Composting of Municipal Solid Wastes

Lidia Esteve Agelet

ABSTRACT

The generation of municipal solid waste is increasing year by year and there are many options for
handling and disposing of these wastes. Currently in United States land disposal is the most
common practice to deal with municipal solid wastes. The evolution of waste generation, and
increase in population suggest composting as a future alternative. Since municipal solid waste
comprises of a high proportion of non-durable goods composting is a suitable technology for
reutilizing the organic material.
Composting is a natural biological process in which the degradable part of wastes is transformed
to a stable material, with excellent characteristics for application on soils. Thus, it requires a
pretreatment such as removal of big fractions and other contaminants that could affect the
composting process and final quality of the compost. The decomposition of biodegradable
material is carried out by very diverse biota, from bacteria to protozoa and worms. This makes
composting a successive stage process, where some organisms play varying roles depending on
several factors such as temperature, moisture, and nutrient content among others.
From an industrial point of view, composting must be optimized by controlling several factors.
Although this is a natural process, the control of diverse environmental conditions, waste
composition, and waste management lead to a faster process, better quality of the final product
and few nuisances such as bad odors.
This paper gives an overview of the main aspects of general composting and its application in
municipal solid waste treatment.

KEYWORDS

Solid wastes, composting, technologies, C/N, aeration, maturation, curing

INTRODUCTION

Any decomposable material is degraded at normal environmental conditions with more or less
time. This is the fundamental basis of composting. Solid urban wastes have a high content of
decomposable materials or non durable goods, such as food wastes and paper waste. Although
the waste generated has a variable composition, it usually has all the required nutrients for
microbial growth. Composting science is focused in controlling all variables that may affect the
microbial growth and performance in order to get a stable final product, compost.
Before composting, the non degradable part of waste must be rejected by diverse pre-treatments
methods. The degradable part is first processed. Grinding, screening and mixing of materials are
some of the treatments prior to the digestion stage where the microorganisms role is
fundamental. All the previous treatments are focused on providing the microorganisms a suitable
media to act. Optimal structure of waste will allow it to get enough aeration, since composting is
mainly aerobic. Furthermore, effects on moisture content and regulation of temperature affect the
microbial population and bacteria species during the process. Desirable composting includes
mesophilic and thermophilic stages, and allows the performance of a wide range of bacteria and
organisms which lead to a product with no more degradable compounds, no odor potential and
insects or pathogen source. Mixing materials provides waste with good structure and balanced
nutrient and carbon source, avoiding the process being too short – inhibitions – or too long – non
economical from the industrial point of view -.

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During digestion, the process is monitored with several parameters (temperature, pH, moisture,
and C/N ratio the most common). The material is deposed in piles, windrows or other enclosed
containers. Different technologies for composting which suitability depends on the kind of waste
are available. Different technologies differ in the waste deposition and aeration system basically.
Passive methods of aeration result in long composting process, which is suitable for wastes with
low fraction of readily degradable compounds.
During the process temperature raises, which kills pathogens and weed seeds, and decreases
when no more easily degradable compounds are found and digestion is finishing. If the process is
well conducted, digestion stage lasts from 3 weeks to 3 months. The next stage is curing or
maturation, where the digested material acquires stability; Compost acquires a conformation
similar to the humic acids found in soil, thus can be applied on the soil without risks at the end of
the process. Due to its structure and nutrient composition, compost is highly recommended as a
fertilizer and improves the structure of soils, increasing infiltration capacity.
At last, composting is an alternative to recycle part of the urban solid wastes and give a useful
final product.

CURRENT GENERATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID URBAN WASTES (MSW)

EPA defines urban wastes as wastes from residential, commercial, institutional, and some
industrial sources. MSW are mainly a heterogeneous mixture of paper, plastic, cloth, metal, glass,
and organic matter. Figure 1 shows the common composition of MSW. Packaging wastes seems
to be the most common waste according to EPA studies (2003). Other products such as
municipal sludge, combustion ashes, construction wastes, and non-hazardous industrial process
wastes among others are not considered urban wastes by definition.
The solid wastes can also be classified in durable goods such as appliances, non durable goods
(paper), packages or containers, food wastes, yard wastes, and other inorganic wastes. Because
packaging is important for consumer goods it accounts for more than one-third of the U.S waste
stream (Pichtel, 2005). The material that can be degraded usually is named garbage, and the
non degradable is called rubbish.

Figure 1: Composition of MSW by weight. Source: IPW, 2005.

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The MSW generation, which is proportional with development grade of the country, has been
increasing year by year. The estimation of solid urban waste generation for USA was 230 million
tones in 2001 (4.4 lb/person/day), and the final projection for 2005 is expected to be 240 millions
tones (Tchobanoglous and Kreith, 2002). MSW varies in amount and composition seasonally.
During the warm seasons yard wastes increase, and holidays season make the MSW increase in
tourist places (Rhyner et al., 1995). Long term changes of composition are due to changes in
lifestyle, work patterns, materials substitution, and changes in food processing (Kreith, 1994).
Although there has been a significant public investment in product recycling and biowaste
composting, most part of MSW is constantly being buried or burnt. In 2001, 70.3% of U.S. MSW
ended in incinerators or in landfills, and four-fifths of that was buried in landfills (Spiegelman and
Sheehan, 2005). The reason being that landfill disposal in United States is cheaper since more
landfill is available, energy is cheaper and the cost of resources is lower. Another reason is the
current American laws. The laws “Resource Conservation and Resource Act (RCRA)” and
“Hazardous and solid waste amendments (HSWA)” encourages recycling but does not ban land
filling which is banned in other developed countries such as Germany.
Because around 67% of municipal solid wastes generated in US are organic materials (Pichtel,
2005), composting may be an environmental alternative of reutilization of the organic matter,
which returns to the natural cycle.

COMPOSTING SCIENCE

Composting is a natural biological process, basically aerobic, carried out by the biota of the
wastes. Thus, composting is carried out only on biodegradable wastes. It is a natural process
since it happens in nature, but it is usually slower and gives heterogeneous final products if not
controlled.
Anaerobic composting releases less energy and methane, carbon dioxide and other products
such as low-molecular-weight organic acids are the final products. Because most of the
intermediate products have odor potential, and the goal is to get the organic matter partially
mineralized and humified, all composting facilities are designed for aerobic composting (Haugh,
1980). Composting time depends on the cycles of the biota as well as other factors discussed in
the following sections of the paper, but it takes around one month in optimal conditions (Gasser,
1984). The final product; compost, is stabilized organic matter with similar characteristics as
humic substances in the soil. The schematic in figure 2 shows inputs and outputs of the
composting process.

Carbon hydrates Energy

Proteins Microorganisms
CO2
Lipids Water
Lignin
Water NH3 Volatilization
air

Modified Celluloses Biomass

and Lignins

NO3-
COMPOST

Figure 2: Scheme of the composting process (Source: Teira, 2003)

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The compost can be used for diverse purposes. It may be used as a bed in farms of animal
production, but the most common use is on land fields. Compost provides soil with extra organic
matter, improving its structure and reducing the erosion risk. Furthermore, it is a good fertilizer (it
ranges 1-2% Nitrogen, 1-2% Phosphorous, and 2-4% potash according to NRC, 1996) or good
supplement for fertilization, and its nitrogen is not immobilized as in the case of fresh manures
applied to soils. It also reduces runoff on soils, and is especially important for high erodible soils.
Some inconveniences of composting can be time, big spaces needed for the process, possible
bad smells during composting, limitation of low temperatures, and the slow availability of its
nutrients since they are linked to organic matter (less than 15% of the N is available within the
first year of application) although the loss of nutrients by leaching will be lower (Teira, 2003).

BIOTA INVOLVED IN THE COMPOSTING PROCESS

Al the biota needed for the process is already located on the wastes. Some industries have tried
to develop strains to make the process faster, but significant results were not found (Pichtel,
2005). The involved microorganisms according its abundance from more to less, are described
below (Kreith, 1994):

- Bacteria: Aerobic/facultative anaerobic bacteria. Most of them are rods and endospore
formers. Bacteria play an important role since they are the first organisms which start
decomposing readily decomposable substrates at the early stages of the process. The
biota involved in the process can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. Psychrophilic,
mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria are found to be important at different phases of
composting Thermophilic bacteria degrade proteins, lipids, hemicelluloses, and
carbohydrates. Mesophilic bacteria degrade proteins and carbohydrates easily
degradable.
- Actinomycetes: Decompose aromatics, steroids, and phenols amongst others.
- Fungi: Their importance in composting increases when the composting material gets
drier, since they are more tolerant to dry environments. They play an important role on
lignin and cellulose decomposition.
- Algae
- Protozoa
- Worms
- Larvae

The most important role of the larger organisms is moving, mixing and breaking of materials, so it
allows other organisms reaching different sites and helps to get more homogeneity in the
process. The most abundant organisms of the different groups can be found in table 1.
From the total available carbon, 80% is used for catabolic reactions while the 20% is for
anabolism (Bilietewski et al., 1997). That is the reason why this procedure releases so much
energy in the form of heat.

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 Table 1: Bacteria, actinomycets and Fungi involved in composting (source: Teira, 2003)

Bacteria Actinomycets Fungi

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 Table 1 (cont.)

Protozoa Algae

IMPORTANT FACTORS OF COMPOSTING

Initial compounds and particle size

Composting organisms are heterotrophic, thus they require carbon sources which are present in
wastes. Compounds get broken down at different speeds. For instance:
carbohydrates>hemicellulose > fats/lipids> cellulose, chitin > lignin (Cooperband, n.d.)
For this reason, fruits and vegetable wastes are easily degraded since they have large amounts
of sugars and starches. Leaves and trunks for example have more cellulose and lignin in their
composition so they are degraded slowly. Animal wastes and green tissues are sources of amino
acids which are required for the growth of composting organisms.
The particle size is heterogeneous, so most of the times waste is shredded. For instance, a good
particle size would be 1.25-4 cm (Ratchasima, 2001) although for easily decomposable material
larger sizes such as 9.25 cm are also suitable (Kreith, 1994).
Small particle size allows microorganisms to access the substrate easily because they have more
surface area. But particles too small can result in small pores that do not allow enough aeration
and oxygen access.

Aeration or oxygen concentration

The desired composting is the aerobic, so oxygen concentration in composting material would not
go below 5%, 10% being the optimal (Cooperband, n.d.), although it depends on the physical and
chemical properties of wastes. During all the process, oxygen located in the center of the material
may decrease to low levels; that is the reason why composting requires turning and mixing during
the process. It must be considered that at higher temperatures more oxygen is needed.

Temperature
The compositing process is faster up to 170 ºF, but above 170 ºF (around 70-75 ºC) the process
stops, since the microbial activity is inhibited. Moisture content of wastes helps to reduce high
increase of temperature. The decomposition of cellulose and lignin is enhanced around 45-55 ºC
– optimal temperature for Eumycetes and Actinomycetes (Ratchima, 2001).
Also, the respiratory reactions during composting make the temperature rise and it is used as a
parameter to control microbial activity. Thermophilic range at the final part of the active stage is
desired since high temperatures kill some pathogens and weed seeds, but temperature above
55-60 ºC have to be avoided (Kreith, 1994).

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Moisture content
Water is needed by organisms, especially bacteria which is very sensitive to moisture changes.
Furthermore, water allows the waste to maintain the temperature and its composting procedure.
40-50% is the ideal range, when it is above 60% means that all pores are filled with water and
there will not be enough oxygen. Below 20% no biological process is possible.
Blending or adding water is measures that allow controlling moisture during composting. Moisture
is usually tested by hand, taking a sample and pressing it between the fingers.

pH
Optimal pH is around 6-7.5 especially for bacteria although some of the organisms, such as fungi,
can grow in a broad range of pH. If pH is less than 4.5 lime is usually added. At initial stages of
composting pH decreases by the action of acidogenic bacteria, reaching the neutrality later.

C/N ratio
This ratio is related to the supply of the total carbon relative to total nitrogen. When C is too high
(High ratio), composting is slow. When N is too high, most of the ammonia is lost by gas and
gives bad odors. Green materials as well as animal wastes have generally low C/N ratios. Some
examples of usual C/N ratios are listed in table 2. Desired ratios for composting are around 22-31
(Ratchima, 2001). When the ratio is higher than 30 then C/P must accomplish 120-240 (Teira,
2003). In order to get optimum ratios, materials are often mixed and combined when it is possible.
Materials with low C/N ratio and high amounts of available C, small particle size and high
moisture content get degraded fast hence consume oxygen faster and may get degraded
anaerobically giving bad odors.

Table 2: Some materials and their C/N ratio. (Source: Cooperband, n.d.)

Materials C:N Ratios

Fall leaves 30-80
Straw 40-100
Wood chips 100-500
Bark 100-130
Mixed paper 150-200
Newspaper, cardboard 560
Vegetable wastes 15-20
Coffee grounds 20
Grass clippings 15-25
Manure 5-25

Pile shape and size

It will affect the temperature and oxygen content. Small piles let oxygen to get diffused but heat is
not well retained.

COMPOSTING PHASES

Lag phase: It is the time that biota gets adapted to the media. The easily degradable material
starts to being decomposed: sugars, starches, amino acids, simple hemicelluloses… Once this
degradation process starts, mesophilic bacteria increase and temperature starts rising. Protozoa
and fungi in this phase are not relevant. In this phase, bacteria are the most important organisms.
If most of the waste is highly putrescible and yard wastes are involved, lag phase is quite short
(Kreith, 1994). The lag phase usually lasts 12 to 24 hours.

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Active phase: Bacteria start growing exponentially. Temperature in the waste mass starts
increasing at the peak would be 70ºC or even higher until the nutrients start decreasing. The
weight and volume of the waste decrease and the material reaches partial stabilization; Due to
temperature raise, pathogens and weed seeds are killed. The active phase lasts from 5 days to 5
weeks, depending of the waste composition.

Maturation or curing phase: It starts when the easily decomposable material is over and there
is energy generation. Microbial proliferation and temperature decreases until it reaches the
ambient temperature. This is the phase of the humification where there is reorganization of
organic matter and degradation of the phytotoxic substances. This phase may last from few
weeks to a couple of years.

The composting phases can be represented by a temperature curve (figure 3). The type of
microorganisms in every phase change according to the temperature reached and the nutrient
availability.

Figure 3: Curve of the temperature followed in a composting pile

(Source: Ratchasima, 2001)

Although composting generally comprises all the phases, material that does not reach the final
phase can be also be utilized in certain conditions. For example, the material from the mesophilic
and thermophilic phases may be used in extensive crops with nitrogen deficiency. Material from
the early maturation can be used extensively in crops before seed (Teira, 2003).
Composting process is considered to be over when the product can be storied indefinitely without
the risk of being anaerobic or an appreciable heat generation. The product can be applied on the
soil because either its C/N is low or the C content is less available. The final product is stable
because of the final state of the organic matter. The final product is mature because it does not
have phytotoxic organic acids.

CONTROL PARAMETERS

Composting process although happens naturally must be controlled in order to know if the waste
is following an adequate decomposition and thus the final product can be safety applied on the
soil and accomplish certain quality factors.

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The most common way to monitor the process is by measuring the following parameters:
- Daily temperature
- Daily oxygen content
- Weekly moisture content
- Maturity test: A total of five times, with the Rottergrade test, which is based on the
temperature reached by the waste at a kind of lab scale composting process.

Other parameters that may help to know when the process is complete are:
- Odor
- Color (dark brown-black)
- Leachate production
- Porosity
- Flies, fungi and other insects proliferation
- Loss of volatile solids
- Loss of organic matter
- Texture: The final product have a particle fraction around 1-2 mm at this majority, while
the initial waste have most of the particles above 12 mm (Teira, 2003)
- Bulk density
- Water retention capacity
- Pathogens and weed seeds
- Soluble salts
- Proteins, fatty acids, N, P, K, NH4, NO3, Cellulose, Heavy metals.
- Bacteria precence (Coliforms and Streptococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens,
Salmonella)
- Germination test:

GENERAL STEPS AND SYSTEMS FOR URBAN WASTES COMPOSTING

The general scheme of composting process is showed in figure 4.

Solid urban wastes

1) Pretreatments
2) Mix of wastes
3) Digestion
4) Curing/maturation

5) Post treatment

Figure 4: Basic diagram of composting

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1) Pretreatments:
Municipal solid wastes have a big heterogeneity and need to achieve the optimal conditions for
composting. Some of these operations are the following:

Separation of wastes: Not all the wastes are biodegradable. So the separation of non-
biodegradable materials and other contaminants is a requirement before composting this kind of
wastes. There are several techniques of separation, depending on the material to separate:
- Sifters: Rotating cylinders or vibrating tables with holes (these last ones are not very efficient for
humid residues) (Tabares, 2003). They split the wastes in different sizes. The biggest sizes are
plastics, papers, metals, and textile.
- Magnetic separation: The magnets in rotor cylinders remove metals from the wastes. Its
efficiency depends on the wastes depth.
- Eddy system: This technology is based on repulsive forces in good conductors, and is useful to
separate aluminum and copper for instance.
- Air classifier: A column receives the wastes while air flows against the waste flux, this way there
is a separation based on densities
- Ballistic separation: The non organic and denser particles (>2g/cm3) are separated from the
organic and less dense part of waste (<0.5 g/cm3). A rotor projects the material, which follows
different trajectories depending on their density. The denser the particle the closer to the rotor it
falls. It is more efficient than the air classifier, and can separate glass pieces, plastics, ceramics,
stones and metals from the waste (fig.5).

Inorganic particles Organic particles

Figure 5: Ballistic classifier ( Source: Tabares, 2003)

2) Mix of wastes
The mix of different kind of wastes demands optimizing the compost process just achieving the
best microbial activity. This way a right amount of nutrients, oxygen, moisture, pH and
temperature levels are ensured (USDA, 2000).
The compost mix may have 3 main components: primary substrate, amendment, and bulking
agent. The primary substrate would be the municipal solid waste pretreated. The amended is all
material that may be added in order to get a better C:N ratio, pH, improve the stability or optimal
moisture. The bulking agent is material with a very low decomposition rate which will provide the
waste with a right structure and porosity for the decomposition phase. After maturation, the
material may be screened and re-used.

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More than one amendment can be added to the waste if is necessary. Some examples of
amendments are: Shredded rubber tires, wood chips, crop residue, peanut shells, rice hulls,
spoiled hay, silage, leaves, grass clippings, newspapers, and so on. (USDA, 2000)

3) Digestion
The current methods can be classified generally depending on the mechanical operations (static,
dynamic), Material deposition (pile, windrows), material isolation (open, enclosed) and process
velocity (slow or accelerated) (Teira, 2003). Some of the common methods are following
described.

- Passive aerated piles: The material is distributed forming a pile 1.2-1.8 m high and 2.4-3.6 m
width. The difference from a windrow is the shape: Piles are elongated and dome shaped. The
piles are turned periodically to make temperature go down and keep the porosity that allows the
air come through the material. It is called passive because the air comes inside the pile naturally.
It does not require much equipment, but since composting is lower there is more risk for
anaerobiosi. Piles are disposed on pavements sometimes perforated, so leachate can be
released. This method is more often used for leaves composting, where thermophilic conditions
are desirable.

-Windrows: Windrows are elongated piles, but the shape depends on the material and climate of
the region among other conditions which may include industrial equipment. Typically they are 1.8
m to 3 m high, 4.5 m to 6 m wide, and variable length. The cross section can be rectangular,
trapezoidal or triangular. Windrows may be turned about 5-7 turnings during all the decomposition
process, which helps when the aeration method is passive. Time of digestion with this method
ranges 3-9 weeks. (fig.6)

Figure 6: Windrow system of digestion (Source: USDA, 2000)

- Aerated static pile: The difference with aerated windrows is that the pile has some blowers that
suction or blow air through the pile continuously or at intervals. It also wallows controlling the
temperature during the process, so the pile is usually covered with a layer or already composted
material to avoid excessive heat loss (fig.7).

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 Figure 7: Areated static pile (Source: USDA, 2000)

-In-vessel systems: With this system the composting process is more controlled. It is highly
suitable for fast composting processes where the odor can be a concern and there is not enough
space.
- Bins: Constructed bins of wood or other material with or without roof. They can be
aerated or passive aerated.
- Rectangular agitated bed: They are long beds with an automated turner for periodic
turning. The duration of the composting process is determined by the length of the bed
and the turning frequency. The retention time of the compost in this system is about 14
days (Rhyner et al., 1995).
- Silos: The decomposition phase is very fast in this system so the maturation will have to
be longer. The waste is loaded from the top of the silos, and it’s taken from the bottom,
where the air is forced through the silo. The collected air on the top can be treated by a
biofilter.
- Rotating tube or drum: For small amounts of waste. The tube of 3 meters length has
plates and is loaded from the top, and stays in the first baffle plate, and when is filled, the
tube is rotated to aerate the compost and empty the first baffle plate.

All the static systems require an adequate porosity to allow air passing through the waste.

4) Maturation/curing
The maturation stage is a prolongation of the decomposition stage. The non mature compost is
split in smaller piles (around 2.4 m height and 5-6 m width) is monitored but not as frequently as
in the decomposition stage (Teira, 2003).

5) Post-treatments
The final product can be refined, classified and finally packed.

THE COMPOSTING PLANT

The composting plant must be located on a suitable soil and topography. The site has to be
graded to avoid standing water, runoff and erosion, with slopes at least 1% to 4% (Pichtel, 2005).
Surface area is important since compost facilities require big surfaces, especially if they work with
pile or windrows. Some of the common areas and its characteristics are explained, and the figure
8 shows the distribution of a composting plant.

Preprocessing area
Enough space to receive the material and separate it. It will be normally under a roof, so the
unloading of the material won’t be affected by the climate.

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Processing area
It includes all the composting pad and maturation area. The pad surface is usually paved to
prevent infiltration of the leachates. An adequate drainage has to be provided for avoiding water
pounding, bad odors, or excessive runoff among others. Also good ventilation is required, with air
filters with vents over preprocessing equipments.
The curing or mature compost area is just for storing and allow the material to be stabilized, so
things such as runoff or infiltration won’t be so important in that area. Curing area needs less
space, about ¼ of the compost pad (Pichtel, 2005).

Buffer zone
A large buffer zone will make the facility more acceptable for residents and depends on the kind
of waste material we are processing, and it is extended on the wind direction. This zone generally
is larger than the composting pad, although enclosed facilities can have it smaller since they have
more control over the process (Pichtel, 2005).

Figure 8: Example of a composting plant (Source: Teira, 2003)

CONCLUSSIONS

The fact that composting is a natural process makes it an ecological technology for treatment of
decomposable wastes. But on the other hand, natural processes are more difficult to control,
especially because composting includes a large number of microorganisms and their interactions
with the waste, environment and themselves. This makes composting difficult to monitor since
municipal solid wastes are highly heterogeneous. Furthermore, the seasonal effect on wastes
and biota must be considered, and the process may not be suitable in very cold, too dry or too
wet regions.

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The pre-operations in composting add some expenses to the process, as well as the composting
plant, which has to meet some specifications for safety, leachate control, and required area which
tends to be a limiting factor.
Also maturity determination of the final product is sometimes complicated although the current
standards and the inefficient determination can lead to environmental pollution due to the
production of toxic intermediate compounds or compounds with high odor potential (sulfur
containing compounds and ammonia-nitrogen containing compounds). Composting time must be
adequate not only for acquiring the compost maturity, but also for industry economics: Excessive
composting time can lead on higher process expenses and less compost production at the end of
the year.
However, current technologies make composting fast and suitable with al kind of degradable
wastes. A well monitored process does not give many pollution or hazardous concerns, and
allows an effective and complete reutilization of organic matter. Although toxic leachate may be
produced during the process, adequate moisture and covering the piles when they are disposed
outside and there is precipitation, reduces the amount of leachate. The leachate amount will be
always lower than the amount produced by the buried wastes, which release all the water and
toxic compounds through the soil and the risk of ground water pollution is extremely high.
Despite of the efforts for splitting durable and non durable goods, the technology leads on the
principles of the modern societies where no free spaces for waste disposal are available and the
reutilization of wastes is required. So for the same pre-treatment operation, the different fractions
from waste may be split and processed for their reutilization.
To summarize, composting may be the future technology for organic wastes treatment. The
success of composting and the acceptance of the final product depend on country policies.
Informative campaigns and use of incentives may help population to understand the process and
farmers to know about compost benefits. The current acceptance of the methodology in certain
countries (France, Germany, and Israel) started with a gradual incorporation of the technology in
small regions. The technology may be improved then if population is contributing in the waste
split from the origin. Waste separation from house holders would decrease energy and costs of
waste pre-treatments, and would benefit all the recycle technologies of the following stages.

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