 − 𝑓 10 𝑓 10.1 − 𝑓 10
= =
0.1 0.1
311.03 − 305 6.03
= = = 60.3 m/s
0.1 0.1
𝑑𝑠
b. The velocity at time 𝑡 is given by 𝑣 = = 6𝑡. When 𝑡 = 10, the
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠
velocity is ቤ = 6(10) = 60 m/s
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=10
 2.3 The Derivative as a Rate of Change (3 of 7)
Δ𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + Δ𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 average rate of change of 𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then = = ቐwith respect to 𝑥 over the
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥
interval from 𝑥 to 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
𝑑𝑦 Δ𝑦 instantaneous rate of change of
and = lim =ቊ
𝑑𝑥 Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥
Example 10 – Finding a Rate of Change
Find the rate of change of 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 with respect to 𝑥, and evaluate
it when 𝑥 = 2 and when 𝑥 = −1. Interpret your results.
𝑑𝑦 3
𝑑𝑦
Solution: The rate of change is = 4𝑥 . When 𝑥 = 2, = 4(2)3 = 32.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
This means that if 𝑥 increases, from 2, by a small amount, then 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
increases approximately 32 times as much. When 𝑥 = 1, = −4.
𝑑𝑥
When 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 is decreasing 4 times as fast as 𝑥 increases.
 2.3 The Derivative as a Rate of Change (4 of 7)
Example 11 – Rate of Change of Volume
A spherical balloon is being filled with air. Find the rate of change
of the volume of air in the balloon with respect to its radius.
Evaluate this rate of change when the radius is 2 ft.
Solution: The formula for the volume V of a ball of radius r
is V = 43 p r 3 . The rate of change is
dV 4
dr 3
( )
= p 3r 2 = 4p r 2
dV
When r = 2 ft, = 4p (2)2 = 16p ft 3 /ft. This means that
dr r=2
when the radius is 2 ft, changing the radius by 1 ft will change
the volume by approximately 16p ft 3 .
 2.3 The Derivative as a Rate of Change (5 of 7)
Applications of Rate of Change to Economics

A manufacturer's total-cost function, c = f (q), gives the total cost

c of producing and marketing q units of a product. The rate
of change of c with respect to q is called the marginal cost.
dc
Thus, marginal cost = .
dq
Suppose r = f (q) is the total revenue function for a manufacturer.
The marginal revenue is defined as the rate of change of the total
dollar value received with respect to the total number of units
dr
sold. Hence, marginal revenue = .
dq
 2.3 The Derivative as a Rate of Change (6 of 7)
Example 13 – Marginal Cost
5000
If a manufacturer's average-cost equation is c = 0.0001q 2 - 0.02q + 5 +
q
find the marginal-cost function.
What is the marginal cost when 50 units are produced?
æ 5000 æ
Solution: c = qc = q ç 0.0001q 2 - 0.02q + 5 +
è q ÷æ
c = 0.0001q 3 - 0.02q 2 + 5q + 5000. Differentiating c, we have the
dc
marginal-cost function: = 0.000(3q 2 ) - 0.02(2q) + 5(1) + 0 = 0.0003q 2 - 0.04q + 5.
dq
The marginal-cost when 50 units are
dc
produced is = 0.0003(50)2 - 0.04(50) + 5 = 3.75.
dq q=50
If c is in dollars and production is increased by 1 unit, from q = 50
to q = 51, then the cost of the additional unit is approximately $3.75.
 2.3 The Derivative as a Rate of Change (7 of 7)
𝑓′(𝑥)
The relative rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥) is .
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥)
The percentage rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥) is ⋅ 100%.
𝑓(𝑥)
Example 14 – Relative and Percentage Rates of Change

Determine the relative and percentage rates of change of

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 25 when 𝑥 = 5.
Solution: Here 𝑓′(𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 5. Since 𝑓′(5) = 25 and 𝑓(5) = 75,
the relative rate of change of 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 5 is
𝑓′ 5 25
= ≈ 0.333. Multiplying by 100% gives the percent rate
𝑓 5 75
of change: (0.333)(100) = 33.3%.
 2.4 The Product Rule and the Quotient Rule (1 of 8)
COMBINING RULE 3 The Product Rule:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

COMBINING RULE 4 The Quotient Rule:

𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔 𝑥 𝑓′(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′(𝑥)

= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) 2
With the understanding about the denominator not
′
𝑓 𝑔𝑓′ − 𝑓𝑔′
being zero,we can write =
𝑔 𝑔2
 2.4 The Product Rule and the Quotient Rule (2 of 8)
Example 15 – Applying the Product Rule
If 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 4𝑥 + 5 , find 𝐹′(𝑥).

Solution: We consider 𝐹 as a product of two functions:

𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 5 .
Therefore we can apply the product rule:
𝐹′ 𝑥 = 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑 2 2
𝑑
= 𝑥 + 3𝑥 4𝑥 + 5 + 𝑥 + 3𝑥 4𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑥 + 3 4𝑥 + 5 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 4 = 12𝑥 2 + 34𝑥 + 15
 2.4 The Product Rule and the Quotient Rule (3 of 8)
Example 16 – Differentiating a Product of Three Factors
If 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4), find 𝑦′.
Solution: The product rule gives
𝑑 𝑑
𝑦′ = 𝑥+2 𝑥+3 𝑥+4 + 𝑥+2 𝑥+3 𝑥+4
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
= 𝑥+2 𝑥+3 𝑥 + 4 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 3 (1)
𝑑𝑥
Applying the product rule again, we have
𝑑 𝑑
𝑦′ = (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 3) + (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 4) + (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= [(1)(𝑥 + 3) + (𝑥 + 2)(1)](𝑥 + 4) + (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
= 3𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 + 26
2.4 The Product Rule and the Quotient Rule (4 of 8)
Example17 – Applying the Quotient Rule
4𝑥 2 + 3
If 𝐹(𝑥) = , find 𝐹′(𝑥).
2𝑥 − 1
𝑓(𝑥)
Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) = , where 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥)
= 2𝑥 − 1.
𝑔(𝑥)𝑓′(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′(𝑥)
𝐹′ 𝑥 =
(𝑔(𝑥))2
𝑑 𝑑
2𝑥 − 1 4𝑥 2 + 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3 2𝑥 − 1
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 − 1 2
2𝑥 − 1 8𝑥 − 4𝑥 2 + 3 2 2 2𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 − 3
= =
2𝑥 − 1 2 2𝑥 − 1 2
 2.4 The Product Rule and the Quotient Rule (5 of 8)
Example 18 – Differentiating Quotients without Using the Quotient Rule
Differentiate the following functions:
2𝑥 3
a. 𝑓 𝑥 =
5
2
Solution: Rewriting, we have 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 .
5
2
2 6𝑥
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 =
5 5
4
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
7𝑥
4 −3
Solution: Rewriting, we have 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 ).
7
4 −4
12
𝑓′(𝑥) = (−3𝑥 ) = − 4
7 7𝑥
2.4 The Product Rule and the Quotient Rule (6 of 8)
Example 18 – Continued

5x 2 - 3x
c. f (x) =
4x
1 æ5x 2 - 3x æ 1
Solution: Rewriting, we have f (x) = ç ÷ = (5x - 3)
4è x æ 4
1 5
for x ¹ 0. Thus, f '(x) = (5) = for x ¹ 0.
4 4
2.4 The Product Rule and the Quotient Rule (7 of 8)
 2.4 The Product Rule and the Quotient Rule (8 of 8)
Example 19 – Finding Marginal Propensities to Consume and to Save
5(2 𝐼3 + 3)
If the consumption function is given by 𝐶 = determine the marginal
𝐼 + 10
propensity to consume and the marginal propensity to save when 𝐼 = 100.
𝑑 3/2 + 3 − 2 𝐼 3 + 3 𝑑 𝐼 + 10
𝑑𝐶 𝐼 + 10 2𝐼
Solution: =5 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼
𝑑𝐼 𝐼 + 10 2
𝐼 + 10 3𝐼1/2 + 3 − 2 𝐼3 + 3 1
=5 When 𝐼 = 100, the marginal propensity to
𝐼 + 10 2
𝑑𝐶 1297
consume is ቤ =5 ≈ 0.536.
𝑑𝐼 𝐼=100 12,100
The marginal propensity to save when 𝐼 = 100 is 1 − 0.536 = 0.464.
 2.5 The Chain Rule (1 of 5)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
COMBINING RULE 5 The Chain Rule: = ⋅
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Example 20 – Using the Chain Rule
a. If 𝑦 = 2𝑢2 − 3𝑢 − 2 and 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 4, find 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥.
Solution: By the chain rule,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 2
𝑑 2
= ⋅ = 2𝑢 − 3𝑢 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥 +4
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
= 4𝑢 − 3 2𝑥 . We can write our answer in terms of 𝑥 alone
by replacing 𝑢 by 𝑥 2 + 4.
𝑑𝑦
= (4(𝑥 2 + 4) − 3)(2𝑥) = (4𝑥 3 + 13)(2𝑥) = 8𝑥 3 + 26𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 2.5 The Chain Rule (2 of 5)
Example 20 – Continued

b. If 𝑦 = 𝑤 and 𝑤 = 7 − 𝑡 3, find 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑤 𝑑 𝑑
Solution: By the chain rule, = ⋅ = 𝑤 ⋅ 7 − 𝑡3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑡
2 2
1 −1/2 1 3𝑡 3𝑡
= 𝑤 (−3𝑡 2) = (−3𝑡 2) = − =−
2 2 𝑤 2 𝑤 2 7 − 𝑡3

The following rule, called the 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒖𝒍𝒆, is a special case

𝑑 𝑎 𝑎−1
𝑑𝑢
of the chain rule: (𝑢 ) = 𝑎𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 2.5 The Chain Rule (3 of 5)
Example 21 – Using the Power Rule

If 𝑦 = (𝑥 3 − 1)7 , find 𝑦′.

Solution: Since 𝑦 is a power of a function of 𝑥, the power
rule applies. Letting 𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 1 and 𝑎 = 7, we have
𝑦′ = 𝑎[𝑢(𝑥)]𝑎−1 𝑢′(𝑥)
3 7−1
𝑑 3
= 7 𝑥 −1 𝑥 −1
𝑑𝑥
= 7 𝑥 3 − 1 6 3𝑥 2 = 21𝑥 2 𝑥 2 − 1 6
 2.5 The Chain Rule (4 of 5)
Example 22 – Using the Power Rule
1 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 2 , find .
𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥

Solution: Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 2. Then 𝑦 = 𝑢−1 , and

𝑑𝑦 2 1−1
𝑑 2
= −1 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= (−1)(𝑥 2 − 2)−2(2𝑥)
2𝑥
=− 2
𝑥 −2 2
 2.5 The Chain Rule (5 of 5)
Example 23 – Differentiating a Product of Powers

If 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 − 4)5 (3𝑥 + 5)4, find 𝑦′.

Solution: We first apply the product rule:
2 5
𝑑 4 4
𝑑
𝑦′ = 𝑥 − 4 3𝑥 + 5 + 3𝑥 + 5 𝑥2 − 4 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Now we use the power rule:
𝑦′ = 12 𝑥 2 − 4 5 4(3𝑥 + 5)3 (3) + 3𝑥 + 5 4 5(𝑥 2 − 4)4 (2𝑥)
= 12(𝑥 2 − 4)5 3𝑥 + 5 3 + 10𝑥(3𝑥 + 5)4 (𝑥 2 − 4)4
= 2(𝑥 2 − 4)(3𝑥 + 5)3 [6(𝑥 2 − 4) + 5𝑥(3𝑥 + 5)]
= 2(𝑥 2 − 4)(3𝑥 + 5)3 (21𝑥 2 + 25𝑥 − 24)
 Chapter 3

Additional Differentiation Topics

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 10 - 66

Chapter Objectives (1 of 2)

• To develop a differentiation formula for y = ln u, to apply the formula, and to use

it to differentiate a logarithmic function to a base other than e.
• To develop a differentiation formula for y = eu , to apply the formula, and to use it
to differentiate an exponential function with base other than e.
• To give a mathematical analysis of the economic concept of elasticity.
• To discuss the notion of a function defined implicitly and to determine derivatives
by means of implicit differentiation.
Chapter Objectives (2 of 2)

• To describe the method of logarithmic differentiation and to show how to

differentiate a function of the form uv.
• To approximate real roots of an equation by using calculus. The method shown is
suitable for calculators.
• To find higher-order derivatives both directly and implicitly.
Chapter Outline
3.1) Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
3.2) Derivatives of Exponential Functions
3.3) Elasticity of Demand
3.4) Implicit Differentiation
3.5) Logarithmic Differentiation
3.6) Newton’s Method
3.7) Higher-Order Derivatives
 3.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions (1 of 4)
BASIC RULE 3 Derivative of ln x
Derivative of ln x
d 1
( )
ln x = for x  0
dx x

d
dx
( ln x ) = for x  0
1
x

Let y = ln u , where u is a differentiable function of x.

d
dx
( ln u ) = 
1 du
u dx
for u  0
 3.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions (2 of 4)
Example 1 – Differentiating Functions Involving ln x
a. Differentiate 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 ln 𝑥 .
𝑑 1 5
Solution: We have 𝑓′(𝑥) = 5 (ln 𝑥) = 5 ⋅ = for 𝑥 > 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
ln 𝑥
b. Differentiate 𝑦 = 2 .
𝑥
Solution: By the quotient rule and Basic Rule 3,
2 𝑑 𝑑 2 2 1
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 − (ln 𝑥) 2𝑥
𝑦′ = 2 2 =
𝑥 𝑥4
𝑥 − 2𝑥 ln 𝑥 1 − 2 ln 𝑥
= 4 = 3 for 𝑥 > 0
𝑥 𝑥
 3.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions (3 of 4)
Example 2 – Rewriting Logarithmic Functions before Differentiating
𝑑𝑦
a. Find if 𝑦 = ln( 2𝑥 + 5)3 .
𝑑𝑥
Solution: We have 𝑦 = ln( 2𝑥 + 5)3 = 3 ln( 2𝑥 + 5) for 2𝑥 + 5 > 0.
𝑑𝑦 1 6
=3 2 = for 𝑥 > −5/2
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 + 5 2𝑥 + 5
b. Find 𝑓′(𝑝) if 𝑓(𝑝) = ln( (𝑝 + 1)2 (𝑝 + 2)3(𝑝 + 3)4 ).
Solution: We simplify the right side, then differentiate.
𝑓(𝑝) = 2 ln( 𝑝 + 1) + 3 ln( 𝑝 + 2) + 4 ln( 𝑝 + 3)
1 1 1
𝑓′(𝑝) = 2 1 +3 1 +4 1
𝑝+1 𝑝+2 𝑝+3
2 3 4
= + +
𝑝+1 𝑝+2 𝑝+3
 3.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions (4 of 4)
The change−of−base formula allows us to write:
ln 𝑢
𝑦 = log𝑏 𝑢 =
ln 𝑏
Example 3 – Differentiating a Logarithmic Function to the Base 2
Differentiate 𝑦 = log2 𝑥 .
𝑑𝑦
Solution: log2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 ln 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 ln 2
1 𝑑 1 log2 𝑒
= (ln 𝑥) = , which can be expressed as .
ln 2 𝑑𝑥 ln 2 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 log𝑏 𝑒 𝑑𝑢
More generally, (log𝑏 𝑢) = ⋅ .
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
 3.2 Derivatives of Exponential Functions (1 of 3)
The following is the Inverse Function Rule:
𝑑 −1
1 −1
(𝑓 (𝑥)) = −1 for 𝑓′(𝑓 (𝑥)) ≠ 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑓′(𝑓 (𝑥))
It allows us to differentiate exponential functions when
𝑑𝑦 1
rewritten as =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦

Consequently, for 𝑢 a differentiable function of 𝑥, we have

𝑑 𝑢 𝑢
𝑑𝑢
(𝑒 ) = 𝑒
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 3.2 Derivatives of Exponential Functions (2 of 3)
Example 4 – Differentiating Functions Involving ex
𝑑
a. Find (3𝑒 𝑥 ).
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑥
Solution: (3𝑒 ) = 3 𝑒 = 3𝑒 𝑥
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑑𝑦
b. If 𝑦 = 𝑥 , find .
𝑒 𝑑𝑥
−𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 −𝑥
𝑑 −𝑥
Solution: 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 , so = (𝑥)𝑒 + 𝑥 𝑒
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑥 1−𝑥
= (1)𝑒 + 𝑥(𝑒 )(−1) = 𝑒 (1 − 𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑒
c. If 𝑦 = 𝑒 2 + 𝑒 𝑥 + ln 3 , find 𝑦′.
Solution: 𝑦′ = 0 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 0 = 𝑒 𝑥
 3.2 Derivatives of Exponential Functions (3 of 3)
Example 5 – Differentiating Different Forms
𝑑 2
Find 𝑒 + 𝑥𝑒 + 2 𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2 𝑑 (ln 2)
Solution: 𝑒 + 𝑥𝑒 + 2 𝑥 =0 + 𝑒𝑥 𝑒−1 + 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1 2 ln 2
= 𝑒𝑥 𝑒−1 + 𝑒 ln 2 𝑥 ln 2 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑒−1 +
2 𝑥 2 𝑥

Example 6 – Differentiating Power Functions Again

For 𝑥 > 0, we can write 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑎 ln 𝑥 . So we have
𝑑 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎 ln 𝑥 𝑎 ln 𝑥 𝑑
𝑥 = 𝑒 =𝑒 (𝑎 ln 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 𝑎𝑥 −1 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑎−1 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Note: here we do not require that 𝑎 be a positive integer.
 3.3 Elasticity of Demand (1 of 2)
If 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑞) is a differentiable demand function, the point
elasticity of demand, denoted by 𝜂 (eta), at (𝑞, 𝑝) is given by
𝑝
𝑞
𝜂=𝜂 𝑞 =
𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑞
There are three categories of elasticity:
1. When 𝜂 > 1, demand is elastic.
2. When 𝜂 = 1, demand has unit elasticity.
3. When 𝜂 < 1, demand is inelastic.
 3.3 Elasticity of Demand (2 of 2)
Example 1 – Finding Point Elasticity of Demand
Determine the point elasticity of the demand equation
𝑘
𝑝 = , where 𝑘 > 0 and 𝑞 > 0.
𝑞
Solution: From the definition, we have
𝑝 𝑘
𝑞 𝑞2
𝜂= = = −1
𝑑𝑝 −𝑘
𝑑𝑞 𝑞2
Thus, the demand equation has unit elasticity for all 𝑞 > 0.

Another useful expression for 𝜂 is when 𝑞 = 𝑔(𝑝):

𝑔′(𝑝)
𝜂 = 𝜂(𝑝) = .
𝑔(𝑝)
 3.4 Implicit Differentiation (1 of 3)
Implicit Differentiation Procedure

For an equation that we assume defines 𝑦 implicitly as a

𝑑𝑦
differentiable function of 𝑥, the derivative can be found as follows:
𝑑𝑥

1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to 𝑥.

𝑑𝑦
2. Solve for , noting any restrictions.
𝑑𝑥
 3.4 Implicit Differentiation (2 of 3)
Example 7 – Implicit Differentiation
𝑑𝑦
Find by implicit differentiation if 𝑦 + 𝑦 3 − 𝑥 = 7.
𝑑𝑥
Solution: Differentiating both sides with repsect to 𝑥,
𝑑 𝑑
𝑦 + 𝑦3 − 𝑥 = 7
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 3 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑦) + (𝑦 ) − (𝑥) = 7
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ 3𝑦 2 − 1 = 0 Solving for gives
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(1 + 3𝑦 2 ) = 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
= 2 . Note that there is no restriction on 𝑦.
𝑑𝑥 1 + 3𝑦
 3.4 Implicit Differentiation (3 of 3)
Example 8 – Implicit Differentiation
Find the slope of the curve 𝑥 3 = (𝑦 − 𝑥 2)2 at (1,2).
Solution: Finding 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 by implicit differentiation, we have
𝑑 3 𝑑
𝑥 = 𝑦 − 𝑥2 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
3𝑥 2 = 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 2 (𝑦 − 𝑥 2)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
3𝑥 2 = 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑥 2 = 2𝑦 − 4𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
2(𝑦 − 𝑥 2 ) = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 − 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 − 4𝑥 3
= 2 for 𝑦 − 𝑥 2 ≠ 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦−𝑥
𝑑𝑦 7 7
ቤ = . Thus, the slope of the curve at (1,2) is .
𝑑𝑥 1,2 2 2
 3.5 Logarithmic Differentiation (1 of 4)
Logarithmic Differentiation Procedure

To differentiate 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥),
1. Take the natural logarithm of both sides. This results in
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑓 𝑥
2. Simplify ln 𝑓 𝑥 by using properties of logarithms.
3. Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦
4. Solve for .
𝑑𝑥
5. Express the answer in terms of 𝑥 only. This requires
substituting 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑦.
 3.5 Logarithmic Differentiation (2 of 4)
Example 9 – Logarithmic Differentiation
2𝑥 − 5 3
Find 𝑦′ if 𝑦 = .
𝑥24 𝑥2 + 1
Solution: Using the steps listed above, we have
2𝑥 − 5 3
ln 𝑦 = ln 4
𝑥 2 𝑥2 + 1
ln 𝑦 = ln 2𝑥 − 5 3 − (ln 𝑥 2 + ln( 𝑥 2 + 1)1/4)
1
= 3 ln 2𝑥 − 5 − 2 ln 𝑥 − ln( 𝑥 2 + 1). Differentiating with respect to 𝑥,
4
𝑦′ 1 1 1 1
=3 (2) − 2 − (2𝑥)
𝑦 2𝑥 + 5 𝑥 4 𝑥2 + 1
6 2 𝑥
= − − . Solving for 𝑦′ yields
2𝑥 − 5 𝑥 2(𝑥 2 + 1)
6 2 𝑥 2𝑥 − 5 3 6 2 𝑥
𝑦′ = 𝑦 − − = 4 − − .
2𝑥 − 5 𝑥 2(𝑥 2 + 1) 2
𝑥 𝑥 +12 2𝑥 − 5 𝑥 2(𝑥 2 + 1)
 3.5 Logarithmic Differentiation (3 of 4)
Example 10 – Relative Rate of Change of a Product
Show that the relative rate of change of a product is the sum of the
relative rates of change of its factors. Use this result to express the
percentage rate of change in revenue in terms of the percentage rate of
change in price.

Solution: Suppose 𝑟 is a function of an unspecified variable 𝑥.

We are to show that if 𝑟 = 𝑝𝑞, where also 𝑝 and 𝑞 are functions
𝑟′ 𝑝′ 𝑞′
of 𝑥, then = + .
𝑟 𝑝 𝑞
 3.5 Logarithmic Differentiation (4 of 4)
Example 10 – Continued
Solution, continued
From 𝑟 = 𝑝𝑞 we have ln 𝑟 = ln 𝑝 + ln 𝑞 .
𝑟′ 𝑝′ 𝑞′
Differentiating with respect to 𝑥 gives = + as required.
𝑟 𝑝 𝑞
𝑟′ 𝑝′ 𝑞′
Multiplying by 100% gives 100% = 100% + 100%. From the
𝑟 𝑝 𝑞
elasticity of demand section, and specifying our variable 𝑥 to be 𝑝,
𝑟′ 𝑝′
we can write 100% = 1 + 𝜂 100%, expressing the percentage
𝑟 𝑝
rate of change in revenue in terms of the percentage rate of
change in price.
 3.6 Newton’s Method (1 of 2)
Newton’s method:
Approximating a root to the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 using Newton′s
Method involves the following general formula:
𝑓 𝑥𝑛
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑛 = 1,2,3, . . .
𝑓′ 𝑥𝑛

Example 11 – Approximating a Root by Newton’s Method

Approximate the root of 𝑥4 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0 that lies between 0 and 1.

Continue the approximation procedure until two successive
approximations differ by less than 0.0001.
 3.6 Newton’s Method (2 of 2)
Example 11 – Approximating a Root by Newton’s Method
Solution: Letting f (x) = x 4 - 4x + 1, we have
f (0) = 0 - 0 + 1 = 1 and f (1) = 1- 4 + 1 = -2. We choose 0 to be our first
approximation, x1 .
Now, f (xn ) = x 4n -4 xn + 1 and f '(xn ) = 4 xn3 - 4.
f ( xn ) xn4 - 4 xn + 1 4xn4 - 4xn - xn4 + 4xn - 1
xn+1 = xn - = xn - =
f ' ( xn ) 4 xn - 4
3
4 xn3 - 4
3xn4 - 1 3x14 - 1 3(0)4 - 1
= 3 . Since x1 = 0, x2 = 3 = = 0.25.
4xn - 4 4 x1 - 4 4(0)3 - 4
3(0.25)4 - 1
When n = 2, we have x3 = » 0.25099206. Similarly, x4 » 0.25099216.
4(0.25)3 - 4
Since the values of x3 and x4 differ by less than 0.0001, we take our
approximation of the root to be x4 » 0.25099216.
 3.7 Higher-Order Derivatives (1 of 5)
Some notations for higher-order derivatives are given in the table below:
Table 3.1
′ ′ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
First derivative: 𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝐷𝑥 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2
Second derivative: 𝑦″ 𝑓″ 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝐷𝑥2𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑3
Third derivative: 𝑦‴ 𝑓‴ 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝐷𝑥3 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 3
𝑑4𝑦 𝑑4
Fourth derivative: 𝑦 (4) 𝑓 (4)(𝑥) (𝑓(𝑥)) 𝐷𝑥4𝑦
𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 4
𝑑 𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑛
𝑛th derivative: 𝑦 (𝑛) 𝑓 𝑛 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝐷𝑥𝑛𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛
 3.7 Higher-Order Derivatives (2 of 5)
Example 12 – Finding Higher-Order Derivatives

If 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 2, find all higher−order derivatives.

Solution: Differentiating gives

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 18𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 6
Differentiating 𝑓′(𝑥) gives
𝑓 ″ 𝑥 = 36𝑥 − 24
Similarly,
𝑓 ‴ 𝑥 = 36
𝑓 4 𝑥 = 0, and for 𝑛 ≥ 5, 𝑓 𝑛 𝑥 = 0.
 3.7 Higher-Order Derivatives (3 of 5)
Example 13 – Evaluating a Second-Order Derivative

16 𝑑 2𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = , find and evaluate it when 𝑥 = 4.
𝑥+4 𝑑𝑥 2
Solution: Since 𝑦 = 16(𝑥 + 4)−1 , the power rule gives
𝑑𝑦
= −16 𝑥 + 4 −2 and differentiating again,
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 −3
32
2 = 32 𝑥 + 4 = 3 . Evaluating when 𝑥 = 4, we obtain
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 4)
𝑑2𝑦 32 1 1
2 อ = 3= . Thus, 𝑦′′(4) = .
𝑑𝑥 8 16 16
𝑥=4
 3.7 Higher-Order Derivatives (4 of 5)
Example 14 – Higher-Order Implicit Differentiation
𝑑2𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 4.
Find if 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
Solution: Differentiating, we obtain
𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 8𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 −𝑥
= . Differentiating again using the quotient rule,
𝑑𝑥 4𝑦
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑦 4𝑦 𝑑𝑥 (−𝑥) − (−𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (4𝑦)
2 4𝑦(−1) − (−𝑥) 4
𝑑𝑥
= =
𝑑𝑥 2 (4𝑦)2 16𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
−4𝑦 + 4𝑥 −𝑦 + 𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 .
16𝑦 2 4𝑦 2
 3.7 Higher-Order Derivatives (5 of 5)
Example 14 – Continued

Solution, continued
It is customary to express the answer without the derivative,
in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦 only:
−𝑥
2
𝑑 𝑦 −𝑦 + 𝑥 −4𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 4𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2
4𝑦
= = =− .
𝑑𝑥 2 4𝑦 2 16𝑦 3 16𝑦 3
𝑑 2𝑦 1
2 2
Finally, since 𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 4, 2 = − 3 .
𝑑𝑥 4𝑦
 Chapter 4

Integration

Copyright
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reserved. 10 - 93
 Chapter Objectives (1 of 2)
• To define the differential, interpret it geometrically, and use it
in approximations. Also, to restate the reciprocal relationship
between
• To define the antiderivative and the indefinite integral and to
apply basic integration formulas.
• To find a particular antiderivative of a function that satisfies
certain conditions. This involves evaluating constants of
integration.
• To learn and apply the formulas for
𝑛 𝑛 1
න𝑢 𝑑𝑢 , න𝑒 𝑑𝑢 , and න 𝑑𝑢 .
𝑢
 Chapter Objectives (2 of 2)
• To discuss techniques of handling more challenging integration problems, namely,
by algebraic manipulation and by fitting the integrand to a familiar form. To
integrate an exponential function with base different from e and to find the
consumption function, given the marginal propensity to consume.
• To motivate, by means of the concept of area, the definite integral as a limit of a
special sum; to evaluate simple definite integrals by using a limiting process.
• To develop informally the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and to use it to
compute definite integrals.
 Chapter Outline
4.1) Differentials
4.2) The Indefinite Integral
4.3) Integration with Initial Conditions
4.4) More Integration Formulas
4.5) Techniques of Integration
4.6) The Definite Integral
4.7) The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
 4.1 Differentials (1 of 4)
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a differentiable function of 𝑥, and let Δ𝑥 denote a change
in 𝑥, where Δ𝑥 can be any real number.
Then the differential of 𝑦, denoted by either 𝑑𝑦 or 𝑑(𝑓(𝑥))
is given by 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓′ 𝑥 Δ𝑥

Example 1 – Computing a Differential

Find the differential of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4, and evaluate it when
𝑥 = 1 and Δ𝑥 = 0.04.
𝑑 3
Solution: 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 Δ𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 Δ𝑥
𝑑𝑥
When 𝑥 = 1 and Δ𝑥 = 0.04, 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦(1, 0.04)
= (3(1)2 − 4(1) + 3)(0.04) = 0.08
 4.1 Differentials (2 of 4)
Example 2 – Using the Differential to Estimate a Change in a Quantity
A governmental health agency examined the records of a group of
individuals who were hospitalized with a particular illness. It was found
that the total proportion P that are discharged at the end of t days of
hospitalization is given by
3
300
𝑃 =𝑃 𝑡 =1−3 2
300 + 𝑡

Use differentials to approximate the change in the discharged if t changes

from 300 to 305. proportion
 4.1 Differentials (3 of 4)
Example 2 – Continued
Solution:
The change in t from 300 to 305 is Dt = dt = 5. The change
in P is DP = P(305) - P(300). We approximate DP by dP :
æ 300 æ æ 300 æ
2

DP » dP = P '(t)dt = -3 ç ÷ ç - 2÷
dt
è 300 + t æ è (300 + t) æ
300 3 300 2
=3 4 dt When t = 300 and dt = 5, dP = 3 5
( 300 + t ) 600 4

» 0.0031. For a comparison, the true value of DP is

P(305) - P(300) = 0.00307
 4.1 Differentials (4 of 4)
Example 3 – Finding dp/dq from dq/dp
dp
Find if q = 2500 - p 2 .
dq
dq 1
Solution: We have = (2500 - p 2 )-1/2 (-2 p)
dp 2
p
=-
2500 - p 2
dp 1 2500 - p 2
Hence, = =-
dq dq p
dp
4.2 The Infinite Integral (1 of 7)
 4.2 The Infinite Integral (2 of 7)
Example 4 – Finding an Indefinite Integral
Find න5 𝑑𝑥.
Solution: We know the derivative of 5𝑥 is 5, 5𝑥 is an antiderivative
of 5. Therefore, න5 𝑑𝑥 = 5𝑥 + 𝐶
Table 4.1 Elementary Integration Formulas
1. òනk dx = kx + C k is a constant
x a+1
2. ò x dx =
a
+ C a ¹ -1
a +1
1 dx
3. ò x -1 dx = ò dx = ò = In x + C for x > 0
x x
4. ò e x dx = e x + C
5. ò kf (x)dx = k ò f (x)dx k is a constant
6. ò ( f (x) ± g(x))dx = ò f (x)dx ± ò g(x)dx
 4.2 The Infinite Integral (3 of 7)
Example 5 – Indefinite Integral of a Constant Times a Function
Find æ7xdx.
Solution: æ7xdx = 7 æx dx. By item 2 in the table above, we have
x 1+1
x 2

æ dx = 1+ 1 + C1 = 2 + C1 where C1 is the constant of

x 1

æx2 æ 7 2
integration. Therefore, æ7xdx = 7 ç + C1 ÷ = x + 7C1
è 2 æ 2
Since C1 is just an arbitrary constant, we replace it by C for
7 2
simplicity. Thus, æ7xdx = x + C
2
 4.2 The Infinite Integral (4 of 7)
Example 6 – Finding Indefinite Integrals
1
a. Find ò dt.
t
Solution: Since 1 / t = t -1/2 ,
1 t (-1/2)+1
t 1/2

ò t ò dt = - 12 +1 + C = 12 + C = 2 t + C
-1/2
dt = t

1
b. Find න 3
𝑑𝑥.
6𝑥
1 1 1 𝑥 −3+1 𝑥 −2
Solution: න 3 𝑑𝑥 = න𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 = − +𝐶
6𝑥 6 6 −3 + 1 12
1
=− +𝐶
12𝑥 2
 4.2 The Infinite Integral (5 of 7)
Example 7 – Indefinite Integral of a Sum and Difference
5
Find න 2 𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 3 + 10𝑒 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥

5
Solution: න 2 𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 3 + 10𝑒 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥

= 2 න𝑥 4/5 𝑑𝑥 − 7 න𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + 10 න 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − න1𝑑𝑥
𝑥 9/5 𝑥4
= 2 − 7 + 10𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
9/5 4
10 9/5 7 4
= 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 10𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
9 4
 4.2 The Infinite Integral (6 of 7)
Example 8 – Using Algebraic Manipulation to Find an Indefinite Integral
2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 3
a. Find න 𝑑𝑥.
6
2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 3
Solution: න 𝑑𝑥
6
1
= න(2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3)𝑑𝑥
6
1 𝑥3 𝑥2
= 2 + 5 − 3𝑥 + 𝐶
6 3 2
𝑥 3 5𝑥 2 𝑥
= + − +𝐶
9 12 2
 4.2 The Infinite Integral (7 of 7)
Example 8 – Continued
𝑥3 − 1
b. Find න 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥2

x3 - 1 æx3 1 æ
x èx x æ
( )
Solution: æ 2 dx = æç 2 - 2 ÷ dx = æ x - x -2 dx

x 2 x -1
= - +C
2 -1
x2 1
= + +C
2 x
 4.3 Integration with Initial Conditions (1 of 5)
Example 9 – Initial-Condition Problem

If 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥 such that 𝑦′ = 8𝑥 − 4 and 𝑦(2) = 5, find 𝑦.

Also, find 𝑦(4).
Solution: Here, 𝑦(2) = 5 is the initial condition. Since
𝑦′ = 8𝑥 − 4, 𝑦 is an antiderivative of 8𝑥 − 4:
𝑥2
𝑦 = න 8𝑥 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 8 ⋅ − 4𝑥 + 𝐶 = 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 𝐶.
2
Because 𝑦 = 5 when 𝑥 = 2, we have 5 = 4(2)2 − 4(2) + 𝐶
5 = 16 − 8 + 𝐶
𝐶 = −3. Therefore, 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3 and
𝑦(4) = 4(4)2 − 4(4) − 3 = 45.
 4.3 Integration with Initial Conditions (2 of 5)
Example 10 – Income and Education

For a particular urban group, sociologists studied the

current average yearly income y (in dollars) that a
person can expect to receive with x years of education
before seeking regular employment. They estimated that
the rate at which income changes with respect to education
dy
is given by = 100x 3/2 4 £ x £ 16
dx
where y = 28, 720 when x = 9. Find y.
 4.3 Integration with Initial Conditions (3 of 5)
Example 10 – Continued

Solution: Here y is an antiderivative of 100x 3/2 . Thus,

x 5/2
y = ò 100x 3/2 dx = (100) 5 + C = 40x 5/2 + C.
2
The initial condition is that y = 28, 720 when x = 9.
y = 40x 5/2 + C
28, 720 = 40(9)5/2 + C = 40(243) + C
28, 720 = 9720 + C
Therefore, C = 19,000, and y = 40x 5/2 + 19,000
 4.3 Integration with Initial Conditions (4 of 5)
Example 11 – Finding Cost from Marginal Cost

In the manufacture of a product, fixed costs per week are $4000.

Fixed costs are costs, such as rent and insurance, that remain
constant at all levels of production during a given time period.
If the marginal-cost function is
dc
dq
( )
= 0.000001 0.002q 2 - 25q + 0.2

where c is the total cost (in dollars) of producing q kilograms of

product per week, find the cost of producing 10,000 kg in 1 week.
 4.3 Integration with Initial Conditions (5 of 5)
Example 11 – Continued
( )
Solution: c ( q ) = æéë 0.000001 0.002q 2 - 25q + 0.2 ùû dq
= 0.000001æ(0.002q 2 - 25q) + 0.2)dq
æ0.002q 3 25q 2 æ
= 0.000001 ç - ÷ + 0.2q + C
è 3 2 æ
When q = 0, c = 4000, which gives C = 4000. So we have
æ0.002q 3 25q 2 æ
c(q) = 0.000001 ç - ÷ + 0.2q + 4000
è 3 2 æ
c(10,000) = 5416 23 . Thus, the total cost for producing
10,000 kg of product in 1 week is $5416.67.
 4.4 More Integration Formulas (1 of 5)
Power Rule for Integration
𝑎+1
𝑢
If 𝑢 is differentiable, then න 𝑢𝑎 𝑑𝑢 = + 𝐶 if 𝑎 ≠ −1
𝑎+1
Integrating Natural Exponential Functions

න𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝐶

Integrals Involving Logarithmic Functions

1
න 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 𝐶 for 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥
 4.4 More Integration Formulas (2 of 5)
Example 12 – Applying the Power Rule for Integration

ò ( x + 1)
20
a. Find dx.

ò ( x + 1)
20
Solution: We will set u = x +1. Then du = dx, and dx has
u 21 (x + 1)21
the form ò u du. ò ( x +1) dx = ò u du =
20 20 20
+C = +C
21 21
b. Find ò 3x ( x + 7 ) dx.
2 3 3

Solution: Let u = x 3 + 7. Then du = 3x 2 dx. Fortunately, 3x 2

appears as a factor in the integrand and we have
ò ( ò) ( )
ò du
3 3
3x2
x + 7 dx
3
= x + 7 (3x 2
) dx =3
u 3

u4 (x 3 + 7)4
= +C = +C
4 4
 4.4 More Integration Formulas (3 of 5)
Example 13 – Applying the Power Rule for Integration
a. Find න 3 6𝑦 𝑑𝑦.
3
Solution: We have න 3 6𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = න61/3𝑦1/3 𝑑𝑦 = 6 න𝑦1/3𝑑𝑦

3 𝑦4/3 3 3 6 4/3
= 6 +𝐶= 𝑦 +𝐶
4 4
3
3
2𝑥 + 3𝑥
b. Find න 4 𝑑𝑥.
(𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 7)4
𝑑𝑢
Solution: If 𝑢 = 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 + 7, then = (2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥)𝑑𝑥:
2
4 2 −4 3 −4
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢 −3
න(𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 7) (2𝑥 + 3𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = න𝑢 = ⋅ +𝐶
2 2 −3
1 1
= − 3+𝐶 = − +𝐶
6𝑢 6 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 + 7 3
 4.4 More Integration Formulas (4 of 5)
Example 14 – Integrals Involving Exponential Functions
2
a. Find න2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
2 2
Solution: Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2. Then 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥, and න2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥𝑑𝑥)
2
= න𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝐶 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

3 +3𝑥
b. Find න 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
Solution: If 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = 3(𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥. Thus, we write
2 𝑥3 +3𝑥 𝑥3 +3𝑥 1
න 𝑥 +1 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = න𝑒 [(𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥] = න𝑒 𝑢𝑑𝑢
2
3
1 1 3
= 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝐶 = 𝑒 𝑥 +3𝑥 + 𝐶
3 3
 4.4 More Integration Formulas (5 of 5)
Example 15 – An Integral Involving 1/u du

( 2x 3 + 3x )
Find òx 4
+ 3x + 7
2
dx.

Solution: If u = x 4 + 3x 2 + 7, then du = 2(2x 3 + 3x)dx.

We write ò 4
( 2x 3 + 3x )
1 1 1
dx = ò du = ln u + C
x + 3x + 7
2
2 u 2
1 1
(
= ln x + 3x + 7 + C = ln x 4 + 3x 2 + 7 + C
2
4 2

2
)
since x 4 + 3x 2 + 7 > 0 for all x.
 4.5 Techniques of Integration (1 of 2)
Example 16 – Preliminary Division before Integration
𝑥3 + 𝑥
a. Find න 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥2
𝑥3 + 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥 1 𝑥2
Solution: න 𝑑𝑥 = න 2 + 2 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 = + ln 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 2

2 x3 + 3x 2 + x + 1
b. Find  dx.
2x + 1
Solution: Here we use long division to rewrite the integrand:
2 x3 + 3x 2 + x + 1  2 1  x3 x 2 1
 2x + 1
dx =  

x + x + 
2x + 1 
dx =
3
+
2
+  2x +1
dx

x3 x 2 1 x3 x 2 1 1 x3 x 2
= + + = + +  d (2 x + 1) = + ln 2 x + 1 + C
3 2 2 3 2 2 2x +1 3 2
 4.5 Techniques of Integration (2 of 2)
Now let us consider the integral of an exponential function with
1 u
an arbitrary base, b. ò b du =
u
b + C.
lnb
Example 17 – An Integral Involving bu
Find ò 2 3-x dx.
Solution: ò 2 3-x dx = ò e( ln 2 )( 3-x )dx. Let u = (ln 2)(3 - x). Since
( ln 2 )( 3-x ) 1
du = - ln 2dx, we can write ò e dx = - ò e u
du
ln 2
1 u 1 ( ln 2 )( 3-x ) 1 3-x
=- e +C = - e +C = - 2 +C
ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
1 3-x
Thus, ò 2 3-x dx = - 2 +C
ln 2
 4.6 The Definite Integral (1 of 6)
In general, for a continuous function f defined on the interval
[a, b], where a < b, we can form the sums S n and S n , which are
obtained by considering the minimum and maximum values,
respectively, on each of n subintervals of equal length Dx.
Below is an illustration for f (x) = 2x, a = 0, b = 1, and n = 6.
 4.6 The Definite Integral (2 of 6)
The common limit of S n and S n as n → , if it exists, is called
b
the definite integral of f over [a, b] and is written  f ( x ) dx.
a
The numbers a and b are called bounds of integration; a is
the lower bound, and b is the upper bound. The symbol x
is called the variable of integration and f ( x) is the integrand.

In terms of a limiting process, we have

b

 f ( x)x →  f ( x ) dx
a
 4.6 The Definite Integral (3 of 6)
Example 18 – Computing an Area by Using Right-Hand Endpoints

Find the area of the region in the first quadrant bounded by

f ( x) = 4 − x 2 and the lines x = 0 and y = 0.
Solution: A sketch of the region appears below. We divide
[0, 2] into n subintervals of equal length x = 2 / n.
The endpoints of the subintervals are
x = 0, 2 / n, 2(2 / n), ,( n − 1)(2 / n), and n(2 / n) = 2.
The diagram below shows the corresponding rectangles
obtained by using the right-hand endpoint of each subinterval.
 4.6 The Definite Integral (4 of 6)
Example 18 – Continued
 4.6 The Definite Integral (5 of 6)
Example 18 – Continued
Solution, continued
The area of the k th rectangle is the product of its width, 2 / n, and its
height, f (k (2 / n)) = 4 − (2k / n) 2 . Summing these areas, we get
n 
  2     2 n  8 8k 
n 2 2
2 k
S n =  f  k     x =   4 −    =   − 3 
  n    n   n k =1 n n
k =1 k =1    
n
8 n 8k 2 8 n 8 n 2
=  −  3 = 1 − 3  k
k =1 n k =1 n n k =1 n k =1
8 8 n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) 4  ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) 
= n− 3 = 8−  
n n 6 3 n2 
 4  ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)   4  3 1  16
lim S n = lim  8 −   = 8 − lim  2 + + 2=
n → 
 n n  3
n → 2 →
 3 n  3 n
 4.6 The Definite Integral (6 of 6)
Example 19 – Integrating a Function over an Interval
3
Integrate f (x) = x - 5 from x = 0 to x = 3; that is, evaluate æ(x - 5)dx.
0
Solution: Here, Dx = 3 / n. Using right-hand endpoints, we form
the sum and simplify
æ 3 æ 3 9 ( n + 1)
n
9 æ 1æ
Sn = æ f ç k ÷ = - 15 = ç 1+ ÷ - 15
k=1
è æ
n n 2n 2 è næ
Taking the limit, we obtain
æ9 æ 1 æ æ 9 21
lim Sn = lim ç ç 1+ ÷ - 15 ÷ = - 15 = - .
n®¥ n®¥ è 2 è næ æ 2 2
3 21
Thus, æ(x - 5)dx = - . Since the value of f (x) is negative at
0 2
each right-hand endpoint, each term in Sn must also be negative.
Hence, the definite integral is negative.
4.7 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (1 of 5)
4.7 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (2 of 5)
Properties of the Definite Integral
b
1. If f is continuous and f (x) ³ 0 on [a, b], then ò
a
f (x)dx can be
interpreted as the area of the region bounded by the curve
y = f (x), the x-axis, and the lines x = a and x = b.
b b
2. ò a
kf (x)dx = k ò f (x)dx, where k is a constant
a
b b b
3. ò ( f (x) ± g(x))dx = ò f (x)dx ± ò g(x)dx
a a a
b b
4. ò f (x)dx = ò f (t)dt
a a
5. If f is continuous on an interval I and a, b, and c are in I, then
c b c
òa
f (x)dx = ò f (x)dx + ò f (x)dx
a b
4.7 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (3 of 5)
Example 20 – Applying the Fundamental Theorem
3

Find 3x 2
(
æ - x + 6 dx. )
-1
x2
Solution: An antiderivative of 3x - x + 6 is x - + 6x.
2 3

2
3
æ 3 x æ
3

( )
2
Thus, æ 3x - x + 6 dx = ç x - + 6x ÷
2

-1
è 2 æ -1
é 3 3 2
ù é
= ê 3 - + 6 ( 3) æ- ê( -1) -
3 ( -1)
2
ù
+ 6 ( -1) æ= 48
ë 2 û êë 2 æ
û
4.7 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (4 of 5)
Example 21 – Evaluating Definite Integrals

( ) ) dt.
2

æ (
3
a. Find 4t 1/3
+ t t 2
+1
1

( )
4 2

æ( 4t ) ) dt = ( 4 ) æ1 æ t + 1
2 4/3 2 2
t
(
3
Solution: 1/3
+ t t +12
+ç ÷
1
4
3 1
è 2æ 4
1

1
(
= 3 2 4/3 - 1 + ) ( 1 4
8
)
5 - 24 = 6 3 2 +
585
8
b. Find æe3t dt .
0
1 1
æ1 æ 1 1
1
30 3
1
Solution: æe3t dt = æe 3t d(3t) = ç ÷ e3t 0 = e3 - e0 = e3 - 1
è 3æ 3
( ) ( )
0
4.7 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (5 of 5)
Since a function 𝑓 is an antiderivative of 𝑓′, by the Fundamental
𝑎

Theorem we have න 𝑓′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑏 − 𝑓 𝑎
𝑏
Example 22 – Finding a Change in Function Values by Definite Integration
dc
A manufacturer's marginal-cost function is = 0.6q + 2.If production is presently
dq
set at q = 80 units per week, how much more would it cost to increase production
to 100 units per week?
100
é 0.6q ù
100 100
dc 2
Solution: c (100 ) - c ( 80 ) = æ dq = æ( 0.6q + 2 ) dq = ê + 2q æ
80
dq 80 ë 2 û 80
100
= éë 0.3q 2 + 2q ùû = 3200 - 2080 = 1120
80
If c is in dollars, then the cost of increasing production from 80 units to 100 units
is $1120.
 Chapter 5

Applications of Integration

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reserved. 10 - 131
 Chapter Objectives (1 of 2)
• To illustrate the use of the table of integrals in Appendix B.
• To estimate the value of a definite integral by using both the trapezoidal rule and
Simpson’s rule.
• To find the area of a region bounded by curves using integration over both
vertical and horizontal strips.
• To develop the economic concepts of consumers’ surplus and producers’ surplus,
which are represented by areas.
• To develop the concept of the average value of a function.
 Chapter Objectives (2 of 2)
• To solve a differential equation by using the method of separation of variables. To
discuss solutions and general solutions. To develop interest compounded
continuously in terms of a differential equation. To discuss exponential growth
and decay.
• To develop the logistic function as a solution of a differential equation. To model
the spread of a rumor. To discuss and apply Newton’s law of cooling.
• To define and evaluate improper integrals.
 Chapter Outline
5.1) Integration by Tables
5.2) Approximate Integration
5.3) Area between Curves
5.4) Consumers’ and Producers’ Surplus
5.5) Average Value of a Function
5.6) Differential Equations
5.7) More Applications of Differential Equations
5.8) Improper Integrals
 5.1 Integration by Tables (1 of 5)
Certain forms of integrals that occur frequently can be found in standard tables of
integration formulas. A very short table appears in Appendix B, and its use will be
illustrated in this section.

Integral of an Inverse Rule

If 𝑓 is invertible and differentiable and න𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 then

න𝑓 −1(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 −1(𝑥) − 𝐹(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) + 𝐶

Integral of a Logarithm
නln 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 ln 𝑢 − 𝑢 + 𝐶
 5.1 Integration by Tables (2 of 5)
Example 1 – Integration by Tables
xdx
Find æ .
(2 + 3x) 2

Solution: Formula (7) from Appendix B states

udu 1æ a æ
æ(a + bu)2 = b 2 çè ln a + bu + a + bu ÷æ + C
We must match the given integrand with this formula.
We replace x by u, 2 by a, and 3 by b, then du = dx and by substitution
xdx udu 1æ a æ
we have æ =æ = 2 ç ln a + bu + ÷æ + C
(2 + 3x) 2
(a + bu)2
b è a + bu
Returning to the variable x, and replacing a by 2 and b by 3,
xdx 1æ 2 æ
æ(2 + 3x)2 = 9 çè ln 2 + 3x + 2 + 3x ÷æ + C
 5.1 Integration by Tables (3 of 5)
Example 2 – Integration by Tables
dx
Find òx16x + 3
2
.
Solution: Formula (28) from Appendix B gives
du 1 u 2 + a2 - a
ò u u 2 + a2 = a ln u
+C

If we let u = 4x and a = 3, then du = 4dx. We will transform the given

integral into a form that matches Formula (28):
dx (4dx) du
ò x 16x 2 + 3 = ò (4 x) (4 x)2 + ( 3)2 = ò u u 2 + a 2
1 u 2 + a2 - a 1 16x 2 + 3 - 3
= ln +C = ln +C
a u 3 4x
 5.1 Integration by Tables (4 of 5)
Example 3 – Integration by Tables
Find æ7x 2 ln(4x)dx.
Solution: This is similar to Formula (42) with n = 2 :
n+1 n+1
u ln u u
æ lnu du = n + 1 - (n + 1)2 + C
n
u
If we let u = 4x then du = 4dx. Hence,
7 7
æ x)dx = 3 æ
dx) = æu lnu du
2 2 2
7x ln(4 (4x) ln(4x)(4
4 64
7 æu 3 lnu u 3 æ 7 æ(4x)3 ln(4 x) (4x)3 æ
= ç - ÷ +C = ç - ÷ +C
64 è 3 9æ 64 è 3 9 æ
æ x) æ
3
ln(4 1 7x
= 7x 3 ç - ÷ +C = (3ln(4x) - 1) + C
è 3 9æ 9
 5.1 Integration by Tables (5 of 5)
Example 4 – Finding a Definite Integral by Using Tables
4
𝑑𝑥
Evaluate න 2 3/2
1 (4𝑥 + 2)
Solution: We will use Formula (32) to get the indefinite integral
𝑑𝑢 ±𝑢
first: න 2 2 3/2 = + 𝐶 Letting 𝑢 = 2𝑥 and 𝑎2 = 2,
(𝑢 ± 𝑎 ) 𝑎2 𝑢 2 ± 𝑎2
𝑑𝑥 1 (2𝑑𝑥)
we have 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥. Thus, න = න
(4𝑥 2 + 2)3/2 2 ((2𝑥)2 + 2)3/2
1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
= න 2 = +𝐶
2 (𝑢 + 2)3/2 2 2 𝑢 2 + 2
We determine the corresponding limits of integration with respect to 𝑢 and then evaluate the
last expression between those limits.
When 𝑥 = 1, we have 𝑢 = 2; when 𝑥 = 4, we have 𝑢 = 8. Hence,
8
4 8
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢 2 1
න = න = อ = −
1 (4𝑥 2 + 2)3/2 2 2 (𝑢 2 + 2)3/2 2 2 𝑢 2 + 2 66 2 6
2
 5.2 Approximate Integration (1 of 4)
The Trapezoidal Rule
𝑏
ℎ
න 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≈ (𝑓(𝑎) + 2𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 2𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯ + 2𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑏))
𝑎 2
where ℎ = (𝑏 − 𝑎)/𝑛
 5.2 Approximate Integration (2 of 4)
Example 5 – Trapezoidal Rule
1
ò0 1+ x 2 dx for n = 5.
1
Use the trapezoidal rule to estimate the value of
Compute each term to four decimal places, and round the answer to
three decimal places.
Solution: Here f (x) = 1 / (1+ x 2 ), n = 5, a = 0, and b = 1. Thus,
b - a 1- 0
h= = = 0.2 The terms to be added are
n 5
f (a) = f (0) = 1.0000, 2 f (a + h) = 2 f (0.2) = 1.9231,
2 f (a + 2h) = 2 f (0.4) = 1.7241, 2 f (a + 3h) = 2 f (0.6) = 1.4706,
2 f (a + 4h) = 2 f (0.8) = 1.2195, f (b) = f (1) = 0.5000.
The sum is 7.8373. Hence, our estimate for the integral is
1 0.2
ò0 1+ x 2
1
dx » (7.8373) » 0.784
2
5.2 Approximate Integration (3 of 4)
 5.2 Approximate Integration (4 of 4)
Example 6 – Simpson’s Rule
1
ò0 1+ x 2 dx for n = 4.
1
Use Simpson's rule to estimate the value of
Compute each term to four decimal places, and round the answer
to three decimal places.
Solution: Here f (x) = 1 / (1+ x 2 ), n = 4, a = 0, and b = 1. Thus,
b - a 1- 0
h= = = 0.25 The terms to be added are
n 4
f (a) = f (0) = 1.0000, 4 f (a + h) = 4 f (0.25) = 3.7647,
2 f (a + 2h) = 2 f (0.5) = 1.6000, 4 f (a + 3h) = 4 f (0.75) = 2.5600,
f (b) = f (1) = 0.5000.
The sum is 9.4247. Therefore, by Simpson's rule,
1 0.25
ò0 1+ x 2
1
dx » (9.4247) » 0.785
3
This is a better approximation than that obtained in Example 1.
 5.3 Area between Curves (1 of 8)
Example 7 – An Area Requiring Two Different Integrals
Find the area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2
and the line 𝑦 = 0 from 𝑥 = −2 to 𝑥 = 2.
Solution: A sketch of the region is given. The 𝑥−intercepts are
(−1, 0) and (2, 0). On [−2, −1], the area of the vertical strip is
𝑦𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2)𝑑𝑥. On the interval [−1, 2], the area of the vertical
strip is (−𝑦)𝑑𝑥 = −(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2)𝑑𝑥. Thus,
−1 2
area = න (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2)𝑑𝑥 + න −(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2)𝑑𝑥
−2 −1
−1 2
𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥2
= − − 2𝑥 อ − − − 2𝑥 อ
3 2 3 2
−2 −1
1 1 8 4 19
= − − +2 − − − +4 =
3 2 3 2 3
 5.3 Area between Curves (2 of 8)
Consider the area of the region below that is bounded on the top and bottom by the
curves 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) and on the sides by the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏. The
area of the strip is (𝑦upper − 𝑦lower)𝑑𝑥.
Summing the areas of all such strips from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏 by the
definite integral gives the area of the region:
𝑏
න (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 .
𝑎
 5.3 Area between Curves (3 of 8)
Example 8 – Finding an Area between Two Curves
Find the area of the region bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Solution: To determine where the two curves intersect, we eliminate
𝑦 by substitution and obtain
𝑥=𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑥2
0 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) so 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 = 1.
Since we squared both sides, we must check the
solutions found with respect to the original equation.
It is easily determined that both 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1 are
solutions of 𝑥 = 𝑥. Thus, the curves intersect at
(0, 0) and (1, 1). The area of the strip is ( 𝑥 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
1
1 1 3/2 2
1/2 𝑥 𝑥 1
area = න ( 𝑥 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = න (𝑥 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − =
0 0
3 2 ተ 6
2
0
 5.3 Area between Curves (4 of 8)
Example 9 – Area of a Region Having Two Different Upper Curves
Find the area of the region between the curves y = 9 - x 2 and
y = x 2 + 1 from x = 0 to x = 3.
Solution: The curves intersect when
9 - x2 = x2 + 1
8 = 2x 2
4 = x 2 so x = ±2. When x = ±2, y = 5 so the points of intersection are
(±2, 5). The intersection point that is of concern to us is (2, 5).
In the region to the left of the intersection point (2, 5), a strip
has area ((9 - x 2 ) - (x 2 + 1))dx, but for a strip to the right ,
the area is ((x 2 + 1) - (9 - x 2 ))dx. A figure is displayed below.
 5.3 Area between Curves (5 of 8)
Example 9 – Continued

Solution continued
Therefore, to find the area of the
entire region, we need two integrals:
2 3
area = න (8 − 2𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + න (2𝑥 2 − 8)𝑑𝑥
0 2
2 3
2𝑥 3 2𝑥 3
= 8𝑥 − อ + − 8𝑥 อ
3 3
0 2
46
= .
3
 5.3 Area between Curves (6 of 8)
Consider the area of the region that is bounded on the left and
right by the curves x = f (y) and x = g(y), on the top by the line
y = b, and on the bottom by the line y = a.
The area of the horizontal strip is (xright - xleft )dy. Summing the
areas of all such strips from y = a to y = b by the definite integral
gives the area of the region:
b
òa
( f (y) - g(y))dy.
A sketch of a region with a = 0, b = 3,
y2
xright = f (y) = , and xleft = 0,
4
is shown below.
 5.3 Area between Curves (7 of 8)
Example 11 – Advantage of Horizontal Elements
Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y 2 = x and x - y = 2.
Solution: The intersection points of the curves are (1, - 1) and (4, 2).
Let us try vertical strips of area. As seen in the figure below, to the
left of x = 1, the upper end of the strip lies on y = x and the lower end
lies on y = - x. To the right of x = 1, the upper curve is y = x and the
lower curve is x - y = 2. Two integrals are needed to evaluate the area:

ò( x - (- x ))dx + ò ( x - (x - 2))dx
1 4

0 1
 5.3 Area between Curves (8 of 8)
Example 11 – Continued

Solution, continued
Perhaps the use of horizontal strips can simplify our work. The width
of the strip is Dy. The rightmost curve is always x - y = 2 (x = y + 2),
and the leftmost curve is always x = y 2 .
Therefore, the total area is
2 9
area = æ (y + 2 - y 2 )dy = .
-1 2
Clearly, the use of horizontal strips
is the most desirable approach
to solving the problem.
 5.4 Consumers’ and Producers’ Surplus (1 of 3)

The figure below shows a supply curve and a demand curve.

The point (𝑞0 , 𝑝0 ) where the two curves intersect is called the
point of equilibrium. 𝑝0 is the price at which stability in the
producer−consumer relationship occurs.
 5.4 Consumers’ and Producers’ Surplus (2 of 3)
The total gain to consumers who are willing to pay more than the
equilibrium price is called consumers′ surplus, abbreviated CS.
𝑞0
CS = න (𝑓(𝑞) − 𝑝0 )𝑑𝑞 .
0
The total gain to the producers who are willing to supply at prices
less than the equilibrium price is called the producers′ surplus,
abbreviated PS.
𝑞0
PS = න (𝑝0 − 𝑔(𝑞))𝑑𝑞 .
0
 5.4 Consumers’ and Producers’ Surplus (3 of 3)
Example 12 – Finding Consumers’ Surplus and Producers’ Surplus
The demand function for a product is p = f (q) = 100 - 0.05q where p is
the price per unit (in dollars) for q units. The supply function
is p = g(q) = 10 + 0.1q. Determine consumers' surplus and producers'
surplus under market equilibrium.
Solution: First we find the equilibrium point ( p0 , q0 ) by solving
10 + 0.1q = 100 - 0.05q, which gives q = 600. When q = 600 then
p = 10 + 0.1(600) = 70. Hence, consumers' surplus is
q0
CS = ò ( f (q) - p0 )dq = ò
600
(100 - 0.05q - 70)dq = 9000.
0 0
Producers' surplus is
q0
PS = ò ( p0 - g(q))dq = ò
600
(70 - (10 + 0.1q))dq = 18,000.
0 0
Therefore, consumers' surplus is $9000 and producers' surplus is $18,000.
 5.5 Average Value of a Function
The average value of a function 𝑓(𝑥) over the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
𝑏
1
is denoted 𝑓 and is given by 𝑓 = න 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏−𝑎 𝑎

Example 13 – Average Value of a Function

Find the average value of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 over the

interval [1, 2].
2
𝑏 2
1 1 2
7 𝑥3
Solution: 𝑓 = න 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = อ =
𝑏−𝑎 𝑎 2−1 1 3 3
1
 5.6 Differential Equations (1 of 3)
An equation that involves the derivative of an unknown function is
called a differential equation. An example is 𝑦′ = 𝑥𝑦 2.

A first − order differential equation involves a derivative of the first

order and none of any higher order.

A solution of 𝑦′ = 𝑥𝑦 2 is any function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) that is defined on an

interval and satisfies the equation for all 𝑥 in the interval.
 5.6 Differential Equations
Example 14 – Separation of Variables
(2 of 3)
𝑦
Solve 𝑦′ = − if 𝑥, 𝑦 > 0.
𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Solution: Writing 𝑦′ as , separating variables, and integrating,
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
we have =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
=−
𝑦 𝑥
1 1
න 𝑑𝑦 = − න 𝑑𝑥 which gives ln 𝑦 = 𝐶1 − ln 𝑥 . Since 𝑥, 𝑦 > 0, we can
𝑦 𝑥
omit the absolute−value bars: ln 𝑦 = 𝐶1 − ln 𝑥 . We convert to exponential form: 𝑦
𝐶1
𝑒
= 𝑒 𝐶1 −ln 𝑥 so 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝐶1 𝑒 − ln 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 . Replacing 𝑒𝐶1 by 𝐶, where
𝑒
ln 𝑥
𝐶
𝐶 > 0, and rewriting 𝑒 as 𝑥 gives 𝑦 = 𝐶, 𝑥 > 0
𝑥
 5.6 Differential Equations (3 of 3)
Example 15 – Finding the Decay Constant and Half-Life

If 60% of a radioactive substance remains after 50 days, find the

decay constant and the half-life of the element.
Solution: N = N 0 e − t where N 0 is the amount of the element
present at t = 0. When t = 50, then N = 0.6 N 0 , and we have
0.6 N 0 = N 0 e −50 
0.6 = e −50 
ln(0.6)
−50 = ln(0.6), so  = −  0.01022.
50
ln 2
Thus, N  N 0 e −0.01022t . The half-life is  67.82 days.

 5.7 More Applications of Differential Equations (1 of 6)

Logistic Function
M
The function defined by N = − ct
is called the logistic function
1 + be
or the Verhulst - Pearl logistic function.

The graph of this equation, shown

below, is called a logistic curve.
Alternative Form of Logistic
M
Function: N =
1 + bC t
 5.7 More Applications of Differential Equations (2 of 6)
Example 17 – Logistic Growth of Club Membership
Suppose the membership in a new country club is to be a maximum
of 800 persons, due to limitations of the physical plant. One year
ago the initial membership was 50 persons, and now there are 200.
Provided that enrollment follows a logistic function, how many
members will there be three years from now?
Solution: Let N be the number of members enrolled t years after
M
the formation of the club. Then N = - ct
. Here M = 800,
1+ be
and when t = 0, we have N = 50. So
800
50 =
1+ b
800 800
1+ b = = 16, so b = 15. Thus, N = - ct
.
50 1+ 15e
 5.7 More Applications of Differential Equations (3 of 6)
Example 17 – Continued
Solution continued
When t = 1, then N = 200, so we have
800
200 =
1+ 15e- c
800
1+ 15e- c = =4
200
3 1
e- c = = . Hence, c = - ln 15 = ln 5. It is more convenient to
15 5
-c 800
substitute the value of e : N = .
1+ 15 ( 5 )
1 t

800
Three years from now, t will be 4. Therefore N = » 781.
1+ 15 ( 5 )
1 4
 5.7 More Applications of Differential Equations (4 of 6)

Example 18 – Time of Murder

A wealthy industrialist was found murdered in his home. Police arrived
on the scene at 11 : 00 P.M. The temperature of the body at that time was
31°C, and one hour later it was 30°C. The temperature of the room in
which the body was found was 22°C. Estimate the time at which the
murder occurred.
Solution: Let t be the number of hours after the body was discovered
and T (t) be the temperature of the body at time t. We want to find
the value of t for which T = 37 (normal body temperature).
 5.7 More Applications of Differential Equations (5 of 6)
Example 18 – Continued
Solution, continued
dT
By Newton's law of cooling, = k(T - a). Thus,
dt
dT
= k(T - 22)
dt
dT
= kdt
T - 22
dT
ò T - 22 = ò k dt
ln T - 22 = kt + C. Because T - 22 > 0, we have ln(T - 22) = kt + C.
When t = 0, then T = 31. Therefore, ln(31- 22) = k × 0 + C,
which gives C = ln 9.
 5.7 More Applications of Differential Equations (6 of 6)
Example 18 – Continued
Solution, continued
Hence, ln( 𝑇 − 22) = 𝑘𝑡 + ln 9
𝑇 − 22
ln = 𝑘𝑡. When 𝑡 = 1, then 𝑇 = 30, so
9
30 − 22 8 𝑇 − 22 8
ln = 𝑘 ⋅ 1, which gives 𝑘 = ln . Thus, ln = 𝑡 ln .
9 9 9 9
37 − 22 8
When 𝑇 = 37, ln = 𝑡 ln
9 9
ln( 15/9)
𝑡= ≈ −4.34
ln( 8/9)
The murder occurred about 4.34 hours before the time of discovery.
The industrialist was murdered about 6: 40P.M.
 5.8 Improper Integrals (1 of 4)
Suppose f ( x) is continuous for a  x  . We know that the integral
b

a
f ( x)dx is the area of the region between the curve y = f ( x) and the
b
x-axis from x = a to x = b. As b → , we can think of lim  f ( x)dx as
b → a
the area of the unbounded region that is shaded in the figure below.

This limit is abbreviated a
f ( x)dx and
is called an improper integral.
Other types of improper integrals
b 
are −
f ( x)dx and 
−
f ( x)dx.
 5.8 Improper Integrals (2 of 4)
𝑏 ∞
If lim න 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 exists, then න 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is said to be convergent. If the
𝑏→∞ 𝑎 𝑎
limit does not exist, the improper integral is said to be divergent.
∞ 𝒃
Example 19 – Improper Integrals of the Form න 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 and න 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝒂 −∞

Determine whether the following improper integrals are convergent

or divergent. For any convergent integral determine its value.
¥ 1
a. æ 3 dx
1 x
-2 b
¥ 1 b 1 x æ 1 1æ 1
Solution: æ 3 dx = lim æ 3 dx = lim - = lim ç - 2 + ÷ = .
1 x b®¥ 1 x b®¥ 2 1 b®¥ è 2b 2 æ 2
¥ 1 1
Therefore, æ 3 dx converges to .
1 x 2
 5.8 Improper Integrals (3 of 4)
Example 19 – Continued
Solution, continued
0
b. ò
-¥
e x dx
0 0
ò ò e dx = lim e
x 0
Solution: e dx = lim
x x
= lim (1- ea ) = 1.
-¥ a®-¥ a a®-¥ a a®-¥
0
Therefore, ò e x
dx converges to 1.
-¥
¥
1
c. ò dx
1x
1 ¥ b
1/2 b
Solution: ò dx = lim ò x dx = lim 2x 1 = lim 2( b - 1) = ¥.
-1/2
1 x b®¥ 1 b®¥ b®¥

Therefore, the improper integral diverges.

 5.8 Improper Integrals (4 of 4)
Example 20 – Density Function
In statistics, a function f is called a density function if f (x) > 0
¥
and ò f (x)dx = 1. Suppose f (x) =
-¥
ke
0 {
-x
for x ³ 0
elsewhere
is a density function. Find k.
¥
Solution: We write the equation ò-¥
f (x)dx = 1 as
0 ¥ 0
ò-¥
f (x)dx + ò f (x)dx = 1. Since f (x) = 0 for x < 0,
0 ò
-¥
f (x)dx = 0.
¥
Thus ò f (x)dx = 1
0
¥
lim ò ke- x dx = 1
b®¥ 0
b
lim -ke- x 0 = 1
b®¥
lim (-ke-b + k) = 1, so k = 1.
b®¥